Human Performance

Qualities of a good pilot:

1) A high sense of responsibility
2) Motivation
3) A good communicator
4) Flexibility
5) Physical & Mental fitness
6) Reliability
7) A Balanced personality
8) A team player
9) Competence in the skill of stress and crew management
10) Calmness under stress
11) An eye for detail
12) Competence in risk assessment
13) Ability (Academic and flight handling)

Typical Causes of A/c accidents at the start of the 21st Century

73% Flight Crew Error

11% ATC
11% Mechanical
5% Weather

Most Common Reasons for Pilot induced error are

Loss of directional control

Poor Judgment
Airspeed not maintained
Poor pre-flight decision
Poor flight planning

Aviation Physiology & Health

The Atmosphere:
Boyles Law states that provided the temperature is constant the volume is inversely
proportional to the pressure. It is relevant to aviation, especially during the climb and
descent. As the atmospheric pressure increases and decreases, the air cavities in the body
expand and contract causing discomfort and pain. When this happens in the ear it is called
otic barotrauma and when it occurs in the nose, stomach and teeth it is known as
aerodontalgia.

Charles Law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas held at constant pressure varies
directly with the absolute temperature. This can be confirmed by the operation of a hot air
balloon.

Gay Lussacs Law closely related to Charles Law states that if the volume of a gas is kept
constant, then the pressure is directly proportional to the temperature.

The Combined Gas Laws is a combination of Boyles Law, Charles Law & Gay Lussacs
Law. It states that the ratio of the pressure-volume constant and the temperature of a
system remain constant. The temperature is measured in degree Kelvin (0 degrees Celsius
= 273 degree Kelvin).

Daltons Law states that the total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the
partial pressures of the constituent gases.
Ficks Law states that the rate o transfer through a tissue, such as animal lung tissue, is
proportional to three things. It is proportional to the area of the tissue, it is proportional to
the partial pressure of the gasses on either side of the tissue & it is inversely proportional
to the thickness of the tissue. In the case of lungs the oxygen is transferred to the blood only
through the alveoli since everywhere else the lung tissue is too thick. This law applies
directly to the way the oxygen diffuse into the lungs. The greater the area, the greater the
diffusion; the thicker the tissue, the lower the diffusion.

Henrys Law states that at a constant temperature the amount of gas dissolved in a liquid
is proportional to the gas pressure. This means that, if the pressure of a gas near a liquid
increases, more gas molecules will collide with the liquid and dissolve into it. The condition
in divers known as the bends is an illustration of how the law applies. As a diver descends
to a greater depth, nitrogen in his body dissolves under pressure into his blood, but when he
rises to the surface again the nitrogen comes out of solution as bubbles and can cause pain
and even death. Similarly a rapid decompression in an aircraft at high altitudes can cause
similar symptoms. Another application of Henrys Law is when a Fizzy drink is opened. It
releases some of the pressure and causes gases in the solution to turn into bubbles.

