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Introduction

Electric motors defined as electromechanical devices that convert electrical

energy to mechanical energy; they are the interface between the electrical
and mechanical systems of a facility.

Electric motors are an important part of any electrical system. They used
throughout every manufacturing plant, office, and home consuming about
64% of all electricity generated.

There are numerous ways to design a motor, thus there are many different
types of motors and each type possess different operating characteristics
(that will be listed later). Based on these characteristics the motor can be
chosen for a specified application.

Principle of How Motors Work:

1. Electrical current flowing in a loop of wire will produce a magnetic field across
the loop.

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2. When this loop is surrounded by the field of another magnet, the loop will
turn, producing a force (called torque) that results in mechanical motion
Motor basic parts:
Electric machines are classified into two categories D.C. and A.C. motors, the basic parts
for each type will be different for each type as follows:

The basic parts for AC motors are as follows: Enclosure 2. Stator 3. Rotor 4. Bearings
5. Conduit Box 6. Eye Bolt.

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The enclosure consists of a frame (or yoke) and two end brackets (or bearing housings).
A motor's enclosure not only holds the motor's components together, it also protects the
internal components from moisture and containments. The degree of protection depends
on the enclosure type. In addition, the type of enclosure affects the motor's cooling.
There are two categories of enclosures as follows:
Open Enclosure.
Totally enclosed Enclosure.

A- Open Enclosure
Open enclosures permit cooling air to flow through the motor. One type of
open enclosure is the open drip proof (ODP) enclosure. This enclosure has
vents that allow for air flow. Fan blades attached to the rotor move air
through the motor when the rotor is turning. The vents are positioned so that
liquids and solids falling from above at angles up to 15 from vertical cannot
enter the interior of the motor when the motor is mounted on a horizontal
surface. When the motor is mounted on a vertical surface, such as a wall or
panel, a special cover may be needed. ODP enclosures should be used in
environments free from contaminates.

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B- Totally enclosed Enclosure
This category will include the
following three types:

Totally Enclosed Non-Ventilated

Enclosure.

Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled

Enclosure.

Explosion-Proof Enclosure.

a- Totally Enclosed Non-Ventilated Enclosure

(TENV)

In some applications, the air surrounding the

motor contains corrosive or harmful elements
which can damage the internal parts of a
motor. A totally enclosed non-ventilated
(TENV) motor enclosure limits the flow of air
into the motor, but is not airtight. However, a
seal at the point where the shaft passes
through the housing prevents water, dust,
and other foreign matter from entering the
motor along the shaft.
Most TENV motors are fractional horsepower. However, integral horsepower TENV motors
are used for special applications. The absence of ventilating openings means that all the
heat from inside the motor must dissipate through the enclosure by conduction. These
larger horsepower TENV motors have an
enclosure that is heavily ribbed to help dissipate
heat more quickly. TENV motors can be used
indoors or outdoors.
b- Totally Enclosed Fan-Cooled Enclosure (TEFC)
A totally enclosed fan-cooled (TEFC) motor is
similar to a TENV motor, but has an external fan
mounted opposite the drive end of the motor.
The fan blows air over the motor's exterior for
additional cooling. The fan is covered by a
shroud to prevent anyone from touching it. TEFC
motors can be used in dirty, moist, or mildly corrosive environments.

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c- Explosion-Proof Enclosure (XP) Hazardous duty applications are commonly found in
chemical processing, mining, foundry, pulp and paper, waste management, and
petrochemical industries. In these applications, motors have to comply with the strictest
safety standards for the protection of life, machines and the environment. This often
requires use of explosion proof (XP) motors. An XP motor is similar in appearance to a
TEFC motor, however, most XP enclosures are cast iron. Division I locations normally have
hazardous materials present in the atmosphere. Division II locations may have hazardous
material present in the atmosphere under abnormal conditions. Locations defined as
hazardous, are further defined by the class and group of hazard. For example,
- Class I, Groups A through D have gases or vapors present.
- Class II, Groups E, F, and G have flammable
dust, such as coke or grain dust.
- Class III is not divided into groups. This
class involves ignitable fibers and lint.

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2- Stator The motor stator consists of two main parts:
A- Stator Core
The stator is the stationary part of
the motor's electromagnetic
circuit. The stator is electrical
circuit that performs as
electromagnet. The stator core is
made up of many thin metal
sheets, called laminations.
Laminations are used to reduce
energy losses that would result if
a
solid core were used.
B- Stator (Windings)
Stator laminations are stacked
together forming a hollow
cylinder. Coils of insulated wire
are inserted into slots of the
stator core.
When the assembled motor
is in operation, the stator
windings are connected
directly to the power
source. Each grouping of
coils, together with the
steel core it surrounds,
becomes an electromagnet
when current is applied.
Electromagnetism is the
basic principle behind
motor operation.
3- Rotor
The rotor is the rotating
part of the motor's electromagnetic circuit. Magnetic field from the stator induces an
opposing magnetic field onto the rotor causing the rotor to push away from the stator
field.
There are a lot of rotor types like Squirrel cage rotor and wound rotor, they will be
explained later.
4- Bearings :Bearings, mounted on the shaft, support the rotor and allow it to turn. Not
all bearings are suitable for every application; a universal, all-purpose bearing does not
exist. The choice of bearing arrangement is based on the following qualities:

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1.Load carrying capacity
in the axial and radial
direction.2.Overspeed and
duration.3.Rotating
speed.4.Bearing life.
The size of the bearing to
be used is initially
selected on the basis of
its load carrying capacity,
in relation to the load to
be carried, and the
requirements regarding
its life and reliability.
Other factors must also
be taken into
consideration, such as
operating temperature,
dirty and dusty
environmental conditions, and vibration and shocks affecting bearings in running and
resting conditions.
Bearings Types:
There are many types of bearings on the market, each with different characteristics and
different uses, these types are as follows:
A- Deep groove ball bearings
Deep groove ball bearings are the most common type of bearing, and can handle both
radial and thrust loads. Due to their low-frictional torque, they are suitable for high
speeds. In a ball bearing, the load is transmitted from the outer race to the ball and from
the ball to the inner race. Since the ball is a sphere, it only contacts the inner and outer
race at a very small point, which helps it to spin very smoothly. This also means that
there is not very much contact area holding the load, so if the bearing is overloaded, the
balls can deform, ruining the bearing.
B- Cylindrical roller bearings
These roller bearings are used in applications where they must hold heavy radial loads. In
the roller bearing, the roller is a cylinder, so the contact between the inner and outer race
is not a point but a line. This spreads the load out over a larger area, allowing the bearing
to handle much greater radial loads than a ball bearing.
However, this type of bearing is not designed to handle much thrust loading.
C- Angular contact ball bearings
Angular Contact ball bearings have raceways in the inner and outer rings which are
displaced with respect to each other in the direction of the bearing axis. This means that
they are suitable for the accommodation of combined loads such as simultaneously acting
radial and axial loads in vertical machines.
D- Spherical roller thrust bearing
In Spherical Roller thrust bearings, the load is transmitted from one raceway to the other
at an angle to the bearing axis. They are suitable for the accommodation of high axial
loads in addition to simultaneously acting small radial loads. Spherical roller thrust
bearings are also self-aligning.
E- Sleeve Bearings

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Sleeve bearings have no moving parts, they rely on a thin film
of oil to reduce friction and allow the motor shaft to turn
freely. This film of oil is critical to the life of a sleeve
bearing. When properly lubricated, there is actually no
physical contact between the bearing and the shaft. If for
some reason the oil film breaks down, metal-to-metal contact
between the shaft and the bearing will cause the bearing to
wear very quickly and soon fail .Sleeve bearings are often chosen
because of their relatively quiet operation and lower cost
compared to ball bearings.
Sleeve bearings can be divided to:
A- Flange mounted sleeve bearings are used for machines with a
shaft height of up to 1120mm. Machines with bearings of this type
are quick and easy to align. The air gap between stator and rotor
comes from the factory already adjusted, and does not need any
further adjustment on site during installation.
B- Foot mounted sleeve bearings are mounted on a pedestal. The
pedestal can either be integrated in the stator frame, or can be
mounted separately. If it is integrated with the stator frame it is
easy and fast to align.
5- Conduit Box
Point of connection of
electrical power to the
motors stator
windings.
6- Eye Bolt
Used to lift heavy motors with a hoist or crane to
prevent motor damage.
2- DC Motor Basic Parts:

