The physiology of the Skin

By
Dr Fadzilah Adibah Abdul Majid
A Three Day Hands-On Course on Household and
Personal Care Product Formulations
17-19 May 2004
CEPP, UTM

The skin is a window through

which the physician can "see"
the entire body

Skin is the most noticeable physical part of our

body. By having healthy skin, the effects of
aging is reduced, naturally your skin -- and you
-- look better. People who are healthy look
better. When you are healthy and feel good, you
radiate good health and confidence. And
obviously, nice skin, well-toned physique, and
great posture look better than skin that hasn't been
nourished.

Skin Architecture

Epidermis

The epidermis
9 the top most layer of
skin
9 0.1 to 1.5 mm
thickness
9 It is made up of 4
layers:
1.
2.
3.
4.

basal cell layer,

squamous cell layer
stratum granulosum
stratum corneum.

Melanin
Produces by melanocytes (specialized cells in the basal
cell layer)
Protects the skin against sun damage
Rate of production determines skin colorthe more
melanin produced in the skin, the darker the skin
appears.
Melanin production increases when skin exposure to the
sun (in an effort to shield the skin from the damaging
ultraviolet rays; suntan effect).
Caused freckles, birthmarks, and age spots (pathes of
melanin within the skin.

The Skin Renewal Process

The 4 layers are continually

rebuild the surface of the skin from
within
The continuous process maintain
the skins strength and helping
thwart wear and tear.
In the average adult, it takes
nearly a month for the stratum
corneum to be completely
replaced.
The replacement process
generally slows with age, though
in some people it becomes
abnormally accelerated, causing a
flaky, scaly skin condition known
as psoriasis.

Dermis

Dermis
9 Lies beneath the epidermis
9 1 .5 to 4 mm thick (the thickest of the three layers of the
skin).
9 Home to most of the skins structures, including sweat and
oil glands, hair follicles, nerve endings, and blood and
lymph vessels.
9 The main components of the dermis are collagen and
elastin.
9 Storage much of the bodys water supply
9 When the amount of stored water is increased, the skin becomes
tight and stretche.

9 The dermis also contains scavenger cells from the

immune system.
9 In the event that a foreign organism makes it past the epidermis,
these cells will engulf and destroy it.

Sweat glands
Two types:
the apocrine glands and the eccrine glands.
Apocrine glands
are specialized glands found only in the armpits and pubic
region. In animals, it is the apocrine glands that secrete the
scents used to attract a mate; however, no one is sure of
their function in humans.
secrete a milky sweat that encourages the growth of bacteria
responsible for body odor.
These glands are activated at puberty when stimulated by
hormones.

The eccrine glands

9 The true sweat glands.
9 Found over the entire body,
9 regulate body temperature by bringing water via the pores to the
surface of the skin, where it evaporates and releases heat.

9 Respond to heat, exercise, and fever

9 Respond to emotional stress, (such as those on the
palms).
give you clammy hands when youre nervous.

9 Eccrine glands function from childhood, though they do

increase their activity at puberty.
Though these glands can produce up to two liters of sweat an
hour when theyre working at their full potential, theyre not
usually to blame for body odor.

9 These glands secrete mostly water, which doesnt

encourage the growth of odor-producing bacteria.

The Sebaceous or Oil Glands

Attached to hair follicles, cylindrical structures that house
the roots of the hair.
Can be found everywhere on the body except for the
palms of the hands and the soles of the feet.
Usually called into action by hormones during puberty
Secrete oil that helps keep the skin smooth and supple.
The oil also helps keep skin waterproof and protects
against an overgrowth of bacteria and fungi on the skin.
At times, these glands overproduce and cause acne, a
condition in which pores become clogged and inflamed.

Nerve Cells
9 Nerve endings can also be found in the dermis
9 Responsible for the sense of touch, relaying
information to the brain for interpretation.
9 Signal temperature to the brain and, if
necessary, trigger shivering, an involuntary
contraction and relaxation of muscles. This
muscle activity generates body heat.

Blood and Lymph Vessels

The blood vessels bring nutrients and oxygen to the skin
and remove cell waste and cell products.
The blood vessels also carry the vitamin D produced in
the skin back to the rest of the body.
Enlarged vessels that can be seen through the skin are
known as spider veins or vari-cose veins.
Broken blood vessels appear as bruises.
The lymph vessels bathe the tissues of the skin with
lymph,
a milky substance that contains infection-fighting immune system
cells. The cells work to destroy any infection or invading
organisms as the lymph gradually circulates back through the
bodys tissues to the lymph nodes.

