Abrahamic Religions in

World History Textbooks

By Susan L. Douglass
Winter 1998

Council on Islamic Education

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Abrahamic Religions
in World History Textbooks
An examination of the coverage of Judaism, Christianity and Islam in recent world history
textbooks, and an evaluation of the textbooks adherence to the prevailing guidelines for
teaching about religion. Published in Religion & Education Journal, volume 25, numbers 1 &
2 (Winter 1998).
Introduction
The relatively smooth process of building a consensus for teaching about religion must count
among the most remarkable developments in the contentious debate over public education
in the US. The efforts of the Supreme Court to clearly differentiate teaching religion from
teaching about religion have been followed up by the efforts of numerous academics and civic
organizations to show that it is practicable to include religion in history and other courses.
Several studies on textbooks and curriculum over the past few decades have clearly identified
the problem of exclusion and developed a framework for improvement [1]. Detailed guidelines
have been developed, debated and promoted in cooperation with several institutions. Grassroots efforts such as conferences, teacher workshops and collaborative efforts with state and
local school systems have helped to disseminate these ideas. This development is all the more
noteworthy since agreement over educational goals and means has been so elusive in other
areas of curriculum reform, especially in history and social studies, the area for most content
on religion.
Many readers will be familiar with the guidelines for constitutionally acceptable teaching
about religion. They have been formulated by Warren Nord at the University of North Carolina
at Chapel Hills Program of Humanities and Human Values, Thayer Warshaw of the Public
Education Religion Studies Center at Wright State University and Charles Haynes and Oliver
Thomas of the First Amendment Center, Vanderbilt University. In 1988, [17] civic and educational
organizations expressed support for six points that define What is meant by teaching about
religion in the public schools as opposed to teaching religion, which is unconstitutional in
public school settings:
1. The schools approach to religion is academic, not devotional.
2. The school may strive for student awareness of religions, but should not press for student
acceptance of any one religion.
3. The school may sponsor study about religion, but may not sponsor the practice of religion.
4. The school may expose students to a diversity of religious views, but may not impose any
particular view.
5. The school may educate about all religions, but may not promote or denigrate any religion.
6. The school may inform the student about various beliefs, but should not seek to conform
him or her to any particular belief [2].

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Building upon these basic distinctions, the principles of religious liberty, responsibility and
respect for religious differences are analyzed in order to come up with a set of approaches or
guidelines for teaching about religion in public schools. Briefly summarized from the detailed
explanation published most recently in Finding Common Ground [3], these include:
Natural Inclusion: study about religion takes place within a historical or cultural context, and is
generally limited by the amount of information required in this context. Teachers should clarify
why the particular religions and themes are selected for study, state clearly that there is much
more to learn about the subject, and alert them to the fact that diversity of opinion within and
among religious traditions is broad.
Fairness and Balance: Discussion of religion is free of advocacy on the part of the teacher, either
for or against a particular religious or non-religious viewpoint. Teaching through attribution
is the most constructive approach to achieving neutrality. Attacks on religious traditions
and qualitative comparisons are inappropriate, while qualitative comparison and contrast is
educationally valid.
Respect for Differences: Reduction of religions to cultural, philosophical or psychological
phenomena, explaining away religious beliefs and portraying beliefs as relative in any form
constitutes disrespect for deeply held convictions. The most constructive and educationally
valid approach is to report how people of faith interpret their own practices and beliefs, how
these have affected their lives historically and how they affect peoples lives today.
Use of Religious Scriptures, Role Playing, Guest Speakers: These teaching tools are evaluated
for appropriateness in public schools. The importance of exposure to scriptures and other
primary source readings from religious traditions is emphasized, but they must be treated with
respect and used within the appropriate historical and cultural context. While recreation of
religious practices should not take place, direct observation of worship can be useful, though
students should be allowed to opt out. Guest speakers and audio-visual content should be
appropriate for the public school setting [4].
These guidelines and principles provide an excellent standard by which to assess the
effectiveness of educational materials on religious topics. They help reassure textbook
publishers and teachers that they can do an excellent job of integrating a variety of teaching
materials and methods into social studies courses. A rough comparison of textbooks over
the past decade alone indicates that there has been some improvement in the quantity and
quality of religious coverage, at least in history and world cultures courses. Recent assessments
indicate that there is still much room for improvement [5].

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Instructional Materials on Islam and Muslims

