Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Fuel Management
CONTENTS
Fuel Identification and Handling.......... 3
Fuel Characteristics...........................3
Hazards............................................5
Fuelling Procedures...........................8
Flight Fuel Management......................14
Terminology....................................14
Fuel Systems Knowledge..................... 14
Flight Planning Requirements..........15
Pre-Flight Fuel Checks......................21
Pre-Takeoff Checks..........................24
In-Flight Fuel Management..............26
Post-Flight Actions..........................30
Summary........................................31
Every effort is made to ensure that the information in this booklet is accurate and up-to-date at the time
of publishing, but many changes can occur over time, especially in regard to airspace and legislation.
Readers are reminded to obtain appropriate up-to-date information.
Fuel Characteristics
Fuel Types
Aircraft fuels come in two basic types:
gasoline and kerosene. Aviation gasoline
is known as avgas; motor gasoline as
mogas; and the kerosene-type fuel is
known as Jet A-1 commercially and avtur
in military use. Commonly, piston-engine
aircraft run on avgas, and turbine-engine
(turboshaft, turboprop and jet) aircraft run
on Jet A-1. Many sport and private aircraft
run on mogas. There are also aircraft diesel
(or compression-ignition) piston engines
that run on Jet A-1.
Octane Rating
Gasoline-type fuels are rated by octane
number, which is a measure of their
resistance to detonation (knocking or
pinking). The higher the octane rating,
the more resistant the fuel is to detonation.
A high octane rating does not imply that
the fuel is any more powerful, just that
Volatility
Flammability
Fuel Grade
Colour
Usage
Comments
Mogas 91
Purple/bronze
Some microlight,
homebuilt, and
vintage aircraft
Mogas 95
Yellow/orange
Some microlight,
homebuilt, and
vintage aircraft
Avgas 100/130
Green
Jet A-1
(Kerosene)
Straw-coloured
or clear
Turbine and
jet-engine aircraft
Hazards
Fire or Explosion Risk
During fuelling operations, air and fuel
vapour are displaced from the aircraft fuel
tanks. This potentially explosive mixture is
expelled via tank vents and the fill point.
Static Electricity
Commonly referred to as static, this is a
major potential ignition source. The risk is
always present, and must be managed,
even in seemingly innocuous situations.
The considerations apply equally to
gasoline fuels and Jet A-1.
Contamination
Contaminants (especially water) in the fuel
have been known to cause engine failures in
New Zealand usually just after the aircraft
has become airborne. To minimise the risks
of this happening, a fuel drain should always
be carried out before the first flight of the
day and after refuelling. The following
considerations apply to taking a fuel sample:
Water
Avgas
Fuelling Procedures
There are safety precautions to take when
refuelling. We should also remember the
airmanship and courtesy aspects.
First Aid
Fuels are toxic when inhaled in vapour
form, or when ingested or absorbed in
liquid form. Any inadvertent contact with
fuel should be dealt with immediately.
Refuelling Safety
General
Refuelling should not be carried out
in a hangar.
Fuelling should not be carried out
during electrical storms.
Bonding
Fuel Spills
10
VENT
CHOCK
11
Jerrycans
Tendency to
accumulate static
charge.
Transport
The transport of fuels is subject to several
different sets of legislation, depending
on the mode of transport. Fuels are
Dangerous Goods, or Hazardous
Substances, according to whichever laws
apply, but if you need to transport
12
De-Fuelling
Occasionally, weight-and-balance
limitations mean that the aircraft has
too much fuel on board and has to
be de-fuelled. This may occur, for
example, if the previous pilot left the
tanks fairly full and you wish to load
the aircraft up with passengers and
baggage. If a larger and more suitable
aircraft is not available, your only
option may be to de-fuel.
The same precautions outlined for
refuelling are applicable. You are dealing
with a hazardous substance.
13
Terminology
14
Flight Planning
Requirements
Currency
If you are not particularly current on an
aircraft type, consider whether or not your
fuel systems knowledge is up to scratch
before you go flying. If not, then it is time
to get the aircraft Flight Manual out and
re-familiarise yourself its amazing how
quickly important details can be forgotten.
Extra care needs to be taken when
transferring between aircraft types with
15
Legal Reserves
The minimum legal fuel reserves (ie, extra
fuel over and above that required to
complete the flight, taking into account
the forecast weather) that must be carried
on all flights are:
Contingencies
The fuel-required calculations should
preferably include a variable reserve in
addition to the fixed legal reserve, to allow
for the unexpected eg, stronger-thanexpected headwinds, fuel consumption
greater than anticipated, or diversion due
to weather. This amount is normally 10 to
16
Consumption Rates
EXAMPLE
You have planned a 200 NM flight in
an aircraft that cruises at 90 knots.
