Mathematical Logic.

Set Theory deals with fundamental questions about the nature of mathematics.
Set theory is a branch of mathematics.
Set theory includes a study of the infinite.
Set theory and logic a symbiotic relationship.
Why we study Set Theory?
To build foundations for the other branches of mathematics.
To understand the fundamental sets of mathematics:

0.1

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N, Z, Q, R, C.

Ingredients of the language for Set Theory

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Logical connectives: (and), (or), (not), (implies), (iff);

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Quantifiers: (forall) Universal Quantifier, (there exists) Existential

Quantifiers;
Relational Symbols: and = .
What do you mean by a Set?
A set is a well defined class of objects. By a well define means that there
exists a rule with the help of which it is possible to tell whether a given object
belongs or does not belongs to the give collection.
Sets defined by their extent:
Examples:
{3, 5, 7}, {, }.
Sets described by their intent:
Examples:
{x N : x is prime}, {x R : x2 > 5}.
Let A be a set, then n(A) denote the number of elements in set A.
Set of Sets. If the element of a set are sets themselves, then such a set is
said to be class of sets or a family of sets.
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0.2

Axiom of Set Theory

Axiom of Extension Two sets are equal iff they have same members:
A = B if x A x B.
Axiom of Empty Set There is a set , with no element.
Powerset Axiom If A is a set, there is a set P(A), whose members
are the subsets of A. Symbolically, P(A) = {T : T A}. Obviously
and A are both element of P(a).

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Singleton. A set consisting of a single element is called a singleton set.

Subset of a set. If A, B are sets such that every element of A is also a element of B, Then A is said to be subset of B. In other words, A is a subset
of B if x A x B. Mathematically A B.
Proper Subset. A subset A of a set B, is called proper subset of B. If A
is subset B and, A 6= B. Mathematically A B.
Disjoint Set. If two sets A and B have no common element, then A and B
are disjoint, or mutually exclusive.
Null Set. A set no element is called null set and denoted by .
Examples. Let A = {x : x2 + 1 = 0, x R}.
Examples. Let A = {x : xis a straight line passing through three points on a circle.}.
Partition of Set. A partition of a set is a decomposition of the set in to
subsets such that every element of the set is in exactly one of the subsets. In
other words, A partition of a set is a decomposition of the set in to disjoint
subsets.
Mathematically, Let A1 , A2 , . . . , An be n disjoint subsets of a set A. Then
Ai s are called partitions of A, if ni=1 Ai = A.
Theorem 0.1. If a finite set A has n elements, then the power set of A has
2n element.
Proof. There are n Cr subsets consisting r elements out of n elements of
set A, where r = 0, 1, . . . , n. Since A has only n elements then no subset of
A can have more then n elements. Hence P(A) = 1 +n C1 + . . . +n Cn =
(1 + 1)n = 2n .
Theorem 0.2. If A is any set, then A, i.e., empty set is a subset of
every set.
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Proof. Let * A. Then at least one element x such that x and

x
/ A. But x, x
/ , since is the null set. Therefore no element x such
that x and x
/ A. This contradict our initial assumption. Hence we
must have A.
Theorem 0.3. If A and B are sets, then A = B iff A B and B A.

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Proof. If A = B, Then by the Axiom of Extension every element of A

is an element of B and every element of B is an element of A. Hence A B
and B A.
Conversely, if A B and B A, then every element of A is an element of B
and every element of B is an element of A. Hence by the Axiom of Extension,
A = B.
Theorem 0.4. If A B and B C, then A C.

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Proof. Let x be an arbitrary element of A. Since A B, if we have x

A x B. Also It is given that B C. This implies that x B x C.
Hence x A x C. Hence by the definition, A C.

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Union of sets. Let A and B be two sets. Then the union of A and B
is the set of all elements which are either in A or in B. Union of A and B is
denoted by A B.
Mathematically,
A B = {x : x A or x B}.
Intersection of sets. Let A and B be two sets. Then the intersection of A
and B is the set of all elements which are common in A and B. Intersection
of A and B is denoted by A B.
Mathematically,
A B = {x : x A and x B}.
Difference of sets. Let A and B be two sets. Then the difference of A
and B is the set of elements which belongs to A but not belongs to B. The
difference between A and B is denoted by A B, A \ B or A B.
Mathematically,
A \ B = {x : x A and x B c }.
Symmetric difference of two sets. Let A and B be two sets. Then the
symmetric difference of A and B is define as the union of A \ B and B \ A
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and is denoted by AB.

Index Set. A non-empty set, I,(say) having the property that to each
of its element, i I, there is corresponds a set Ai . Such a set is known as
index set.
Let A be the collection of sets such that to each member i of I there corresponds a member of Ai A. Then A is called an index family of sets with
index set I. Mathematically,
A = {Ai : i I}.
Ordered Pair. Let A and B be two sets. Let a A and b B. Then (a, b)
called an ordered pair.

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Cartesian Product of sets. Let A and B be two sets, then the set
of all distinct ordered pairs whose first coordinate in an element of A and
second coordinate is an element of B is called the cartesian product of A and
B, and is denoted by A B.
Mathematically,
A B = {(a, b) : a A, b B}.

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Example. Let A = {1, 2} and B = {a, b, c}. Then

A B = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c)}.

Relation. Let A and B be two sets. Then a relation from A to B is a

subset of A B.
Mathematically, R is a relation from A to B iff R A B.
Example. Let Z be a set of all integers. The statement x is less than y,
where x, y I determines a relation in I. If we denote this relation by R,
then
R = {(x, y) : x, y I, x < y}.
(x, y)
/ R, means x is not related to y by relation R.
Inverse Relation. Let R be any relation from A to a set B. Then inverse
relation of R, denoted by R1 , is the relation from B to A which consist
reversed ordered pair belongs to R, i.e.,

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R1 = {(b, a) : (a, b) R}.

Equivalence Relation. Let R be a relation in a set A. Then R is an
equivalence relation in A iff

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R is reflexive, i.e., a A, aRa.

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R is symmetric, i.e., aRb bRa.

R is transitive, i.e., aRb and bRc aRc.

Function. Let A and B are two sets and there is a correspondence, denoted
by f by which for each element of A we can assign a unique element of B.
Then the correspondence f is called a function or mapping from A to B.
The set A is called domain and set B is called co-domain or range. and
denoted by
f : A B.
Function as Relation. There is another point of view from which function
may be considered as relation. every function f : A B gives rise to a
relation from A to B called a graph of f and define by
Graph of f = {(a, b) : a A, b f (a)}.
Mathematically, a function f : A B is a relation from A to B (i.e., a
subset of A B) such that each a A belong to a unique ordered pair
(a, b) Graph of f.
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0.3

Definition and Properties.

