Dictionary of Terms

Dictionary of Terms
Iqtidar ul Hassan
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Dictionary of Terms
Iqtidar ul Hassan
EDPR 8561
Dr. Mitsunori Misawa
LEAD, HIAD
University of Memphis
08/02/2016
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Advocacy Research
This theme developed from an impassioned concern for the inequity and needs
of individuals in lower social classes, of women and certain racial groups such as African
Americans and Hispanic.
Creswell, J. W. (2002). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating
quantitative. New Jersey: Upper Saddle River.
Advocacy research is intended to assist in advocacy, that is, efforts to assemble
and use information and resources to bring about improvements in peoples lives. Nonadvocacy research may also produce findings useful to advocates, but advocacy research
has this goal as its raison dtre.
Weiler, M. T., & Sherraden, M. (1994). Classroom and advocacy: A project on the
working poor in St. Louis. Journal of Community Practice, 1(1), 99.
Advocacy Researcher
Advocacy researchers are not objective, authoritative, or politically neutral.
Advocacy Researchers see qualitative research as a civic responsibility.
Norman K. Denzin, & Yvonna S. Lincoln. (2005). The Sage handbook of qualitative
research. Sage.
Aesthetics
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It is a renovated human conduct and the social and political arrangements that
would encourage such conduct.
Crotty, M. (1998). The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the
research process. Sage.
Aesthetic is derived from the Greek aisthanomai, meaning perception by means
of the senses. It refers to two interrelated areas: the philosophy of art and the philosophy
of aesthetic experience. The philosophy of art grapples with the question of what
constitutes art. The philosophy of aesthetic experience grapples with the nature of
encounters with the arts, including artifacts and phenomena (e.g., nature) that possess
aspects susceptible to aesthetic appreciation.
Given, L. M. (2008). The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods: AL; Vol.
2, MZ Index. SAGE.
Aesthetic-Based Research
Aesthetic-based inquiry, a genre that is based on the contributions that the
processes and products of aesthetics can make to research, is grounded within a complex,
traditionally antagonistic relationship between the two constructs of aesthetics and
research.
2, MZ Index. SAGE.
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Agency
Human agency is very similar to the notion of free will in that agency may be
understood as the capacity to exercise creative control over individual-level thoughts and
actions. The assumption is that humans are imbued with free will and, as such, routinely
exercise agency within the domain of their personal choices as well as in the social and
political realm.
Hume, D. (1978). A Treatise of Human Nature, 1739, 2d edition of 1888, edited by LA
Selby Bigge, revised by PH Nidditch.
Analytic Induction
Rather than beginning with a theory, an explanation, or an interpretation and then
seeking evidence to confirm, dis- confirm, or otherwise test it in a deductive mode,
inductive thinking starts with evidencethe particularsand builds theories,
explanations, and interpretations to reflect or represent those particulars.
Znaniecki, F. (1934). Analytic induction. In F. Znaniecki (Ed.), The method of sociology
(pp. 249331). New York: Farrar & Rinehart.
Anonymity
Anonymity means that a research participants identity and responses cannot be
identified.
2, MZ Index. SAGE.
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Appreciative Inquiry
Appreciative inquiry (AI) is a deliberate search for the positive core of an
individual or collective system. It rests on a belief that there is something that works in
every system. This goodness can be identified and drawn out. AI, then, is an inquiry into
what is valued and good about the individual or collective system.
Given, L. M. (Ed.). (2008). The Sage encyclopedia of qualitative research methods. (pp.
21) Sage Publications.
Artifact Analysis
Artifacts become data through the questions posed about them and the meanings
assigned to them by the researcher. There is no one right way to analyze artifacts. A wide
range of disciplines informs the analysis of artifacts, including anthropology,
archaeology, art history, history, human geography, ethnography, and sociology. In the
process of analysis, we are asking the data to tell us something.
Glesne, C. (2006). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction (3rd ed.). Boston:
Pearson Education.
Audience
Consists of individuals who will read and potentially use information provided in
a research study. Audience will vary depending on the nature of study, but several often
considered by educators include researchers, practitioners, policy makers, and individuals
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participating in the studies.

