CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL REVIEW
1. WORD FORMATION
The process or result of forming new words, called derived words, from words or word
groups with the same root. Word formation occurs through formal means established within a
given language that give a new or more precise meaning to the original elements. Such means
include joining affixes to stems (Russian stol-ik, little table; za-stol-n-yi, at table),
joining
several
stems
(uzko-kolei-nyi,
narrow-gauge; gromko-govorit-el,
loudspeaker), transferring stems from one word class to another (rul, rudder; rulit, to
steer; zoloto, gold;zolotoi, golden), and alternation within the stem (glukhoi,
remote;glush, backwoods).
Word formation is a means of deriving (generating) linguistic units in order to create a
new one-word name having a semantic and formal connection with the original unit. It is an
important means of supplementing vocabulary and forming specialized terms.
The study of how words are made (L. V. Shcherba), how they are patterned, and by
what unit (word or word group) their meaning is determined. Word formation is the branch of
linguistics that examines derived words synchronically and diachronically and in terms of their
origin and functioning, their productivity or unproductivity, and their use in different styles of
speech.
Word formation has traditionally been considered a branch of lexicology or a branch of
grammar equal in importance to morphology and syntax, or it has been assigned to morphology.
Usually viewed as an independent linguistic (onomasiological) discipline, word formation
ascertains and describes the structure and meaning of derived words, the components,
classification, and patterns of derived words, and the basic devices and means of derivation.
Word formation studies the alignment of derived words in series and families, as well as
derivational meanings and categories. It establishes the structural and organizational principles of
the derivational system as a whole. Word formation is distinct from inflection and the derivation
of word forms.
A. HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE OF WORDS
There are two important facts on how to affix attached to the expression of their own.
First, the expression of which is given uo which normally can be combined on the same type of
word. For example, the suffix-able loosely affixed on the verb, but not the adjective or
noun. That way, we can add this suffix on the verb adjust, break, compare and debate. But not
the adjective asleep, lovely, happy and strong or nouns such as anger,
morning, and student success. Secondly, expressions resulting from the
addition of affixes to a word or morpheme is normally also the same type of
word. For example, expression caused by extra-able on the verb is always
adjectives. Thus said adjustable, breakable, comparable, and everything is
debatable adjective. One important conclusion from the above two facts is
that in word formation, affixes-affixes that do not occur together but
arranged in stages. That's called the hierarchical structure of words.

For your consideration is the adjective reusable. Adjectives consists of three

morphemes. Ie free morpheme use, and re-affixes derivational prefixes and suffixes-able. As
described above, the suffix-able is forming adjectives from verbs.
VERB + ABLE = ADJECTIVE
Example 1

Adjust
break
compare
debate
lock

adjustable
breakable
comparable
debatable
lockable

As with theprefix re-functioning form new verbsfromexisting verbs.

Example 2
RE + VERB = VERB

adjust
readjust
appear
reappear
consider
reconsider
construct
reconstruct
decorate
redecorate
use
reuse
From the example above there are two stages that occur, namely:
1. Prefix re-joined to form verbs verbs use reuse as in (2).
2. suffix-able appended to verbs to form adjectives reusable reuse, which is also appended to
adjust verda adjustable to form adjectives as in (1).
Adjectivecombinationsthat forma newadjectivethatmeans'no'.
Example:
UN 1 + ADJECTIVE = ADJECTIVE

able
aware
happy
intelligent

unable not able

unaware not aware
unhappy not happy
unintelligent not intelligent

lucky

unlucky not lucky

Verbcombinationsthat forma newverbmeaning'do backwork previously'.