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DC Mo

The basic parts for DC motors are as follows:

1- Stator The stator carries the field winding and Poles. The stator together with the
rotor constitutes the magnetic circuit or core of the machine. It is a hollow cylinder.
2- Rotor It carries the armature winding. The armature is the load carrying member. The
rotor is cylindrical in shape.
3- Armature Winding This winding rotates in the magnetic field set up at the stationary
winding (Field winding). It is the load carrying member mounted on the rotor. An
armature winding is a continuous winding; that is, it has no beginning or end. It is
composed of a number of coils in series.
4- Field Winding This is an exciting system which may be an electrical winding or a
permanent magnet and which is located on the stator.
Note: DC Motors are generally classified by how their Armature & Field windings are
connected to their DC power supply.
5- Commutator The coils on the armature are terminated and interconnected through

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the commutator which comprised of a number of bars or commutator segments which are
insulated from each other. The commutator rotates with the rotor and serves to rectify
the induced voltage and the current in the armature both of which are A.C.
6- Brushes
These are conducting carbon graphite spring loaded to
ride on the commutator and act as interface between the
external circuit and the armature winding.
7- Poles
The field winding is placed in poles, the number of which
is determined by the voltage and current ratings of the
machine.
8- Slot/Teeth
For mechanical support, protection from abrasion, and
further electrical insulation, non-conducting slot liners
are often wedged between the coils and the slot walls.
The magnetic material between the slots is called teeth.
9- Motor Housing
The motor housing supports the iron core, the brushes
and the bearings.

Classification of Electric Motors

Main Types of Motor
Electric motors are broadly classified into two categories
as follows:
1. AC Motors.
2. DC Motors.
Within those two main categories there are subdivisions as shown in the next image.

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Notes: Recently, with the development of economical and
reliable power electronic components, there are numerous
ways to design a motor and the classifications of these
motors have become less rigorous and many other types of
motor have appeared. Our classification of motors will be
comprehensive as can as possible.
DC motors
DC power systems are not very common in the
contemporary engineering practice. However, DC motors have
been used in industrial applications for years Coupled with a
DC drive, DC motors provide very precise control DC motors
can be used with conveyors, elevators, extruders, marine
applications, material handling, paper, plastics, rubber, steel,
and textile applications, automobile, aircraft, and portable
electronics, in speed control applications.
Advantages of DC motors: (1).It is easy to control their
speed in a wide range; their torque-speed characteristic has,
historically, been easier to tailor than that of all AC motor
categories. This is why most traction and servo motors have
been DC machines. For example, motors for driving rail
vehicles were, until recently, exclusively DC machines.
(2)..Their reduced overall dimensions permit a considerable
space saving which let the manufacturer of the machines or of
plants not to be conditioned by the exaggerated dimensions of
circular motors.
Disadvantages of DC motors (1)..Since
they need brushes to connect the rotor
winding. Brush wear occurs, and it
increases dramatically in lowpressure
environment. So they cannot be used in
artificial hearts. If used on aircraft, the
brushes would need replacement after
one hour of operation. (2)Sparks from
the brushes may cause explosion if the
environment contains explosive
materials. (3)RF noise from the brushes
may interfere with nearby TV sets, or
electronic devices, Etc.(4)DC motors are
also expensive relative to AC motors.
(Thus all application of DC motors have employed a mechanical switch or commutator to
turn the terminal current, which is constant or DC, into alternating current in the
armature of the machine. Therefore, DC machines are also called commutating
machines.)
Types of DC motors:
The DC motors are divided mainly to:
(1)Brush DC motors (BDC). (2)Brushless DC motors (BLDC).
1. A Brush DC motors A brushed DC motor (BDC) is an internally commutated electric
motor designed to be run from a direct current power source.

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Applications:
Brushed DC motors are widely used in
applications ranging from toys to pushbutton adjustable car seats.
Advantages:
Brushed DC (BDC) motors are
inexpensive, easy to drive, and are
readily available in all sizes and shapes
Construction: As above Picture..

All BDC motors are made of the same

basic components: a stator, rotor,
brushes and a commutator.
1- Stator.. The stator generates a stationary
magnetic field that surrounds the rotor. This field is
generated by either permanent magnets or
electromagnetic windings.
2- Rotor .. The rotor, also called the armature, is made up of
one or more windings. When these windings are energized
they produce a magnetic field. The magnetic poles of this rotor
field will be attracted to the opposite poles generated by the
stator, causing the rotor to turn. As the motor turns, the
windings are constantly being energized in a different
sequence so that the magnetic poles generated by the rotor do
not overrun the poles generated in the stator. This switching of
the field in the rotor windings is called commutation.
3- Brushes and Commutator

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Segments and Brushes Unlike other electric motor types (i.e., brushless DC, AC
induction), BDC motors do not require a controller to switch current in the motor
windings. Instead, the commutation of the windings of a
BDC motor is done mechanically. A segmented copper
sleeve, called a commutator, resides on the axle of a BDC
motor. As the motor turns, carbon brushes (ride on the side
of the commutator to provide supply voltage to the motor)
slide over the commutator, coming in contact with different
segments of the commutator. The segments are attached to
different rotor windings, therefore, a dynamic magnetic
field is generated inside the motor when a voltage is
applied across the brushes of the motor. It is important to
note that the brushes and commutator are the parts of a
BDC motor that are most prone to wear because they are
sliding past each other.
(How the Commutator ) Works: As the rotor turns, the
commutator terminals also turn and continuously reverse
polarity of the current it gets from the stationary brushes
attached to the battery.
Types of BDC motors:
The different types of BDC motors are distinguished
by the construction of the stator or the way the
electromagnetic windings are connected to the
power source. These types are:
1. Permanent Magnet.
2. Shunt-Wound.
3. Series-Wound.
4. Compound-Wound.
5. Separately excited DC motor.
6. Universal Motor.
7. Servo Motors.

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A- Permanent
Magnet

A permanent
magnet DC
(PMDC) motor is
a motor whose
poles are made
out of
permanent magnets to produce the stator field.
Advantages: (1)..Since no external field circuit is needed, there are no field circuit
copper losses.(2)Since no field windings are needed, these motors can be considerable
smaller.(3)Widely used in low power application.(4).Field winding is replaced by a
permanent magnet (simple construction and less space).(5)No requirement on
external excitation.
Disadvantages: (1)Since permanent magnets produces weaker flux densities then
externally supported shunt fields, such motors have lower induced torque. (2)There is
always a risk of demagnetization from extensive heating or
from armature reaction effects (Some PMDC motors have
windings built into them to prevent this from happening).
B- Shunt-Wound
Shunt-wound Brushed DC (SHWDC) motors have the field
coil in parallel (shunt) with the armature. The speed is
practically constant independent of the load and therefore
suitable for commercial applications with a low starting
load, such as centrifugal pump, machine tools, blowers
fans, reciprocating pumps, etc.
Advantages: (1)The current in the field coil and the armature are independent of one
another. as a result, these motors have excellent speed control. (2)Loss of magnetism
is not an issue in SHWDC motors so they are generally more robust than PMDC
motors. (3)Speed can be controlled by either inserting a resistance in series with the
armature (decreasing speed) or by inserting resistance in the field current (increasing
speed).
Disadvantages: Shunt-wound Brushed DC (SHWDC) motors
have drawbacks in reversing applications, however, because
winding direction relative to the shunt winding must be
reversed when armature voltage is reversed. Here, reversing
contactors must be used.
C- Series-Wound