The Council on Islamic Education (CIE) is a national resource organization that provides
information to textbook publishers, education officials, curriculum developers, teachers and
other education professionals. CIE, formed in 1990, is comprised of historians, academicians,
scholars and curriculum specialists associated with major universities and institutions
throughout the United States. These CIE-affiliated scholars serve as advisors and participate
in various CIE services, activities and events. Educators, writers, concerned parents, students
and youth volunteers provide additional support for the organization. The Council on Islamic
Educations objectives include providing scholarly input toward achieving accurate and
balanced information on Islam and Muslims, working with education professionals to make
the responsibility of teaching about religion in public schools a worthwhile and successful one.
A contributory approach toward participation in the education field is one of CIEs fundamental
operating principles.
In reviewing instructional materials on world history, CIE has also addressed a broad spectrum
of issues, including the structure of world history content, incorporating recent scholarship
in various disciplines, and overcoming the restrictive focus on discrete cultures. In discussing
world religions, however, CIE scholars consistently apply these guidelines in their interaction
with textbook publishers, education officials and teachers. The guidelines have been quoted in
numerous CIE textbook reviews, state and national curriculum assessment documents, and in
other publications, including Teaching About Islam and Muslims in the Public School Classroom
3rd Edition, (Council on Islamic Education, 1995)6, currently in use in more than forty states.
The CIE curriculum guide, Strategies and Structures for Presenting World History devotes an
entire chapter to discussing how these guidelines may be applied to teaching about Islam and
Abrahamic faith in the public school classroom [7].
Historical Background for Textbook Coverage of Islam and Muslims
As broadly accepted, reasonable and objective as these guidelines are, it has been almost
impossible to find textbooks and curriculum frameworks that correspond to the criteria for
fairness, accuracy and balance in coverage of Islam and Muslim history. Muslims must look back
on a long legacy of bias and factual inaccuracy in materials about Islam in Western languages.
This history of misunderstanding reaches into the medieval period, when Western Europeans
knew little about the origins of Islam or its doctrines and practices. Islam was characterized by
names like Mohammedanism which is alien to its basic belief, and Muslims were Saracens.
It was often described as a cult with Muhammad as the central object of worship, or as a
monotheistic faith with a different, tribal God. The fact that belief in Abraham, Moses, Jesus
and other prophets is an article of faith for Muslims remained unknown to most Europeans.
Not a few medieval writers libeled the character of Muhammad, even while, from the 12th
century on, scientific and philosophical translations from Arabic into Latin enriched Europes
intellectual life.
As European contact with Muslims increased over the centuries, the level of knowledge
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improved. Distortions became more subtle, but accurate discussion of Islam remained elusive.
With the expanding global reach of Europe from the sixteenth to the twentieth centuries,
study of Islam was embraced by a host of scholars in various disciplines. Edward Said has aptly
described how the field of orientalism emerged and developed recognizable characteristics as
a production of Western scholarship [8].
One of the most signal characteristics of orientalism-even though it includes some scholarly
work of high quality-has been the tendency to interpret Muslim history according to a
framework of questions derived from Western culture, and to view Islam through the lens of
the presupposition of its untruth [9]. Rather than seeking understanding, scholars often sought
explanations.
Added to this academic view of Islam, a stream of contemporary impressions of Muslims
gleaned during the centuries of colonial takeover and nationalist struggle has affected the
popular image. Thus until recently, few Westerners had the opportunity to read about Islam
from a Muslim point of view. Among the most telling of Saids observations about orientalist
study is that its experts have presumed to speak for Muslims in an authoritative voice,
interpreting the religion and culture across the spectrum of media - in books, museums,
lectures, journalism, films and electronic information.
Although this situation will be familiar to many readers, this overview is a reminder of the
cultural and academic legacy that even the best-intentioned textbook coverage of Islam has
to draw upon today. In response to the growing demand for information, Islam appeared
alongside other major religions and cultures in world history texts. The editors, research teams
and classroom teachers called upon to produce these new lessons were exposed to material of
whose epistemological history they were unaware.
When writers took these sources at face value, the typical result was often ludicrously
inaccurate writing on Islam and Muslim history. Until the late 1980s, the standard of accuracy
in these materials had barely begun to rise. By that time, however, a growing Muslim
constituency in US communities had begun to reach a critical mass, Muslim institutions had
developed, and the presence of Muslim scholars in universities had increased. The challenge
of confronting this legacy of bias and inaccuracy began to be more systematically addressed
by these Muslim organizations and individuals. Still, many Muslims remain somewhat amazed
how media gatekeepers have seemed to feel that anything an author might say about Islam
can be published with impunity, it not being necessary to check information for accuracy. Until
the late 1980s and early 1990s, one would scarcely have found, for example, a Muslim scholar
listed as consultant or reviewer in the front material of a textbook, much less as author or coauthor. This situation has begun to change, but the process is a slow one. This situation has
begun to change, but the process is a slow one.
Teaching About Abrahamic Religion
Within the larger issue of teaching about religion, textbook coverage of the three branches of

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Abrahamic religion-Judaism, Christianity and Islam-is a valuable indicator of the interpretation

of widely-accepted guidelines for teaching about religion. Since production of the textbooks
is very responsive both to education policy and to pedagogical trends in the marketplace, and
since textbooks remain a major classroom tool for imparting information to students, such an
assessment also provides some insights into the implementation of teaching about religion in
schools.
To assess the current status of teaching about religion in widely-used teaching texts, it is
useful to study a variety of recent and newer world history texts, using these guidelines as
the criteria. Ten world history texts were selected, five each for secondary and elementary
grades. The secondary books are one 1987 edition, two 1997 editions of popular texts, and
two new offerings. Among the elementary texts, four are new 1997 texts, and one from 1994.
(See bibliography.) Since these books exhibit a definite parallel structure in the discussion of
world religions, which is quite pronounced in coverage of Abrahamic religion, it seems useful
to compare them using just a few categories.
This study looks at the way textbook writers describe:
origins of the faith
founder figures
prophethood
Detectable progress seems to be taking place in coverage of religion, developing on the
situation described by Nord in 1990 and by Sewall in 1994, both of whom described the
quantity and quality of this coverage in general terms. Both authors noted that the highest
level of detail provided on major world religions is found in the discussion of their origins and
spread, with coverage tapering off to a minimum for the modern era of world history. The aim
of this analysis is to assess the content, language and tone of this coverage according to the
recognized guidelines, as published in Finding Common Ground.
The assessment of these ten textbooks highlights representative examples of strengths
and weaknesses in the group, bringing to light the potential for effective and educationally
rich coverage where the criteria are skillfully met. The examples represent conceptual issues,
factual discrepancies, and points of historical scholarship. Some of the most significant
examples require some subtlety of interpretation. These are included to point out complex
ways in which inaccuracy and lack of fairness are imbedded in ostensibly neutral, descriptive
texts. These problems are significant because students may not take time to analyze what they
read. Such statements, while not deeply pondered or understood, leave a certain impression
on the student that may carry more weight in learning than the factual content.
What sticks to the memory, as Frances Fitzgerald has been frequently quoted, is not
any particular series of facts but an atmosphere, and impression, a tone. And this impression
may be all the more influential just because one cannot remember the facts and arguments
that created it.10 In addition, reading such statements contributes to the fund of expressions
and conceptual vocabulary upon which students will draw in later life. Absorption of such