Example :
UN2 + VERB = VERB
+

do
dress
load
lock
tie

undo to do the reverse of doing

undress to do the reverse of dressing
unload to do the reverse of loading
unlock to do the reverse of locking
untie to do the reverse of tying

2. WORD COLLOCATION
As etymology, the word collocation from the Latin, "place together." The term was first
used in its linguistic sense by British linguist J.R. Firth (1890-1960), who famously observed,
"You shall know a word by the company it keeps."
A collocation is made up of two or more words that are commonly used together in
English. There are different kinds of collocations in English. Here are a few examples you will
recognize:
make the bed
do the homework
close a deal
open an account
Strong collocations are word pairings that are expected to come together. Good examples of
this type of word pairing are combinations with 'make' and 'do'. You make a cup of tea, but do your
homework. Collocations are very common in business settings when certain nouns are routinely
combined with certain verbs or adjectives. For example, draw up a contract, set a price, conduct
negotiations, etc.
A good way to learn collocations is to group collocations beginning with a noun. For example,
take the noun 'contract' and create a list of commonly used verbs with contract.

Collocation is a familiar grouping of words, especially words that habitually appear

together and thereby convey meaning by association. Collocational rangerefers to the set of
items that typically accompany a word. The size of a collocational range is partially determined
by a word's level of specificity and number of meanings.
A.
Collocational Range

1.

Level of specificity: the more general a word is, the broader its collocational range; the more
specific it is, the more restricted its collocational range. The verb bury is likely to have a much
broader collocational range than any of its hyponyms, such as inter or entomb, for example.
Only people can beinterred, but you can bury people, a treasure, yourhead, face,
feelings, and memories.
2. The factor which determines the collocational range of an item is the number of senses it has.
Most words have several senses and they tend to attract a different set of collocates for each
sense.
Vocabulary is generally used in groups of words that go together. This is often referred to as
'chunking', another common term for this is collocation. Think about the noun 'money':
'Money' combines with verbs:
save money
spend money
pay money
etc.
Money combines with adjectives:
prize money
play money
pocket money
etc.
Money combines with other nouns:
money management
money supply
money order
etc.
Collocations are often used as short expressions to describe how someone feels about a
situation. In this case, collocations can be used in the adjective form, or also as emphatic expressions
using an intensifier and a verb. Here are a few examples using some of these collocation examples:
We'd like to positively encourage you to buy this stock.
I deeply regret the loss of your loved one.
Tom's in an utter fury over the misunderstanding with his wife.
He went to a great length to explain the situation.

REFERENCES

a.
b.
c.
d.

http://esl.about.com/od/engilshvocabulary/a/collocations.htm
http://esl.about.com/library/vocabulary/blcollocation_1.htm
http://grammar.about.com/od/c/g/collocationterm.htm
http://esl.about.com/od/vocabularyreference/a/cl_money.htm

Morphology

Morphology is the part of linguistics that deals with the study of words, their internal structure and partially
their meanings. It is also interested in how the users of a given language understand complex words and
invent new lexical items. As morphology is concerned with word forms it is akin to phonology(which
describes how words are pronounced), it is also related to lexical studies as the patterns examined by
morphology are used to create new words. Furthermore, it is also linked with semantics as it deals with
the meanings of words.
Scholars differentiate between derivational morphology and inflectional morphology. The former is
concerned with the relationships of different words, and with the ways in which vocabulary items can be
built from some elements, as in un-speak-able; while the latter deals with the forms of one word that it
takes up depending on its grammatical functions in a sentence. When it comes to English it appears that
it rather takes advantage of derivational morphemes rather than inflectional ones.
Morphemes in morphology are the smallest units that carry meaning or fulfill some grammatical function.
The word house itself consists of one morpheme, and because it can stand by itself it can be called a free
morpheme. In the word houses there are two morphemes house, which is free, and s whish is abound
morpheme, because it cannot stand by itself as it would have no meaning. In the second example above
the bound morpheme s was attached tohouse a free morpheme, which in this case can be also called
a stem. Stem is what a bound morpheme is attached to.
What is more, free morphemes can be subdivided into two categories: lexical morphemes and inflectional
morphemes. Lexical morphemes are words that have some meaning verbs, adjectives, nouns, like for
example print, house, pretty, fire, go, girl. As there is no problem in adding new entities to this group
ofwords they are treated as an open class of words. Functional morphemes, on the other hand, are a
closed class of words, articles, prepositions, pronounswhich do not carry any meaning on their own, but
only fulfill a grammatical function.
Not only free morphemes are subdivided, there is a similar situation with bound morphemes which are
subdivided into derivational and inflectional morphemes.Derivational morphemes are those morphemes
which produce new words, or change the function of a word. It is achieved by means of prefixes or
suffixes in case of English and infixes in other languages, like Arabic. Inflectional morphemes do not
create new words, but only show grammatical functions of a word. A good example of an inflectional
language could be Latin which has numerous case endings for nouns, as well as endings for verbs and
adjectives.
Although this division seems to be quite clear cut there are come difficulties in analyzing certain words.
Lets take the word reactor as an example. On the basis of the information above it could be stated that it
consists of two morphemes: a stem actor and a derivational morpheme re-, which is obviously not the
case. Moreover there are problems with the English plural, for instance it is easy to identify morphemes in
the word houses (house lexical free morpheme + s bound inflectional morpheme), but what about tooth
and teeth? In order to solve such problems linguists introduced a term morphs which are the forms that
represent morphemes. For instance in the word dogs, the morph srepresents the morpheme plural and
in the word oxen the morph is en. There is a number of other peculiarities in a language like English,
however morphology is still more highly developed for inflectional languages.

