Definition: Transformer is a static piece of equipment used either

for raising or lowering the voltage of ac supply with a

corresponding decrease or inverse in current.
EMF Equation:
E1 = 4.44 f N1 (Phi m)
E2 = 4.44 f N2 (Phi m)
Resistance in transformer winding:
Rp = Rp+Rs/K2
Rs = Rs+K2*Rp
where k is transformer ratio K= E1/E2 = V1/V2 = N1/N2 = I1/I2
Equivalent circuit:

Faults and effects in transformer

Over current: insulation life, temp. rises, mech. stress
over voltages : insulation cable connection to over head
lines
external faults : all above
losses:
1. copper losses: these occur due to resistance in winding & also
eddy currents in conductor. these losses are prop. to the square of
load current.
2. Iron losses: these occur due to hystersis & eddy current in the
core. these losses are constant irrespective of the load current.
the iron losses depends upon the supplying freq., max. flux density
in core, volume of core etc
Voltage regulation:
= (Vnoload - Vload)*100 / (Vnoload)
Efficiency:
= output / (output +losses)
= output / (output + copper losses +iron losses)

 for max. eff. of transformer

variable copper loss = constant iron losses

Transformer test:
1. open circuit or no load test:
from this test we concluded iron losses. open ckt test made on low
voltage winding.
2. Short ckt or impedance test:
from this we conclude the copper losses. equivalent resistant &
impedance can also be calculated. this test made high voltage
winding.
Parallel operation of transformer:
the voltage ratio should be the same
the polarity should be the same
the percentage impedance should be equal
the phase sequence should be same
the vector diagram should be same
the phase displacement should be the same:
Source of transformer:
magnetostriction
mech. vibration of lamination due to magnetic force
mech: vibration of tank
damping
Types of transformer:
core type transformer
shell type transformer
Impedance ratio:
Z1/Z2 = K2 =(V2/V1)2 = (I1/I2)
a resistance (R1) in primary becomes R1*K2 when transferred
to sec.
a resistance (R2) in sec. becomes R2/(K)2 when transferred
to primary
a reactance (X1) in primary becomes X1*K2 when transferred
to sec.
a reactance (X2) in sec. becomes X2/K2 when transferred to
primary.

Important Points
freq. does not change in an ordinary transformer
the material used in the construction of core is usually
silicon steel
high thermal conductivity is not necessary desirable for
material of transformer core.
eddy current loss can be minimized by laminating the core of
transformer
iron loss in transformer occurs in core
under no load condition copper loss is negligible
open ckt test of transformer gives iron loss
short ck test of transformer gives copper loss
back to back test on transformer provides information about
regulation eff. & heating
in transformer for condition of max. eff. copper loss =
iron loss
the eff. of well designed transformer may be expected as 95
to 99%
in a power transformer low voltage winding is closer to core.
eddy current losses in a transformer can be reduced by
reducing the thickness of lamination
transformer oil must be free from moisture.
when Rs is the resistance of sec. winding of transformer & K
is the transformer ratio of the eq. sec. resistance as compared to
primary side is Rs / K2
in a transformer magnetic coupling b/w primary & sec. ckts
can be increased by using the magnetic core of low reluctance.
if flux density in the core of transformer increased size of
the transformer can be reduced.
in induced e.m.f on the sec. side of transformer depends on
freq. flux & no. of turns
copper loss in a transformer varies significantly with load.
the P.F. of transformer depends on the P.F. of load
at no load the current taken by a transformer lags behind
the applied voltage by 80 or 90 degree
if the secondary of a 1:10 step up transformer connected to
the primary of a 1:5 step up transformer the total transformation
ratio will be : 1:50
winding of transformer is subjected to max. heating
a 1600kva, 200hz transformer is operated at 50hz. its kva
rating should be restricted : 400kva
the permissible max. temp. for different classes

Y:90, A:105; E:120; B:130;