Respiraton:
Introduction
The bodys tissues all require oxygen in order to function as they should . For Example the
brain requires 20% of the oxygen, even though it is only weighs 2% of the body weight. But
the heaviest users are the skeletal muscles when working hard. There are two separate
systems that fulfill the bodys need for oxygen. The Respiratory system that consists of the
lungs that draws in air & the Circulatory System that circulates the blood around the body.
Where these two systems meet, the oxygen from the lungs is passed on to the blood and the
carbon dioxide from the blood is transferred to the lungs.
The air enters the nose, where it is warmed, moistened, filtered or through the mouth and
then down the trachea, which then divides into two bronchi. The lungs themselves consist
of two expanding sacks contained within the chest. Air is drawn into the lungs through the
trachea and the bronchi, when the intercostal muscles between the ribs, acting in unison
with the diaphragm, increase the volume of the chest cavity, reducing the internal pressure
inside the lungs to enable the body to breath in, technically called inspire.
The airways in the lungs become progressively smaller until they end in tiny sacks, the
alveoli measuring about 0.3mm in diameter. There are over 300 million alveoli, giving a
total area of up to a 100 Sq meters.The walls of the alveoli are very thin and are coverd by
fine capillaries which themselves have a thin wall. The oxygen from the alveoli diffuse into
the blood and combines chemically with haemoglobin in the red cells, to form
Oxyhaemoglobin.
However where the conventration of the oxygen is low, as in the tissues, the oxygen
detaches from the heamoglobin and becomes available for the oxidizing processes in the
tissue. In the presence of oxygen, Carbohydrates, fats, proteins can be broken down in order
to generate the chemical compound of Adenosine Triphosphate, which drives the movement
of the muscles. Carbon dioxide and water which are the waste products from the body from
the bodys consumption of oxygen pass into the lungs to be exhaled. Effective gas exchanges
only take place in the alveoli and the capillaries, as the walls of the large passages in the
lungs are too thick to allow diffusion. The gas exchange process at the lungs is called
external respiration.
As the altitude increases, the oxygen becomes lesser and lesser soluble in heamoglobin.
This results in various complications.

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

Carbon monoxide is produced due to incomplete combustion of fuel. It amounts to about 1%
of jet exhaust but about 9% of piston engine exhaust.
Carbon monoxide combines with heamoglobin to produce carboxy heamoglobin. Carbon
monoxide is 210 times more soluble in blood as is oxygen and it effectively stops oxygen
from being absorbed into the blood. This will heighten the effects of Hypoxia and will be
cumulative over time.
Sympotoms:
1. Headache, tightness across the forehead, dizziness and nausea.
2. Impaired Vision
3. General feeling of Lethargy or weakness
4. Impaired Judgment
5. Personality Change
6. Impaired Memory
7. Slower breathing rate and weakening pulse rate
8. Loss of muscular power
9. Flushed cheeks and cherry red lips
10. Convulsions

Treatment:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Turn off cabin heat

Stop all smoking
If oxygen available, it should be inhaled by those affected
Increase the supply of freash air through vents and windows
Lands as soon as possible

Aggravating factor:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Altitude
Smoking
Age
Obesity
Poor state of health

Decompression
Flight over 10,000ft is only possible if the aircraft is pressurized. In order to pressurize the
aircraft the fuselage is strengthened so that the air pressure inside the fuselage can be
maintained at a higher pressure than the outside. Ideally the pressure needs to be
maintained at sea level. But this is not realistically possible. So the aircraft is pressurized
from 6,000 8,000 ft.
In case of a decompression of the aircraft while in flight, decompression sickness is certain
above 25,000ft, partially possible from 14,000 25,000 and will not occur at or below
10,000ft. The aircraft therefore needs to reduce altitude to 10,000ft in case of a
decompression in flight. In a rapid decompression at or above 25,000ft the effects are far
worse. In addition to the cold and Hypoxia, decompression sickness will also be experienced.
If the cabin pressure reduced to 14,000ft or higher, the oxygen masks will automatically
pop out.
The air contains 78% nitrogen, some of which dissolves in the blood. It has little function in
the body. This gas comes out of solution and turns into bubbles in case of a rapid
decompression at altitudes above 25,000ft. It can cause pain in the joints called the bends.
Nitrogen bubbles under the skin make the sufferer feel as if there are ants crawling under
the skin, called the creeps. Nitrogen bubbles caught in the capillaries of the lungs may
block the pulmonary blood flow causing breathlessness and pain known as the chokes.
Nitrogen bubbles in the brain may cause a loss of mental function called the staggers. A
person who has come down to sea level later may still collapse if the nitrogen bubbles do not
return to solution and reach the heart.
A person who has been diving before flying is more prone to decompression sickness at an
altitude as low as 6,000ft. It is advised for the same reason to avoid flying for at least 12 hrs
after diving and in case the depth of the dive has been more than 30ft to avoid flying for 24
hrs.

Basic Aviation Pysiology