Throughout the lengthy history of qualitative research and evaluation, inquiry
and writing processes have been engaged in with one primary audience in mind:
researchers and academics within particular fields under study. Secondary audiences have
occasionally included the participants/informants who are the focus of the research and,
for research designed with a cathartic or self-therapeutic end in mind (e.g., some
autoethnography), the researchers themselves.
Given, L. M. (Ed.). (2008). The Sage encyclopedia of qualitative research methods. Sage
Publications.
Authenticity
In establishing authenticity, researchers seek reassurance that both the conduct
and evaluation of research are genuine and credible not only in terms of participants
lived experiences but also with respect to the wider political and social implications of
research.
Publications.
Authority
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Authority within qualitative research refers to the claims that actors within the
research process, notably the researcher, make so as to speak/write in the way they do
about the social process or phenomenon being studied.
Wolf, M. (1992). A thrice-told tale: Feminism, postmodernism, and ethnographic
responsibility. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Autobiography
It is a narrative account written and recorded by the individual who is the subject
of the study.
The specific kind of text that results from the first-person interpretive
reconstruction of either a life in its entirety or a significant portion of it, with the aim not
merely of recounting what happened when but also of understanding, from the vantage
point of the current time, the meaning and movement of the past.
Publications.
Autoethnography
Autoethnography refers to ethnographic research, writing, story, and method that
connect the autobiographical and personal to the cultural, social, and political. In
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autoethnography, the life of the researcher becomes a conscious part of what is studied.
Ellis, C. (2004). The ethnographic I: A methodological novel about autoethnography.
Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira.
Axiology
Axiology, or value theory, represents an attempt to bring the disparate discussion
of values under a single heading, covering a wide area of critical analysis and debate that
includes truth, utility, goodness, beauty, right conduct, and obligation.
Norman K. Denzin, & Yvonna S. Lincoln. (2005). The Sage handbook of qualitative
research. Sage.
Bias
Bias refers to a predisposition or partiality. In qualitative research, bias involves
influences that compromise accurate sampling, data collection, data interpretation, and
the reporting of findings.
Publications.
Bracketing
Phenomenology requires us to engage with the phenomena in our world and
make sense of them directly and immediately. What about the understanding that we are
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already saddled with? These have to be bracketed to the best of our ability to let the
experience of phenomena speak to us.
At its core, bracketing is a scientific process where a researcher suspends or
holds in abeyance his or her presuppositions, biases, assumptions, theories, or previous
experiences to see and describe the essence of a specific phenomenon. This process
allows a focused researcher to observe the unfiltered phenomenon as it is at its essence,
without the influence of our natural attitudeindividual and societal constructions,
presumptions, and assumptions.
Publications.
Bricolage And Bricoleur
It has been described as the jack of all trades, or a kind of professional do-ityourself person.
Case Study
It is a variation of ethnography in that the researcher provides an in-depth
exploration of a bounded system (e.g., an activity, an event, a process, or an individual)
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based on extensive data collection.

A case study is a research approach in which one or a few instances of a
phenomenon are studied in depth.
Publications.
Categories
These are themes of basic information identified in the data by the researcher
and used to understand a process.
Categories are analytic units developed by qualitative researchers to
conceptually organize findings related to a phenomenon or human experience that is
under investigation.
Publications.
Clinical Research
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Clinical research can be defined as research that is related to experiences and

descriptions of individual and interpersonal problems, transition, and change. This
includes social science and medical science studies of human behavior and interactions,
cognition, and somatic experiences from a variety of perspectives.
Publications.
Closed Question
Questions posed by the researcher in which the participant responds to present response
options
A closed question is a type of question posed by researchers to participants in
research projects that specifies the parameters within which participants can frame their
answers. Closed questions typically pro- vide possible responses in the questions.
Publications.
Co-Constructed Narrative
Co-constructed narratives are stories jointly constructed by relational partners
about epiphanies in their lives.
Bochner, A., & Ellis, C. (1995). Telling and living: Narrative co-construction and the
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practices of interpersonal relationships. In W. Leeds-Hurwitz (Ed.),