F:155; H: 180; C>180.
leakage fluxes in a transformer may be minimized by
sectionalizing interleaving the primary & sec. winding
in transformer the chemical contained inside the breather is
silica gel
a transformer having 100 turns of primary side is applied
with 200v, ac in order to get 400v, ac on sec. side the no of turns
on sec. side :200
for transformer if the full load copper losses are A and
iron losses are B then the load at which these two losses will be
equal is sq.rt.(B/A)
a step up transformer increases voltages
in step down transformer secondary turns are less than
primary turns
a transformer has a full load iron loss of 900w & copper
loss of 1600w. At what percent of load transformer will have max.
eff. : 75%
power transformer are usually designed to have max. eff.
near full load.
distribution transformer are usually designed to have max.
eff. near 50% load.
iron losses of transformer can be app: calculated if the
weight of core & yoke is known.
in high freq. transformer ferrite cores are used.
in a transformer it is difficult to measure the eff. by out
put- input measurement method b/c efficiency of transformer is
usually high and have extremely accurate measurement will be
necessary.
the leakage flux in a transformer depends upon full load
current
noise level test on a transformer is type test.
routine test is conducted on all transformer in
manufacturing concerning
the color of fresh dielectric oil for a transformer is pale
yellow
a transformer will have highest eff. near 93% of rated load.
a 1kva transformer at full load will have copper losses
greater than iron losses
in a transformer if peak voltage is fed to primary the iron
loss will be less.
in a transformer the copper loss at half load as compared to

full load will be: one forth

the path of magnetic flux in a transformer should be
reluctance
the desirable properties of transformer core material are
high permeability and low hystersis loss
the function of transformer oil in a transformer is to
provide insulation & cooling
full load copper loss in a transformer is 1600w at half load
loss will be: 400w
a transformer working under the conditions of max. eff. has
total losses of 1600w, while operating at half load, the copper
loss:200w
a transformer has full load copper loss of 800w and core
loss of 600w total losses at no-load: 600w
a Buchloz relay is used on oil cooled transformer
Buchloz relay is generally not provided on transformer below
500kva
operating time of Buchloz relay is 0.1 sec
in distribution transformer normally core losses are less
than copper loss
a Buchloz relay will operate in transformer when ever there
is large internal fault.
HRC fuses on a transformer provides protection against
external fault
horn gaps acts as a protection against high voltage surges
due to lightning & switching.
in a transformer open ckt test is conducted on low voltage
side & short ckt test on high voltage side.
in a power transformer no load current is usually : 2 to 5%
of load current
for a transformer operating at constant load current max.
eff. will occur at unity P.F.
the function of conservation in transformer is to take care
of expanses & construction of oil.
the function of breather in a transformer is to arrest flow
of moisture into tank.
the eff. of a 430/220v transformer at full load 0.8 P.F.
lagging is 95%, the eff. at full load 0.8P.F. leading will be :95%
air natural cooled transformer are used up to max. capacity
of about 1.5mva
O.N.A.N. method of cooling is capable of dissipating max.
heat of transformer

 a good voltage regulation of transformer means output

voltage punctuation from no load to full load is least
class H of insulation can with stand the highest temp.
class Y had least max. allowable temp.
a transformer can have zero voltage regulation at leading
P.F.
the leakage impedance of primary & sec. winding of a
transformer are (3+J4)ohm & (1+j4)ohm resp. it can be concluded that
the transformer has low voltage secondary
the color of dry silica gel is pale pink
the color of moist silica gel is blue
if full load copper losses of transformer is 800w, its
copper loss at 75%load will be : 450w
the secondary of C.T is always short ckted under operating
conditions b/c it avoids core saturation & high voltage inductance
the main advantage of an auto transformer over a two winding
transformer is that: only one winding is used as result there is
substantial saving immaterial.
Auto transformer is used when the transformation ratio is
small.
in a auto transformer effective coppering & copper loss will
occur when the transformation ratio is nearly equal to 1.
an auto transformer has only one winding.
if the transformer core is made of copper than eddy current
losses will be more.
for an ideal transformer the winding should have no ohmic
resistance in either side.
if ohmic resistance of winding of transformer is zero the
copper loss will be zero.
if the sec. of a 5:1 step down transformer is connected to
primary of a 10:1 step down transformer the total step down ratio of
transformation will be : 50:1
3 to 3 phase transformer connection possible for parallel
operation is delta-star to delta-star & not possible for parallel
operation of star-delta to delta-delta.
when transformer operates under no load condition the
current will lags behind voltage by about 75
oil impregnated paper condenser bushing is generally used on
transformer operating at 132kv.
simple porcelain bushing are closed for transformer up to
11kv
mica can with stand the highest temp. safely.