Unary Operations. A unary operation is an operation with only one

operand, i.e., an operation with a single input, or in other words, a function
of one variable.
Examples of unary operations.
1. The absolute value operation |x| on the real numbers.
2. The negation operation (x) on the real numbers.
3. The power operations (squaring, cubing, etc) on the real numbers.
4. The factorial operation N! on the non-negative integers.

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5. The trigonometric functions (sin x, cos x, etc.), and their inverses, on

the real numbers.

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6. The natural logarithm (ln x) on the real numbers.

7. Logical negation on truth values.

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Binary Operations. A binary operation on a set is a rule that assigns to

each ordered pair of elements of the set some element of the set.
More precisely, a binary operation on a set S is a binary function from S
and S to S, in other words a function f from the Cartesian product S S to
S. Sometimes, the term is used for any binary function. That f takes values
in the same set S that provides its arguments is the property of closure.
Binary operations are the keystone of algebraic structures studied in abstract algebra: they form part of groups, monoids, semigroups, rings, and
more. Many binary operations of interest in both algebra and formal logic
are commutative or associative. Many also have identity elements and inverse elements. Typical examples of binary operations are the addition (+)
and multiplication () of numbers and matrices as well as composition of
functions on a single set.
Set A is said to be close under operation , if (a b) A for all a, b A.
Binary operations are often written using infix notation such as a b, a + b, or
a b rather than by functional notation of the form f (a, b). Sometimes they
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are even written just by juxtaposition(combination): ab. Powers are usually

also written without operator, but with the second argument as superscript.
Modular Arithmetics.
In division relationship (a = q n + r) we have two inputs (a, n) and two
outputs (q, r), while in modular arithmetic, we are interested in single output r only. This implies that the above relation is a binary operator (defined
as Modulo Operator ) with two inputs (a, n) and a single output (known as
residue) r. The modulo operator in denote by mod.
Examples.
1. 36 mod 18 = 2 18 + 0 = 0.

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2. 16 mod 14 = 2 14 + 12 = 12.
(Note: The residue cant be negative.)
3. 12 mod 5 = 2 5 + 2 = 2.

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4. 12 mod 10 = 2 10 + 2 = 2.

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5. 2 mod 10 = 0 10 + 2 = 2.

Note for binary operators (, +, ), we have

(a b)mod n = [(a mod n) (b mod n)]mod n.
Congruence. Instead of equality the concept of congruence is frequently
used in cryptography. By using the concept of congruence we can map infinite members of I to one member of In .
The congruence operator is denoted by .
Example. 5 15mod10, also 15 25mod10.

Residue Classes. A residue class [a]n or [a] is the set of integers congruent modulo n, i.e.,
[a]n := {x : a mod n = x.}
Example. For n = 5, we have
[2]5 = {. . . , 8, 3, 2, 7, 12, . . .}.
Now we talk about of few important properties of binary operators.
Associative. A binary operation is called associative iff (a b) c =
a (b c) for all a, b, c S.

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Important: Remember that changing the order of operations does not

involve or permit changing the actual operations themselves by moving the
operands around within the expression.
Why is it we need associativity to solve 3x=11 in the reals? Well, the inverse
of 3 is 1/3 and so 1/3(3x) =11/3 and now we use associativity to rewrite this
as (3/3) x = 11/3 etc.
Sets that have an associative binary operation are known as semigroups. In
many practical applications of studying binary operations on sets it is not
unusual to discover they are associative but it is something that cannot be
assumed. Indeed, one commonly known operation, the cross product on three
dimensional real vectors is not associative.
Identity Element. Let : A A A be a binary operation on A. A
element e A is called an identity element for the operation if
ea=a=ae

a A.

Inverse Element. Let : A A A be a binary operation on A. A

element a of a set A is said to be inversible for binary operation with
identity element e if there exists b A. such that
a b = e = b a.
b = a1 is said to be inverse of a.
Commutative. A binary operation is called commutative if and only if
a b = b a, for all a, b S.
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Examples of operations that are not commutative are subtraction (),

division (/), and exponentiation.
The well-known binary operations of addition (+) and multiplication ()
on the real numbers are commutative because a + b = b + a and a b = b a
for all real numbers.
For example 8 + 3 = 11 = 3 + 8 and 5 9 = 45 = 9 5. An example of a binary
operation which is not commutative is exponentiation on the real numbers,
because in general ab 6= ba , for instance 23 = 2 2 2 = 8 while 32 = 3 3 = 9.
Mathematically, A map or binary operation f : A A B from a set A
to a set B is said to be commutative if,
f (x, y) = f (y, x) x, y A.

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Every element x belonging to the domain A of a binary operation commutes

with itself. If a particular pair of elements a and b satisfy a b = b a under
a certain binary operation then it is said that the two elements commute
under that operation.
A binary operation which is not commutative is called noncommutative. subtraction, division, exponentiation, matrix multiplication and function composition f og are the example of noncommutative binary operations.
Example. Matrix multiplication is non-commutative




1 2
0 1
;
and B =
A=
3 4
2 3
Then,
AB =

3 4
11 16

6=

4 7
8 15

= BA.

0.4

Group.

Groupoid. A groupoid (magma) is a basic kind of algebraic structure. Specifically, a magma consists of a set A equipped with a single binary operation
: A A A. A binary operation is closed by definition, but no other axioms
are imposed on the operation.
Groupoids are often used to capture information about geometrical objects
such as manifolds. Groupoids were first developed by Heinrich Brandt in
1926.

is closed operation,

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Example. The algebraic structure (N, +) is a groupoid.

Example. The algebraic structure (N, ) is not a groupoid.
Semigroup. A semigroup is an algebraic structure consisting of a set S
closed under an associative binary operation. In other words, a semigroup is
an associative magma.
Mathematically, Let (A, ) be an algebraic system where is a binary operation on A. Then (A, ) ia called semigroup if the following conditions are
satisfied:

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for every choice of elements a, b, c G;

(a b) c = a (b c).

Example. Let Z+ be the set of positive integers, and + (addition) be the

set operation on it. Then (Z+ , +) is a semigroup.
Solution.
Closure: If x1 and x2 are integers then x1 + x2 is an positive integer.
Associativity: If x1 , x2 , and x3 are integers, then (x1 + x2 ) + x3 =
x1 + (x2 + x3 ).
Monoid Let (A, ) be an algebraic system, where is a binary operation on
A. Then (A, ) ia called monoid if the following conditions are satisfied:
is closed operation,

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 for every choice of elements a, b, c G;

(a b) c = a (b c).
there exists an identity element e S; such that
a e = a = e aa S.
Example. Let Z be the set of integers, and + (addition) be the set operation
on it. Then (Z, +) is a monoid.
Solution.
Closure: If x1 and x2 are integers then x1 + x2 is an integer.