Collagen
Collagen is a tough, insoluble protein
found throughout the body in the
connective tissues that hold muscles and
organs in place.
In the skin, collagen supports the
epidermis, lending it its durability

Elastin
A protein that keeps the skin flexible.
The substance that allows the skin to
spring back into place when stretched
(the scientific reason a funny face wont stay that way)

The properties of collagen and elastin fade

with age, giving rise to wrinkles and
sagging skin.

Hypodermis

Hypodermis
The subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis) is the deepest
layer of the skin.
It is missing on parts of the body where the skin is
especially thinthe eyelids, nipples, genitals, and shins.
Subcutaneous tissue acts both as an insu-lator,
conserving body heat, and as a shock absorber,
protecting in-ternal organs from injury.
It also stores fat as an energy reserve in the event extra
calories are needed to power the body.
The blood vessels, nerves, lymph vessels, and hair
follicles also cross through this layer.

Skin Types and Its Care

NORMAL SKIN
peach complexion.
It is not easy to describe it. Like happy people it has no story, not
a rough look but on the contrary, soft and smooth. No open
pores, but invisible or barely visible. No special redness or
blemishes. It is uniform. Good tint with a certain matte look which
is defined as

the normal skin is a well balanced skin.

All its activities are efficient:
the cellular life pace is well established;
its epidermal renewal is regular
its deep circulation is normal and its secretions are sufficient to
insure a good humidity rate without obstructing the pores.
Its deep fibres are flexible and resistant because the collagen is
healthy.

OILY SKIN
HOW TO RECOGNIZE OILY SKIN
The texture of the skin is thick
The ostium are enlarged by the over
production of sebum which flows freely.
The aspect is shiny because the sebum
spreads out constantly.
The touch is sticky (most often but not
necessarily).
Make-up products are diluted by the sebum a
few hours after application

TREATMENTS FOR OILY SKIN

An oily skin is basically a healthy skin which functions
well but with exaggeration.
It is much easier to care for than, for example, to treat an
acneic or asphyxiated skin.
The treatment consists of:

a good (but not abrasive) cleansing

efficient exfoliating techniques (but not irritating)
secretion regularizing techniques
an adequate extraction of comedones (blackhead), as needed
tightening of the ostiums (
protection, appropriate to the sebum flow.

COMEDONIC SKIN (blackhead)

HOW TO RECOGNIZE A SKIN WITH
COMEDONE TENDENCY
Although oily, this type of skin is not shiny since
secretions are retained within the ostiums. The skin
surface is dull and sallow (comedones).
Its texture is coarse since the follicles are clogged
with comedones accumulating under the surface.
This type of skin does not have the oily skins
resistance.
It is easily irritated and dehydrated.

CARE FOR SKIN WITH

TENDENCY TO COMEDONES
9 Treatment techniques to free comedones from the
ostituns which are not abrasive.
9 Hydrating products replace the increased water
evaporation.
9 Actions are gentle and progressive so as not to irritate
the over-reacting glands.
9 A comedone must be entirely drained. If not, it may
spread and cause more harm, slow to heal and almost
always leave some scarring.
9 When the comedone is extracted, apply EMULSION
PURE (anti-bacterial product) on the ostium and around
follicles.

ASPHYXIATED SKIN
HOW TO RECOGNIZE ASPHYXIATED SKIN
Complexion is sallow
The ostiums are filled with comedones.
The surface is lumpy (mass of raised tissue - cysts).
The exterior layer is covered with a film similar to
varnish (furfur or squame),
Sometimes, desquamates (particularly the central
part).
Sensitive to atmospheric changes, to rubbing and
inappropriate cosmetics.
To differentiate a cyst from a comedone, pull the skin
(chin for example) between your indexes; if you see
small nodules which rise to the surface, they are
cysts. They cannot work their way out

CARE FOR ASPHYXIATED SKIN

We tend to confuse it with dry skin
because it is coarse to the touch and
seems delicate. As with very dry skin,
asphyxiated skin requires the same care
as dehydrated skin to which we add the
secretions extraction and frequent
exfoliation, without causing irritation.

ACNEIC SKIN
HOW TO RECOGNIZE ACNEIC SKIN
9 Signs are certainly easier to recognize than any
other type of skin!
9 Acneic skin is more or less oily. Its ostiums are
enlarged and filled with comedones.
9 Its surface is lumpy with cysts. Its texture is
coarse.
9 It has pimples of more or less density.
9 It has rednesses (inflammations) and eventually
scars.

LOCAL ACNE TREATMENTS

Whatever causes acne, local treatment
remains the same.
THE THREE PRINCIPLES:
Appropriate cleansing
Control of secretions
Control of accumulation of dead cells (by
means of exfoliation)
The individuals sensitivity and age, influence
the procedure for these treatments.