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unexamined assumptions determines the terms of discourse and limits understanding about
religion, defeating one of the main purposes of teaching about religion.
Teaching About Abrahamic Religion
In an effort to be fair and neutral, many textbook authors have identified categories that can
be discussed in connection with all religions. These categories include the concept that each
religious tradition has an origin or beginning a founding figure or founder, allegiance
to a deity or deities and a holy book and so on. Using these categories, thumbnail
sketches of the major religions are prepared at lesson or subsection length, interwoven with
information on doctrines and practices, and influence of the religious tradition upon one or
more historical culture groups. These categories frame the story of religion in most textbooks,
and as such are worthy of a second look, precisely because they seem neutral at first glance. It
will be shown below, however, that the use of these categories has deep implications for the
meaning of these religions and can affect how well the textbook account meets the criteria in
the guidelines.
Origins of the Three Faiths
Coverage of this topic has grown over the last fifteen years from a sentence or two to a full
lesson of 2-4 pages. Other content specifically covering Judaism is very scant in the books,
but there is some material on the Jewish people in the medieval and considerably more in
the modern period. The context for introductory coverage of Judaism in these textbooks is
the Hebrew people as one group among many in the ancient Middle East. In all of the books,
information is placed near the end of the chapter on the Fertile Crescent.
All of the texts discuss the beginning of Judaism in relation to a departure from polytheism
prevailing in Mesopotamian culture. The titles of these lessons either refer to the origins of
the Israelites, or Hebrews, or to the beginnings of Judaism. Ethnic versus religious emphasis
is evenly split in the lesson headings, but all of the lessons contain information on both. One
secondary text narrates, They [Israelites] brought a new idea to the world, monotheism, or
the belief in one all-powerful God. [11].
Another headlines this idea, stating, The Jews developed the belief in one God[12] Such
formulations, which only occur in the older books, seem to put religion in the category of an
invention. The latter book even describes monotheism as an achievement of the ancient
Jews. The newness of the monotheistic idea is emphasized over the newness of the religion
itself in these accounts.
The best formulations clarify by stating specifically what development in the belief took
place. One describes how the Hebrews understanding of the faith changed from the idea of a
tribal god to the only God-Lord and Creator of the universe. We call this idea monotheism.
The most constructive note on the question of religious origins is one that identifies those
origins with the believers, not with the writers interpretation of spontaneous beginnings. An
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example of a text that best fits the guidelines for objectivity without the intrusion of secular
assumptions is: Its adoption by the Hebrews marks the beginning of the religion we know today
as Judaism [13]. Another book takes a similar stance, saying that The Hebrews accepted the
idea of a belief in one God [14].
The amount of introductory coverage on Christianity has also increased to lesson length in
all but the older books, where it is worked into the lesson on Romes latter period. Coverage
ranges from 4-6 pages, including illustrations, features and sidebars. Coverage of material about
religion is also distributed in chapters on the growth of the Eastern Church (lesson or chapter
length), in chapters on the medieval period (lesson or subsection length), in the Reformation
(chapter or lesson length), in addition to briefer references in other chapters, such as the Age
of Exploration, the Enlightenment, and the 19th and 20th centuries (very little). The same
schema holds for elementary and secondary books, with more extensive material at the higher
level.
All but two of the ten books introduce Christianity at some point in the text as a new
religion. Several of the lessons either have the word in the heading or the lead-in. In some of
the books, this way of describing the faith emphasizes from the outset its discrete development.
Interestingly, most of the texts include in the discussion of Christianitys origins a fairly detailed
account of Roman relations with the Jews, including the prophesies, revolts and the Romans
destruction of the temple.
All of the books mention that Jesus was born into a Jewish family, and that he engaged
the Jewish people with his teachings. The origin of Christianity is defined to some degree as
a departure from Judaism in all of the books, but this is handled very differently among the
ten. Two books clarify the sense in which it was new by stating, for example, Christianity
began as a movement within Judaism and developed into a separate religion[15] and as
Christians won over non-Jewish followers, however, the faith diverged from its Jewish roots
and became a separate religion [26]. One of the secondary books addresses the fact that
there were several branches of Judaism by the time of the Romans, and places the message of
Jesus in the context of a message of religious renewal and warning [17]. Three of the texts
all elementary levelopt out of any discussion of Jews rejection of Jesus as the Messiah. The
authors refer to fear, or rejection or accusation of Jesus by some people many people and
some Romans [18].
The crucifixion or execution of Jesus is attributed by these writers to the Romans. The other
seven texts define a major point of departure from Judaism by discussing their rejection of
his claim, adding that some Jews or their leaders feared that Jesus was dangerous or that
the claim that Jesus was the messiah was considered blasphemy by Jewish leaders. Only
one of the texts states that the Jewish leadership condemned him and convinced the Roman
authorities to put him to death. This same book, however, gives the most detailed account
from various perspectives [19]. The descriptions of Jesus death and reported resurrection vary
widely in amount of detail, tone, and attribution of the reports; some describe the events as a
watershed in the separate development of Christianity. A few of the elementary texts opt for a

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very general discussion of Jesus teachings during his life.