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Associativity: If x1 , x2 , and x3 are integers, then (x1 + x2 ) + x3 =

x1 + (x2 + x3 ).

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Identity element: 0 is an integer and for any integer x, 0 + x =

a + 0 = x.

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Group. A semigroup with an identity in which every element has an inverse

is termed as group. Mathematically, Let (G, ) be an algebraic system, where
is a binary operation on G. Then (G, ) ia called group if the following
conditions are satisfied:
is closed operation,
for every choice of elements a, b, c G;
(a b) c = a (b c).
there exists an identity element e S; such that
a e = a = e aa S.
every element of a S has an inverse in S, i.e. there is an element
b S such that
a b = e = b a.
This element b is usually denoted by a1 .
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Example. A familiar group is the group of integers under addition. Let Z

be the set of integers, and let + indicate the operation of addition. Then
(Z, +) is a group.
Solution.
Closure: If x1 and x2 are integers then x1 + x2 is an integer.
Associativity: If x1 , x2 , and x3 are integers, then (x1 + x2 ) + x3 =
x1 + (x2 + x3 ).
Identity element: 0 is an integer and for any integer x, 0 + x =
a + 0 = x.

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Inverse elements: If x is an integer, then the integer a satisfies the

inverse rules: x + (x) = (x) + x = 0.

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Many of the structures investigated in mathematics turn out to be groups.

These include familiar number systems, such as the integers, the rational
numbers, the real numbers, and the complex numbers under addition, as
well as the non-zero rationales, reals, and complex numbers, under multiplication. Other important examples are the group of non-singular matrices
under multiplication and the group of invertible functions under composition.
Group theory allows for the properties of such structures to be investigated
in a general setting.

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0.5

Properties of Groups.

Uniqueness of identity.
Lemma 0.5. A group G has exactly one identity element e satisfying ex =
x = xe for all x G.
Proof. Suppose there are two identity elements e, e1 G. Then
ex =x = xe
e1 x = x = x e1

x G.
x G.

Consider e as identity element, then

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e e1 = e1
Now consider e1 as identity element, then

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e e1 = e

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then from above two expression we have e = e1 .

Uniqueness of inverse.
Lemma 0.6. An element x of a group G has exactly one inverse x1 .
Proof. we know from the axioms that the group G contains at least one
element x1 which satisfies xx1 = e and x1 x = e. If z is any element of
G which satisfy xz = e then z = ez = (x1 x)z = x1 (xz) = x1 e = x1 .
Similarly, if w is any element of G which satisfies wx = e the w = x1 . Hence
we conclude that the inverse x1 of x is uniquely determined, as required.
Lemma 0.7. Let x and y be elements of a group G. Then (xy)1 = y 1 x1 .
Proof. It follows from the group axioms that
(xy)(y 1x1 ) = x(y(y 1x1 )) = (x(yy 1)x1 ) = x(ex1 ) = xx1 = e.
Similarly, (y 1 x1 )(xy) = e, and thus (y 1x1 ) is the inverse of xy, as required.
Note that (x1 )1 = x for all elements x of a group G, since x has the properties that characterize the inverse of the inverse x1 of x.

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Abelian group. A group G is abelian if its binary operation is commutative.

Example. (Z, +) is abelian group.
Solution. (Z, +) is a group. As we shown earlier. Also it is abelian since
x1 + x2 = x2 + x1 for all x1 , x2 Z.
Order of a group. The order of a group G, usually denoted by | G | or
occasionally by o(G), is the number of elements in the set G. If the order is
not finite, then the group is an infinite group, denoted | G |= .
Example. A set G = {0o , 120o, 240o}, with the binary operation which
is define as the rotation of a line at 120o in the plane, is a group (G, ), of
order 3.

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Example. For each positive integer n the set of all nonsingular nn matrices is a group, where the group operation is matrix multiplication. These
groups are not Abelian when n 2.

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Integral power of element of a group. Let a G, and multiplicative binary operation. Then be closure property a, a a, a a a, . . . , are all
element of G.
If n is a positive integers, we define an = a a . . . a to n factors. Obviously
an G.
If e is the identity element of G, then we define
a0 = e.
If n is a positive integers, then n is a negative integer.
an = (an )1 ,

(an )1 G.

Thus we have define an , for all n Z.

an = (an )1 = (a . . . a, n times)1
= (a1 )(a1 ) . . . (a1 ) = (a1 )n .
Integral multiplication of element of a group. Let a G, and +
additive binary operation. Then be closure property a, a + a, a + a + a, . . . ,
are all element of G.
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In place of a0 we write 0a. Thus we define 0a = e where e is the identity of

G.
If n is a positive integer, then in place of an we write (n)a. Thus we define
(n)a = (na), where (na) denotes the inverse of na G.
order of an element. The order of an element a in a group G is the
least positive integer n such that an = e, where an is composition depending
on the group operator on a by itself n times. If no such n exists, then the
order of a is said to be infinity.

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Example. A set G = {0o , 120o, 240o}, with the binary operation which
is define as the rotation of a line in the plane, is a group, (G, ). Then order
of 0o is three, 120o is two and 240o is one.

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0.6

Complex and Subgroup.

Complex. A closed nonempty subset H of G is defined as complex.

Product of Complexes. If H and K are any two complexes of a group
(G, ), then product of complexes is define as
HK := {x G : x = h k, h H, k K}.
Lemma 0.8. The product of complexes of a group is associative,i.e.,
(HK)L = H(KL).
Proof. If H, K and L are any three complexes of a group (G, ), and
h H, k K, l L. Then (hk)l (HK)L. now by the associativity of
group we have
(hk)l = h(kl) H(KL).

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This implies

(HK)L H(KL).

(1)

H(KL) (HK)L.

(2)

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Similarly, we can show that

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From (1) and (2), we have (HK)L = H(KL).

Lemma 0.9. If H and K are any two complexes of a group (G, ), then
(HK)1 = K 1 H 1 .

Proof. Let x (HK)1 . Then

(HK)1

x = (hk)1 ,
h H, k K.
1 1
1 1
= k h K H , sincek 1 K 1 , h1 H 1
K 1 H 1 .
(3)

Again, let y K 1 H 1. Then

y = k 1 h1 ,
h H, k K.
1
= (hk) (HK)1 K 1 H 1 (HK)1 .