Skin and Immunity

Important front line defence of the body
The immunological cells
Langerhans Cell (recognise antigen)
T Lymphocyte
B lymphocytes
Mast Cell (release histamine)
Keratinocyte

Hypersensitivity Reactions of the

Skin
Inappropriate or exaggerated adaptive immune
response that results in tissue damage.
There are four main types of hypersensitivity
reactions:

Type 1 (Immediate)
Type 2 (Antibody-Dependent Cytotoxicity)
Type 3 (Immune Complex Disease)
Type 4 (Cell-Mediated or Delayed)

Factors affecting skin health

Tanning
Ionizing radiation
Free radicals
not enough sleep, smoke, live in pollution,
drink too much alcohol, stress, eat sugar,
eat salt, processed foods, exercise too much
(yes, it is true) and not getting enough
antioxidants in our diet

Improper nutritions

Ionizing radiation

Caused by sunlight rays called

UvA (go deeper into the skin and are linked to aging, cancer and
damage to the immune system) and
UvB (caused burning).

Promotes the 2 stages of the carcinogenic process,

initiation and promotion.

The rays damage your skins DNA, as well as protein and immune
system cells.
Can be the first sign of skin cancer. Malignant melanoma is a deadly
form of skin cancer, which quickly spreads to the vital organs of the
body, and that will kill you.
Occasionally check for blemishes that are larger than a pencil
eraser, multi-colored or a symmetrical in shape. If you have any
questions, see a dermatologist.
A sunscreen with an SPF (sun protection factor) as high as possible
(but at least 15) should be used year-round, and applied every few
hours while exposed to the sun.

Free radicals and Improper

nutritions
Free radicals multiply in our bodies when
we dont get enough sleep, smoke, live in
pollution, drink too much alcohol, stress,
eat sugar, eat salt, processed foods,
exercise too much (yes, it is true) and not
getting enough antioxidants in our diet.

Cosmeceuticals and
Neutraceuticals
for Skin Maintenance

Nutrition (Neutraceuticals)
Proper nutrition is essential for healthy,
youthful skin.
fruits and vegetables should be consumed
as often as possible - at least five servings
per day
body requires essential fatty acids and fatsoluble vitamins for proper nutrition and
functioning.
Skin problems are often a sign of vitamin
deficiency

 Many neutraceuticals are available as food

supplements. These products are
recommended to people with unbalance
nutritions due to many factors such as
lifestyle, no appetite to certain type of
foods etc

Drink Plenty of Water

Water is required by the body to hydrate and
replenish cells.
The body's water component is approximately
60-70%.
It uses water to transport nutrients around the
body and for dissolving and eliminating toxins.
Aim to consume 1-2 litres of either bottled or
filtered water per day,
to assist in achieving a smooth glowing
appearance.

Cosmeceuticals

Cosmeceuticals (or alternatively, cosmaceuticals) are topical

cosmetic-pharmaceutical hybrids intended to enhance the health
and beauty of skin.
Cosmeceutical agents are:

Retinoic acid
Alpha-hydroxy acids (AHA)
Beta-hydroxy acids (BHA)
Hydroquinone
Vitamin E
Vitamin C
Kinetin (hormone growth factor)
Grape seed extract
Coenzyme Q10

Many Malaysian herbes have cosmeceutical

effects

Physical Sun Shades

Staying out of the sun
Use sunscreen " physical" sunscreen that blocks in the
suns ray
eyewear (both regular glasses and sunglasses) be coated to
screen for UV..

Chemical Sunscreens are "zinc oxide" or "titanium

dioxide"
Use a sun protection factor (SPF) of 15 or higher, and
one which blocks both UVA and UVB rays - a broad
spectrum sunscreen.
IT IS IMPORTANT TO REMEMBER THE
FORMULATION OF COSMECEUTICALS MUST BE
BASED ON COMBINATION OF SAFE CHEMICALS
AND ACTIVE INGREDIENTS TO ENSURE THE TOTAL
HEALTH OF THE SKIN AND BODY.

Basics of Medical Therapy

Basics of Medical Therapy

Topical Therapy
Systemic Therapy
Phototheraphy
Surgical Theraphy

Topical Therapy

Advantages:
direct delivery and reduced systemic toxicity.
Use a vehicle that carry an active ingredient. Vehicles are:
i)

Cream

ii)

Gel a semi-solid transparent non-greasy emulsion.

iii)

Lotion

iv)

Ointment

v)

Paste

vi)

Emollients -

a semi-solid emulsion of oil-in-water; contains a preservative to prevent overgrowth of microorganisms. Stabilized by an emulsifier. Mostly water so mostly evaporates; non-greasy so easy application and removal.

liquid vehicle, aqueous or alcohol based, which may contain a salt in solution. Calamine lotion is a shake
lotion which contains an insoluble powder. Lotions evaporate to cool the inflamed/exudative skin.

a semi-solid grease/oil, sometimes also containing powder, but little or no water. The active ingredient
is suspended. Usually, no preservative needed. Ointments are best suited for dry skin disorders rehydrate and occlude. Because they
are greasy, they are difficult to remove.