Word as a part of language has important rule in forming a language. People always use it to
build a sentence, but they dont know where do actually those millions words come from. People
as the user of language sometimes dont think about how a language is formed. There are
millions words now used by people. Everytime people get more and more new words unless they
know the way it happens. The meaning of the new word form is influenced by the process of
forming a word. This process is usually called word formation process.
Word formation is the creation of a new word. Word formation is sometimes contrasted
with semantic change, which is a change in a single word's meaning. Word-formation process is
a way of forming new words or terms from the use of old words. The processes consist of
clipping, blending, acronymy, back-formation, folk etymology, and antonomasia.
Change or making a new word. There are, of course, numerous word formation processes that
do not arouse any controversies and are very similar in the majority of languages.

1.

Chapter II
CONTENT
SIX PROCESSES OF WORD FORMATION
A. Clipping
Clipping is the word formation process which consists in the reduction of a word to one of its
parts (Marchand: 1969). Clippings are, also, known as "shortenings."Clipping mainly consists of
the following types:
1. Back clipping
2. Fore-clipping
3. Middle clipping
4. Complex clipping
a. Back clipping

Back clipping or apocopation is the most common type, in which the beginning is retained. The
unclipped original may be either a simple or a composite. Examples
are: ad(advertisement), cable (cablegram), doc (doctor), exam (examination), gas (gasoline),mat
h (mathematics), memo (memorandum), gym (gymnastics,
gymnasium) mutt(muttonhead), pub (public house), pop (popular
concert), trad (traditional jazz), fax(facsimile).
b. Fore-clipping
Fore-clipping or aphaeresis retains the final part. Examples
are: phone (telephone), varsity(university), chute (parachute), coon (racoon), gator (alligator), pi
ke (turnpike).
c. Middle clipping
In middle clipping or syncope, the middle of the word is retained. Examples
are: flu(influenza), tec (detective), polly (apollinaris), jams (pyjamas), shrink (head-shrinker).
d. Complex clipping
Clipped forms are also used in compounds. One part of the original compound most often
remains intact. Examples are: cablegram (cable telegram), op art (optical art), orgman(organization man), linocut (linoleum cut). Sometimes both halves of a compound are
clipped as in navicert (navigation certificate). In these cases it is difficult to know whether the
resultant formation should be treated as a clipping or as a blend, for the border between the two
types is not always clear. By this criterion bodbiz, Chicom, Comsymp, Intelsat, midcult, pro-am,
sci-fi, and sitcom are all compounds made of clippings. According to Marchand (1969), clippings
are not coined as words belonging to the standard vocabulary of a language. They originate as
terms of a special group like schools, army, police, the medical profession, etc., in the intimacy
of a milieu where a hint is sufficient to indicate the whole. For example,
2.
in school slang originated exam, math, lab, and spec(ulation), tick(et = credit) originated in
stock-exchange slang, whereas vet(eran), cap(tain), are army slang.