(4)

From (3) and (4), we have K 1 H 1 = (HK)1 .

Subgroup. Let (G, ) be a group with binary operator , and let H
be a non empty subset of G. Then we say that H is a subgroup of G if the
following are satisfied:
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a b H,

a, b H.

the identity element of G is an element of H.

the inverse of any element of H is itself an element of H.
Then H is itself a group.
Example. Let G = {1, 1, i, i} be a set. Then (G, ) is a group, where
is multiplication operation. Then H = {1, 1} is a subgroup of G.
Example. Let (Z, +) is a group, where + is addition operation. Then
(A, +) is a subgroup of G, where A = {2n : n Z}.

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Every group of G has a subgroups G improper subgroup itself and {e}

trivial subgroup, where e is the identity element of G. A subgroup H of G is
said to be proper if H 6= G.
Following lemma help us to show that a subset of a group is a subgroup.

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Lemma 0.10. Let (G, ) be a group and then a subset H of a set G is a

subgroup of G iff

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H is closed under the binary operation of G;

the identity e of G is in H;

for all x H it is true that x1 H also.

Proof. Let H be a subgroup of G. Then by the definition of subgroup
H is closed under the binary operation, must contains the identity element
in H and inverse element of every element of H must be in H.
Conversely, Suppose H is a subset of a group G, such that all the conditions
given in lemma are true. For being a subgroup of G, associativity must hold
along with these given conditions. For this let x1 , x2 , x3 H, since H G,
we have x1 , x2 , x3 G, and we know that
x1 (x2 x3 ) = (x1 x2 ) x3

x1 , x2 , x3 G.

x1 (x2 x3 ) = (x1 x2 ) x3

x1 , x2 , x3 H.

This implies

This completes the proof of theorem.

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Lemma 0.11. Let (G, ) be a group and then a non empty subset H of a set
G is a subgroup of G iff
a b1 H,

a, b H.

Proof. The condition is necessary. Suppose H is a subgroup of G.

Let a H, b H. Now each element of H must possess inverse because H is
itself a group.
i.e., b H b1 H.
The condition is sufficient. It is given
a b1 H,

a, b H.

Existence of Identity. We have

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We have to prove that H is subgroup of G.

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a H, a H a a1 H e H.

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Thus identity e is an element of H.

Existence of Inverse. We have

e H, a H e a1 H a1 H.
Thus each element of H possesses inverse in H.
Closure Property. Let b H b1 H. Therefore applying the given
condition, we have
a H, b1 H a (b1 )1 H a b H.
Associativity. The element of H are also element of G. Therefore associativity must hold for H.
Lemma 0.12. Let (G, ) be a group and let H and K be subgroups of a group
G. Then H K is also a subgroup of G.
Proof. The identity element of G belongs to H K, since it belongs
to both the subgroups H and K. If x and y are elements of H K, implies
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that x and y elements of both subgroups H and K. Then xy is an element

of both subgroups H and K, and therefore xy is an element of H K. Also
the inverse x1 of an element x of H K belongs to both subgroups H and
K and thus belongs to H K.
More generally, the intersection of any collection of a subgroups of a given
group is itself a subgroup of that group.
Lemma 0.13. If H is a subgroup of G, then H 1 = H.
Proof. Let h1 H 1 . Then h H. Also h H h1 H, by the
existence of inverse. This implies
H H 1 .

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Again

(5)

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h H h1 H
(h1 )1 H 1
h H 1
H H 1.

(6)

From (5) and (6), we have

H = H 1.

Lemma 0.14. If H is a subgroup of G, then HH = H.

Proof. Let h1 , h2 be any element of HH where h1 H and h2 H.
Now by the closure property of subgroup we have h1 h2 H. This implies
HH H.
Now let h H, we can write h = he he HH. Thus H HH.
Therefore H = HH.
Subgroup generated by x. Let (G, ) be a group and x be an element
of G. The subgroup generated by x is the subgroup consisting of all elements
of G that are of the form xn for some integer n.

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0.7

Cyclic Group.

A Group (G, ) is said to be cyclic group, with generator x, if every element

of G is of the form xn for some integer n, and denote by < x > .
Example. The group Z of integers under addition is a cyclic group
generated by 1.
13 = (13 )1 = 3, 12 = (12 )1 = 2, 11 = 1, 10 = 0, 11 = 1, 12 = 1+1 = 2,
and so on.

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Example. The group of all rotations of the plane about the origin
through an integer multiple of 2/n radians is a cyclic group of order n for
all integers n. This group is generated by an anticlockwise rotation through
an angle of 2/n radians.

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Cyclic Subgroup. If (G, ) be a group and x G, then

H = {xn | n Z}

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is a subgroup of G. This group is called cyclic subgroup of G generated by

x.
Theorem 0.15. Every cyclic group is abelian.
Proof. Let G be a cyclic group and let x be a generator of G so that
G =< x >= {xn | n Z}.
If x1 and x2 are any two elements of G, there exist integers r and s such that
x1 = xr and x2 = xs . Then
x1 x2 = xr xs = xr+s = xs+r = x2 x1 .
This completes the proof.
Lemma 0.16. Let (G, ) be a group and H be a subset of G. If H is a finite
set, Then (H, ) is a subgroup of (G, ), if is a closed operation on H.
20

Proof. Let x be an element of H. If is a close operation on H, the

elements x, x2 , x3 , . . . are all in H. Because H is a finite set, we have xi = xj
for some i and j, i < j, i.e., xi = xi xji . It follows that xji is the
identity of (G, ), and it is included in the subset H. If j i > 1, according
to xji = x xji1 , we can conclude that xji1 is inverse of x, and it is
included in the subset of H. If j i = 1, we have xi = xi x. Thus x must be
the identity element and is its own inverse. Consequently, that is a closed
operation on H guarantees that (H, ) is a subgroup.
Theorem 0.17. Let (G, ) be a group and x G, then
H = {xn | n Z}

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is a subgroup of G and is the smallest subgroup of G that contains x, that is

every subgroup containing x contain H.

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Proof. To prove H be a subgroup of G, we must show that it is close

under group operation of G, must have identity element and must contains
inverse element of every element in H.
Since xr xs = xr+s Z, xr , xs Z. Thus H is closed under the group
operation. Also x0 = e, so e H, and for xr H, xr H and xr xr = e.
Hence H satisfied all the necessary and sufficient conditions for being a subgroup.
Also every subgroup of G containing x must contain H. This implies H be
the smallest subgroup of G containing x.
Lemma 0.18. Let (G, ) be a group and x be an element of G. Then the set
of all elements of G that are of the form xn for some integer n is a subgroup
of G.
Proof. Let H = {xn : n Z}. Then the identity element belongs to H,
since it is equal to x0 . The product of two elements of H is itself an element
of H, since xm xn = xm+n for al integers m and n. Also the inverse of an
element of H is itself an element of H since (xn )1 = xn for all integers n.
Thus H is a subgroup of G.