 cellulose is the most inferior insulating material.

if a transformer core is made of copper & coils are made of
steel wire than copper losses in the winding will be more.
friction loss in the transformer is zero even at full load.
in a step up transformer the e.m.f per turn-on primary
winding is the same as e.m.f per turn of winding on sec. winding
1 tesla = 1 wb./m2
as a general rule the kva rating ratio of a transformer
operating in parallel should be within 3:1
if two transformer not having the same percentage impedance
are connected in parallel for sharing a load then load sharing of
transformer will not be prop. to kva rating.
max. value of flux is involved in the e.m.f equation of
transformer.
harmonics currents in a transformer increasing I*I*R loss &
core loss and also magnetic interference with protective relay.
core saturation is the most likely source of harmonics in a
transformer
the noise produced by a transformer is termed as hum.
form factor is given by : (rms value)/(average value)
a 100w, 220v incandescent bulb is connected in series with
the primary of 220v, 20kva transformer. when the sec. of transformer
is open ckted the bulb will glow with less than normal brightness.
in Scott connections the main transformer has centre tap on
both primary & sec. windings.
a tap changer is used on a transformer for adjustment in
sec. voltage
over current in a transformer affects: insulation life,
temp. rise & mech. stress
an insulating material in transformer may fall due to dust
moisture, voids in windings.
in transformer the tapings are usually provided on high
voltage
a C.T> can be used with : Ammeter, wattmeter & watt hour
meter
burden of C.T. is usually expressed in volt-amperes
breather, conservator & Buchloz relay are fittings on
transformer.
high dielectric loss is not the desirable property of
insulating material in transformer.
the reluctance of transformer depends on leakage flux
if the freq. of supply voltage is doubled eddy current loss

will increase
transformer ratings are usually expressed in terms of kva
in transformer max. voltage regulation occurs when the P.F.
of load is lagging
the regulation of good transformer should be neared 1%
in step up transformer: F1/F2 ratio has value of 1%
in transformer main voltage regulation occurs when P.F. of
load is leading.
in large capacity transformer 5% of turns at the ends of
high voltage winding are provided with extra insulation to provide
protection due to surged occurring during switching operations
Buchloz relay is used in transformer protection
the hum in a transformer mainly attributed to
magnetostriction
the sec. line current will be least for delta-star connection
the sec. line current will be max. for star-delta connection
impedance matching transformer are used for measuring low
voltage & low currents
the relative polarity of windings of transformer is
determined by phasing out
a transformer has input voltage of 100v, at 400hz. if the
no. of turns is 375, the peak value of flux will be 150 Uwb.
in a transformer on no load the input voltage leads the
magnetizing current by 90
in a transformer the voltage induced in the sec. winding
lags flux by 90.
winding relation is likely to suffer max. damage due to
excessive temp. rise
low reluctance magnetic core will improve the mutual
capacity b/w primary &sec. ckts.
the max. load that power transformer can carry is limited by
its voltage ratio
the load voltage is decreased if the input freq. is
increased
when the flux density in transformer core is increased than
size of transformer can be reduced
conservator will not be found in an air cooled transformer
the inductive reactance of transformer depends on leakage
flux
the harmonics current does not effect the sec. voltage
the characteristics of a voltage transformer are voltage
remaining constant varies with load

 the magnetizing current of transformer is usually small b/c

it has small air gap.
in dry type transformer accusation of dust on the windings
and core is likely to cause reduction in heat dissipation
the no load current is 1-3% of rated primary current.