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Sept 2013

Chapter 2

Circuit Elements


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Circuit elements:
There are five ideal basic circuit elements: voltage sources, current
sources, resistors, inductors, and capacitors.
In this chapter we discuss the characteristics of voltage sources, current
sources, and resistors.
Inductors and capacitors will be discussed in Chapter 6, where their use
requires solving integral and differential equations.

2.1 Voltage and Current Sources


An electrical source is a device that is capable of converting nonelectric
energy to electric energy and vice versa.
A discharging battery converts chemical energy to electric energy, where
as a battery being charged converts electric energy to chemical energy.
A dynamo is a machine that converts mechanical energy to electric energy
and vice versa. If operating in the mechanical-to-electric mode, it is called
a generator. If transforming from electric to mechanical energy, it is
referred to as a motor.
The important thing to remember about these sources is that they can
either deliver or absorb electric power.
An ideal voltage source is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed
voltage across its terminals regardless of the current in those terminals.
An ideal current source is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed
current through its terminals regardless of the voltage across those
terminals.
These circuit elements do not exist as practical devices; they are idealized
models of actual voltage and current sources.

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An independent source establishes a voltage or current in a circuit


without relying on voltages or currents elsewhere in the circuit.
A dependent source establishes a voltage or current whose value depends
on the value of some voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit.
The circuit symbols for the ideal
independent sources are shown in
Fig.2.1.
The circuit symbols for the ideal
dependent sources arc shown in
Fig.2.2.
A diamond is used to represent a dependent source.
Dependent sources are sometimes
called controlled sources.
In

Fig.2.2(a),

the

controlling

voltage is named

, the equation

that

the

determines

voltage

supplied

is:

is a multiplying constant that is dimensionless.


In Fig.2.2(b), the controlling current is
voltage

is:

, the equation for the supplied



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The multiplying constant has the dimension volts per ampere.


In Fig.2.2(c), the controlling voltage is

, the equation for the supplied

current is:
The multiplying constant has the dimension amperes per volt.
In Fig.2.2(d), the controlling current is
current

, the equation for the supplied

is:

The multiplying constant is dimensionless.


An active element is one that models a device capable of generating
electric energy (like voltage, and current sources).
Passive elements model physical devices that cannot generate electric
energy (like Resistors, inductors, and capacitors).

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Example 2.1: Testing Interconnections of Ideal sources


Using the definitions of the ideal independent voltage and current sources, state which
interconnections in Fig. 2.3 are permissible and which violate the constraints imposed by
the ideal sources.

Figure.2.3

Solution

Connection (a) is valid. Each source supplies voltage across terminals a, b. This
:
requires
that each source supply the same voltage with the same polarity to each
terminal, which they do.
Connection (b) is valid. Each source supplies current through terminals a, b. This
requires that each source supply the same current to each terminal in the same
direction, which they do.
Connection (c) is not permissible. Each source supplies voltage across terminals a, b.
This requires that each source supply the same voltage with the same polarity to
each terminal, which they do not.
Connection (d) is not permissible. Each source supplies current through terminals a,
b. This requires that each source supply the same current to each terminal in the
same direction, which they do not.
Connection (e) is valid. The voltage source supplies voltage across terminals a, b.
The current source supplies current throughterminals. Because an ideal voltage
source supplies the same voltage regardless of the current, and an ideal current
source supplies the same current regardless of the voltage, this is a permissible
connection.

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Example 2.2:Testing Interconnections of Ideal Independent and Dependent Sources


Using the definitions of the ideal independent and dependent sources, state which
interconnections in Fig. 2.4 are valid and which violate the constraints imposed by the
ideal sources.