21

0.8

Symmetric Group

Let E n denote ndimensional Euclidean space, so that E 2 denotes the Euclidean plane, and E 3 denotes three dimensional Euclidean space. Let X be a
subset of E n . Then a symmetry of X is a transformation T : E n E n of E n
which sends straight lines to straight lines, preserves all lengths and angles,
and has the property that T (X) = X. The collection of all symmetries of a
geometric figure is a group, the symmetry group on X, the group operation
being that of composition of transformations.
Mathematically, Let X be any non empty set. A group arises from the set
SX of all one-to-one mapping of X on to X, called the symmetry group on
X. This group is usually describe as
SX is the set of all mappings of the non empty set X with itself.

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we define to be the composition of the mapping

must verify that is a mappings of X with itself.
then as is onto, we can find x X such that
also onto, so we can find x X such that x = x .

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If , SX then
and . Here we
Suppose x X;
x = x. But is
Consequently

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x ( ) = (x ) = x = x
and hence is onto. If x( ) = y( ), then (x) = y( ) by he
definition of composition of mappings; this means is one-to-one, that
x = y. This in turn implies, since is one-to-one, that x = y.
Therefore is also one-to-one. Thus composition of mapping is a
binary operation in SX .
The identity mapping e : x x is in SX and is an identity element of
SX .
The groupoid (SX , ) is a semigroup since composition of mappings is
associative.
Let SX . Since is one-to-one and onto, then it implies has an
inverse, in MX . Now, = e = means is an inverse of . We
know the only elements in MX which have inverse are those which are
one-to-one and onto mapping. Therefore SX and is the required
inverse of . It completes the proof.

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Example. The symmetries of a rectangle that is not a square constitute a

group of order 4. This group consists of the identity transformation, reflection
in the axis of symmetry joining the midpoints of the shorter side, reflection
in the axis of symmetry joining the two longer sides, and rotation though an
angle of radian (180o ). If I denote the identity transformation, A and B denote the reflections in the two axes of symmetry, and C denotes the rotation
through radians then A2 = B 2 = C 2 = I, AB = BA = C, AC = CA = B
and BC = CB = A. This group is Abelian.

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Permutation. A permutation of a set X is a one-to-one mapping from

X on to X.
In particular case when X = {1, 2, . . . , n}, we write SX = Sn , and Sn is called
the symmetric group of degree n. The number of element in Sn is | Sn |= n!,
since there are n! different permutation of n elements.
An element of SX is a permutation of X.

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Permutation Multiplication. It is natural binary operation, and define on the permutations of a set. Let G be a set, and let and be the
permutations of G so that and are both one-to-one functions mapping G
onto G.
Example. Let G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and let and be two permutation of
A. Then




1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
.
,
=
=
3 5 4 2 1
4 2 5 3 1
Then,
=

1 2 3 4 5
4 2 5 3 1



1 2 3 4 5
3 5 4 2 1

1 2 3 4 5
2 5 1 4 3

Lemma 0.19. The composite function will be a permutation if it is oneto-one and onto G.
Proof. Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn G. To show composite function on G is
one-to-one. Let x1 ( ) = x2 ( ), then
(x1 ) = (x2 ),
23

and since is one-to-one, we know that x1 = x2 . Since is also one-to-one,

this implies that x1 = x2 . Hence is one-to-one.
To show that is onto A, let x A. Since is onto A, there exists x A
such that x = x. Since is onto A, there exists x A such that x = x .
Then
x = x = (x ) = x ( ),
so is onto G.
Equality of Two Permutations. Two permutations f and g of degree n
are said to be equal if we have f (a) = g(a) a SX .
Example. Let
1 2 3 4
2 3 4 1

and g =

3 2 4 1
4 3 1 2

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f=

are two permutations of degree 4, then we have f = g. Hence we see that

both f (a) = g(a) a {1, 2, 3, 4}.

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Theorem 0.20. Let G be a non empty set, and let SG be a collection of all
permutations of G. Then SG is a group under permutation multiplication.
Proof. To show that SG is a group. We have to show that SG satisfies
the three axioms of group. Existence of identity and inverse is very simply
to prove. Now we have to show that function composition is associative, i.e.,
( ) = ( ),
for permutations , and of G. for this we have to show that each composite
function maps each x G into the same image in G, i.e.,
x[( )] = x[( )] x G.
We have
x[( )] = x[( )] = [(x) ] = x[( )].
Thus, ( ) and ( ) map each x G into the same element [(a) ] and
hence the same permutation.

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Cycles and Products of Cycles. A permutation of a set G is a cycle

of length n if there exist x1 , x2 , . . . , xn G such that
x1 x2 , x2 x3 , . . . , xn x1
and x x for x G but x
/ {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn }.
Example.


1 2 5 3 4 6
f=
2 4 5 1 6 3

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it can be represented by the cycle (1 2 4 6 3).

Note. A cycle does not change by changing the place of its elements provided
their cyclic order is not changed. The cycles in a collection of cycles are
disjoint if there is no common between any two cycles. Multiplication of
disjoint cycles is commutative.
Note that neither every permutation is a cycle nor is the product of any two
cycle is necessarily a cycle.
In general, a cycle of length one is denoted by identity element, and a cycle
of length two is called a transposition.
Every cycle can be expressed as a product of transpositions in many ways.
Inverse of a permutation.
Inverse of a cyclic permutation.
The inverse of the cycle a = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) is the cycle b = (xn , xn1 , . . . , x1 ),
since
xi (ab) = (xi a)b = xi+1 b = xi i 6= n,
while
xn (ab) = (xn a)b = x1 b = xn .
Inver of a product of cyclic permutation. If f and g are any two cycles, then
we have
(f g)1 = g 1f 1 .
Also, if f, g, h are three cycles, then
(f gh)1 = h1 g 1f 1 .
If f and g are disjoint cycles then (gf )1 = (f g)1 = f 1 g 1.
Example.
[(1 2 3)(4 5)(2 6)] = (2 6)1 (4 5)1 (1 2 3)1 = (6 2)(5 4)(3 2 1).
25

Example.
[(1 3 5)(2 4)]1 = (1 3 5)1 (2 4)1 = (5 3 1)(4 2).
Even or Odd Permutation. A permutation of a finite set is even and odd
according to whether it can be expressed as the product of an even number of
transposition or the product of an odd number of transpositions, respectively.
Theorem 0.21. If A and B are two disjoint cycles, then AB = BA, i.e.,
the product of disjoint cycles is commutative.