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Series-wound Brushed DC (SWDC) motors have the field coil in
series with the armature. These motors are ideally suited for
high-torque applications such as traction vehicles (cranes and
hoists, electric trains, conveyors, elevators, electric cars)
because the current in both the stator and armature increases
under load.
Advantages: (1)The torque is
proportional to I2 so it gives the highest
torque per current ratio over all other dc
motors.
Disadvantages: (1)A drawback to
SWDC motors is that they do not have
precise speed control like PMDC and
SHWDC motors have. (2)Speed is
restricted to 5000 RPM. (3)It must be
avoided to run a series motor with no
load because the motor will accelerate
uncontrollably.
D- Compound-Wound.. Compound Wound
(CWDC) motors are a combination of
shunt-wound and series-wound
motors. CWDC motors employ both a
series and a shunt field. The
performance of a CWDC motor is a
combination of SWDC and SHWDC motors. CWDC motors have higher torque than a
SHWDC motor while offering better speed control than SWDC motor.
It is used in Applications such as Rolling mills, sudden temporary loads, heavy machine
tools, punches, etc.
Advantages: (1)..This motor has a good starting torque and a stable speed.
Disadvantages: (1)The no-load speed is controllable unlike in series motors.
E- Separately excited DC motor
In a separately excited DC motor the field coils are supplied from an independent
source, such as a motor-generator and the field current is unaffected by changes in the
armature current. The separately excited DC motor was sometimes used in DC traction
motors to facilitate control of wheel slip.
F- Universal MotorThe universal motor is a rotating electrical machine similar to DC
series motor, designed to operate either from AD or DC source. The stator & rotor
windings of the motor are connected in series through the rotor commutator. The series
motor is designed to move large loads with high torque in applications such as crane
motor or lift hoist.
G- Servo Motors. Servo Motors are mechanical devices that can be instructed to
move the output shaft attached to a servo wheel or arm to a specified position. Servo
Motors are designed for applications involving position control, velocity control and
torque control.
A servo motor mainly consists of a DC motor, gear system, a position sensor which is
mostly a potentiometer, and control electronics.
2- Brushless DC motors In brushes DC motors, the mechanical commutator and

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associated brushes are problematical for a number of reasons as follows (1)Brush
wear occurs, and it increases dramatically in lowpressure environment. (2)Sparks
from the brushes may cause explosion if the environment contains explosive
materials. (3)RF noise from the brushes may interfere with nearby TV sets, or
electronic devices, etc.
Brushless Direct Current (BLDC) motors are one of the motor types rapidly gaining
popularity. BLDC motors are used in industries such as Appliances, Automotive,
Aerospace, Consumer, Medical, Industrial Automation Equipment and Instrumentation.
As the name implies, BLDC motors do not use brushes for commutation; instead, they
are electronically commutated.
BLDC motors have many advantages over brushed DC motors and induction motors, a
few of these are:(0)Better speed versus torque characteristics. (1)High dynamic
response. (2)High efficiency. (3)Long operating life. (4)Noiseless operation. (5)
Higher speed ranges.
In addition, the ratio of torque delivered to the size of the motor is higher, making it
useful in applications where space and weight are critical factors.
Construction
BLDC motors are a type of synchronous motor. This means the
magnetic field generated by the stator and the magnetic field generated by the rotor
rotates at the same frequency.
BLDC motors come in single-phase, 2-phase and 3-phase configurations. Corresponding
to its type, the stator has the same number of windings. Out of these, 3-phase motors
are the most popular and widely used.
1- Stator
The stator of a BLDC motor consists of stacked steel laminations with windings placed in
the slots that are axially cut along the inner periphery. Most BLDC motors have three
stator windings connected in star fashion. Each of these windings is constructed with
numerous coils interconnected to form a winding. One or more coils are placed in the
slots and they are interconnected to make a winding. Each of these windings is
distributed over the stator periphery to form an even numbers of poles. Depending
upon the control power supply capability, the motor with the correct voltage rating of
the stator can be chosen. Forty-eight volts, or less voltage rated motors are used in
automotive, robotics, small arm movements and so on. Motors with 100 volts, or higher

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The rotor is made of permanent magnet and can vary from

two to eight pole pairs with alternate North (N) and South (S)
poles.
Based on the required magnetic field density in the rotor, the
proper magnetic material is chosen to make the rotor. Ferrite
magnets are traditionally used to make permanent magnets.
3- Hall Sensors
Unlike a brushed DC motor, the commutation of a BLDC motor
is controlled electronically. To rotate the BLDC motor, the
stator windings should be energized in a sequence. It is
important to know the rotor position in order to understand
which winding will be energized following the energizing
sequence. Rotor position is sensed using Hall Effect sensors
embedded into the stator. Most BLDC motors have three Hall
sensors embedded into the stator on the non-driving end of
the motor. Whenever the rotor magnetic poles pass near the
Hall sensors, they give a high or low signal, indicating the N
or S pole is passing near the sensors. Based on the
combination of these three Hall sensor signals, the exact
sequence of commutation can be determined. Based on the
physical position of the Hall sensors, there are two versions of output. The Hall sensors
may be at 60 or 120 phase shift to each other. Based on this, the motor manufacturer
defines the commutation sequence, which should be followed when controlling the
motor. Note: The Hall sensors require a power supply. The voltage may range from 4
volts to 24 volts. Required current can range from 5 to 15 mAmps.
Theory of Operation Each commutation sequence has one of the windings energized to
positive power (current enters into the winding), the second winding is negative
(current exits the winding) and the third is in a non-energized condition. Torque is
produced because of the interaction between the magnetic field generated by the stator
coils and the permanent magnets of the rotor. In order to keep the motor running, the
magnetic field produced by the windings should shift position, as the rotor moves to
catch up with the stator field. What is known as Six-Step Commutation defines the

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2- Applications with
Varying Loads:
These are the types of
applications where the
load on the motor varies
over a speed range. These
applications may demand
high-speed control
accuracy and good
dynamic responses.
For example,In home appliances: washers, dryers and compressors. In automotive, fuel
pump control, electronic steering control, engine control and electric vehicle control. In
aerospace, there are a number of applications, like centrifuges, pumps, robotic arm
controls, gyroscope controls and so on. These applications may use speed feedback
devices and may run in semi-closed loop or in total closed loop.
3- Positioning Applications:
Most of the industrial and automation types of application come under this category.
The applications in this category have some kind of power transmission, which could be
mechanical gears or timer belts, or a simple belt driven system. In these applications,
the dynamic
response of
speed and
torque are
important.
Also, these
applications
may have
frequent
reversal of
rotation
direction. Thes
e systems
mostly operate
in closed loop.
Finally, a
comparison
between
Brushed DC
motor (BDC) and Brushless DC motor (BLDC) is as shown in the below image.

Second: AC Motors

Alternating current (AC) motors use an electrical current,

which reverses its direction at regular intervals.
The main advantage of DC motors over AC motors is that speed is more difficult to
control for AC motors. To compensate for this, AC motors can be equipped with variable
frequency drives but the improved speed control comes together with a reduced power
quality.
Types of AC Motors:

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AC motors in common use today may be divided into two broad categories: (1)
.Induction (asynchronous) motors. (2).Synchronous motors. (3).Linear Motors.
These two types of motors differ in how the rotor field excitation is supplied as follows:
For induction motors, there is no externally-applied rotor excitation, and current is
instead induced into the rotor windings due to the rotating stator magnetic field. For
synchronous motors, a field excitation is applied to the rotor windings. This difference
in field excitation leads to differences in motor characteristics, which leads in turn to
different protection and control requirements for each motor type.
1- Induction motor
Induction motors are the most common motors used for various equipments in
industry.
Induction Motor: So called because voltage is induced in the rotor (thus no need for
brushes), but for this to happen, the rotate than rotor must at a lower speed the
magnetic field to allow for the existence of an induced voltage. Therefore a new term is
needed to describe the induction motor which is the slip.
The slip:
A driving torque can only exist if there is an induced current in the shading ring. It is
determined by the current in the ring and can only exist if there is a flux variation in the
ring. Therefore, there must be a difference in speed in the shading ring and the rotating
field. This is why an electric motor operating to the principle described above is called
an asynchronous motor. The difference between the synchronous speed (Ns) and the
shading ring speed (N) is called slip (s) and is expressed as a percentage of the
synchronous speed. S= (Nsyn Nm)/ Nsyn
Where s is the slip. Slip is one of the most important variables in the control and
operation of induction machines.