Figure. 2.4

Solution:
Connection
(a) is invalid. Both the independent source and the dependent source

supply voltage across terminals a, b. This requires that each source supply the same
voltage with the same polarity. The independent source supplies 5 V, but the
dependent source supplies 15 V.
Connection (b) is valid. The independent voltage source supplies voltage across
terminals a, b. The dependent current source supplies current through the same
terminals. Because an ideal voltage source supplies the same voltage regardless of
current, and an ideal current source supplies the same current regardless of voltage,
this is an allowable connection.
Connection (c) is valid. Same as (b).
Connection (d) is invalid. Both the independent source and the dependent source
supply current through terminals a, b. This requires that each source supply the same
current in the same reference direction. The independent source supplies 2 A, but the
dependent source supplies 6 A in the opposite direction.

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Assessment 2.1:
For the circuit shown,
a) What value of
is required in order for
the interconnection to be valid?
b) For this value of , find the power
associated with the 8 A source.

Solution:
a)

is same like 8 A but in opposite direction.

The dependent voltage source

and the independent voltage source vg

are in parallel and with same polarity.

b)


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Assessment 2.2:
For the circuit shown,
a) What value of is required in order for the
interconnection to be valid?

b) For the value of calculated in part(a), find the


power associated with the 25 V source.

Solution:
a) The independent and dependent current sources are in same branch, so
they should be equal.

b)
Or


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Solution:
The interconnection is valid since the voltage sources can carry 5 A of
current supplied by the current source, and the current source can carry
the voltage drop required by the interconnection.
The 5 A current source must have a voltage drop of 20 V, positive at the
right.


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Solution:

Interconnection is not valid, since the 10 V and 20 V sources


are connected between the same pair of nodes.



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8A

Solution:
a) Yes, independent voltage sources can carry the 8 A current required by
the connection; independent current source can support any voltage
required by the connection, in this case 20 V, positive at the top.
b) 30 V source: absorbing.
10 V source: delivering.
8 A source: delivering.
c)

d) The interconnection is valid, but in this circuit the voltage drop across the
8 A current source is 40 V, positive at the top; 30 V source is absorbing,
the 10 V source is absorbing, and the 8 A source is delivering


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Solution:

The interconnection is valid and the voltage and current in the


circuit are shown in figure:


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Solution:
Interconnection is not valid, since the voltage drop between the top and
bottom nodes is different due to different voltage sources in the left and
right branches.

The interconnection is not valid.


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Solution:
The left loop study can not give information on the values

, but

stating that the potential difference (10 A) is equal to


The right loop study does not give information on individual values
or

alone but only suggestion that the total


= 50 V

The outer loop study also does not give information on the values
or

alone but stating once that

equal 50 V as


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Solution:
First we study the possibility that valid:
Appling KVL for outer loop:

So, interconnection is invalid

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Solution:
Appling KCL at the upper node:

Appling KVL for outer loop:

Appling KVL for left loop:

The power is developed by (60 v,

) sources only


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Solution:
a) Yes, each of the voltage sources can carry the current required by
theInterconnection and each of the current sources can carry the
voltage drop required by the interconnection. (note that

+
-

20 V

20 A
+
V1 100 V +
-

5A

+
V2
-

+
V3
-

b) Appling KVL for left loop:

Appling KVL for outer loop:

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2.2 Electrical Resistance (Ohm's Law):


Resistanceis the capacity of materials to impede the flow of current.

the relationship between the voltage and current is

Where:

= the voltage in volts,


= the current in amperes,
= the resistance in ohms.

In SI units, resistance is measured in ohms.


The reciprocal of the resistance is referred to as conductance, is
symbolized by the letter G, and is measured in Siemens (S). Thus

An 8 resistor has a conductance value of 0.125 S, we may also describe


an 8 resistor as having a conductance of 0.125 mho.
Power and resistor relationship:


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Example 2.3:Calculating Voltage, Current, and Power for a Simple Resistive Circuit
In each circuit in Fig. 2.8, either the value of
or is not known.
a) Calculate the values of

and .

b) Determine the power dissipated in each


resistor.