Communication as social construction: Social approaches to the study of
interpersonal interaction (pp. 201213). New York: Guilford.
Codes And Coding

Codes are labels used to describe a segment of text or an image and coding is a
qualitative research process in which the researcher makes sense out of a text data,
divides it into text or image segments, labels the segments, examines codes for overlap
and redundancy, and collapse these codes into themes.
Creswell, John W. "Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating
quantitative." New Jersey: Upper Saddle River (2002).
Codes refer to concepts and their identification through explicit criteria.
Publications.
Cognitive Interview
Cognitive interviewing encompasses a variety of approaches for eliciting
qualitative data on how participants interpret and respond to a wide variety of situations.
Publications.
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Concept Mapping
Concept mapping creates a visual representation of the relationships among a set
of targeted topics.
Publications.
Conceptual Ordering
Conceptual ordering is a method of organizing data into discrete categories by
assessing the datas properties or underlying meanings and then using these properties to
categorize the data into groups.
Publications.
Confirmability
Consistent with the practices of the selected qualitative methodology used, the
researcher interprets the participant expressions through a coding or meaning-making
process. In this coding process, the researcher is looking for messages that are consistent
with, confirm, or expand on current knowledge and theory.
Publications.
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Constant Comparison
It is inductive data analysis procedures in the grounded theory research of
generating and connecting categories by comparing incidents in the data to other
incidents, incidents to categories, and categories to other categories.
Constant comparison is the process used by the researcher in the collection and
analysis of data for a grounded theory. This entry describes the process of constant
comparison and the functions of record keeping, coding, comparison with existing
literature, and sorting as elements in the development of a grounded theory.
Publications.
Constructivism
There is no objective truth waiting for us to discover it. Truth or meaning comes
into existence in and out of out engagement with the realities in our world.
Ontological and epistemological views in the constructivism paradigm disallow
the existence of an external objective reality independent of an individual from which
knowledge may be collected or gained. Instead, each individual constructs knowledge
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and his or her experience through social interaction.

