Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Submitted By:
Hania Asif
MP/2016-S-03
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sr.
Contents
Page No.
No.
1.
INTRODUCTION
2.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Definition of Motivation
Theoretical Approaches
8-13
classroom.
3.
CONCLUSION
13-15
4.
REFERENCES
16-17
INTRODUCTION
Motivation refers to those reasons that underlie behavior that is characterized by
willingness and volition. Intrinsic motivation is motivation that is animated by personal
enjoyment, interest or pleasure. Researchers often contrast intrinsic motivation with
extrinsic motivation, which is motivation governed by reinforcement contingencies.
Traditionally educators consider intrinsic motivation to be more desirable and to result in
better learning outcomes than extrinsic motivation.
Motivation within individuals tends to vary across subject areas, and this domain
specificity increases with age. Generally, individuals appear to enter school with high
levels of intrinsic motivation, although motivation tends to decline as individuals
progress through school. Research suggests that motivation of students in the classroom
can be effectively increased.
Essential factors contributing in students effective motivation includes effective
use of teaching strategies by the teacher, effective selection of content to be taught and
safe environment provided for teaching and learning. Teachers should attempt to give
students more autonomy or control over their learning by allowing them to make choices
and use collaborative or cooperative learning approaches. Teachers should create a
supportive classroom environment with respect of goal structures of learning and learner
attributions.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Educational psychologists have recognized the significance of motivation for
supporting students learning. The purpose of this literature review is: (a). To explore the
ways in which motivation has been defined by researchers, (b). To investigate how
motivation develops, (c). To learn how teachers can encourage development of
motivation in their students and (d). To review the essentials motivation in classroom.
Definition of Motivation
external stimulus. Punishment on the other hand, refers to unpleasant consequences that
decrease the probability of a given behavior.
Under this framework, the teachers job is clear, to use good grades and praise to
reward desired behavior and bad grades or loss of privileges as punishment. As, stipek
notes this approach is limited to the extent that rewards and punishments are not equally
effective for all students, and desired behaviors such as paying attention are difficult to
reinforce. Moreover, the benefits of extrinsic rewards tend to decay over time. (Stipek,
J.K. 2002).
Also, Stipek, J.K. (2002) explains, new approaches for the motivation of students
that is Cognitive Behavior Modification CBM, This approach recognizes the effects of
reward contingencies are mediated by cognitive variables, such as verbal ability. Thus
goal of CBM is to change overt behavior by manipulating cognitive processes. Under this
approach student; takes more responsibility for their own learning by monitoring their
behavior, setting goals, deploying Meta-cognitive strategies, and administering their own
rewards. Giving students such control over their own learning is believed to result in
maintenance of learning behaviors over time, the transfer of learning behaviors to new
context, and more independence in exercise of such behaviors.
There is a third-wave literature that is characterized by the belief that behavior is
affected by cognition rather than consequences of one own actions (Stipek, J.K. 2002).
Broussard, S.C. and Garrison, M. E.B. (2006), observe that contemporary motivation
research tends to be organized around three questions:
suggests that students attempt to maximize their self-worth and will protect a sense of
competence by making casual attributions that enhance their sense of competency and
control.
Do I want to do this task and why?
Under this category Broussard, S.C. and Garrison, M.E.B. (2004) includes
expectancy-value theories, intrinsic theories and self-determination theory.
One strand of this literature focuses on the values individuals hold for participating in
various types of activities. (Eccles and Wigfield, 2002). Values are incentives or reasons
for engaging in an activity. The value of a given task or activity has four components:
attainment value, which refers to personal value of doing well on a task; intrinsic value,
which refers to subjective interest or enjoyment of performing a task; utility value, which
refers to the extent to which task completion is perceived to facilitate current or future
goals; and cost which refers to the negative aspects of engaging in a given task, such as
anxiety and fear of failure. (Eccles and Wigfield, 2002).
Idea of intrinsic motivation is related to intrinsic value. Intrinsic motivation refers
to the personal enjoyment, interest or pleasure and is usually contrasted with extrinsic
motivation, which is motivated by reinforcement contingencies. (Guay et al., 2010).
Manipulation of extrinsic motivation can either be tangible i.e. money, grades or
privileges or intangible i.e. praise etc.
Another aspect is self-determination theory, which distinguishes several types of
regulatory mechanisms that can act as reinforcement. External regulation corresponds to
lowest level of self-determination, where behavior is motivated by a desire for reward or
punishment avoidance. Finally, under integrated regulation, the regulator is actually
consistent with an individuals other values and needs and becomes part of ones selfidentity. This latter type of regulation is closely related to intrinsic motivation. (Guay et
al., 2010). Educators typically consider intrinsic motivation to be more desirable than
extrinsic motivation, and some research suggests that the learning outcomes of intrinsic
motivation are far better than those obtained under extrinsic motivation. (Ryan, R.M. &
Plant, R.W. 2000).
example, the student must have access, ability, and interest and value education. The
teacher must be well trained, must focus and monitor the educational process, be
dedicated and responsive to his or her students and be inspirational. The content must be
accurate, timely, stimulating and pertinent to the students current and future needs. The
method or process must be very inventive, encouraging, interesting, beneficial, and
provide tools that can be applied to the students real life. The environment needs to be
very accessible, safe, positive, personalized as much as possible, and empowering.