(1).s = 0 : if the rotor runs at synchronous speed. (2).s = 1 : if the rotor is stationary.
(3).s is ve : if the rotor runs at a speed above the synchronous speed. (4).s is +ve :
if the rotor runs at a speed below the synchronous speed.
Advantages: (1).Simple design, rugged, low-price, easy maintenance. (2).Wide range
of power ratings: fractional horsepower to 10 MW. (3).Run essentially as constant
speed from no-load to full load. (4).Its speed depends on the frequency of the power
source. (5).Most popular motor today in the low and medium horsepower range. (6)
.Very robust in construction. (7).Have replaced DC Motors in areas where traditional
DC Motors cannot be used such as mining or explosive environments Of two types
depending on motor construction; Squirrel Cage or Slip Ring.
Disadvantages: (1).Not easy to have variable speed control. (2).Requires a variablefrequency power-electronic drive for optimal speed control. (3).Most of them run with
a lagging power factor.
Principle of operation:

The stator is usually connected to the grid and, thus, the stator is magnetized.
Stator magnetic field cuts the rotor windings and produces an induced voltage
in the rotor windings.
Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short circuited, for both squirrel
cage and wound-rotor, and induced current flows in the rotor windings.
The rotor current produces another magnetic field.

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A torque is produced as a result of the interaction of those two magnetic

fields.

Construction:
An induction motor has two main parts
1- Stator:
This is the immobile part of the
motor. A body in cast iron or a light alloy
houses a ring of thin silicon steel plates
(around 0.5mm thick). The plates are insulated
from each other by oxidation or an insulating
varnish. The lamination of the magnetic
circuit reduces losses by hysteresis and eddy
currents.
The plates have notches for the stator
windings that will produce the
rotating field to fit into (three
windings for a 3-phase motor). Each
winding is made up of several coils.
The way the coils are joined together
determines the number of pairs of
poles on the motor and hence the
speed of rotation.
2- Rotor : This is the mobile part of
the motor. Like the magnetic circuit
of the stator, it consists of stacked
plates insulated from each other and
forming a cylinder keyed to the motor
shaft.
Types of Induction Motors
Induction motors are classified
according to the Rotor Type as
follows:
A- Squirrel-Cage Rotor:
It consists of thick conducting bars embedded in parallel slots. These bars are shortcircuited at both ends by means of short-circuiting rings.

B- Wound Rotor:

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It has a three-phase,
double-layer,
distributed winding. It is wound for as many poles as the stator. The three phases are
wired internally and the other ends are connected to slip-rings mounted on a shaft with
brushes resting on them.

Each of the two types of Induction motors above can be classified into two main groups
as follows:
I- Single-phase induction motors:
These only have one stator winding, operate with a
single-phase power supply, have a squirrel cage rotor, and require a device to get the
motor started. This is by far the most common type of motor used in household
appliances, such as fans, washing machines and clothes dryers, and for applications for
up to 3 to 4 horsepower. Single phase induction motors come also with wound rotor
which has excellent starting and accelerating characteristics, and they are ideal for
Value Operators, Farm Motor Applications, Hoists, Floor Maintenance Machines, Air
Compressors, Laundry Equipment and Mining Equipment.

II- Three-phase induction motors:

The rotating magnetic field is produced by the
balanced three-phase supply. These motors have high power capabilities, can have
squirrel cage or wound rotors (although 90% have a squirrel cage rotor), and are selfstarting. It is estimated that about 70% of motors in industry are of this type, are used
in, for example, pumps, compressors, conveyor belts, heavy-duty electrical networks,
and grinders. They are available in 1/3 to hundreds of horsepower ratings. Now, let us
see the first classification of induction motors based on the above types:
1- Single Phase, Squirrel Cage, Induction Motor:

Page 23 of 40
A- Shaded-Pole Induction
Motors
Construction and
operation principle:
Shaded-pole motors have
only one main winding
and no start winding.
Starting is by means of a
design that rings a
continuous copper loop
around a small portion of
each of the motor poles.
This shades that portion of the pole, causing the magnetic field in the shaded area to
lag behind the field in the unshaded area. The reaction of the two fields gets the shaft
rotating.
Advantages: (1).Because the shaded-pole motor lacks a start winding, starting switch
or capacitor, it is electrically simple and inexpensive. (2).The speed can be controlled
merely by varying voltage, or through a multi-tap winding. (3).Mechanically, the
shaded-pole motor construction allows high-volume production. (4).These are usually
considered as disposable motors, meaning they are much cheaper to replace than to
repair.
Disadvantages: (1).Its low starting torque is typically 25% to 75% of the rated
torque. (2).It is a high slip motor with a running speed 7% to 10% below the
synchronous speed. (3).Generally, efficiency of this motor type is very low (below
20%).
Applications:
The low initial cost suits the shaded-pole motors to low horsepower or light duty
applications. Perhaps their largest use is in multi-speed fans for household use. But the
low torque, low efficiency and less sturdy mechanical features make shaded-pole motors
impractical for most industrial or commercial use, where higher cycle rates or continuous
duty are the norm.
B- Split-Phase AC Induction Motor
Construction and operation principle: The split-phase motor is also known as an
induction start/induction run motor. It has two windings: a start and a main winding.
The start winding is made with smaller gauge wire and fewer turns, relative to the
main winding to create more resistance, thus putting the start windings field at a
different angle than that of the main winding which causes the motor to start rotating.
The main winding, which is of a heavier wire, keeps the motor running the rest of the
time.
Advantages and disadvantages: (1).The starting torque is low, typically 100% to 175%
of the rated torque. (2).The motor draws high starting current, approximately 700%
to 1,000% of the rated current. (3).The maximum generated torque ranges from 250%
to 350% of the rated torque.
Applications:
Good applications for split-phase motors include small grinders, small fans and blowers
and other low starting torque applications with power needs from 1/20 to 1/3 hp. Avoid
using this type of motor in any applications requiring high on/off cycle rates or high
torque.

Page 24 of 40
Types:
Split-phase motors are designed to use inductance, capacitance, or resistance to
develop a starting torque and so, they have many types as follows: (1).CapacitorStart. (2).Permanent Split Capacitor (Capacitor Run) AC Induction Motor. (3)
.Capacitor Start/Capacitor Run AC Induction Motor. (4).Resistance-Start.
1- Capacitor-Star
Construction and operation principle:
The stator consists of the main winding
and a starting winding (auxiliary). The
starting winding is connected in parallel
with the main winding and is placed
physically at right angles to it. A 90degree electrical phase difference
between the two windings is obtained
by connecting the auxiliary winding in
series with a capacitor and starting
switch. When the motor is first
energized, the starting switch is closed.
This places the capacitor in series with
the auxiliary winding. The capacitor is of
such value that the auxiliary circuit is
effectively a resistive-capacitive circuit
(referred to as capacitive reactance and expressed as XC). In this circuit the current
leads the line voltage by about 45(because X C about equals R). The main winding
has enough resistance-inductance (referred to as inductive reactance and expressed as
XL) to cause the current to lag the line voltage by about 45(because X L about equals
R). The currents in each winding are therefore 90out of phase - so are the magnetic
fields that are generated. The effect is that the two windings act like a two-phase
stator and produce the rotating field required to start the motor. When nearly full
speed is obtained (75% of Rated speed), a centrifugal device (the starting switch) cuts
out the starting winding. The motor then runs as a plain single-phase induction motor.
Since the auxiliary winding is only a light winding, the motor does not develop
sufficient torque to start heavy loads. Split-phase motors, therefore, come only in small
sizes.
Advantages and disadvantages: (1) Since the capacitor is in series with the start
circuit, it creates more starting torque, typically 200% to 400% of the rated torque. (2)
The starting current, usually 450% to 575% of the rated current, is much lower than
the split-phase due to the larger wire in the start circuit. (3)Sizes range from
fractional to 10 hp at 900 to 3600 rpm.
2- Permanent Split Capacitor (Capacitor Run) AC Induction Motor
Construction and operation principle:

Page 25 of 40
A permanent split capacitor (PSC) motor
has a run type capacitor permanently
connected in series with the start
winding. This makes the start winding
an auxiliary winding once the motor
reaches the running speed.
Since the run capacitor must be
designed for continuous use, it cannot
provide the starting boost of a starting
capacitor. The typical starting torque of
the PSC motor is low, from 30% to 150%
of the rated torque. PSC motors have
low starting current, usually less than
200% of the rated current, making them
excellent for applications with high
on/off cycle rates.
Advantages:: (1)The motor design can easily be altered for use with speed
controllers. (2)They can also be designed for optimum efficiency and High-Power
Factor (PF) at the rated load. (3)Theyre considered to be the most reliable of the
single-phase motors, mainly because no centrifugal starting switch is required.
Applications:: Permanent split-capacitor motors have a wide variety of applications
depending on the design. These include
fans, blowers with low starting torque
needs and intermittent cycling uses, such
as adjusting mechanisms, gate operators
and garage door openers.
3- Capacitor Start/Capacitor Run AC
Induction Motor
Construction and operation principle:
This motor has a start type capacitor in
series with the auxiliary winding like the
capacitor start motor for high starting
torque. Like a PSC motor, it also has a run
type capacitor that is in series with the
auxiliary winding after the start capacitor
is switched out of the circuit. This allows
high overload torque.
Advantages This type of motor can be
designed for lower full-load currents and
higher efficiency
Disadvantages This motor is costly due to start and run capacitors and centrifugal
switch.
Applications
It is able to handle applications too demanding for any other kind of single-phase motor.
These include woodworking machinery, air compressors, high-pressure water pumps,
vacuum pumps and other high torque applications requiring 1 to 10 hp.
4- Resistance-Start

Page 26 of 40

Construction and operation principle:

A modified version of the capacitor start motor is the resistance start motor. In this
motor type, the starting capacitor is replaced by a resistor. This motor also has a
starting winding in addition to the main winding. It is switched in and out of the circuit
just as it was in the capacitor-start motor. The starting winding is positioned at right
angles to the main winding. The electrical phase shift between the currents in the two
windings is obtained by making the impedance of the windings unequal. The main
winding has a high inductance and a low resistance. The current, therefore, lags the
voltage by a large angle. The starting winding is designed to have a fairly low
inductance and a high resistance. Here the current lags the voltage by a smaller angle.
For example, suppose the current in the main winding lags the voltage by 70. The
current in the auxiliary winding lags the voltage by 40. The currents are, therefore, out
of phase by 30. The magnetic fields are out of phase by the same amount. Although the
ideal angular phase difference is 90 for maximum starting torque, the 30-degree phase
difference still generates a rotating field. This supplies enough torque to start the
motor. When the motor comes up to speed, a speed-controlled switch disconnects the
starting winding from the line, and the motor continues to run as an induction motor.
The starting torque is not as great as it is in the capacitor-start.
Applications, Advantages and disadvantages: The resistance start motor is used in
applications where the starting torque requirement is less than that provided by the
capacitor start motor. Apart from the cost, this motor does not offer any major
advantage over the capacitor start motor.
A comparison for the popular types of a split phase motors is shown in the below
image.
C- Universal motor: Universal motors are mostly operated on AC power, but they can
operate on either AC or DC. Tools and appliances are among the most frequent
applications.

Page 27 of 40

2- Three Phase,
Squirrel Cage,
Induction
Motor:
Almost 90% of
the three-phase
AC Induction
motors are of
Squirrel Cage
type. Here, the
rotor is of the
squirrel cage
type and it
works as
explained
earlier. The
power ratings
range from onethird to several
hundred
horsepower in
the three-phase
motors. Motors
of this type
rated one
horsepower or
larger, cost less
and can start
heavier loads
than their singlephase
counterparts. Three phase Squirrel cage Induction motors are classified by application
with a design letter which gives an indication of key performance characteristics of the
motor, these classification are made by NEMA and IEC. The main Classifications of Three
phase Squirrel cage Induction motors are shown in the below image.
3- Single Phase, Wound Rotor, Induction Motor :
A- Repulsion motor
Construction: The motor has a stator and a rotor but there is no electrical connection
between the two and the rotor current is generated by induction. The rotor winding is
connected to a commutator which is in contact with a pair of short-circuited brushes
which can be moved to change their angular position relative to an imaginary line drawn
through the axis of the stator. The motor can be started, stopped and reversed, and the
speed can be varied, simply by changing the angular position of the brushes.
The principle difference between an AC series motor and repulsion motors is the way in
which power is supplied to armature. In Ac series motor the armature receives voltage
by conduction through the power supply. But In repulsion motors the armature is
supplied by induction from the stator windings.
Disadvantages of Repulsion Motor: (1)Occurrence of sparks at brushes. (2)

Page 28 of 40
Commutator and brushes wear out quickly. This is
primarily due to arcing and heat generated at brush
assembly. (3)The power factor is poor at low
speeds. (4)No load speed is very high and
dangerous.
Application of Repulsion motors:
Because of excellent starting and accelerating
characteristics, repulsion-induction motors are ideal
for: (1)Value Operators. (2)Farm Motor
Applications. (3)Hoists. (4)Floor Maintenance
Machines. (5)Air Compressors. (6)Laundry
Equipment. (7)Mining Equipment.
Types: The various types of motors which works
under the repulsion principle are: (1) Repulsion-start
Induction-run motor. (2)Repulsion Induction motor.
A- Repulsion-start induction-run
A repulsion-start induction motor is a single phase
motor having the same windings as a repulsion motor ,
When an induction motor drives a hard starting load
like a compressor, the high starting torque of the
repulsion motor may be put to
use. The induction motor rotor
windings are brought out to
commutator segments for
starting by a pair of shorted
brushes. At near running speed,
a centrifugal switch shorts out
all commutator segments,
giving the effect of a squirrel
cage rotor, the brushes may
also be lifted to prolong bush
life. This means that they
started as repulsion motors but
running as induction motor
Starting torque is 300% to 600%
of the full speed value as
compared to under 200% for a
pure induction motor.
B- Repulsion-Induction Motor
A repulsion-induction motor is a form of repulsion motor which has a squirrel-cage
winding in the rotor in addition to the repulsion motor winding. A motor of this type
may have either a constant speed or varying-speed characteristic.
4- Three Phase, Wound Rotor, Induction Motor

Page 29 of 40

This type of 3-phase induction motor has

high starting torque, which makes it ideal
for applications where standard NEMA
design motors fall short. The wound-rotor
motor is particularly effective in
applications where using a squirrel-cage
motor may result in a starting current
that's too high for the capacity of the
power system. In addition, the woundrotor motor is appropriate for high-inertia
loads having a long acceleration time. The
slip-ring motor or wound-rotor motor is a
variation of the squirrel cage induction
motor. While the stator is the same as that of
the squirrel cage motor, it has a set of windings
on the rotor which are not short-circuited, but
are terminated to a set of slip rings. These are
helpful in adding external resistors and
contactors. The slip necessary to generate the
maximum torque (pull-out torque) is directly
proportional to the rotor resistance. In the slipring motor, the effective rotor resistance is
increased by adding external resistance
through the slip rings. Thus, it is possible to get higher slip and hence, the
pull-out torque at a lower speed. A particularly high resistance can result in
the pull-out torque occurring at almost zero speed, providing a very high
pull-out torque at a low starting current. As the motor accelerates, the
value of the resistance can be reduced, altering the motor characteristic to
suit the load requirement. Once the motor reaches the base speed, external
resistors are removed from the rotor. This means that now the motor is
working as the standard induction motor. This motor type is ideal for very
high inertia loads, where it is required to generate the pull-out torque at
almost zero speed and accelerate to full speed in the minimum time with
minimum current draw.
Applications: They are generally used to drive high-inertia loads (e.g., large
pumps, cranes, grinders).