B. Acronymy
Acronyms and initialisms are abbreviations, such as NATO, laser, and IBM, that are formed
using the initial letters of words or word parts in a phrase or name. Acronyms and initialisms are
usually pronounced in a way that is distinct from that of the full forms for which they stand: as
the names of the individual letters (as in IBM), as a word (as inNATO), or as a combination (as
in IUPAC). Another term, alphabetism, is sometimes used to describe abbreviations pronounced
as the names of letters.
Examples :

pronounced as a word, containing only initial letters:

FNMA: (Fannie Mae) Federal National Mortgage Association

o laser: light amplification by the stimulated emission of radiation

pronounced as a word, containing non-initial letters:

Amphetamine: Alpha-methyl-phenethylamine
Gestapo: Geheime Staatspolizei ("secret state police")
pronounced only as the names of letters
BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation
DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid
shortcut incorporated into name
3M: (three em) originally Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company
E: (e three) Electronic Entertainment Exposition
recursive acronyms, in which the abbreviation itself is the expansion of one initial
(particularly enjoyed by the open-source community)
GNU: GNU's Not Unix!
HURD: HIRD of Unix-Replacing Daemons, where "HIRD" stands for "HURD of
Interfaces Representing Depth"
pseudo-acronyms are used because, when pronounced as intended, they resemble the
sounds of other words:
ICQ: "I seek you"
CQR: "secure", a brand of boat anchor
multi-layered acronyms:
GTK+: GIMP Tool Kit, i.e. GNU Image Manipulation Program Tool
Kit, i.e. GNU's Not Unix Image Manipulation Program Tool Kit
VHDL: VHSIC Hardware Description Language, i.e. Very High Speed Integrated
Circuits Hardware Description Language
3.

C. Blending
A blend is a word formed from parts of two other words. These parts are sometimes, but not
always, morphemes.
A blend is different from a portmanteau word in that a portmanteau refers strictly to a blending of
two function words, similar to a contraction.Most blends are formed by one of the following
methods:
1. The beginning of one word is added to the end of the other. For example, brunch is a blend
of breakfast and lunch. This is the most common method of blending.
2. The beginnings of two words are combined. For example, cyborg is a blend
ofcybernetic and organism.
3. One complete word is combined with part of another word. For example, guesstimate is a
blend of guess and estimate.

4. Two words are blended around a common sequence of sounds. For example, the
wordCalifornication, from a song by the Red Hot Chili Peppers, is a blend
of California andfornication.
When two words are combined in their entirety, the result is considered a compound wordrather
than a blend. For example, bagpipe is a compound, not a blend,

D. Back-formation
Back-formation refers to the process of creating a new lexeme (less precisely, a new "word") by
removing actual or supposed affixes. The resulting neologism is called aback-formation. Backformations are shortened words created from longer words, thus back-formations may be viewed
as a sub-type of clipping.
For example, the noun resurrection was borrowed from Latin, and the verb resurrect was then
backformed hundreds of years later from it by removing the -ion suffix. This segmentation
of resurrection into resurrect + ion was possible because English had many examples of Latinate
words that had verb and verb+-ion pairs in these pairs the -ionsuffix is added to verb forms in
order to create nouns (such as, insert/insertion,project/projection, etc.).
Many words came into English by this route: Pease was once a mass noun but was reinterpreted
as a plural, leading to the back-formation pea. The noun statistic was likewise a back-formation
from the field of study statistics. In Britain the verb burglecame into use in the 19th century as a
back-formation from burglar (which can be compared to the North
America verb burglarize formed by suffixation).
4.

