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History/background of sociology and anthropology

1) The nineteenth and twentieth centuries were times of many social
upheavals and changes in the social order that interested the early
sociologists. The political revolutions sweeping Europe during the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries led to a focus on social change
and the establishment of social order that still concerns sociologists
today. Many early sociologists were also concerned with the Industrial
Revolution and rise of capitalism and socialism. Additionally, the
growth of cities and religious transformations were causing many
changes in peoples lives. Other classical theorists of sociology from
the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries include Karl Marx,
Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, W.E.B. DuBois, and Harriet Martineau. As
pioneers in sociology, most of the early sociological thinkers were
trained in other academic disciplines, including history, philosophy,
and economics. The diversity of their trainings is reflected in the topics
they researched, including religion, education, economics, inequality,
psychology, ethics, philosophy, and theology. These pioneers of
sociology all had a vision of using sociology to call attention to social
concerns and bring about social change. In Europe, for example, Karl
Marx teamed with wealthy industrialist Friedrich Engels to address
class inequality. Writing during the Industrial Revolution, when many
factory owners were lavishly wealthy and many factory workers
despairingly poor, they attacked the rampant inequalities of the day
and focused on the role of capitalist economic structures in
perpetuating these inequalities. In Germany, Max Weber was active in
politics while in France, Emile Durkheim advocated for educational
reform. In Britain, Harriet Martineau advocated for the rights of girls
and women, and in the US, W.E.B. DuBois focused on the problem of
racism.
2) The study of human evolution and human variation are two principal
aspects of Physical Anthropology. The evolution and of modern man
through various stages of development and the evolutionary processes
concerns physical anthropologists at the first place. At the second
place they look at the differences in physical characteristics in modern
man, including racial differentiation. A brief historical review of the

study of the human groups which are referred to as races has been
included under the heading Racial Classification in the later part of
this book. In the present chapter a brief historical background of the
concept of evolution and physical anthropology in general will be dealt
with. The development of physical anthropology as an organized and
systematic discipline started in the second half of the nineteenth
century. But the thinkers and philosophers tried to understand and
explain the various aspects of human origin and variations in the
physical features in their own ways from a very early time. The idea of
human origin and evolution occurred to some of the ancient Greek and
Roman thinkers. In the writings of Herodotus (484-425 B.C) we come
across description of skulls of the inhabitants of Greece, Egypt, Asia
Minor, Libya, Scythia, etc. He demonstrated that the skull wall was
thicker in the Egyptians and thinner in the Persians. According to him
these differences were due to the influence of the environment.
Hippocrates (460-377) also laid more emphasis on the environment to
explain differences in physical features among different populations

Scientific method of sociological and anthropology

1) An area of inquiry is a scientific discipline if its investigators use the
scientific method, which is a systematic approach to researching
questions and problems through objective and accurate
observation, collection and analysis of data, direct experimentation,
and replication (repeating) of these procedures. Scientists affirm the
importance of gathering information carefully, remaining unbiased
when evaluating information, observing phenomena, conducting
experiments, and accurately recording procedures and results. They
are also skeptical about their results, so they repeat their work and
have their findings confirmed by other scientists.
2) * A hypothesis is a provisional explanation of a phenomenon that
must be verifiable or falsifiable through testing
*A theory an explanation that has been verified through the
scientific testing.
* Scientific testing is the precise repetition of an experiment or
expansion of observed empirical data that can, in turn, be used to
verify, modify or discard a theory.

Branches of sociology and anthropology (minor

and major)
1)

Sociology is defined as the study of human social relationships. It

includes everything from family to country to religion to crime.

General sociology involves the study of social laws and how they
are formed, while social physiology involves the study of religion,
economics, politics, laws and other elements that influence
society.
2) Anthropology, on the other hand, is the study of human culture,
past and present. It involves a broader look at social patterns in
different cultures as well as investigating how humans have
adapted to different environments in the modern and past world.
Because both deal in some part with human interaction and
sociocultural relations, many people sometimes mistake
sociology and anthropology to be the same thing. They are,
however, different fields, albeit with certain similarities.

Importance of sociology and anthropology

1) The study of sociology provides valuable insights into how

human behavior is shaped and influenced by the societal
forces of group interaction. The insight gained from a study of
sociology leads to a greater understanding of how individuals
and groups interact at the local, national and worldwide level.
This understanding also better prepares an individual for a
wide variety of career paths in the areas of human resources,
business management, assessment, research and any area in
which a global awareness coupled with critical thinking skills
is an asset.
2) Anthropology is the study of the various human cultures in the
world now and throughout history. According to the University
of Hawaii at Hilo, anthropology "emphasizes comparing
human groups to understand the range of variation in human
behavior and biology, and therefore considers what it is to be
human." It is important for us as human beings to understand
our origins and also to understand the cultures in the world
outside of our own.