All of the texts mention that both Jews and Gentiles were among early followers of
Christianity, and all describe to some degree the experience of Saul of Tarsus. In describing the
origin of Christian doctrine about the nature of Jesus, his and the apostles teachings and later
developments in doctrine, the ten texts display a wide variety of approaches and content on
the topic, and little clarity.
The rise of Islam is covered at lesson or chapter length, ranging from 5-7 pages, from which
the geographic, political, social and cultural information takes up much of the space. There is
usually a separate lesson or chapter on the growth of Muslim civilization, which sometimes
includes content about Islam as a religion, but more frequently covers political, economic,
and cultural aspects of history. In addition to this introductory coverage, these books contain
scattered references and/or illustrations on Islam as a religion in chapters on Turkish, Persian
and Indian political and cultural history. Most books contain either references, subsections
or lessons on Islam in the modern Middle East. Much of this material is approached from a
political science or sociology perspective.
Five of the textbooks use the word new to describe Islam, among them all of the older
books. All of these textbook accounts embed the origins of Islam in two matrices. The first
focus is description of Arabia as a geographic setting inhabited by nomadic camel herders,
traders and townsmen. Usually, Arabia is considered in a fairly narrow, local sense, but
four of the books, both secondary and elementary, mention hemispheric trade routes that
cross Arabia, one showing an extensive map [20]. The second focus is always Muhammads
biography, coverage of which will be discussed under the next category. The intersection of the
two matrices - Muhammads thoughts, beliefs and actions and the actions of the people and
environment that surrounded him, constitutes the textbook answer to the origins of Islam.
Some, or even most of the texts give an acceptable account of the story of Muhammad
and his community, but none expressly describe Quranic teachings on the origins of Islam.
The account is much like that of Judaism, with the story of a spontaneous departure from
a prevailing polytheistic belief system. Unlike the story of Christianity, in which both conflict
and continuity with the earlier Abrahamic tradition are described, the story of Islamic origins
is seldom embedded in the Abrahamic tradition in textbooks. At the end of the origins
story, however, seven of the accounts acknowledge that Muslims believe in all or some of the
messengers of God in the Judeo-Christian line leading back to Abraham. This information is
often included in a section on doctrines and practices, separate from the origins story.
All of the accounts mention the Kaaba at Makkah in connection with the origins of Islam and
its unfolding practices. Several of them include this information in the lead-in. Two texts state
that Muslims believe that Abraham built the Kaaba, with one text noting slightly incorrectly
that Muslims today believe [it] was built by the prophet Abraham [21]. The first of these texts
quotes the pilgrims recital of Abrahams reply to God, Here I am, O God, at Thy command!
but fails to acknowledge its connection with Abraham. Belief that Abraham built the Kaaba at
Gods command is in the Quran, and was an article of belief from the outset.
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None of the lessons mentions Abraham and Hajars wanderings, or their attribution by
Muslims and pre-Islamic Arabs to this site. They do not mention the Quranic teaching that
Ismail was the son Abraham was prepared to sacrifice, important both to the major Muslim
holiday and the pilgrimage rites, which all of the books mention in connection with the Five
Pillars. Only one book mentions that Arabs consider themselves descendants of Abraham
through his son Ismail [22].
The reasons for some writers reticence to include this information can be traced to a
multitude of orientalist secondary sources in Western languages, whose assumptions and
conclusions disagree with Islamic teachings on these and many other issues. The textbook
writers, seemingly uninformed about the biases and epistemological history of this scholarship,
take these sources at face value. On nearly every point of importance to the faith, the
disagreement between these sources and Islamic teachings hinges on the issue of veracity in
the Islamic sources. In this example, Muslims cite the Quran as the source of Muslim belief
that Abraham built the Kaabah as a house of worship for God.
Orientalist sources, to the contrary, hold that Muhammad, or even later Muslims, attributed
the Kaabah to Abraham in order to Islamize and legitimize entrenched pagan customs. Either
way, there is no objective means for deciding between the two positions, as they are two sides
of the same coin, separated by the dividing line of religious adherence. Muslims accept the
Quran as a source of truth, while the orientalist does not. F. E. Peters and other authors often
bemoan the lack of alternative sources that would corroborate their own opinion, citing the
near unanimity of Muslim sources [23]. Nevertheless, Peters acknowledges the importance of
the link between the Hajj, the Kaabah and Abraham:
For hundreds of millions of Muslims the Kabah is the holiest building in the world, and its
holiness, like that of Zamzam and the station of Abraham and, indeed, of the entire sequence
of pilgrimage rituals that surround them and the environs of Mecca, derives from their
connection with Abraham, the biblical patriarch [24].
Adherence to the Guidelines
Under Respect for Differences, the guidelines challenge authors to closely approximate
how people of faith interpret their own practices and beliefs. The guidelines recommend
portrayal of the tenets of faith by simple attribution. In these texts, however, the writers fail to
describe Islamic teachings on numerous fundamental points. On a point of such disagreement
as described above, compromise is preferable to silence. The textbook writer should at least
present both positions and explain the difference of opinion. Closer adherence to the criteria
in the guidelines, however, gives preference to neutral description of a religions teachings, on
the grounds that belief in certain religious tenets is historically significant. The textbook writer
should cover the topic not as a religious story to be believed or disbelieved, but as a reporter
telling the history of a story told by millions.