Publications.
Content Analysis
Content analysis is the intellectual process of categorizing qualitative textual
data into clusters of similar entities, or conceptual categories, to identify consistent
patterns and relationships between variables or themes.
Publications.
Context And Contextuality
In ethnography it is the setting, situation, or environment that surrounds the
cultural-sharing group being studied.
Central to most forms of qualitative inquiry is the idea that human actions, of
whatever kind, can be properly understood only in contextthat by their very nature they
are situated.
Publications.
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Convenience Sample
Participants who are available and willing to be studied
A convenience sample can be defined as a sample in which research participants
are selected based on their ease of availability.
Publications.
Convergent Interviewing
CI aims to collect, analyze, and interpret peoples experiences, opinions,
attitudes, beliefs, and knowledge that converge around a set of interviews.
Publications.
Conversational Interviewing
Conversational interviewing is an approach used by research interviewers to
generate verbal data through talking about specified topics with research participants in
an informal and conversational way.
Publications.
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Core Category
In grounded theory research it is the central category around which the theory is
written
The terminology varies, and a core category may sometimes be referred to or
indexed as a core theme, core meaning, core variable, or central category. A core category
is the main theme, storyline, or process that subsumes and integrates all lower level
categories in a grounded theory, encapsulates the data efficiently at the most abstract
level, and is the category with the strongest explanatory power.
Publications.
Counternarrative
In their broadest formulation, counternarratives are stories/narratives that splinter
widely accepted truths about people, cultures, and institutions as well as the value of
those institutions and the knowledge produced by and within those cultural institutions.
Publications.
Covert Observation
Covert observation is a particular type of participant observation in which the
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identity of the researcher, the nature of the research project, and the fact that participants
are being observed are concealed from those who are being studied. Investigators using
covert observation adopt the research role of complete participant.
Publications.
Credibility
The basic notion with credibility is that both the readers and participants must be
able to look at the research design and have it make sense to them.
Publications.
Critical Theory
A coherent body of thoughts on the social phenomena through a conflict
perspective.
Critical theory looks at, exposes, and questions hegemonytraditional power
assumptions held about relationships, groups, communities, societies, and organizations
to promote social change. Combined with action research, critical theory questions the
assumed power that researchers typically hold over the people they typically research.
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Publications.
Critical Discourse Analysis
Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is a theoretical approach to studying the role
of language in society that originated within linguistics but has found wide- spread
application across the social sciences. The term is also sometimes used to refer only to
the methodological framework of CDA that centers on the qualitative linguistic analysis
of spoken or written texts.
Publications.
Critical Ethnography
A type of ethnographic research in which the author has an interest in advocating
for the emancipation of groups marginalized in the society
Critical ethnography shares the methods of traditional ethnography, such as by
seeking the emic perspective gained through intense fieldwork, but it adds an explicit
political focus.
Publications.
Critical Race Theory
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Critical race theory (CRT) is a theoretical perspective that purposely centers race
and racism in its analysis. It considers racism to be the central reason for racial inequality
in the United States. In CRT, racism is defined as a structure embedded in society that
systematically advantages Whites and disadvantages people of color.
Publications.
Cross-Cultural Research
Cross-cultural researchers examine differences and similarities between different
groups in society. A concern with culture and cross-cultural research permeates a range of
disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, sociolinguistics, cultural studies, and
social work.
Publications.
Cultural Context
In ethnography it is the setting, situation, or environment that surrounds the culturalsharing group being studied.
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Cultural context consists of the broad background of beliefs and practices that
guide the behaviors of both the researcher and research participants.
Publications.
Data
The term data refers to a collection of information. A more detailed definition
includes types of data that combine to be the collected information such as numbers,
words, pictures, video, audio, and concepts. Many definitions of data include the word
fact, or facts, but this implies an inference about the data and not the data themselves.
Publications.
Deconstruction
A process that is universally and radically critical, anti-essentialist, and fiercely
committed to breaking down traditional antinomies such as reason/emotion,
beautiful/ugly, self/other, and the conventional boundaries between established
disciplines.
Diaries And Journals
Diaries are generally used to track participants daily activities and objective
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experiences, whereas journals capture writing that includes emotion, introspection, and
self-reflection. This entry explores ways in which both diaries and journals can be used
effectively in qualitative research projects.
Publications.
Discourse
Discourse, in the most general sense, is the study of language as it is used in
society expressed either through conversations or in documents.
Publications.
Discursive Practice
It is used more loosely in a wide range of analytic work that is often described as
Foucauldian discourse analysis. It also has a technical sense in conversation analysis.
Publications.
Duoethnography
Duoethnography is a relatively new research genre that has its genealogy
embedded in two narrative research traditions: storytelling and William Pinars concept
of currere. Its approach is to study how two or more individuals give similar and
different meanings to a common phenomenon as it was experienced throughout their
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lives.
Publications.
Embodied Knowledge
Embodied knowledge situates intellectual and theoretical insights within the
realm of the material world.
Publications.
Emergent Design
The process in which the researcher collects data, immediately analyses it rather
than waiting until all data are collected, and bases the decision about what data to collect
next on this analysis.
Emergent design involves data collection and analysis procedures that can evolve over
the course of a research project in response to what is learned in the earlier parts of the
study.
Publications.
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Empiricism
The central claim of empiricism is that experience is the foundation of
knowledge and that the project of gaining access to a reality other than experience is
problematic.
Publications.
Epistemology
Epistemology deals with the nature of knowledge and embodies a certain
understanding of what is entailed in knowing, that is how we know what we know.
The theory or science of the method and ground of knowledge. It is a core area
of philosophical study that includes the sources and limits, rationality and justification of
knowledge.
Publications.
Essentialism
Essentialism is the philosophical doctrine that certain properties of an object or a concept
are necessary or essential rather than contingent or accidental.
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Publications.
Ethnodrama
An ethnodrama is the written transformation and adaptation of ethnographic
research data (e.g., interview transcripts, participant observation field-notes, journals,
documents, statistics) into a dramatic play-script staged as a live, public theatrical
performance.
Publications.
Ethnography
A qualitative procedure for describing, analyzing, and interpreting a cultural groups
shared patterns of behavior, beliefs and language that develop over time.
The ethnographer is interested in understanding and describing a social and
cultural scene from the emic or insiders perspective.
Publications.
Exploratory Research
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In the social sciences, the term exploratory research or exploration refers to