Synchronous Motor

Synchronous Motor: So called because rotor tries to

line up with the rotating magnetic field in the stator. It has the stator of an induction
motor, and the rotor of a dc motor.
A synchronous motor is an AC motor, which runs at constant speed fixed by frequency of
the system. It requires direct current (DC) for excitation and has low starting torque,
and therefore suited for applications that start with a low load, such as air compressors,
frequency changes and motor generators. Synchronous motors are able to improve the
power factor of a system, which is why they are often used in systems that use a lot of
electricity.
Differences between Synchronous and Induction motors: (1)/..Synchronous motors are
not as widely used as induction machines because their rotors are more complex and

Page 30 of 40
they require exciters. (2)/..Synchronous motors are used in large industrial applications
in situations where their ability to provide leading power factor helps to support or
stabilize voltage and to improve overall power factor. (3)/..In ratings higher than several
hundred horsepower, synchronous machines are often more efficient than induction
machines and so very large synchronous machines are sometimes chosen over induction
motors. (4)/..Unlike an induction motor, the synchronous motor is excited by an external
DC source and, therefore, requires slip rings and brushes to provide current to the
rotor. (5)/..In the synchronous motor, the rotor locks into step with the rotating
magnetic field and rotates at synchronous speed. If the synchronous motor is loaded to
the point where the rotor is pulled out of step with the rotating magnetic field, no
torque is developed, and the motor will stop. (6)/..A synchronous motor is not a selfstarting motor because torque is only developed when running at synchronous speed;
therefore, the motor needs some type of device to bring the rotor to Synchronous
speed.

Page 31 of 40
Construction: Like the asynchronous (Induction) motor, the synchronous motor consists
of a stator and a rotor separated by the air gap. It differs from the asynchronous motor
in that the flux in the air gap is not due to a component of the stator current: it is
created by magnets or by the field coil current
provided by an external DC source energizing a
winding placed in the rotor.
The main components of a synchronous motor are as
follows:
1- Stator: The stator consists of a housing and a
magnetic circuit generally comprising silicon steel
laminations and a 3-phase coil similar to that of an
asynchronous motor supplied with 3-phase AC to
produce a rotating field. The stator produces a
rotating magnetic field that is proportional to the
frequency supplied. This motor rotates at a
synchronous speed, which is given by the following
equation:
Ns = 120 f / P
Where: f = frequency of the supply frequency P=
number of poles.
2- Rotor::: Synchronous rotors are designed
primarily for applications requiring highly efficient
motors. Each pole assembly is made from high
strength steel laminations with a DC field winding
encircling the pole body. The field winding consists of a rectangular section of insulated
copper wire wound directly on an insulated pole body
and bonded by a high temperature, high strength
insulating epoxy resin which, when cured, results in a
coil impervious to dirt, moisture and other
contaminants.
The rotor carries field magnets or coils through which a
direct current flows and which create interposed North
and South poles. Unlike asynchronous (Induction)
machines, the rotor rotates with no slip at the speed of
the rotating field. There are two types of rotor
structures as follows: (1)/Salient pole rotor. (2)/
Round or cylindrical rotor (Non-salient-pole rotor).
a- Salient Pole Rotor
Salient pole structure is used for low speed applications, such as hydroelectric
generators. Salient-pole rotor: four and more poles.
b- Round or Cylindrical Rotor (Non-salient-Pole Rotor) ::: Round rotor structure is used
for high speed synchronous machines, such as steam turbine generators. Non-salientpole rotor: usually two- and four-pole rotors.
3- Amortisseur (starting winding) Synchronous motors are provided with an
Amortisseur, or starting winding, consisting of copper alloy bars located in the pole
face, parallel to the shaft, and brazed at the ends to copper alloy rings. The Amortisseur

Page 32 of 40
winding is tailored for the application to provide the
required starting performance.
4- Stator Frame:: The stator frame contains and
supports the other parts and may include bearing
housings.
5- Other Parts:: Large machines include additional
parts for cooling the machine, supporting the rotor,
lubricating and cooling the bearings, and various
protection and measurement devices.

Operation: The operation of a synchronous motor is simple to imagine. The 'Stator'

winding, when excited by a poly-phase (usually 3-phase) supply, creates a rotating
magnetic field inside the motor. The rotor winding, which acts as a permanent magnet,
supplied with a DC current and creating a field which simply locks in with the rotating
magnetic field and rotates along with it? During operation, as the rotor field locks in with
the rotating magnetic field, the motor is said to be in synchronization and a torque is
developed. Once the motor is in operation, the speed of the motor is dependent only on
the supply frequency. When the motor load is increased beyond the breakdown load, the
motor falls out of synchronization i.e., the applied load is large enough to pull out the
field winding from following the rotating magnetic field. The motor immediately stalls
after it falls out of synchronization.
Applications: (1)/Synchronous motors find applications in all industrial applications
where constant speed is necessary. (1)/Improving the power factor as synchronous
condensers. (2)/Low power applications include positioning machines, where high
precision is required, and robot actuators. (3)/Mains synchronous motors are used for
electric clocks. (4)/Record player turntables. (5)/Large plant compressors. (6)/Fans,
pumps, and large industrial (7)/grinders. Mills in the steel industry. (8)/Larger highspeed motors are popular in the natural-gas pipeline system.
Advantages: (1)/Synchronous motors have the following advantages over nonsynchronous motors: (1)/Speed is independent of the load, provided an adequate field
current is applied. (2)/Accurate control in speed and position using open loop controls,
e.g. stepper motors. (3)/They will hold their position when a DC current is applied to
both the stator and the rotor windings. (4)/Their power factor can be adjusted to unity
by using a proper field current relative to the load. Also, a "capacitive" power factor,
(current phase leads voltage phase), can be obtained by increasing this current slightly,
which can help achieve a better power factor correction for the whole installation. (5)/
Their construction allows for increased electrical efficiency when a low speed is required
(as in ball mills and similar apparatus). (6)/They run either at the synchronous speed or
they do not run at all.
Types:
There are two major types of synchronous motors as follows: (1)/Non-excited
motors. (2)/DC-excited motors.
1- Non-excited motors
These motors employ a self-starting circuit and require no external excitation supply.
In non-excited motors, the rotor is made of solid steel. At synchronous speed it rotates in
step with the rotating magnetic field of the stator, so it has an almost-constant magnetic
field through it. The external stator field magnetizes the rotor, inducing the magnetic

Page 33 of 40
poles needed to turn it. The rotor is made of a
high-retentively steel such as cobalt steel.
These are manufactured in three types as
follows: (1)/Reluctance
motors. (2)/Hysteresis motors. (3)/Permanent
magnet motors.
A- Reluctance motors : Reluctance motor is A
synchronousinduction motor. The rotor has
salient poles and a cage so that it starts like
an induction motor, and runs like a
synchronous motor.
Principle of operation: A classic squirrel cage rotor with notches (or flats) in the rotor
periphery. The number of notches will correspond to the number of poles in the stator
winding. The sections of the rotor periphery between the high reluctance areas are
known as salient poles. Since these poles create a low reluctance path for the stator flux,
they are attracted to the poles of the stator field. The reluctance synchronous rotor
starts and accelerates like a regular squirrel cage rotor, but as it approaches the
rotational speed of the field, a critical point is reached where there is an increased
acceleration and the rotor snaps into synchronism with the stator field.
1. If the load (particularly inertial) is too great, the motor will not attain
synchronous speed. Motor pull-in torque is defined as the maximum load
that the motor can accelerate and pull into synchronism at rated voltage
and frequency. An applied load greater than the rated pull-in torque will
prevent the motor from pulling the load into synchronism and will result in
rough, non-uniform operation. Reluctance synchronous motors may be
designed for poly-phase operation, as well as single-phase versions in splitphase, CS and PSC configurations. Reluctance synchronous motors ratings
range from sub-fractional to about 30 hp. Sub-fractional horsepower motors
have low torque, and are generally used for instrumentation applications.
Moderate torque, integral horsepower motors use squirrel cage
construction with toothed rotors.
Switched Reluctance Motors
:::The switched reluctance motor (SRM) is an
electric motor in which torque is produced by the tendency of its moveable
part to move to a position where the inductance of the excited winding is
maximized. SRM is a type of synchronous machine. It has wound field coils
of a DC motor for its stator windings and has no coils or magnets on its
rotor. It can be seen that both the stator and rotor have salient poles;
hence, the machine is a doubly salient,
singly excited machine. Stator windings
on diametrically opposite poles are
connected in series or parallel to form one
phase of the motor. Several combinations
of stator and rotor poles are possible,
such as 6/4 (6 stator poles and 4 rotor
poles), 8/4, 10/6 etc. The configurations
with higher number of stator/rotor pole
combinations have less torque ripple.