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From long ago to the present, large numbers of people have believed and acted upon that
belief in many ways. This is a fully significant justification for inclusion in the textbook; the
neutral writer should not appropriate the right to omit such basic information. In some other
important respects, some of the examples above fail to adhere to the guidelines in describing
the origins of Abrahamic faiths. Writers want to fix a point of beginning for a given faith
tradition, and to identify a protagonist. To some degree, the emphasis on origins is a device
that helps to keep each religion in its own discrete category, defined by its story fragment.
What if, however, this journalistic tendency violates a basic tenet of the religion? At the
heart of the monotheistic tradition is the belief that religion begins and ends with God.
Sacred history is the story of Gods intervention on behalf of humanity, His mercy in warning
humankind to believe and act upon faith. The dates when Abraham departed his homeland, or
Moses received the Ten Commandments, when Jesus was born and began to teach, and 610
C.E., when Muhammad began to receive the Quran, are only beginnings in the sense that
they are episodes in a continuing relationship between God and humankind.
One can make a good case that Abrahamic faiths share the view that sacred history began
with Adam, to whom God made Himself known. The history of the Adam story, as significant as
it has been in art, literature, scientific debates, and even contemporary advertising, is utterly
absent from all of these textbooks. It ought to enjoy at least as prominent a place on the
cultural literacy lists as Mother Goose.
In contrast to the scriptures in the Abrahamic tradition, in which mankind is seen to waver
from and return to faith, all of the textbooks take the position, more or less subtly, that
polytheism was the primal religion of humankind, and belief in one God evolved gradually or
was developed by a given group. While some earlier textbooks stated this secular theory as
fact, most current textbooks only imply this notion of the origin of religion. In accounts where
the author filters the information through foregone conclusions, the implication is stronger. On
the other hand, in those accounts where the religious tradition is most effectively allowed to
speak by attribution and sampling of teachings from the authentic sources, the implication is
much weaker, hence more free of the intrusion of secular assumptions.
There is folly in presenting to students the conclusion that Judaism, Christianity and Islam
are each new religions. Jews hold that Abraham embraced the faith of the children of Adam,
Noah and so on. Christians hold that the religion is not new, but an outgrowth and fulfillment
of the Abrahamic covenant through Jesus. Muslims believe that Islam, which means the state
of submission to the will of God, is an aspiration as old as humankind, joined to the continuous
thread of revelation through Moses, David, Solomon, Isaiah, Jesus, and others in the same
tradition. If the reason for labeling each religion as new is to paper over our deep differences,
then the result will have little educational value.
The only statements that do not have the ring of foregone conclusions are those which
state, in the case of the Jews, that the religion began with their acceptance of faith, taking
on their role in the unfolding story of sacred history that began long before them. Attributive
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statements on the origins of Christianity explain that it is a continuing expression of revelation

and Gods intervention. Similar attributive statements in 8 out of 10 of these books link Islamic
beliefs to those of Judaism and Christianity, though not always in connection with Islams
origins. They do explain that the three religions share belief in one God (2 books), in the one
true God (2 books), or the same God as that of Jewish and Christian belief (4 books).
Seven of the textbooks attribute the similarities between Judaism, Christianity and Islam
to influence-influence of Jewish ideas on Christianity and Islam, and influence of Jewish and
Christian ideas and scriptures on Islam. In three of the accounts, the writer directly states that
the earlier tradition was taken up into the later religion as doctrine. In discussion of Islam,
this takes on a strong overtone of intent on Muhammads part to incorporate these beliefs for
some purpose. This, of course, is inconsistent with Muslims belief that Islam has its origins in
revelation from God. Such a statement is therefore not neutral.
Some authors are more suggestive, providing students with evidence that Muhammad
knew Christians and Jews and learned from them (4 of the accounts). So fundamental to
understanding the religion of Islam are these concepts that one could say, if it is new, it could
not be Islam. To a Muslim, these simple turns of phrase are usually the first in a series of
loaded statements which, if true, make the religion false.
In contrast, the types of statements that do not denigrate or explain away Judaism,
Christianity or Islam describe the similarities in terms of links, common elements in scriptures
(very different from implying borrowing) and shared understandings. Six of these ten
books include such a discussion of links, and three of them include extensive comparison and
contrast of beliefs among the three Abrahamic religions [25]. The more nearly a statement
about religion approaches simple attribution, the more effectively it upholds the criteria in the
guidelines for teaching about religion.
The key to constructing statements that are free of the intrusion of secular or sectarian
assumptions is inviting the student to view the evidence, and decide for themselves where the
truth or falsehood in religion lies. There is not much value in studying religious traditions in a
manner foreign to the understanding of their adherents. Such statements violate the guidelines
by explaining away the faith.
God as Actor in the Textbook
Describing Messengers of God in the Abrahamic Traditions
These books display a great deal of variety in the language used to characterize the important
persons associated with the rise of the Abrahamic religions. Analysis of their use exclusively and
in combination provides some indication of how intimately the writer has chosen to portray
spiritual content in the narrative about religion. It is also important to note whether the writers
associate these terms with descriptions of an experience with God, or with quotation from the
sacred scriptures. A writer may use a non-religious term to designate a religious figure, but
choose to quote scripture liberally. Some writers use the proper name (Abraham, Moses, Jesus,

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Muhammad) with verbs denoting the figures actions throughout the narrative. Inconsistencies
within the same book probably indicate various writers on the same project.
The terms found or founder are specifically used in five of the books, four times applied
to Abraham and/or Moses, once to Jesus, and twice to Muhammad [26]. While these terms may
seem neutral at first glance, they may have deeper implications. None of the books provides
a definition for found or founder. Many students would understand founder as being
synonymous with the concept of an inventor, or one who brings something into existence
rather than the more indirect meaning, denoting a person who established, or caused to be
recognized and accepted [27]. The former definition is most appropriate to the realm of
human affairs, while the latter better accommodates the sacred sphere. If the source of religion
is God, made known through revelation, then religion has no need of a founder. If the persons
associated with the origins of religious traditions are under divine guidance, then they are
only instrumental, and may not be considered as originators, which the traditions consider to
be in the realm of Gods power.
The concept of a founder who brings something into existence is a secular explanation
for origins that does not express the views of the faiths adherents. In this way, the textbook
tends to impose a concept that is foreign to the sacred view. Most adherents of the religious
faith do not revere Abraham, Jesus, and Muhammad, for example, in the same way they may
revere George Washington as the founder of the presidency, or as the American founding
fathers. Founders are recognized within these historical religious traditions, such as scholars
who established schools of thought, or institutions, or who were effective leaders. Applied
to Muhammad, of course, the term founder is inappropriate, as the tradition states that
Muhammad himself claimed only to be a messenger, not a founder of something new. Its use
underscores the way in which Islam as a religion is usually presented as being cut off from the
Abrahamic tradition of which it clearly is a part, picking up similarities only through alleged
imitation or influence.
In describing any of the three Abrahamic faiths, a few textbook writers are reticent to use
religious terminology such as prophet or messenger of God, preferring instead to label them
as religious leaders or to use a vocational term like shepherd, traveler, nomad, carpenter, or
merchant. Some of these accounts give a more ethnic emphasis to the story. For example, a
text states, The founder of the Hebrews was a shepherd named AbrahamLater generations
of Hebrews believed they were descended from Abraham through his grandson Jacob28 A
reader unfamiliar with the story would not know why he is mentioned at all. No mention is
made of the fact that he is considered by millions of people in the scriptures of three religious
groups to have been the one to whom God spoke, and forefather to a long line of prophets.
One wonders, if Abraham was just a shepherd, or even founder of an ethnic minority, why
would over 50% of humanity still recognize and/or revere him today?
A few of the writers are reticent to describe how these historical/religious figures
experienced God. The three older secondary books, for example, describe God mostly as the
object of Abrahams, Moses, or Muhammads belief and worship. This type of attribution