An ointment with a high proportion of powder which gives a stiff consistency. Pastes can be applied to welldemarcated lesions. Due to its ointment base, they are difficult to remove.

Emollients are useful in dry-skin disorders due to their ability to re-establish the surface lipid layer
and enhancing rehydration of the epidermis. There are several emollient ointments, creams and oils added to baths.

Quantities Required
A useful guide is the fingertip unit (FTU) which equals
g. One FTU is the amount of topical agent that can be
applied to the terminal phalynx of the index finger.
The whole body requires 20-30 g of ointment per single
dose. In an adult:
- face or neck 1 g
- trunk (each side) 3 g
- arm 1 g
- hand g
- leg 3 g
- foot 1 g

Skin Problems

Common Skin Problems:

Rashes
A rash is an area of red, inflamed skin or a
group a individual spots. These can be
caused by irritation, allergy, infection an
underlying disease, as well as by structural
defects - for example blocked pores or
malfunctioning oil glands.
Examples of rashes dude acne, dermatitis,
eczema, hives, pityriasis rosea, and psorasis.

Viral infections
These occur when a virus penetrates the
stratum corneum and infects the inner layers of
the skin.
Example viral skin infections include herpes
simplex, shingles (herpes zoster) and warts.
Some systemic viral infections, such as chicken
pox at measles, may also affect the skin.
Viral infections cannot be cured with antibiotics.

Bacterial infections
Such infections are caused by a variety of
bacteria, the most common types being
staphylococ streptococci.
Bacteria may infect the topmost layers of skin,
the follicles, or the deeper layers of skin.
If not treated correctly, these infections may
spread throughout the body.
Examples include impel folliculitis, cellulitis, and
Lyme disease.
Antibiotics are effective against bacterial
infections

Fungal infections
Harmless fungi are always present on surface of
the skin, and infection occurs when these
organisms entry into the body
These infections are usually superficial, affecting
the skin, hair, and nails; examples include
athletes foot, lock itch, and ringworm.
However, in people with suppressed immune
systems or who have been taking antibiotics
long-term, the fungi may spread to deep within
the body, causing more serious disease.

Parasitic infections
These infections occur after exposure to
parasites such as lice and scabies

Pigmentation disorders
The amount of pigment in the skin is determined by the
amount of melanin being produced by the body
Loss of pigment (hypo pigmentation) can be caused by
an absence of melanocytes, malfunctioning cells,
exposure to cold or chemicals, or some types of
infection.
An increase in pigment (hyperpigmentation) may be
caused by skin irritation, hormonal changes, aging, a
metabolic disorder, or another underlying problem.
Age spots, freckles, and melasma are examples of
hyperpigmentation
Vitiligo is an example of hypopigmentation.

Tumors and cancers.

These growths arise when skin cells begin to multiply
faster than normal.
Not every skin growth is cancerous: Some tumors are
harmless and will not spread. Skin cancer is the most
common of all the cancers
It is caused, in 90 percent of cases, by sun exposure.
The three types of skin cancer are basal cell cancer (the
most curable), squamous cell cancer (which may grow
and spread), and malignant mela-noma (the most deadly
form).
Prevention involves protecting the skin against damaging
ultraviolet rays.
Early detection helps to improve the chances of a cure,
so regular self-examinations are recommended.

Trauma
Trauma describes an injury to the skin
caused by a blow, cut, or burn.
Any time the surface of the skin is broken,
the body becomes more susceptible to
infection and disease

Uncategorized Skin Conditions

Wrinkles are caused by a breakdown of the
collagen and elastin within the dermis, which
results in sagging skin.
Rosacea is a long-term disorder in which the
skin of the face becomes red and develops
pimples, lesions, and more rarely enlargement
of the nose. Its cause is unknown.
Spider veins and varicose veins become
apparent when blood vessels enlarge and
become visible through the surface of the skin.

Skin Conditions
The epidermis of the skin is composed of
living cells, melanin (color factor) and
keratin.
The term keratosis (kerr-uh-TQ-sis) refers to
a condition of the skin involving keratin.
Hyperkeratosis (HIGH-pur-kerr-uh-TOsis)
refers to an abnormal increase of the horny
layer of the skin.
An example of this condition is a callus,
which usually appears on the palms of the
hands or soles of the feet.