Motivation is optimized when students are exposed to a large number of these motivating
experiences and variables on regular basis in the classroom. (Palmer, 2007).
According to Montalvo, G.P. (2005) students benefits more motivational benefits
from teachers they like over teacher they dislike. An effective teacher is the one who
exercise professional judgment in classroom to attain clearly expressed goals. Following
are several essentials that a teacher can utilize to get students more motivated in
classroom:
According to Finegan, T. (2006). Students usually perform better if they are
a. Educated in the smaller schools where they are well known, b. have smaller class
sizes, c. Receive a challenging curriculum, and d. Have teacher with greater expertise and
experience. According to Darling-Hammond, L (2000), year the curriculum quality and
teacher skills makes more difference to the educational outcomes than initial test scores
or racial backgrounds of the students. Teacher skills include staying calm, eliminating
negative thoughts or feelings, disengaging stress, remembering that students have their
own realities and are doing their best, not taking students actions personally,
remembering that students are not bad rather than just in the process of development, and
maintaining a sense of humor. (Whistler, J. 2003).
Tippins, M. J. (2002) states that Almost everything teachers do in the classroom
has a motivational affect on students, either positive or negative. This includes the way
information is presented, the kinds of activities teachers use in classroom, the way
teachers interacts with students, the amount of choice and control given to the students
and opportunities for students to work alone or in groups has also great impact on the
students performance. Students react to who teachers are, what they do and how
comfortable they feel in classroom. (Olson, 2005).
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Use smiles.
Be genuine.
Walk around the room and give students an occasional pat on the back or give
them an okay sign as appropriate.
According to McGlynn, A.P. (2008). For the effective in the classroom know your
students and build on their strengths. Hence, a teacher must use the strengths students
bring in the classroom. For example, Gen Y individuals like group activities and want to
learn information relevant to their lives and that can make a difference in the world. That
is, experiential and service learning programs could be very effective with this group in
that it requires a shift from teacher driven and content centered learning to seeing the
classroom as student-centered and process driven. Collaborative learning is effective with
Gen Y. It is important to teach the students how to find the information and also to
evaluate validity of the information. (McGlynn, 2008).
According to MacGrath, (2005). Relationships are at the heart of teaching since
its an activity based on communication. Hence, for the students to be motivated in the
classroom its essential for teacher constructive relationship with his/her students. Such
relationship must be based upon trust, treat everyone all the time with respect, be in
charge, leading students towards achievement, working together, showing you can listen
and accept what the students says. Moreover, empathy can also help to build a trusting
student-teacher relationship. (MacGrath, M. 2005; p. 157).
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Teach them how to use information to make proper decisions for real life.
According to Alderman, M.K. (2000). Two basic approaches are essential for
the cultivation of effective motivation in classroom a. creating a classroom structure and
institutional method that provides the environment for optimal motivation, engagement
and learning; and b. helping the students to develop the tools that will enable him or her
to be self-regulated. According to Deniels, E. (2010). Students motivation will eventually
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rise and students will always be motivated to learn if the teacher utilizes the following
different strategies and methodologies:
Using mutual goals and objectives that will promote continuous improved
performance of the students.
Using positive social interactions also have a great impact on the students
motivation in classroom because when students will have more positive
social interactions, they will become more engaged in learning.
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Use of real-life experiences through out that are varied in scope and field of
application,
Encouraging critical thinking e.g., (what do you mean, what if, what works /does
not works, and how would you,).
CONCLUSION
Hence, motivation refers to those reasons that underlie behavior that is
characterized by willingness and volition. Intrinsic motivation is motivation that is
animated by personal enjoyment, interest or pleasure. Researchers often contrast intrinsic
motivation with extrinsic motivation, which is motivation governed by reinforcement
contingencies. Traditionally educators consider intrinsic motivation to be more desirable
and to result in better learning outcomes than extrinsic motivation.