broad ranging, intentional, systematic data collection designed to maximize discovery of
generalizations based on description and direct understanding of an area of social or
psychological life.
Publications.
Feminist Epistemology
Feminist epistemology brings together the usual epistemological concerns such
as what constitutes knowledge and how it is constructed with the central issues of
feminist theory: gender as an analytic category.
Publications.
Grounded Theory
Systematic qualitative procedures that researchers use to generate a theory that
explains, at a broad conceptual level, a process, action, or interaction about a substantive
topic.
Grounded theory refers simultaneously to a method of qualitative inquiry and the
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products of that inquiry. Like most discussions of grounded theory, this entry emphasizes
the method of inquiry. As such, the grounded theory method consists of a set of
systematic, but flexible, guidelines for conducting inductive qualitative inquiry aimed
toward theory construction.
Publications.
Hermeneutics
From the Greek to interpret or to make clear, hermeneutics is the study of the
theory and the practice of understanding and interpretation. It is built on the assumption
that interpretation is not a straightforward activity even though people do it all the time
when they interact with others and the world.
Publications.
Heuristic Inquiry
The term heuristic derives from the Greek word heuriskein, which means to find
or discover, and is used by Moustakas to describe the process of an inner search for
knowledge, aimed at discovering the nature and meaning of an experience.
Publications.
Idealism
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Idealism as a systematic philosophy derives from thoughts reflecting on itself