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Proof. Cycles A and B have no common element. Therefore the elements

permuted by A are remains unchanged by B. Also the elements permuted by
B remains unchanged by A. Therefore AB = BA. Example. Let A = (1 2 3)
and B = (4 5). Then


 

1 2 3
4 5
1 2 3 4 5
AB =
=
2 3 1
5 4
2 3 1 5 4



4 5
1 2 3
= BA
=
5 4
2 3 1
Alternating Group. The subgroup of Sn consisting of the even permutations of n letters is the alternating group An on n letters.

0.9

Cosets and Lagranges Theorem.

Let (G, ) be a group and H be a subgroup of G. A left coset of H in G is a

subset of G that is of the form xH, where x G and
xH = {y G : y = xh for some h H}.
Similarly a right coset of H in G is a subset of G that is of the form Hx,
where x G and
Hx = {y G : y = hx for some h H}.
Note that a subgroup H of a group G is itself a left coset of H in G.

26

Lemma 0.22. Let (G, ) be a group and H be a subgroup of G. Then the left
cosets of H in G have the following properties:
x xH for all x G;
if x and y are elements of G, and if y = xa for some a H, then
xH = yH;
if x and y are elements of G, and if xH yH is non empty then
xH = yH.

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Proof. Let x G. Then x = xe, where e is the identity element of G.

Also, e H. It follows that x xH. This prove the first condition.
Let x, y G, where y = xa for some a H. Then yh = (xa)h = x(ah) and
xh = y(a1 h) for all h H. Moreover ah H and a1 h H for all h H,
since H is a subgroup of G. It follows that yH xH and xH yH, and
hence xH = yH. This completes the prove of second condition.
Finally suppose that xH yH is a non empty for some elements x and y
of G. Let z be an element of xH yH. Then z = xa for some a H, and
z = yb for some b H. It follows from second condition that zH = xH and
zH = yH. therefore xH = yH. This completes the proof.
Theorem 0.23. Let H be any subgroup of G and let h H. Then Hh =
H = hH.
Proof. Let h H, then to prove Hh = H. Suppose h is an arbitrary
element of H. Then h h is an arbitrary element of Hh. Since H is a subgroup,
we have
h H, h H h h H, By closure property.
Thus every element of Hh is also an element of H. Hence Hh H.
Again,
h = h (h1 h) = (h h1 )h Hh.
Since h H h1 H and h H, h1 H h h1 H.
Thus every element h of H is also an element of Hh. Hence H Hh.
Hence Hh = H. In the very similar way we can prove H = hH, and hence
Hh = H = hH.
Lemma 0.24. Let (G, ) be a group and H be a subset of G. Then each left
coset of H in G has the same number of elements as H.
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Proof. Let H = {h1 , h2 , . . . , hn }, where h1 , h2 , . . . , hn are distinct, and

let x be an element of G. Then the left coset xH consists of the elements
xhj for j = 1, 2 . . . , n. Suppose that j and k are integers between 1 and n
for which xhj = xhk . Then hj = x1 (xhj ) = x1 (xhk ) = hk , and thus j = k.
Since h1 , h2 , . . . , hn are distinct, it follows that the elements xh1 , xh2 , . . . , xhn
are distinct. We conclude that the subgroup H and the left coset xH both
have n elements, as required.
Lemma 0.25. Let xH and yH be two cosets of H. Either xH and yH are
disjoint or they are identical.
Proof. Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Let xH and yH are two left
cosets of H in G. Let xH and yH are not disjoint, and have f as a common
element, i.e., there exists h1 and h2 in H such that f = xh1 = yh2 . Then

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xh1 = xh2
1
xh1 h1
1 = yh2 h1
xe = y(h2 h1
1 )
1
x = y(h2 h1 )

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1
Since H be a subgroup, therefore h2 h1
1 H. Let h2 h1 = h3 . Then x = yh3 .
Now xH = yh3 H = y(h3H) = yH, since h3 H, this implies h3 H = H.
Therefore left cosets are identical if they are not disjoint. In the similar way
we can show that any two right coset Hy and Hx are identical if they are
not disjoint.

Lemma 0.26. Let (G, ) be a group and H be a subgroup of G. Let a, b G.

Then
a Hb Ha = Hb and a bH aH = bH.
Proof. Let a Hb, this implies

ab1 Hbb1
ab1 H
Hab1 = H
Hab1 b = Hb
Ha = Hb.

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Conversely, let Ha = Hb. If a Ha, therefore a Hb.

Theorem 0.27. Lagrange Theorem Let G be a finite group, and let H b
a subgroup of G. Then the order of H divides the order of G.
Proof. Let G be a group of finite order n. Let H be a subgroup of G
and let o(H) = m. Suppose h1 , h2 , . . . , hm are the m members of H.
Let a G. Then Ha is the right coset of H in G and we have
Ha = {h1 a, h2 a, . . . , hm a}

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Ha has m distinct members, since hi a = hj a hi = hj . Therefore each right

coset of H in G has m distinct members. Also any two right cosets of H in
G are disjoint. Since G is a finite group, the number of distinct right cosets
of H in G will be finite, say, equal to k. Then union of these k distinct right
cosets of H in G is equal to G. Thus, if Ha1 , Ha2 , . . . , Hak are k distinct
right cosets of H in G. Then
G = Ha1 Ha2 . . . Hak

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o(G) = km n = km
n
k=
o(H) is a divisor of o(G).
m
Index. Let G be a group, and let H be a subgroup of G. If the number of
left cosets of H in G is finite then the number of such cosets is referred as
the index of H in G, denoted by [G : H].
Corollary 0.28. Any finite group of prime order is cyclic.
Proof. Let G be a group of prime order, and let x become element of G
that is not the identity element. Then the order of x is greater than one and
divides the order of G. But then the order of x must be equal to the order
of G, since the latter i a prime number. Thus G is a cyclic group generated
by x.

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0.10

Homomorphism.

A homomorphism f : G K from a group (G, ) to a group (K, o) is a

function with property that f (x1 x2 ) = f (x1 )of (x2 ) for all x1 , x2 G.
Example. Let q be an integer. The function from the group Z of integers
to itself that sends each integer n to qn is a homomorphism.
Example. Identity mapping f : G G, is a homomorphism.
Example. Let x be an element of a group G. The function that send
each integer n to the element xn is a homomorphism from the group Z of
integers to G, since xm+n = xm xn for all integers m and n.