A 10-knot tailwind is forecast, and you
calculate your time interval on that
basis. You decide to carry fuel for
2 hours 30 minutes.
How much would the wind have to
change for your reserve to be completely
used up?
Answer on page 31.
17
A Useful Tool
An alternative fuel planning tool is the
Time in Your Tanks fuel log developed
by the Australian Civil Aviation Safety
Authority (CASA). It is a laminated card,
on which fuel figures are entered
according to the simple instructions, and
which gives a readily understood picture
of your fuel state at any time during flight.
To obtain copies of these cards, email:
info@caa.govt.nz, or contact your local
CAA Field Safety Adviser.
18
Note the takeoff time and add the safe endurance to it. This will give a land-by time, which
should be noted on the fuel log. If, for example, your takeoff time was 01:15 UTC, the land-by
time will be 04:07 UTC. Landing by this time will mean you still have the 30-minute legal reserve
left in the tanks, provided that your fuel management calculations were done accurately to
begin with. During the flight you might become lost, get caught in bad weather, or encounter
stronger-than-expected headwinds or a combination of these factors. This sort of situation can
make it difficult for pilots to make even the most basic of fuel calculations correctly but at
least you have a land-by time telling you that once 04:07 has passed you are eating into the
legal reserve, and are therefore in an emergency situation.
Note: we have chosen not to include a contingency when calculating the safe endurance in this
example. Your own personal minimums may differ from this.
ENT
FUEL MANAGEM
LOG
FUEL REQUIRED
(hr, min)
wance, eg
Standard allo consumption
se
15 min @ crui
Warm-up
and Taxi
10
Climb
e
Fixed Reserv
Approach
hr 15 40
40
30
-
Alternate
Aerodrome
Approach
antity Required
Minimum Fuel Qu
Contingency
the fuel
(eg, 10% of
85
)
required9
94
tity Required
19
e (hr
Fuel Enduranc ra for warm-u3
p,hr
s ext
, min)
22
2 hr 52
, min)
ed
(excludes fix
50
20
-
150
e (hr
Safe Enduranc reserve)
ed
Extra requir
difference
e to climb at
E
FUEL AVAILABL
Land By Time
(UTC)
Tank
Selection
Time (UTC) L
75 75
Fuel
Gauge
Reading
AVGAS
litres
3.78
4.54
For AVGAS
calculations
(SG 0.72)
lb
5.99
0.72
US gal
2.20
1.20
7.19
2.72
kg
- follow the
arrow and
multiply
- backtrack
the arrow
and divide
Imp gal
3.27
1.76
JET A-1
litres
3.78
4.54
lb
6.65
0.80
US gal
2.20
1.20
7.99
3.02
kg
- follow the
arrow and
multiply
- backtrack
the arrow
and divide
Imp gal
3.63
Factors correct to
two decimal places
Stickers showing the Fuel Conversion Factors can be obtained from: info@caa.govt.nz.
Term
Definition
20
Unusable/Usable Fuel
(Not to scale)
Usable fuel
Fuel outlet
port
Unusable fuel
To engine
Un-drainable
fuel
Fuel drain point
21
Fuel Gauges
Tank Dipping
There are several points to consider
when dipping fuel tanks, which will help
to ensure reasonably accurate readings
are obtained:
The aircraft should be parked on level
ground if this is not possible, dip
each tank, turn the aircraft through
180 degrees, dip each again, and take
the average of the two values. This may
not be accurate, but it will be better
than either of the two single readings.
Ensure that the fuel system is not crossfeeding during dipping. Slope and
uneven fuel quantities in each tank
can cause this on some aircraft types.
The trap here is that, when you are
refuelling the aircraft with the fuel
selector set to BOTH, the tank that you
are filling can be cross-feeding to the
other tank. By the time you have
finished filling the second tank, the
quantity in the first tank will have
reduced, and it should be checked
again and topped up as required.
The amount involved is not large,
but it could cause a problem if the
flight requires both tanks to be full.
Fuel Dipsticks
Using a fuel dipstick to dip the tanks is
the most accurate way of determining the
fuel on board. It is therefore important to
ensure that you have the correct dipstick
for your aircraft. Keep the dipstick clean
(dont place it on the ground, for instance).
Each dipstick has been specifically
calibrated to its aircrafts fuel tanks and is
therefore not interchangeable with that
from another aircraft, even of the same
type which is why it should be carefully
marked with the aircraft registration.
Aircraft of the same type may have had
22
No Dipstick?
It is sometimes difficult to determine the
fuel on board aircraft on which the fuel
tanks cannot be accurately dipped. The
safest way is to start the flight with the
tanks either full or filled to a fixed
reference point, and to keep an accurate
in-flight fuel log. If this is not possible,
however, due to weight and balance or
performance considerations, the only way
to know exactly how much fuel is on board
is to add a known quantity (ie, a reading
taken from the fuel pump counter) to a
23
Fuel Thefts
Fuel thefts do occur (especially avgas)
when aircraft are left outside overnight.