E. Folk Etymology
Folk etymology is a linguistic phenomenon where by borrowed or archaic phrases
arereinterpreted according to analogy with other common words or phrases in the
language.Etymology refers to the origin of words. For example, the etymology of etymology can
be traced through Old English and Latin to the Greek roots etymo, meaning true, and logos,
meaning word.

female (Old French femelle, diminutive of femme woman), by assimilation

with male (Old French masle, from Latin masculus).

penthouse from pentice, borrowed from Anglo-Norman pentiz attached building

(ultimately from Latin appendicium appendage). Note that penticecontinues as a technical term
in English.

causeway was modified from obsolete causey (French cause) to assimilate it with way.

bridegroom from Old English bryd-guma bride-man, after the Old English
word guma man (cognate with Latin homo) fell out of use.

hangnail from Middle English agnail (Old English angngl, cognate

withanguish and anger).

E. Antonomasia
Antonomasia means the formation of a common noun, verb, or an adjective from the name a
person or a place. This trope is of the same nature as metonymy, although it can not be said to
exhibit the idea more vividly. It consists in putting in place of a proper name, another notion
which may be either in apposition to it or predicated of it. Its principal use is to avoid the
repetition of the same name, and the too frequent use of thepronoun. The most frequent forms of
it are, naming a person from his parentage or country; as, Achilles is called Pelides; Napoleon
Bonaparte, the Corsican: or naming him from some of his deeds; as, instead of Scipio, the
destroyer of Carthage; instead of Wellington, the hero of Waterloo. In making use of this trope
such designations should be selected as are well known, or can be easily understood from the
connection, and free from ambiguitythat is, are not equally applicable to other well-known
persons.

5.

Chapter III
CLOSING
conclusion
In this paper different word formation processes were explained including blending, clipping,
acronymy, backformation, folk etymology, and antonomasia.
Clipping is the word formation process which consists in the reduction of a word to one of its
parts.
Acronymy is the process whereby a word is formed from the initials or beginning segments of a
succession of words.
Blending is the fusion of two words into one, usually the first parts of the one word with the last
part of another.
Back-formations are shortened words created from longer words, thus back-formations may be
viewed as a sub-type of clipping.
Folk etymology is a linguistic phenomenon where by borrowed or archaic phrases
arereinterpreted according to analogy with other common words or phrases in the language.
Antonomasia means the formation of a common noun, verb, or an adjective from the name a
person or a place.

HOW TO SOLVE MORPHOLOGY PROBLEMS

HOW TO SOLVE MORPHOLOGY PROBLEMS
When a linguist comes in contact with a new language, one of his major tasks is to discover the
meaningful units, or morphemes, out of which the language. Just as with discovering phonemes and
allophones, it is important that the linguist have procedure for discovering these minimal units, since it
is impossible to isolate morphemes by intuition.
For example, the Classical Greek word [grap ho:] means I write, but the linguist has no way of
knowing what sound or sequence of sounds corresponds to what English meaning if he considers the
word in isolation. It is only by comparing [grap ho: ] with another form, for instance, [grap he: ] the
writes that he is able to determine what the morphemes of these Greek word are.
Comparisson, the is the best way to begin morphological analysis. But of course you will not
want to compare just any forms. Comparing a Greek word like [p h:mi ] to speak with [grap ho:] will
not provide us with much information since the forms are so similar and seem to have no single
morphemes in common. What must be compared are partially similar forms in which it is possible to
recognize recurring units. In this way we can identify the morphemes of which words are composed.
Now lets consider our Classical Greek example once more. If we compare [grap ho:] with
[graphe:] he write we note similarities between the forms. The sequence [graph-] recurs in the forms
[graphe: ] and [grapho: ]. If we check our English correspondences we find the meaning write recurs
also. Here we are justified in assuming [graph-] means write, since [graph-] and write are constants
in both. Further, since the final vowels in both forms contrast-and since this contrast is accompanied by
a difference in meaning in our English correspondence-we can safely assume the difference between
vowels in Classical Greek corresponds to differences I meaning in our English translation. Therefore we
assign the meaning I to [-o: ] and he to [-e:].