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Kernel. The kernel, ker f of the homomorphism f : G K is the set

of all elements of G that mapped by f onto the identity element of K.

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ker f = {x G : f (x) = e , where e be the identity element of K..}

0.11

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Example. Let the group operation on the set {+1, 1} be the multiplication, and let f : Z {+1, 1} be the homomorphism that sand each
integer n to (1)n . then the kernel of homomorphism f is the subgroup of Z
consisting of all even numbers.

Isomorphism.

An algebraic systems (G, ) is isomorphic to the algebraic systems (K, o),

if one can obtain (G, ) from (K, o) by renaming the elements and/or the
operation in (K, o.)
Mathematically, An isomorphism f : G K between groups G and K is a
one-to-one function f mapping from G on to K, such that for all x and y in
G,
f (x y) = f (x)of (y).
The groups G and K are the isomorphic. The usual notation for isomorphism is .
Two groups G and K are isomorphic if there exists an isomorphism mapping
G on to K.

30

Example. Let R be the group of real numbers with the operation of

addition, and let R+ be the group of strictly positive real numbers with the
operation of multiplication. the function exp : R R+ that sends each real
number x to the positive real number ex is an isomorphism: it is both a
homomorphism of groups and a bijection. The inverse of this isomorphism
is the function log : R+ R that sends each strictly positive real number to
its natural logarithm.
Lemma 0.29. Let f : G K is an isomorphism of G with K, Then
1. f (e) = e , where e is the identity of G and e is the identity of K.
2. f (a1 ) = (f (a))1

a G.

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Proof.

1. Let a G. Then f (a) K. We have

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f (a)e = f (a)
= f (ae) = f (a)f (e)
since f is a isomorphism.

f (a)e = f (a)f (e)

e = f (e)

since cancelation law hold for groups.

2. Let a G. Then a1 G.
We have
e = f (e) = f (aa1 ) = f (a)f (a1 ).
This implies f (a1 ) = [f (a)]1 .
Lemma 0.30. Let f : G K is an isomorphism of G with K. Then the
order of an element a G is equal to the order of its f -image f (a).
Proof. Let e be the identity element of G and e be the identity element of
K. Let order of an element a be finite and let it is equal to n, and let order

31

of f (a) is m. Then

an = e
f (an ) = f (e)
f (a . . . a, n times) = f (e)
f (a) . . . f (a), n times = f (e)
[f (a)]n = f (e)
o(f (a)) n.

(7)

[f (a)]m = f (e)
f (a) . . . f (a), m times = f (e)
f (a . . . a, m times) = f (e)
f (am ) = f (e)
am = e
o(a) m.

(8)

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Now,

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From eq.(7) and eq.(8) we have m = n.

32

0.12

Automorphism and Normal Subgroup.

Automorphism. An automorphism is an isomorphism mapping a group

onto itself.
Inner Automorphism. A inner automorphism of G, is an automorphism
ix : G G given by ix (y) = x1 yx for given fixed x all y G. (It is called
conjugation by g.)
In fact a1 xa = x is equivalent to saying ax = xa.
An automorphism which is not a inner automorphism is called outer automorphism.

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Lemma 0.31. Let (G, ) be a group. Let ix : G G be a given inner

automorphism of x G. Then ix is an automorphism.
Proof. By definition ix : G G is a mapping defined as
a G.

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ix = xax1 ,

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To show that ix is an automorphism we have to show that ix is one-to-one,

on-to and composition preservation.
one-to-one. Let a, b G, then
ix (a) = ix (b),
xax1 = xbx1 ,
a = b.

Hence ix is on-to.
on-to. Let a, x G, then x1 G. This implies x1 ax G by closure. Now
ix (x1 ax) = x(x1 ax)x1 = a G.
Hence ix is on-to.
Composition preservation
ix (a)ix (b) = (xax1 )(xbx1 ),
= xa(x1 x)bx1 ,
= x(ab)x1 = ix (ab).
33

Hence mapping ix is an auto morphism.

Let A and B be subsets of a group G. then product AB of the sets A and
B is defined as
AB = {xy : x A, y B}.

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We denote {x}A and A{x} by xA and Ax, for all elements x of G and subsets
A of G. The Associative Law for multiplication of elements G ensures that
(AB)C = A(BC) for all subsets A, B and C of G. We can therefore use the
notation ABC to denote the products (AB)C and A(BC); and we can use
analogous notation to denote the product of four or more subsets of G.
If A, B and C are subsets of a group G, and if A B then clearly AC BC
and CA C.
Note that if H is a subgroup of group G and if x is an element of G then xH
is the left coset of H in G that contains the element x. Similarly Hx is the
right coset of H in G that contains the element x.
If H is a subgroup of G then HH = H. Indeed HH H, since the product
of two elements of a subgroup H is itself an element of H. Also H HH
since h = eh for any element h of H, where e, the identity element of G,
belongs to H.
Lemma 0.32. A mapping f : G G, such that f (x) = x1 , x G is an
automorphism of a group G, iff G is abelian.
Proof. Let f : G G, such that f (x) = x1 , x G. Then mapping f
is one-one, since
f (x) = f (y) x1 = y 1 x = y.
Also if xinG, then x1 G and we have f (x1 ) = x. This implies f is on-to.
Now suppose G is abelian. Let x, y be any two elements of G. Then
f (xy) = (xy)1 = y 1 x1
= x1 y 1
since G is abelian.
= f (x)f (y)
This implies f is automorphism of G.
Conversely, suppose that f is automorphism of G. Let x, y G. We have
f (xy) = (xy)1 = y 1 x1 = f (y)f (x) = f (yx).
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Since f is one-one, therefore

f (xy) = f (yx) xy = yx.
This implies G is abelian.
Normal Subgroup. A subgroup N of a group G is said to be a normal
subgroup of G if xnx1 N for all n N and x G.
The notation N G signifies N is a normal subgroup of G.
A non trivial group G is said to be simple if the only normal subgroups
of G are the whole of G and the trivial subgroup {e} whose only element is
the identity element e of G.

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Lemma 0.33. Every subgroup of an abelian group is a normal subgroup.

Proof. Let N be a subgroup of an abelian group G. Then

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Thus x G, h N xhx1 N. Hence N is normal subgroup.