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is quite bland and general. A further degree of abstraction attributes the experience to the
followers, or to the particular religious tradition: According to Jewish tradition, or The
Israelites believed that God made a covenant with Abraham at this time.29 A degree closer
to describing the spiritual content is the practice of describing how Abraham, Moses, Jesus or
Muhammad taught about their experience with God, and about the messages they claimed to
have received, and the implications for their followers. As an example of directness through this
approach, Jesus laid down two primary rules for his followers: they must love God above all
else, and they must love others as they loved themselves.30 This form of attribution enables
the writer to tell more about beliefs, but it can also result in long, boring text. For example, He
[Jesus] taught people about his belief in the kingdom of God and forgiveness of their sins.31
Or, Muhammad became convinced that he was the appointed prophet or messenger of the
one true God, called Allah in the Arabic language [32].
The most expressive and straightforward method of attribution is direct or indirect quotation
of scripture. All ten texts use direct quotations of scripture. Six provide quotes evenly for each
of the three Abrahamic faiths; two omit direct quotes for Christianity and Islam; one each omit
either Christianity or Islam. One new secondary text features a full page of scripture for each
of the three, with background information [33]. These accounts demonstrate several methods
of using scripture. The author may state at the beginning of the paragraph, for example,
According to the Bible, and then express most directly the experience of Gods speaking to
these persons, of its impact, and of the details in the story.
For example, According to Abraham, God spoke to him one day, saying, Leave your country,
your people, and your fathers house and go to the land I will show you. Abraham obeyed
without question [34]. The Bible describes how Moses, with the help of God, led the
Israelite captives from Egypt, or, There, the Bible says, God gave Moses five books of laws
and teachings [35]. Some of these texts alternate effectively between indirect narrative and
direct quotations, creating a dialog that results in interesting and very revealing prose. Through
direct quotation, the student gains experience with the language of the primary source, and
also acquires a sense of the characters in these dramatic stories that have been told and retold
in many literary and art forms.
Utilizing scriptures in this way, the writer is able to convey a great deal about the attributes
of God in the Abrahamic tradition, including adjectives like all-powerful, omnipresent,
Supreme Authority, Creator, forgiving, loving, compassionate, merciful and so on,
strictly by attribution. Through use of indirect and direct quotation, the student receives an
impression of God in sacred history as the traditions understand Him. Some accounts even
quote God speaking in the first person, I am God Almighty or Hear, O Israel, the Lord is one
God, the Lord Alone [36]. This is a considerable improvement over the tentative, one-sided
description of God as an object of worship in some older texts. In contrast, the more forthright
accounts convey the traditions concept of God as the Subject of action verbs, stating that
God spoke, appeared, promised, commanded, blessed, demanded, established,
told, sends messengers, forgives, loves, or revealed. In these accounts, the concept of

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Abrahamic Religions in World History Textbooks

sacred history is illustrated with God as Actor, not as passive, invisible construct.
As long as the writer scrupulously adheres to attribution, and skillfully repeats it so the
reader remains aware that the voice is not that of the textbook, this method of teaching about
religion remains well within the guidelines. It does something more, however, that even more
fully fulfills the criteria:

it takes the narrators opinions and assumptions out of the text

it portrays the religion as reported by its adherents or sources
it gives to students a sense of why the topic has had such an impact on culture
it exposes the reader to spiritual content, to a sense of what it may mean to be
religious