In sum, then, the initial step in doing morphological analysis is:

1. Comparing and contrasting partially similar forms.
To give yourself practice, identify and translate the morphemes in the made-up data below, from a
hypothetical language:
[ api ]

house

[ drua ]

[ api ]

the house

[ drua ]

[ aapi ]

to the house

[ adrua ]

tree
the tree
to the tree

Sometimes just comparing and contrasting partially similar forms is not to allow a complete
morphological analysis. Consider the following examples:
1. If we compare the following English words:
Work

broad

Worker

broader

We notice the morphems spelled er and pronounced [r] for both [bradr] and [wrkr]. However,
if we think about it for a minute, it is a apparent that er has two different meanings even though
phonetically it looks like the same morpheme. The er in worker is the same er that shows up in words
like painter, kiler, lover, and actor. In each of these case, -er attaches to verbs to form a noun, and
means something like one who paints, one who kills, one who loves, etc. The suffix er in these
case is known as the agentive morpheme.
The er in broader, on the other hand, is the same er that shows up in words like wider, longer,
colder, prettier, and so on. In each of these case, -er attaches to adjectives to form a new adjective,
with the extra meaning more. The suffix er in these cases is known as the comparative morpheme.
We will want to argue, then that [r] represent two separate morphemes [r] as an agent marker,
and [r] as a comparative marker even though they are same phonetically, i.e. are homophonous
morphemes. The [r] which is added to verbs to yield nouns and the [r] which is added to adjectives to
yield new adjectives clearly have distinct meaning.
2. IF we compare the following set of words in (a), (b), and (c), we notice that each word has a prefix
which means not.
(a) imbalace

[imblens]

(b) inability

[inbilti]

(c) incomplete [inkmplit]

The problem here is the inverse of the problem in example (1). Whereas in examples (1) we had the
same phonetic forms representing two different meanings, in examples (2) we have three differrent
phonetic forms with the same meaning. Since the phonetic forms of the morpheme meaning not here
can be predicted on the bais of phonetic environment.
[Im]

before labials-

[p], [b], [m]

[I]

before velars- [k], [g]

[In]

elsewhere (before vowels and other consonants)

We conclude that even though the forms differ phonetically they belong to the same morpheme, since
they have the same meaning. We call [Im], [I], and [In] allomorphs of the same morpheme. Anoter
example of allomorphy in English is the plural morpheme which is realized as either [s], [z], or [ z]
depending on the form of the root to which it attaches.
PPROCEDURE FOR DOING MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
Goal :
Given a set data in phonetic representation, you are asked to perform a constituent morphological
analysis of the forms.
Procedure (Keys to Analysis):
1. Isolate and compare forms which are partially similar.
2. If a single phonetic form has two distinctive meaning, it must be analyzed as representing two different
morphemes (as in example (1) ).
3. If the same meaning is associated with different phonetic forms all represent the same morpheme (they
are allomorphs of the morpheme), and the choice of form in each case should be predictable on the
basis of the phonetic environment (as in example (2) ).

Some Cautionary Notes

People frequently assume that language are pretty much the same in terms of what each
language marks morphologically. For example, English speakers often assume that all languagemark the
plural of nouns with an ending or that the subject and the verb agree in person and number in other
language. This is simply not true. For example, Tagalog does not usually mark the plural of nouns (in
most case, the number is clear from the context). When it is necessary to be specific, a separate word,
mga, is used to indicate plural.
[an bata ]

the child

[an mga bata ]

the children

When a number is specifically mentioned, no plural marker appears in Tagalog, though the plural
marker is obligatory in English (Three dog is ungrammatical):
[da I awa]
[lima ]

two

[dalawa bata]
five

two children

[ima bata ]