Motivation involves a constellation of closely related beliefs, perceptions, values,
interests and actions of individuals. For example, self-efficacy is an individuals
perceived competency in an area, and people tends to be more motivated to participate in
the activities at which they excel. A persons perceptions of control over their own
successes and failures are known as attributions with certain types of attributions more
likely to stimulate motivation than others. In particular, attributing failure to lack of effort
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is more motivating than attributing failure to lack of ability, whereas the opposite is true
for successful performance. Values are incentives or reasons for engaging in certain
activities, with intrinsic values more likely to foster persistence and effort than attainment
values. An interest also increases motivation. Interest may be situational or individual
interest. Individual interest is a trait that is developed with respect to a topic. However,
situational interest is immediate, affective, and transitory and reflects certain
environmental factors such as task characteristics. Individual interest is believed to foster
greater long term persistence than situational interest. Finally, persons goals are related
to his or her for engaging with a task. Mastery goals focus on learning for sake of
learning. Performance goals refer to excelling in relation to others. Students holding
mastery goals are more likely than those holding performance goals to have high selfefficacy, to prefer effort attributions, to persist at challenging tasks, and to use cognitive
strategies associated with self-regulated learning. Such strategies involves in setting
achievable goals, monitoring ones performance, evaluating progress, and framing
successes and failures with respect to effort and ability.
Above all are different motivational theories and their use depends on the goals
and needs of learning in classroom context. However, generally there are five essential
contributing in motivation of students in classroom i.e. student, teacher, environment,
methods of teaching and content to teach. More important factors contribute the teaching
strategies and techniques used by teacher in the classroom context. Even everything that
the teachers do in the classroom have motivational affect on students, either positive or
negative that is, the way information is presented, the kinds of activities teachers use in
classroom, the way teachers interacts with students, the amount of choice and control
given to the students and opportunities for students to work alone or in groups has also
great impact on the students performance. Students respond to who teachers are, what
they do and how comfortable they feel in classroom. Moreover, for the students to be
motivated in the classroom its essential for teacher constructive relationship with his/her
students. When the teacher is more enthusiastic about a topic students will eventually be
more motivated to learn a topic. Hence, the teachers need to be more careful about their
actions while teaching in classroom.
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Moreover, two basic approaches are essential for the cultivation of effective
motivation in classroom: A. creating a classroom structure and institutional method that
provides the environment for optimal motivation, engagement and learning; and
B. helping the students to develop the tools that will enable him or her to be selfregulated. Classroom environment also contributes for effective motivation of students to
learn. Environment of the classroom must be of quality or caliber that contributes to the
motivation of the students. For example, if an environment is not safe, it is difficult and
may be even unwise to put all of your attention on learning. On the other hand, an
environment of openness and autonomy to learn from mistakes can promote motivation
to learn. The environment can be physical as well as mental, emotional and even spiritual
in some regard.
Above all factors contribute in motivation of students in classroom. May be educators
could start just by choosing and trying three new possibilities for enriching student
motivation or may be they could just watch themselves and their own behaviors to
become self-aware of new understandings about motivation.
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REFERENCES
Alderman, M.K. (2000). Motivation for Achievement: Possibilities for Teaching and Learning,
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Publishers.
Ames, C. (2002). Classrooms: Goals, structure and student motivation. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 84(3), 261-271.
Bandura, A. (2000). Self-Efficacy mechanism in human agency. American Psychologist, 37(2),
122-147.
Broussard, S.C. & Garrison, M. E. B. (2004). The relationship between classroom motivation
and academic achievement in elementary school-aged children. Family and Consumer
Sciences Research Journal, 33(2), 106-120.
Deniels, E. (2010). Creating Motivating Learning Environment: What we can learn from
researchers and students. English Journal, 100(1), 25-29.
Darling- Hammond, L. (2000). Unequal Opportunity: Race and Education. Brookings Review,
16(2), 28-32.
Deci, E.L., Koester, R. & Ryan, R.M. (2000). A Meta- analytic review of experiments examining
the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 123(6),
627-668.
Doran, J. (2002). Helping Students to Succeed. Pennsylvania. CPA Journal, 69(4), 43.
Eccles, J.S. & Wigfield, A. (2002). Motivational beliefs, values and goals. Annual Review of
Psychology, 53,109-132.
Finegan, T. (2006). Do Introductory Economics Students Learn More If their Instructor Has a
Ph. D American Economist, 42(2), 3-33.
Gottfried, A.E., Fleming, J. S. & Gottfried, A.W.(2002). Continuity of academic intrinsic
motivation from childhood through late adolescence. A longitudinal study. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 93(1), 3-13.
Guay, F., Chanal, J., Ratelle, C. F., Marsh, H. W, & Boivin, M. (2010). Intrinsic, identified and
controlled types of motivation for school subjects in young elementary school children.
British Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(4), 711-735.
Lengnick, Hall, C. and Sanders, M. (2007). Designing Effective Learning Systems for
Management Education. Academy of Management. Journal, 40(6), 1334-1368.
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Zimmerman, B.J. (2007). Influencing childrens self-efficacy and self-regulation of reading and
writing through modeling. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 23(1), 7-25.