It is essential that the writers remain evenhanded, however, in treating the various religions.
For example, one book states under Judaism, From the Bible we learn and The Bible tells
us that God instructed Moses In the same text, The Gospels say that Jesus performed
miracles. and Under the laws of the Quran, the rights of women were broadened [27]. The
first two are too intimate, and almost qualify as teaching religion; the second two are neutral
and attributive, thus well within the guidelines for teaching about religion.
Conclusion
In summary, these ten newer and older textbooks display a wide variety of methods used
by writers to describe the three Abrahamic religions. Some of these methods are more, some
less effective at meeting the guidelines, often within the same book. Some evaluation is made
as to the narrative quality achieved by various methods, and it is suggested that a less cautious
approach to attribution can result in fulfilling the criteria more effectively as well. The most
important requirements for fair and accurate description of religion(s), however, are essentially
three elements:
1. Report what is important to understanding the religion, as opposed to reporting what
non-adherents supposedly want to know about it, or what the textbook writer thinks
the student should know. This criterion will help to avoid the prejudice imposed by
selective detail, and by distortive omissions.
2. Once those topics are selected, the tenets and characteristics should be presented as
people of faith understand them, so as to ensure that the authors position as a person
outside of the tradition does not place upon the description a filter that reveals why he
does NOT believe in it. This will take the reader nowhere.
3. Present an account of religious experience that is intimate, giving the reader a sense of
the spiritual significance of individual and communal belief, adhering carefully to the
editorial policy of attribution. Lend to the account a sense of how adherents attribute
meaning to these historical events, introducing the concept of sacred history, which
has so much resonance in the respective historical and contemporary cultures. The
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narrative of these events, the major figures, references to God, beliefs and practices
should be free of secular assumptions and foregone conclusions, allowing religious and
non-religious students to draw their own inferences and make comparisons.
Working from firm agreement with the consensus of mainstream educators about the place
of teaching about religion in the public school curriculum, we have given some interpretations
of the guidelines in textbooks. It remains to discuss the educational goals and objectives that
might be achieved among students. Since a diverse student body is served in public schools,
we ought to consider the benefits for students who are religiously inclined, or whose homes
and communities wish to transmit belief and practice to their children. The public school
classroom will also include students who themselves, or whose parents and communities, are
not particularly inclined toward a religious world view. Sound teaching about religion, however,
can bring benefits for everyone involved.
Benefits for Religious Students
In a pluralistic society, fostering in children a religious identity, transmitting knowledge
of the doctrines, practices and history of the faith group is a matter for the individual, the
family and the institutions of each faith community. In a pluralistic educational environment,
some parents and their children prefer to pursue educational opportunities in private religious
schools. Accordingly, Muslim schools are taking their places in the long tradition of religious
educational institutions in the United States. Religious education, in whatever setting it
takes place, is a process that, within clearly defined limits of the law and civility, should be
unhampered by outside interference. Society at large can benefit, however, from the efforts of
diverse community groups to establish personal and civic values and a secure sense of self in
the younger generation.
Standards of fairness and decency, as well as self-interest, dictate that faith community
not be subjected to ridicule and misrepresentation in the public forum. Historically, various
societies implicit or explicit approval of scapegoating has led to hate crimes and other undesired
consequences. While it is difficult to control such public expression in a country where free
speech is protected, standards of decency should be upheld by private individuals and public
institutions. Many public schools do uphold these standards and acknowledge accountability
to parents and the community when their policies and personnel fall short of such standards.
Unlike society at large, an institution entrusted with such an important function as education,
supported by local tax dollars, can be expected to be responsive to such concerns.
Within this framework, religious students, their parents and community leaders can
be expected to be upset when their religion and culture are badly misrepresented in the
classroom. The effect of childrens extended exposure to inaccurate and misleading information
on religion can be devastating to parents effort to pass on their faith commitment. Students
may choose to abandon their identity to avoid feeling stigmatized, risking feelings of disloyalty
to the family and a sense of deprivation. Alternatively, the child may choose to affirm her
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Abrahamic Religions in World History Textbooks

religious and/or cultural identity in spite of social disapproval. Either way, it becomes difficult
for the child to create a smooth interface between the various social groups with which they
interact. As a consequence, their value system as adults may not be anchored sufficiently to
allow them to be productive and responsible members of civil society. Other familiar reactions
to stigmatization fall on a spectrum from ineffectiveness and alienation to anti-social attitudes
or behavior. None of these could be construed as desirable outcomes for the individual, the
family or their community.
It seems logical that the future of society is well served by a public education system-with
a parallel system of religious schools for those who prefer to patronize them-that supports
the efforts of parents and communities to foster religious identity. Private religious schools, as
part of their duty to educate the young for effective civic participation, do well to ensure that
their curricula include teaching about world religions based on high standards of scholarship,
alongside instruction in the particular tradition they are dedicated to serve. The public school,
in contrast, supports parents efforts to foster religious identity NOT by inculcating these
values or taking the place of parents as religious teachers, but by promoting an atmosphere
of fairness, neutrality and civil exchange of information. Sound teaching and honest discussion
about religion in the classroom forum can discourage tribalism and isolating sectarianism. A
religiously raised child may discover shared values with people of other faiths, and may bolster
by shared experience confidence in a lifestyle that may contrast sharply with that of their
peers. With exposure to religious others, they can learn about those who believe differently,
but who share the habit of belief.
Experiencing pluralism at close range happens every day in the US. Television and the press,
however, are passive experiences of pluralism. On the street, in the supermarket, and on the
job, we can usually decide not to engage, with few consequences. To the contrary, a wellmanaged, effective classroom is an open, but mediated public forum in which discussion can
encourage the formation of a secure cultural and religious identity. The atmosphere, when
effective, is neutral, but diverse, the content objective and the rules of engagement wellpracticed. Students can acquire a critical appreciation of their own beliefs, culture and history.
They benefit from acquiring a differentiated view of other faiths, their practices, institutions
and cultural history. They may learn to recognize common values and identify common social
goals. Effective teaching about religion can support tolerance and respect among religious or
non-religious students. It can support the development and maintenance of civil rights and civil
discourse.
The Quran itself-the foremost source of Muslim belief and practice-invites comparison and
study of other faiths and encourages relations with members of other faith groups. Faith is not
smug or arrogant, but generous and based on reasoned assessment of the possibilities. Thus
the advantages of dialogue with others who may think and believe differently redound to the
participants. By acquiring part of their knowledge of their own and others religious experience
and beliefs in a diverse environment, students intellectual understanding is expanded beyond
a parochial view.