five children

[] is a linker that links numerals and adjective to the nouns they modify, English does not use this
type of device).
There is also subject verb agreement in Tagalog for example in English / eat but he eats. In
Tagalog, the same form of the verb would be used, no matter what the person/number of the subject:
kumakain ako eat now I = I eat (now) kumakain siya eat now he = he eats (now).
Other language also make distinctions that we dont. while English has only singular versus
plural, some language have a dual when just two are involved. Consider Sanskritjuhomi I sacriface
juhavas we(two) sacriface, and juhumas we (pl) sacriface.
Some languages also have two kinds of first person plural pronouns-that is, English we. Notice
that English we in we are going, for example, may include everyone in the group the hearer is
addressing (we, every one of us) or it may include some hearer(me and him, but not you). Many
language distinguish these two wes : Tagalog has tayo (inclusive, i.e you and I) but kami (exclusive,
i.e. he and I)
Comanche makes a number of distinctions that English doesnt. In additional to a singular /
dual / plural distinction in you sg, -nikw you (two) m you (pl) and an inclusive / exclusive
distinction taa we(incl.) nn we excl. Comanche also make a distinction between visible /
invisible and near/ far. Thus, if you are reffering to a thing that is within your view, yu use ma it
(visible). If the thing is invisible to you, it (invisible) is used. A near object is designated with I it
(proximate), but a far object with o it (remote). (Note : only the subject forms of these pronouns
have been given).
The lessons to be learned here is that you cannot assume that another language will make
distinctions in the same way that English does. For example, while every language has some method of
indicating number, no all language do so in the same way or under the same way or under the same
circumstances. As weve seen, English uses an affix, Tagalog uses a separate word, and Indonesian
reduplicates the word to show plural. Nor can you assume that the distinctions English makes are the
only ones worth making. Language must be examined carefully on the grounds of their own internal
structures.

The word formation processes of compounding, clipping, and blending are important concepts when
creating words. Also included for download are vocabulary lists of common English compounds, clipped
words, and blends.

Compounding
Compounding is the word formation process in which two or more lexemes combine into a

single new word. Compound words may be written as one word or as two words joined with a hyphen.
For example:

noun-noun compound: note + book notebook

adjective-noun compound: blue + berry blueberry

verb-noun compound: work + room workroom

noun-verb compound: breast + feed breastfeed
verb-verb compound: stir + fry stir-fry
adjective-verb compound: high + light highlight
verb-preposition compound: break + up breakup
preposition-verb compound: out + run outrun
adjective-adjective compound: bitter + sweet bittersweet
preposition-preposition compound: in + to into

Compounds may be compositional, meaning that the meaning of the new word is determined by
combining the meanings of the parts, or noncompositional, meaning that the meaning of the new word
cannot be determined by combining the meanings of the parts. For example, ablueberry is a berry that
is blue. However, a breakup is not a relationship that was severed into pieces in an upward direction.
Compound nouns should not be confused with nouns modified by adjectives, verbs, and other nouns.
For example, the adjective black of the noun phrase black bird is different from the adjective black of
the compound noun blackbird in that black of black bird functions as a noun phrase modifier while
the black of blackbird is an inseparable part of the noun: a black bird also refers to any bird that is
black in color while a blackbird is a specific type of bird.

Clipping
Clipping is the word formation process in which a word is reduced or shortened without changing the
meaning of the word. Clipping differs from back-formation in that the new word retains the meaning of
the original word. For example:

advertisement ad
alligator gator
examination exam
gasoline gas
gymnasium gym

influenza flu
laboratory lab
mathematics math
memorandum memo
photograph photo
public house pub
raccoon coon
reputation rep
situation comedy sitcom
telephone phone

The four types of clipping are back clipping, fore-clipping, middle clipping, and complex clipping. Back
clipping is removing the end of a word as in gas from gasoline. Fore-clipping is removing the beginning
of a word as in gator fromalligator. Middle clipping is retaining only the middle of a word as
in flu from influenza. Complex clipping is removing multiple parts from multiple words as
in sitcom from situation comedy.

Blending
Blending is the word formation process in which parts of two or more words combine to create a new
word whose meaning is often a combination of the original words. For example:

advertisement + entertainment advertainment

biographical + picture biopic
breakfast + lunch brunch
chuckle + snort chortle
cybernetic + organism cyborg
guess + estimate guesstimate
hazardous + material hazmat
motor + hotel motel
prim + sissy prissy
simultaneous + broadcast simulcast
smoke + fog smog
Spanish + English Spanglish
spoon + fork spork
telephone + marathon telethon
web + seminar webinar

Blended words are also referred to as portmanteaus.