and comparing the integral unity it discovers with the contingent and apparently
contradictory dynamics of the external material world. The outcome of this form of selfreflection is a conception of rational unity as the highest and most perfect form of reality.
The internal unity that thought discovers in itself is taken to be definitive of the essential
nature of reality as a whole.
Publications.
Institutional Ethnography
Institutional ethnography works from and with peoples everyday experience of
their lives.
Publications.
Interpretive Phenomenology
Interpretive phenomenology, also called hermeneutical phenomenology, is based
on the assumption that humans are interpretation through and through. Humans dwell in
the world with no capacity to be completely free of the world. Interpretive
phenomenology holds that there is no access to brute data (i.e., data containing no
presuppositions or pre-understandings).
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Publications.
Intersubjectivity
Intersubjectivity refers to shared understanding. Drawing on the philosophical
notion of subjectivity (i.e., that meaning is necessarily colored by ones experiences and
biases), intersubjectivity recognizes that meaning is based on ones position of reference
and is socially mediated through interaction. In other words, knowing is not simply the
product of individual minds in isolation.
Publications.
Lived Experience
Lived experience, as it is explored and understood in qualitative research, is a
representation and understanding of a researcher or research subjects human
experiences, choices, and options and how those factors influence ones perception of
knowledge.
Publications.
Memos And Memoing
These are notes the researcher writes throughout the research process to
elaborate on ideas about the data and the coded categories.
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Memoing is the act of recording reflective notes about what the researcher
(fieldworker, data coder, and/or analyst) is learning from the data. Memos accumulate as
written ideas or records about concepts and their relationships. They are notes by the
researcher to herself or himself about some hypothesis regarding a category or property
and especially relationships between categories.
Publications.
Narrative Analysis
Qualitative procedures in which researchers describe the lives of individuals.
Collect and tell stories about these individuals lives and write narrative about their
experience
Narrative analysis refers to a family of analytic methods for interpreting texts
that have in common a storied form. As in all families, there is conflict and disagreement
among those holding different perspectives. Analysis of data is only one component of
the broader field of narrative inquiry.
Publications.
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Objectivism
Objectivism is the notion that an objective reality exists and can be increasingly
known through the accumulation of more complete information.
Publications.
Ontology
In classical and speculative philosophy, ontology was the philosophical science of being.
Publications.
Ontology, Social
In this more restricted sense, ontology aims at providing general accounts of the
nature of social reality. Its practice is linked explicitly to the goal of avoiding a naive
(unreflective, uncritical) empiricism that would reduce the nature of social reality to that
which is disclosed by statistical and empirical methods of research.
Publications.
Paradigm
A paradigm is a set of assumptions and perceptual orientations shared by
members of a research community. Paradigms determine how members of research
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communities view both the phenomena their particular community studies and the
research methods that should be employed to study those phenomena.
Publications.
Phenomenography
Phenomenography is a research approach aimed at the study of variation of
human experiences of phenomena in the world.
Publications.
Phenomenology
The phenomena themselves as they present immediately to us as conscious
human being, laying aside our prevailing understanding of those phenomena.
Phenomenology is the reflective study of pre-reflective or lived experience. To
say it somewhat differently, a main characteristic of the phenomenological tradition is
that it is the study of the life-world as we immediately experience it, pre-reflectively,
rather than as we conceptualize, theorize, categorize, or reflect on it.
Publications.
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Positivism
These ideas include a distrust of abstraction, a preference for observation
unencumbered by too much theory, a commitment to the idea of a social science that is
not vastly different from natural science, and a profound respect for quantification.
Publications.
Pragmatism
The central notion of pragmatism focuses on the nature of truth. In it simplest
explanation, pragmatism holds that truth is found in what works, and that truth is
relative to the current situation.
Publications.
Probes And Probing
Probing is a specific research technique used by interviewers in individual and
group interviews and focus groups to generate further explanation from research
participants.
Publications.
Reconstructive Analysis
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Reconstructive analysis is the theoretically guided process of explicating the

initially implicit components, structures, and/or generative rules of meaning.
Publications.
Reductionism
Reductionism is a viewpoint that regards one phenomenon as entirely
explainable by the properties of another phenomenon. The first can be said to be
reducible to the second. It is a mere epiphenomenon of the second.
Publications.
SEMIOTICS
Semiotics is the doctrine, or general science, of signs. Simply put, a sign is
anything that can stand for some other thing.
Publications.
Semi-Structured Interview
That includes both close-ended and open-ended questions.
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The semi-structured interview is a qualitative data collection strategy in which

