Soil Origin

Most of the soils that cover the earth are formed by the weathering
of various rocks.
There are two general types of weathering:
(1)
(2)

mechanical weathering
Chemical weathering.

Mechanical weathering is a process by which rocks are broken

down into smaller and smaller pieces by physical forces without any
change in the chemical composition.
Changes in temperature result in expansion and contraction of rock due to
gain and loss of heat. Continuous expansion and contraction will result in the
development of cracks in rocks. Flakes and large fragments of rocks are split.
Frost action is another source of mechanical weathering of rocks. Water can
enter the pores, cracks, and other openings in the rock. When the
temperature drops, the water freezes, thereby increasing the volume by
about 9%. This results in an outward pressure from inside the rock.
Continuous freezing and thawing will result in the breakup of a rock mass.
Exfoliation is another mechanical weathering process by which rock plates
are peeled off from large rocks by physical forces.
Mechanical weathering of rocks also takes place due to the action of running
water, glaciers, wind, ocean waves, and so forth.
Chemical weathering is a process of decomposition or mineral
alteration in which the original minerals are changed into
something entirely different. For example, the common minerals in
igneous rocks are quartz, feldspars, and ferromagnesian minerals.
Most rock weathering is a combination of mechanical and chemical
weathering. Soil produced by the weathering of rocks can be
transported by physical processes to other places. The resulting soil
deposits are called transported soils.
Transported soils can be subdivided into five major categories:
Gravity transported soil
Lacustrine (lake) deposits

 Alluvial or fluvial soil deposited by running water

Glacial deposited by glaciers
Aeolian deposited by the wind

Gravity transported soil:

Residual soils on a natural slope can move downwards.

Cruden and Varnes (1996) proposed a velocity scale for soil
movement on a slope

When residual soils move down a natural slope very slowly, the
process is usually referred to as creep. When the downward

movement of soil is sudden and rapid, it is called a landslide. The

deposits formed by down-slope creep and landslides are
colluvium. Mudflows are one type of gravity-transported soil.

Organic Soil:
Organic soils are usually found in low-lying areas where the water
table is near or above the ground surface. Organic soils show the
following characteristics:
Their natural moisture content may range from 200 to 300%.
They are highly compressible.
Laboratory tests have shown that, under loads, a large amount of
settlement is
Derived from secondary consolidation

Subsurface Exploration:
The process of identifying the layers of deposits that underlie a
proposed structure and their physical characteristics is generally
referred to as subsurface exploration.
Selecting the type and depth of foundation suitable for a given
structure.
Evaluating the load-bearing capacity of the foundation.
Estimating the probable settlement of a structure.
Determining potential foundation problems (e.g., expansive soil,
collapsible soil,
sanitary landfill, and so on).
Determining the location of the water table.
Predicting the lateral earth pressure for structures such as retaining
walls, sheet pile
bulkheads, and braced cuts.
Establishing construction methods for changing subsoil conditions.

Depth of boring: According To Sowers And Sowers (1970):

To determine the boring depth for hospitals and office buildings, Sowers and
Sowers (1970) also used the following rules.
For light steel or narrow concrete buildings,
Db
S

0.7

=a

where
D b=

depth of boring

S = number of stories
a = 3 if

Db

is in meters

For heavy steel or wide concrete buildings,

Db
S

0.7

=b

b=6 if Db ismeters
20 if Db isfeet

Borehole spacing:

Split-Spoon Sampling:

Split-spoon samplers used in the field to obtain soil samples

that are generally disturbed, but still representative.
The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) provides a disturbed sample of soil and a blow
count which approximately correlates to density/strength of soil, by driving a hollow
split spoon sampler into the ground.
[Note: A method of sampling using an auger as a corkscrew. The auger is
screwed into the ground then lifted out. Soil is retained on the blades of the
auger and kept for testing. The soil sampled this way is considered disturbed.
Split-spoon / SPT Sampler. ]

Degree of disturbance for a soil sample:

D02Di2
A r ( )=
(100)
Di2

A r = Area ratio (ratio of disturbed area to total area of soil)

D 0= Outside diameter of the sampling tube
D i= Inside diameter of the sampling tube

When the area ratio is 10% or less, the sample generally is considered to
be undisturbed.
SPT hammer energy efficiency:

N 60=

N H B S R
60

N60 = standard penetration number, corrected for field

conditions
S

= sampler correction

= correction for borehole diameter

= hammer efficiency (%)

R = correction for rod length

N = measured penetration number

Correlations for N60 in Cohesive Soil:

Szechy and Vargi (1978) calculated the consistency
index (CI):

CI =

w
PL

w= natural moisture content

= liquid limit
PL= plastic limit

The approximate correlation between CI, N60, and the unconfined

q
compression strength ( u ) is given in Table

Hara, et al. (1971) also suggested the following correlation between the
undrained
shear strength of clay (

cu

) and

N 60

Cu
=0.29 N 600.72
Pa

where

pa

= atmospheric pressure (100 Kn/m2;

2000 lb/in2).

The over consolidation ratio, OCR, of a natural clay deposit can also be
correlated with the standard penetration number.