Fig. 2.8

Solution:
a) The voltage

is a drop in the direction of the current in the resistor. Therefore,

The current

is in the direction of the voltage drop across the resistor. Thus,

The voltage

is a rise in the direction of the current in the resistor, Hence

The current

is in the direction of the voltage rise across the resistor. Therefore

b)


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Assessment 2.3:
For the circuit shown,

a)

If

and

, find the value of R and

the power absorbed by the resistor.

b) If

and the power delivered by the voltage

source is 3 W, find

, R, and the power absorbed by the

resistor.

c)

If

mW, find

and the power absorbed by R is 480


and

Solution:
a) The resistor and the voltage source are in parallel and the resistor
voltage and the voltage source have the same polarities. Therefore these
two as the same.

Using the passive sign convention to calculate the power in the resistor,

The resistor is dissipating 5 W of power.

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Continued Solution(Assessment 2.3):


)b
So

)c

Then, since

So


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Assessment 2.4:
For the circuit shown,
c) If
and G 50 mS, find
and the power
delivered by the current source.
d) If
15 V and the power delivered to the
conductor is 9 W, find the conductance G and the
source current
e) If G
and the power delivred to the
conductance is 8 W, find and .

Solution:

Thus the current source delivers 5 W to the circuit

So

Thus,

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2.4 Kirchhoffs Laws:


A node is a point where two or more circuit elements meet.

Kirchhoff's current law (KCL):


The algebraic sum of all the currents at any node in a circuit equals
zero.
In any circuit with n nodes, n - 1 independent current equations can be
derived from Kirchhoff's current law.
A closed path or loop: Starting at an arbitrarily selected node, we trace a
closed path in a circuit through selected basic circuit elements and return to
original node without re-passing through any intermediate node more than
once.
Kirchhoff's voltage Law (KVL):
The algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed path in a
circuit equals zero.
Think about a circuit analysis strategy before beginning to write equations.
not every closed path provides an opportunity to write a useful equation
based on Kirchhoff's voltage law. Not every node provides for a useful
application of Kirchhoff's current law. Some preliminary thinkingcan help
in selecting the mostuseful analysis tools for a particular problem.

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Example 2.6:Using Kirchhoff's Current Law


Sum the currents at each node in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.16. Note that there is no
connection dot () in the center of the diagram, where the
branch crosses the
branch containing the ideal current source .

Fig. 2.16

Solution:
In writing the equations, we use a positive sign for a current leaving a node.
The four equations are:
node a:
node b:
node c:
node d:


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Example 2.7:Using Kirchhoffs Voltage Law


Sum the voltages around each designated path in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.17.

Fig. 2.17

Solution:
In writing the equations, we use a positive sign for a voltage drop. The
four equations are:
path a:
path b:
path c:
path d:


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Example 2.8: Applying Ohm's Law and Kirchhoff's Laws to Find an Unknown Current
a) Use Kirchhoff's laws and Ohm's law to find
in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.18.
b) Test the solution for by verifying that the
total power generated equals the total
power dissipated.
Fig. 2.18

Solution:
We begin by Redrawing the circuit and assigning an unknown current to the 50
resistor and unknown voltages across the 10 and 50 resistors.figure 2.19
shows the circuit. The nodes are labeled a, b, and c to aid the discussion.

Summing the currents at node b:

Summing the voltages around the closed path (cabc):

Solving these two equations:


The power dissipated in 50 is:
The power dissipated in10 is:
The power delivered to the 120 Vsource is:

The power delivered by the 6 A source:


total power absorbed is 360 + 450 + 90 = 900 W

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Example 2.9: Constructing a Circuit Model Based on Terminal Measurements


The terminal voltage and terminal current were
measured on the device shown in fig. 2.20(a),
and the values of
and are tabulated in fig.
2.20(b)

a) Construct a circuit model of the device inside


the box.
b) Using this circuit model, predict the power
this device will deliver to a 10 resistor.