Page 34 of 40
Applications: (1)/..Flameproof drive systems for potentially explosive
atmospheres. (2)/..Washing machine. (3)/..Environmentally friendly air
conditioning system for passenger trains. (4)/..Servo systems for advanced
technology weaving machine.
B- Hysteresis motors: Although the stator in a hysteresis synchronous
design is wound much like that of the conventional squirrel cage motor, its
rotor is made of a heat-treated cast permanent magnet alloy cylinder (with
a nonmagnetic support) securely mounted to the shaft like "hard" cobalt
steel. This material has a wide hysteresis loop (high retentively), meaning
once it is magnetized in a given direction, it requires a large reverse
magnetic field to reverse the magnetization. The motors special
performance characteristics are associated with its rotor design. The rotor
starts on the hysteresis principle and accelerates at a fairly constant rate
until it reaches the synchronous speed of the rotating field. Instead of the
permanently fixed poles found in the rotor of the reluctance synchronous
design, hysteresis rotor poles are induced by the rotating magnetic field.
During the acceleration period, the stator field will rotate at a speed faster
than the rotor, and the poles which it induces in the rotor will shift around
its periphery. When the rotor speed reaches that of the rotating stator field,
the rotor poles will take up a fixed position. if the load is increased beyond
the capacity of the motor, the poles on the periphery of the rotor core will
shift. If the load is then reduced to the pullin capacity of the motor, the
poles will take up fixed positions until the motor is again overloaded or
stopped and restarted. The hysteresis rotor will lock-in at any position, in
contrast to the reluctance rotor which has only the lock-in points
corresponding to the salient poles on the rotor.
Applications:
Hysteresis motors are manufactured in sub-fractional horsepower ratings,
primarily as servomotors and timing motors. More expensive than the
reluctance type, hysteresis motors are used where precise constant speed
is required.
C- Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motors
The stator portion of Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motors has an
uneven distribution of magnetic Poles and the solid steel rotor has
permanent magnets embedded in it, the purpose of this is to give the rotor
a preferred starting point while providing an apparent shift in field during
starting due to the uneven reluctance of the stator. They are not selfstarting. Because of the constant magnetic field in the rotor these cannot
use induction windings for starting, and must have electronically controlled
variable frequency stator drive. Some of these motors have a spring return
mechanism to reverse the rotation just in case it starts turning the wrong
way.
Applications: Industrial drives, e.g., pumps, fans, blowers, mills, hoists,
handling systems, elevators and escalators, people movers, light railways
and streetcars (trams), electric road vehicles, aircraft flight control surface
actuation.
Advantages: (1)/..No electrical energy is absorbed by the field excitation
system and thus there are no excitation losses which mean substantial
increase in the efficiency. (2)/..Higher torque and/or output power per

Page 35 of 40
volume than when using electromagnetic
excitation. (3)/..Better dynamic
performance than motors with
electromagnetic excitation (higher
magnetic flux density in the air
gap). (4)/..Simplification of construction
and maintenance. (5)/..Reduction of
prices for some types of machines.
Disadvantages: (1)/..High cost of
permanent magnets. (1)/..Magnet
corrosion and possible
demagnetization. (1)/..Large air gap
in surface mount PM machines.

2- DC-excited motors :They are made in sizes

larger than 1 hp, these motors require direct
current for excitation which can be supplied from
a separate source or from a dc generator directly
connected to the motor shaft.
These motors are commonly used in analog electric clocks, timers and other devices
where correct time is required.
Two common approaches are used to supply a DC current to the field circuits on the
rotating rotor: (1)/..Supply the DC power from an external DC source to the rotor by
means of slip rings and brushesBrush type Synchronous
motors. (2)/..Supply the DC power from a special DC power
source mounted directly on the shaft of the machinebrushless
type Synchronous motors.
A- Brush type Synchronous motors:
The field exciter for a brush-type motor is typically a DC
generator with its rotor mounted on the motor shaft. The output
of the DC generator is fed via brushes and slip rings to the
motor field windings.
A brush-style exciter is typically not used in a high speed
application due to ignition problems caused by the brushes
physical contact with the slip ring. Proper and regular
maintenance, though difficult to perform, can reduce the
occurrence of ignition problems in brush-type exciters
B- Brushless type Synchronous motors: The field exciter for a
brushless synchronous motor typically consists of an AC
generator with the field windings on its stator, armature
windings on its rotor, and with its rotor mounted on the motor
shaft. The output of the generator is rectified by solid-state rectifier elements also
mounted on the rotor shaft and fed directly to the motor field windings without the
need for brushes or slip rings. Because of the proliferation of solid-state power
electronic technology, and because the brushless-type motors require less maintenance
almost all new synchronous motors are brushless-type. It is possible to adjust the field
current on the main machine by controlling the small DC field current of the exciter
generator (located on the stator).
Note: In either design; brush and brushless, the field excitation to the exciter may be

Page 36 of 40
varied to vary the power-factor operation of the motor, and
in fact power factor correction is one common use of
synchronous motors since they can be made to
operate at leading power factors.
3- Stepper motor: Stepper motor is a special type
of synchronous motor which is designed to rotate
a specific number of degrees for every electric
pulse received by its control unit. Typical
steps are 7.5 or 15 degree per pulse.It is a
motor that can rotate in both directions,
move in precise angular increments,
sustain a holding torque at zero speed,
and be controlled with digital circuits. It
moves in accurate angular increments
known as steps, in response to the
application of digital pulses to the electric
drive circuit. Generally, such motors are
manufactured with steps per revolution.
Depending on its electrical power supply,
it may be:
A- Unipolar: if its coils are always supplied
in the same direction by a single voltage,
it requiring only one power source, hence
the name unipolar.
B- Bipolar: when its coils are supplied sometimes in one direction and sometimes in the
other, it requiring two power sources. They sometimes create a North Pole, and
sometimes a South pole, hence the name bipolar.
Stepper motors, unlike ordinary DC motors, are brushless
and can divide a full 360 into a large number of steps, for
example 200.
Operating principles: Stepper motors operate differently
from normal DC motors, which rotate when voltage is
applied to their terminals. Stepper motors, on the other
hand, effectively have multiple "toothed" electromagnets
arranged around a central gear-shaped piece of iron. The
electromagnets are energized by an external control
circuit, such as a micro controller. To make the motor shaft
turn, first one electromagnet is given power, which makes
the gear's teeth magnetically attracted to the
electromagnet's teeth. When the gear's teeth are thus
aligned to the first electromagnet, they are slightly offset from the next electromagnet.
So when the next electromagnet is turned on and the first is turned off, the gear rotates
slightly to align with the next one, and from there the process is repeated. Each of
those slight rotations is called a "step," with an integer number of steps making a full
rotation. In that way, the motor can be turned by a precise angle.
Advantages: (1)/..Low cost. (2)/..Can work in an open loop (no feedback
required). (3)/..Excellent holding torque (eliminated brakes/clutches). (4)/..Excellent
torque at low speeds. (5)/..Low maintenance (brushless). (6)/..Very rugged - any
environment. (7)/..Excellent for precise positioning control. (8)/..No tuning required.