Fuel theft could mean your getting
airborne with considerably less fuel on
board than was planned a very
dangerous scenario. This is why dipping
should be done just before departure,
not the day before. Fuel theft can also
mean the introduction of contaminants
(such as water) into the fuel system, as
caps are often not replaced correctly or
are left off completely after the theft.
A thorough fuel drain before flight is
recommended if foul play is suspected.
Pre-Takeoff Checks
The worst possible time to have an engine
failure is just after takeoff. Unfortunately,
many engine failures (or partial power
losses) after takeoff are caused by a fuel
problem.
Most such incidents are caused by the
selection of a near-empty tank, with pilots
of aircraft with more than two fuel tanks
being more likely to make such a mistake.
A contaminated fuel supply or the misselection of a tank (eg, the fuel selector
inadvertently being placed between a tank
setting and the OFF position) are other
common causes.
These types of incidents can be avoided if
the pre-flight and pre-takeoff checks are
24
25
In-Flight Fuel
Management
Log Keeping
Keep an accurate fuel log. This, in
combination with fuel gauge readings,
is an important part of monitoring your
fuel status in flight. Be sure to make
regular reference to it as part of your
cruise checklist that way you will not
forget to monitor consumption and
change tanks when appropriate.
ENT
FUEL MANAGEM
LOG
FUEL REQUIRE D
(hr, min)
Warm-up
and Taxi
Climb
owance, eg
Standard all consumption
ise
15 min @ cru
10
1 hr 15 40
40
e 30
Fixed Reserv
Approach
Alternate
Aerodrome
oach
Flight Time g)
keoff to landin
(ta
Appr
Contingency
50
20
-
85
9
required)
antity Required
the fuel
(eg, 10% of
i d
26
e
Fuel Enduranc ra for warm-u3
p,hr
e less ext
(usabl
mb)
taxi and cli
94
0407
Land By Time
(UTC)
Tank
Selection
Time (UTC) L
22
2 hr 52
, min)
ed
(excludes fix
Minimum Fuel Qu
150
(hr, min)
e (hr
Safe Enduranc reserve)
ed
Extra requir
difference
e to climb at
E
FUEL AVAILABL
0100 75 75
0130 55 75
0200 55 55
0230 35 55
Fuel
Gauge
Reading
75/75
55/75
55/55
35/55
Leaning
Several fuel exhaustion accidents have
highlighted the fact that correctly leaning
the mixture in the cruise is an important
part of in-flight fuel management. Planned
fuel consumption rates, and thus range,
will not be achieved if the mixture is not
correctly leaned.
The mixture should always be leaned
during the cruise (provided that the
desired altitude will be maintained for a
reasonable period of time). Most aircraft
engines can be leaned at any altitude
provided the power set is 75 percent or
less. (The oft-quoted figure of 5000 feet
is based on the engine being unable to
produce more than 75percent power,
even at full throttle, at that altitude.)
27
Changing Tanks
28
Emergencies
If the worst does happen and your engine
stops due to a suspected fuel problem,
remember the old adage Aviate, Navigate,
Communicate. Control the aircraft before
planning an approach to a forced landing
area and commencing trouble checks.
Regardless of whether you suspect its fuel
starvation or fuel exhaustion, if there is
29
Post-Flight Actions
Determining Consumption
It is a good idea to compare the actual fuel
burn with the planned fuel burn by dipping
the tanks and reading the gauges after the
flight (or on landing at an intermediate
aerodrome en route). This will provide you
with a good consumption figure for future
reference, and allow you to see how
accurate your flight planning was. It also
gives you the opportunity to get to know
the accuracy of the fuel gauges.
Refuelling
Ideally, the aircraft should be topped up
with fuel after the last flight of the day to
minimise the chances of condensation
forming inside the tanks, particularly if it
is going to be parked outside overnight.
Condensation can form inside a fuel tank
when water vapour present in air trapped
in the tank condenses as it is cooled.
Pre-Landing Checks
Ensuring fuel flow integrity for the
approach and landing is an important
part of the pre-landing checks. Check the
mixture control is in the rich position.
The fuel pump(s) should be switched on,
if applicable, and the fullest tank(s)
selected before commencing an approach.
The fuel pressure should also be checked
to ensure it is normal.
30
Summary
When handling fuel:
31
P O Box 31-441
Lower Hutt 5040
Tel: 04560 9400
Fax: 04569 2024
Email: info@caa.govt.nz
Fuel Management was revised in June 2010.
See our web site, www.caa.govt.nz, for details of more CAA safety publications.