Solution:
a) Plotting the voltage as a funcation of the current in fig. 2.21(a) the
equation of the line:

The components of the circuits model:


Kirchhoff's voltage law tells us the voltage drop across two
component in series produces a 30 V drop regardless of the
cuurent so can be modeled as an ideal independent voltage
source

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Continued Solution(Example 2.9) :


Ohm's law tell us the component can be modeled as ideal resistor with
a value of 5 the resulting circuit model in fig 2.21(b).

b) Now we attach a 10 resistor in the fig. 2.21(b) to complete the


circuit
Solving,


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Assessment problem 2.5:


For the circuit shown, calculate
(a)

and (e)

the power delivered by the 24 V


source.

Solution:
a) Redrow the circuit with all of the voltages and currents labeled for
every circuit element.

Write KVL equation clockwise around the circuit, starting below the
voltage source:

Next, use Ohm's low to calculate the three unknown voltages from the
three currents:

KCL at the upper right node:



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Continued Solution(Assessment problem 2.5) :


KCL at the bottom right node:

Now substitute these expressions for three voltages into


the first equation:

Therefore,
b)
c)
d)
e) A KCL equation at the lower left node gives
since
,
We can now compute the power associated with the voltage
source:

Therefore,

source is delivering 48 W.


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Assessment problem 2.6:

Fig. 2.19

Use Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's laws to find


the value of in the circuit shown.

Solution:
Applying KVL for the left loop:

Applying KVL for the outer loop:

Applying KCL at upper middle node:


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Assessment problem 2.7:


a) The terminal voltage and terminal current were
measured on the device shown. The values of
and are provided in the table. Using these values,
creat the straight line plot of
versus . Compute
the equation of the line and use the equation to
construct a circuit model for the device using an
ideal voltage source and a resistor.
b) Use the model constructed in (a) to predict the
power that the device will deliver to a 25
resistor.

Solution:
a) Plotting a graph of

versus

gives:

When

A circuit model as shown:


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Continued Solution(Assessment problem 2.7) :


b) drow the circuit model from part (a) and attach a 25 resistor:

So

So

The power delivered to the 25 resistor is:


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Example 2.10: Applying Ohms Law and Kirchhoffs Laws to find an Unknown Voltage
a) Use kirchhoff's laws and Ohms low to find the voltage as shown in fig. 2.23.
b) Show that your solution is consistent with the constraint that the total power
developed in the circuit equals the total power dissipated.

Solution:
a)
Applying Kirchhoffs voltage:

Solving,

b)

The resistors all disspate power, and the total power dissipated is 21.7 W,
equal to the total power developed in the sources.

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Assessment problem 2.9:


For the circuit shown find:
(a) the current in the microamperes,
(b) the voltage in volts, (c) the total
power generated, and (d) the total
power absorbed.

Solution:
Applying KCL at the top node:

We can use Ohm's law to find the voltages across each resistor in
terms of

the results are shown in the figure below:

a) Applying KVL for the left loop:

Solving,
So,


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Continued Solution(Assessment problem 2.9):


b) Appling KVL for the right loop:

Thus,

5V

Current
(A)
25

54 k

25

1.35

1V

25

6 k

775

4.65

3603.75

Depend. Source

750

-2

1500

1.8K

750

1.35

1012.5

8V

750

Element

Voltage(V)

Power
Equation

Power ( )

5
33.75

c) The total power generated in this circuit is the sum of the negative power
values in the power table:
Thus, the total power generated in the circuit is 6150
d) The total power absorbed in the circuit is the sum of the positive power
values in the power table:
Thus, the total power absorbed in the circuit is 6150

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Assessment problem 2.10:


The current in the circuit shown is 2
A calculate
a) ,
b) The power absorbed by the
independent voltage source,
c) The power delivered by the
independent current source,
d) The total power dissipated in the
two resistors.