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Disadvantages: (1)/..Rough performance at low speeds unless you use microstepping. (2)/..Consume current regardless of load. (3)/..Limited sizes
available. (4)/..Noisy. (5)/..Torque decreases with speed (you need an oversized motor
for higher torque at higher speeds). (6)/..Stepper motors can stall or lose position
running without a control loop.

Applications of Stepper motor: (1)/.Cruise control. (2)/.Auto air vents. (3)/.Light leveling.
(4)/.Printers. (5)/.Industrial machines. (6)/.Automotive gauges. (7)/.Office equipment.
(8)/.Computer drives. (9)/.Medical scanners.
(10)/.Scientific Instrumentation.
Types of Stepper Motors:
1- Variable-Reluctance Step Motors
The construction of variable-reluctance (VR)
motors is generally as shown in above image,
there is a stator assembly consisting of an
insulated lamination stack with copper coils
wound around the teeth. The stator assembly is
positioned within a housing or main frame such
that its location is secured. The rotor assembly
consists of a steel magnetic core, a steel output
shaft, and bearings. The rotor assembly is
centrally located inside the stator assembly by
end frames or bearing supports.
2- Permanent-Magnet-Rotor Step Motors The PM
step motor is illustrated in above image. It
consists of two sets of stamped steel cups with
diagonal teeth facing the rotor. Each set of cups
circumscribes a coil of wire. The two sets are
positioned with respect to each other such that
they circumscribe the rotor but they are offset
from each other by one-half of a tooth pitch. The
permanent-magnet-rotor step motor is commonly
referred to as the stamped-construction or sheet-metal step motor. It is sometimes
called simply a PM step motor but should not be confused with the hybrid permanentmagnet step motor. The rotor in a stamped-construction motor is a smooth cylindrical
permanent magnet radially magnetized with alternating N and S poles. The stator has
two cup-shaped halves with formed stator teeth. Each half contains a circular, bobbinwound coil. Because of this simple design, the price is low, but step accuracy and speed
may not equal the performance of other step-motor types.
3- Hybrid Permanent-Magnet Step Motors The hybrid step motor is generally
constructed as shown in above image. It has a stator assembly similar to that of the VR
motor, but the rotor consists of three sections. Two pieces are similar to the VR stepmotor rotor, but a magnet is placed between them, and they are offset circumferentially
from each other by one-half tooth pitch. This motor is termed a hybrid because it uses
elements of both variable reluctance and permanent-magnet-rotor step motors. The
commonly known version is the 1.8 step-angle motor. It was originally designed as an ac
two-phase synchronous inductor motor for low-speed applications. Its stator

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construction is similar to that of a variablereluctance step motor with salient poles (multiple
teeth per pole).The phase windings may be either
monofilar or bifilar coils, as discussed for the
stamped-construction motor. The rotor contains a
cylindrical permanent magnet axially magnetized
and enclosed on each end by a soft-iron cup with
uniformly spaced teeth. As for the variablereluctance motor, the number of stator phases
and differing number of stator and rotor teeth
determine the step angle.

Third: Linear motors

Linear motors should

be thought of as rotary electric motors that have been cut along a radial plane and
unrolled. The resultant motor is a linear electric motor that can produce linear motion
without the need of pneumatic or hydraulic cylinders or translation of rotary motion
with the use of belts, pulleys, or screws. This is desirable because the extra machine
parts make the machine more complicated, and there are more parts that will wear out,
and need replacement.
However, because linear motors do not have the luxury of 360 degree contained
rotation, they must either increase the length of the primary, coil assembly, and keep a
short moving secondary, magnet assembly, or increase the length of the secondary, and
keep a short moving primary. There is a diagram that can be found below illustrating
the differences between these two options. So, a linear motor is an electric motor that
has had its stator and rotor "unrolled" so that instead of producing a torque (rotation) it
produces a linear force along its length. Linear electric motors can drive a linear motion
load without intermediate gears, screws, or crank shafts.
Applications: (1)/..Sliding doors and various similar actuators. (1)/..Accelerating cars for
crash tests. (1)/..Transportation (Trains). (1)/..Robotics & Material Handling.
(1)/..Elevators. (1)/..Compressors & Pumps. (1)/..Catapults and Launchers. (1)/..Curtain
pullers.
Types: there are two main types of Linear Motors as follows: (1)/..Linear induction
motor (LIM). (1)/..Linear synchronous motor (LSM).
1- Linear induction motor (LIM) A linear induction motor (LIM) is an AC asynchronous
linear motor that works by the same general principles as other induction motors but is
very typically designed to directly produce motion in a straight line. Characteristically,
linear induction motors have a finite length primary, which generates end-effects,
whereas with a conventional induction motor the primary is arranged in an endless
loop.
Linear motors frequently run on a 3 phase power supply.
Despite their name, not all linear induction motors produce linear motion, some linear
induction motors are employed for generating rotations of large diameters where the
use of a continuous primary would be very expensive.
Construction: A linear electric motor's primary typically consists of a flat magnetic core
(generally laminated) with transverse slots which are often straight cut with coils laid
into the slots. The secondary is frequently a sheet of aluminum, often with an iron
backing plate. Some LIMs are double sided, with one primary either side of the
secondary, and in this case no iron backing is needed. Two sorts of linear motor exist,
short primary, where the coils are truncated shorter than the secondary, and a short

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secondary where the conductive plate is smaller. Short secondary LIMs are often wound
as parallel connections between coils of the same phase, whereas short primaries are
usually wound in series.
The primaries of transverse flux LIMs have a series of twin poles lying transversely sideby-side, with opposite winding directions.
Principles of operation
a- Moving magnetic field //In this design of electric motor, the force is produced by a
moving linear magnetic field acting on conductors in the field. Any conductor, be it a
loop, a coil or simply a piece of plate metal, that is placed in this field will have eddy
currents induced in it thus creating an opposing magnetic field, in accordance with
Lenz's law. The two opposing fields will repel each other, thus creating motion as the
magnetic field sweeps through the metal.
b- End effect //Unlike a circular induction motor, a linear induction motor shows end
effects. With a short secondary, the behavior is almost identical to a rotary machine,
provided it is at least two poles long, but with a short primary reduction in thrust occurs
at low slip (below about 0.3) until it is eight poles or longer. However, because of end
effect, linear motors cannot 'run light'- normal induction motors are able to run the
motor with a near synchronous field under low load conditions. Due to end effect this
creates much more significant losses with linear motors.
c- Levitation //In addition, unlike a rotary motor, an electrodynamics levitation force is
shown, this is zero at zero slip, and tends to a constant positive lift force as slip
increases in either direction.
2- Linear synchronous motor (LSM) A linear synchronous motor (LSM) is a linear motor
in which the mechanical motion is in synchronism with the magnetic field, i.e., the
mechanical speed is the same as the speed of the traveling magnetic field. The thrust
(propulsion force) can be generated as an action of the following two fields:

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is the same as the speed of
the traveling magnetic field.
The thrust (propulsion force)
can be generated as an action
of the following two fields:
1. traveling
magnetic field
produced by a
polyphase winding
and an array of
magnetic poles N,
S,...,N, S or a
variable
reluctance
ferromagnetic rail
(LSMs with a.c.
armature
windings);
2. Magnetic field produced by electronically switched d.c. windings and an
array of magnetic poles N, S,...,N, S or variable reluctance ferromagnetic
rail (linear stepping or switched reluctance motors).
The part producing the traveling magnetic field is called the armature or
forcer. The part that provides the d.c. magnetic flux or variable reluctance
is called the field excitation system (if
the excitation system exists) or
salientpole rail, reaction rail, or variable
reluctance platen.
Reference : http://www.electricalknowhow.com/2012/05/