the researcher asks informants a series of predetermined but open-ended questions.
Publications.
Situatedness
The word situated refers, therefore, to the researchers physically being on site
and consequently to research shaped by personal relationships and by linguistic, biographical, historical, political, economic, cultural, ideological, material, and spatial
dimensions.
Publications.
Social Constructionism
The phrase social construction typically refers to a tradition of scholarship that
traces the origin of knowledge and meaning and the nature of reality to processes
generated within human relationships.
Publications.
Structuralism
It has been interpreted in a number of different ways, but a common theme is the
prioritization of the explanatory power of linguistic, social, and economic structures over
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individual agency and meaning. Emphasis is also placed on underlying processes and
systems that determine individual action.
Publications.
Subjectivism
Subjectivism is a certain way of conceptualizing subjectivity. Subjectivity is
what makes us subjects rather than objects. Subjectivity includes processes denoted by
the terms mental, mind, conscious, experience, agency, will, intentionality, thinking,
feeling, remembering, interpreting, understanding, learning, and psyche.
Publications.
Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic Interactionism deals directly with issues such as language,
communication, interrelationship and community
Symbolic interactionism (SI) is a sociological and social-psychological
perspective grounded in the study of the meanings that people learn and assign to the
objects and actions that surround their everyday experiences.
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Publications.
Systemic Inquiry
Systemic inquiry is inquiry, research, or evaluation that is based on systems
concepts or systems principles.
Publications.
Tacit Knowledge
We inevitably know more than we can say; he labeled this nonlinguistic,
intuitive, and even at times unconscious form of knowledge tacit knowledge.
Publications.
Textual Analysis
Textual analysis is a method of data analysis that closely examines either the
content and meaning of texts or their structure and discourse.
Publications.
Thematic Coding And Analysis
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Thematic analysis is a data reduction and analysis strategy by which qualitative

data are segmented, categorized, summarized, and reconstructed in a way that captures
the important concepts within the data set.
Publications.
Theoretical Frameworks
Although the term does not have a clear and consistent definition, theoretical
framework is defined as any empirical or quasi-empirical theory of social and/or
psychological processes, at a variety of levels (e.g., grand, mid-range, and explanatory),
that can be applied to the understanding of phenomena.
Publications.
Theoretical Saturation
Theoretical saturation signals the point in grounded theory studies at which
theorizing the events under investigation is considered to have come to a sufficiently
comprehensive end. At this point, researchers are comfortable that the properties and
dimensions of the concepts and conceptual relationships selected to render the target
event are fully described and that they have captured its complexity and variation.
Publications.
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Transformational Methods
Transformational methods are used to inspire positive social change. Researchers
generally adopt transformational methodologies in their pursuit of social justice,
socioeconomic or cultural equity, empowerment of marginalized individuals, or actions
taken in a process of exposing and resisting hegemonic power structures.
Publications.
Triangulation
The process of corroborating evidence from different individuals, types of data,
or methods of data collection in description and themes in qualitative research.
Triangulation in qualitative research has come to mean a multi-method approach
to data collection and data analysis. The basic idea underpinning the concept of
triangulation is that the phenomena under study can be understood best when approached
with a variety or a combination of research methods.
Publications.
Validity
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It means that researchers can draw meaningful and justifiable inferences from
scores about a sample or population.
In the field of research, validity refers broadly to the goodness or soundness
of a study. A multitude of approaches to and conceptualizations of validity have emerged,
differing significantly depending on the research methodologies and paradigms that guide
each particular research project.
Publications.
Vignettes
Vignettes comprise stimuli that selectively portray elements of reality to which
research participants are invited to respond.
Publications.
Voice
Voice in qualitative research refers to the multiple, and often conflicting,
interpretive positions that must be engaged in the representation of data.
Dictionary of Terms
Iqtidar ul Hassan
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Publications.
Dictionary of Terms
Iqtidar ul Hassan
42
Dictionary of Terms
Iqtidar ul Hassan
43
Dictionary of Terms
Iqtidar ul Hassan
44
Dictionary of Terms
Iqtidar ul Hassan
45

Dictionary of Terms

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participating in the studies.

based on extensive data collection.

Clinical research can be defined as research that is related to experiences and

practices of interpersonal relationships. In W. Leeds-Hurwitz (Ed.),

Codes And Coding

and his or her experience through social interaction.

In the social sciences, the term exploratory research or exploration refers to

Idealism as a systematic philosophy derives from thoughts reflecting on itself

quantitative. New Jersey: Upper Saddle River.

Reconstructive analysis is the theoretically guided process of explicating the

The semi-structured interview is a qualitative data col- lection strategy in which

Thematic analysis is a data reduction and analysis strategy by which qualitative

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