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By supporting the formation of religious identity through fair, accurate and balanced
presentation and study, young students will be more likely to nurture their own identity
formation and avoid an enclave mentality. They will be given the tools to overcome the
perception of alienation and victimization by the larger society, which can result in formation
of extremist religious views, a fortress mentality toward retaining and practicing religion in
spite of a hostile surrounding society. It seems clear that the citizen whose religious beliefs
are informed by knowledge of their own and other traditions, and tempered by acquaintance
with adherents of many faith groups, will be more effective in acting upon their beliefs and
values in the civic arena.
Benefits for All Students
For students of non-religious persuasion, the benefits of effective teaching about religion
are somewhat different, but equally important. Just as religious people live in a world that
includes non-religious souls, those who do not know or value the religious experience share
the planet with people who do. They also share in a global cultural heritage and history that
has been strongly influenced by religion.
As many authors have expressed during the years of debate over including religion in the
curriculum, much of history and contemporary experience is unintelligible without knowledge
of religion. At a minimum, having a store of basic information about religious traditions of
the past and present is essential to global literacy and critical thinking. Without it, as a recent
reviewer of Warren Nords book stated, we become what Plato called idiots, someone who
for want of an education, was simply incapable of entering the public conversation about
public things [38].
From a vocational standpoint, understanding a variety of religious views and experiences
can help future professionals in fields from Aerospace to Zoology. Not a few employees and
executives of various companies have found it in their interest to comprehend religious culture
in conducting national and international business. McDonalds has had to wet its feet in a
cultural sea of dietary practices. In the US and abroad, successful legal actions against religiously
insensitive policies have surely caused some to wish they possessed more knowledge of world
religions. In sum, a broad education that includes accurate and adequate information about
religion, acquired within a framework of civil discourse, can lay the groundwork for a tolerant
world view that informs a constructive, responsible civic and professional life.
Teaching about religion in the public school setting does not and may not involve proselytizing
others. Education, however, is about expanding ones horizons beyond their particular
community, family and personal experiences. Students who may have little exposure to the
religious experience at home may benefit from learning about a dimension of human life of
which they have no first-hand knowledge. This is similar to the benefit accruing to a religious
person in learning about other religions. In either case, the students mind may be opened to
appreciating the story of spiritual experience in an atmosphere of free choice.

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The textbook, as a vehicle for imparting basic knowledge, should support the free choice of
students and their families by avoiding the intrusion of secular assumptions and maintaining a
neutral, respectful stance that reflects truly knowledgeable coverage.

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Notes
1. This body of scholarship is summarized in
N. Piediscalzi & W. Collie, Legal, Theoretical and
Practical Issues, in Teaching About Religion in
Public Schools, (Niles: Argus Communications,
1977), pp. 13-24; and Warren A. Nord, Religion and
American Education, (Chapel Hill: U. of N. Carolina
Press, 1995), p. 316ff.
2. Based on guidelines originally published
by the Public Education Religion Studies Center,
Wright State University. Reprinted in Charles
Haynes and Oliver Thomas, eds., Finding Common
Ground: A First Amendment Guide to Religion and
Public Education, (Nashville: Freedom Forum First
Amendment Center, Vanderbilt University 1994),
ch. 6, p. 2.
3. Haynes and Thomas, ed., loc. cit.
4. Haynes and Thomas, ed., op. cit., ch.7, p. 6
5. Nord, op. cit., chapter 4; American Textbook
Council, History Textbooks, (New York: Center for
Education Studies/American Textbook Council,
1994), passim.
6. Teaching About Islam and Muslims in the
Public School Classroom, 3rd Edition, (Fountain
Valley, CA:Council on Islamic Education, 2002)
7. Susan L. Douglass, Strategies and Structures
for Presenting World History with Islam and
Muslim History as a Case Study, (Beltsville, MD:
Amana Publications, 1994), Part 3.
8. Edward Said, Orientalism, (New York: Vintage
Books, 1979), passim.
9. Said, loc. cit.
10. Nord, op. cit., p. 138.
11. Farah & Karls, World History: The Human
Experience (New York: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill,
1997), p. 83.

15. Bednarz, et. al., Discover Our Heritage

(Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1997), p. 241.
16. Farah & Karls, op. cit., p. 171
17. Hanes, op. cit., p. 132.
18. Bednarz, et.al, op. cit., p. 244; Banks, et.
al., op. cit., p. 248; Garcia et. al., op. cit., p. 171,
respectively.
19. Hanes, op. cit., p. 132.
20. Banks, et. al., op. cit., p. 267.
21. 21 Armento et. al., World: Adventures in
Time and Place (New York: Macmillan McGrawHill, 1997), p. 187; Ellis & Esler, World History:
Connections to Today (Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall, Inc., 1997), p. 256, respectively.
22. 22 Boehm et. al., Our Worlds Story (Orlando:
Harcourt Brace and Company, 1997), p. 73
23. 23 F. E. Peters, The Hajj (Princeton: Princeton
U. Press, 1994), p. 10.
24. 24 Ibid.
25. Armento et. al., Ellis & Esler, and Hanes, ed.,
op. cit., passim.
26. Bednarz et. al., p. 78; Hanes, ed., p. 47;
Wallbank et. al., pp. 34, 137; Banks, et. al., p. 271,
respectively.
27. Preceding definitions are from The American
Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Third
Edition copyright 1992 by Houghton Mifflin
Company.
28. Hanes, ed., p. 47.
29. Farah, p. 83.
30. Hanes, ed., p. 132.
31. Bednarz et. al., p. 243.
32. Wallbank et. al., p. 189.

12. Wallbank, et. al. History and Life: The World

and Its People, 3rd Edition (Glenview, IL: Scott,
Foresman and Company, 1987), p. 34.

33. Hanes, ed., passim.

13. Hanes, ed. World History: Continuity and

Change (Austin, TX: Holt, Reinhart and Winston,
Inc., 1997), p. 47.

36. Ibid., passim.

14. Garcia, et. al., The World and Its People

(Parsippany, NJ & Needham, MA: Silver Burdett
Ginn, 1997), p. 58.

34. Boehm, et. al., p. 72.

35. Banks et. al., p. 123.
37. Armento et. al., p. 73-74; 176; 187.
38. George Wiegel, Faith in Education,
Education Review Supplement, Washington Post,
8/6/95, p. 15.

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