Solution:

Applying KCL at the left node:

So,

a) Applying KVL for the lower right loop:


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Continued Solution(Assessment problem 2.10):


b) Applying KCL at the right node:
So

c) Applying KVL for the left loop:


So

d) Applying KVL for the upper right loop:


So

e) The total power dissipated by the resistors is given by:


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Solution:
a) Plot the

characteristic:

From the plot:

When
must have a current of

therefore the ideal current sourse



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Continued Solution(problem 2.14):

b) We attach a 20 resistor to the device model:

Appling KCL equation at the top node:

Appling KVL equation for the right loop:

Solving,


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Solution:
a) Plot the

characteristic:

From the plot:

When
has a voltage of

therefore the ideal voltage sourse


.

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Sept 2013

Continued Solution(problem 2.15):

b)

When

Note that this result can be also be obtained by extrapolating the


characteristic to



.
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Sept 2013

Solution:

a) Appling KCL at top node :

Appling KVL for right loop:

b) Appling KVL for left loop :

c)

So


.
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Sept 2013

Solution:
a, b) Applying KVL for the right loop:
a

Applying KVL for the left loop:

Applying KCL for node (a):

Solving,

c)

Or

d)

e)
check:

= 25 + 80 + 20 = 125 W

=125 W
.

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Sept 2013

Solution:
Right loop
a) Appling KVL for right loop:

b) Appling KCL at top node:

c) Appling KVL for left loop:


.
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Sept 2013

Solution:
a) Applying KVL for the outer loop:
a
Applying KCL at node (a):

Applying KVL for the right loop:

Applying KCL at the intermediate node:


+
b) p

c)


.
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Sept 2013

Solution:
+
vs
-

Appling KCL at bottom node:

Appling the KVL for lower loop:

So,

=11.11 W,

=16.67 W,

= 22.22 W,

= 33.33 W

b) Appling KVL for outer loop:


- + (10+15)

)=0

+
vs
-

= (832.5) (100
=11.1+16.63+22.2+33.4 = 83.33 W
So

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Sept 2013

Solution:
a) Applying KVL for the outer loop:

Applying KCL at node (a):

Applying KVL for the right bottom loop:

Applying KCL at node (b):

Applying KVL for the left loop:

Applying KCL at node (c):

b)

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Sept 2013

Solution:
,

node KCL

Appling KCL at node a:

Appling KVL for upper loop:

From KCL @ b:
From KCL @ c:
)a

4116 W

=

! .
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Sept 2013

Solution:

Appling KVL for outer loop:

Appling KCL at node c:

Appling KVL for right loop:

Appling KCL at node b:

Appling KVL for left loop:

Check:


.
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Sept 2013

Solution:
a, c) Applying KVL for the outer loop:
Applying KCL at bottom node:
Applying KCL at left node:
Applying KVL for the left loop:

d) Sum the power dissipated by the resistors:


The power associated with the sources is:
(absorbs)
(delivers)
Thus the total power dissipated is
equals the total power developed is 1710 W

.
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Sept 2013

Solution:
a) Applying KCL at node (a) leads that current in the 200 resistor is
Applying KVL for the left loop:

= 1 mA
Applying KVL for the right loop:

b)

Element

Current (mA)

15.2 V

10 k

0.8 V

200

30

180

Depend. Source

29

130.5

500

29

420.5

25 V

29

Both are equals.

Power Equation

Power (m )

10

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Sept 2013

Solution:

a) No current can occurs in an open loop, so


b, c) Applying KVL for the left loop:

Applying KVL for the right loop:

Applying KCL at node (a):

Solving,


.
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Sept 2013

Solution:

Applying KCL at point (a):

Applying KCL at point (b):

Applying KVL for the left loop:

.
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Sept 2013

Solution:
a) Applying KVL for the left loop:
94A

84A
80A

Applying KVL for the middle loop:

Solving,
= 40
Thus, we can now know current & voltage values in all parts as shown.
b)
(delivers)
(delivers)
(Absorbs)
(absorbs)
(absorbs)
(absorbs)
(absorbs)
= 9400 + 7520 = 16920 W
= 1800 + 1680 + 640 + 11200 +1600 = 16920 W
= 16920 W

.
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Sept 2013

Solution:


.
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