Example. Let S3 be the group of permutations of the set {1, 2, 3},
and let H be the subgroup of S3 consisting of the identity permutation and
the transposition (12). Then H is not normal in G, since (23)1 (12)(23) =
(23)(12)(23) = (13) and (13) does not belong to the subgroup H.
Proposition 0.34. Intersection of any two normal subgroups of a group is
again an normal subgroup.
Proof. Let H and K be two normal subgroups of a group G. This
implies H K is also a subgroup of G. Let x G and n H K. Then we
haven H, n K.
Since H is an normal subgroup of G. Therefore
x G, n H xnx1 H.
Similarly, we can show xnx1 K. Thus xnx1 H K. Hence H K is
aa normal subgroup.

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Proposition 0.35. A subgroup H of G is normal iff xHx1 = H, x G.

Proof. Let xHx1 = H, x G. Then xHx1 H, x G. Therefore
H is a normal subgroup of G.
Conversely, Let H be an normal subgroup of G. Then
xHx1 H, x G.

(9)

Also x G x1 G. Therefore

(10)

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x1 H(x1 )1 H, x G
x1 Hx H, x G
x(x1 Hx)x1 xHx1 , x G
H xHx1 , x G
From equ.(9) and equ.(10), we have

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xHx1 = H, x G.

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Conjugate. Two subgroups H and K of a group G are conjugate if H =

a1 Ka for some a G, i.e., if one is mapped onto the other by some inner
automorphism of G.
Lemma 0.36. Let G and K be groups, and let f : G K be a homomorphism from G to K. Then the kernel ker f of f is a normal subgroup of
G.
Proof. Let x and y be elements of ker f. Then f (x)eK and f (y) = eK ,
where eK denotes the identity element of K. But then f (xy) = f (x)f (y) =
eK eK = eK . Thus xy belongs to ker f. Also f (x1 ) = f (x)1 = e1
K eK . Thus
x1 belongs to ker f. We conclude that kar f is a subgroup of K. Moreover
ker f is a normal subgroup of G, for if k G and x ker f then
f (kxk 1 ) = f (k)f (x)f (k)1 = f (k)f (k 1 ) = eK .
Quotient Homomorphism. If N is a normal subgroup of some group G

36

then N is the kernel of the quotient homomorphism f : G G/N tat sends

x G to the coset xN. It follows therefore that a subset of a group G is
normal subgroup of G iff it the kernel of some homomorphism.
Proposition 0.37. Let G and K be subgroups, let f : G K be a homomorphism from G to K, and let N be a normal subgroup of G. Suppose that
N ker f. The the homomorphism f : G K induces a homomorphism
f : G/N K sending xN G/N to f (x). Moreover f : G/N K is
injective iff N = ker f.

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Proof. Let x and y be elements of G. Now xN = yN iff x1 y N.

Also f (x) = f (y) iff x1 y ker f. Thus if N ker f then f (x) = f (y)
whenever xN = yN, and thus f : G K induces a well define function since
f : G/N K sending xN G/N to f (x). This function is a homomorphism,
f (yN).

since f((xN)(yN)) = f(xyN) = f (xy) = f (x)f (y) = f (xN)

Suppose now that N = ker f. Then f (x) = f (y) iff xN = yN. Thus the
homomorphism f : G/N K is injective. Conversely if f : G/N K is
injective then N must be the kernel of f.

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Corollary 0.38. Let (G, o) and (K, ) be groups, and let f : G K be a

homomorphism. Then f (G)
= C/ker f.
Lemma 0.39. Let f : G K be a homomorphism. Then f (eG ) = eK ,
where eG and eK denotes the identity elements of groups G and K. Also
f (x1 ) = f (x)1 for all elements of G.
Proof. Let z = f (eG ). Then z 2 = f (eG )f (eG ) = f (eG eG ) = f (eG ) = z.
The result that f (eG ) = eK now follows from the fact that an element z of
K satisfied z 2 = z iff z is the identity element of K.
Let x be an element of G. The element f (x1 ) satisfies f (x)f (x1 ) = f (xx1 ) =
f (eG ) = eK , and similarly f (x1 )f (x)eK . The Uniqueness of the inverse of
f (x) now ensures that f (x1 ) = f (x)1 .
Lemma 0.40. Let (G, ) be a group, let H be a subgroup of G, and let
N be a normal subgroup of G. The the set HN is a subgroup of G, where
HN = {hn : h H, n N}.
Proof. The set HN clearly contains the identity element of G. Let x
and y be elements of HN. We have to show that xy and x1 belongs to HN.
Now x = hu and y = kv for some elements h and k of H and for some
37

elements u, v N. Then xy = (hk)(k 1 ukv). But k 1 uk N, since N is

normal. It follows that (k 1 ukv) N, since N is a subgroup and (k 1 ukv)
is the product of the elements (k 1 uk and v of N. Also hk H. It follows
that xy HN.
We must also show that x1 HN. Now x1 = u1 h1 = h1 (hu1 h1 ).
Also h1 H, since H is a subgroup of G, and hu1 h1 N, since N is a
normal subgroup of G, as required.
Theorem 0.41. (First Isomorphism Theorem) Let (G, ) be a group,
let H be a subgroup of G, and let N be a normal subgroup of G. Then
HN H
.
=
N
N H

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such that

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Proof. Let H is a subgroup of G and N is a normal subgroup of G, then

H N is again a normal subgroup of H and consequently H | (H N) is
a quotient group of G. Also HN is a subgroup of G, and N HN. Since
N is normal in G, then N is also normal in HN. Hence HN | N is quotient
group.
Define a mapping
: H = HN | N,
(x) = Nx,

For one-one

x H.

(x) = (y),
Nx = Ny,
x = y.
For on-to
(x)
Nx
x
x

Nx,
xH
HN | N
HN
H.

Composition preservation
(xy) = Nxy = NxNy = (x)(y).
38

Let h H, then h Ker

(h)
Nh
h
h

=
=

N
N
N
H N

Theorem 0.42. (Second Isomorphism Theorem) let M and N be normal subgroups of a group G, where M N. Then
G G/M
.
=
N
N/M

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Proof. Let H, K are normal subgroups of G and H K. Then K | H is

a normal subgroup of G | H. Hence (G | H) | (K | H) is a quotient group.
Now consider the mapping
: G | H K | H,

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such that (Hx) = Kx, x G.

(x)
Kx
x
Hx

=
=
=
=

(y),
Ky,
y
Hy

For on-to
(x)
Kx
x
xH

Kx,
G|K
G
G | H.

xG

Composition preservation
(HxHy) = (Hxy) = Kxy = KxKy = (Hx)(Hy).

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Let Hx G | H, then Hx Ker

(Hx)
Kx
x
Hx

=
=

K
K
K
K | H.

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Thus Ker = K | H.

40

0.13

Rings and Fields.

Ring. An algebraic system (R, +, ) is called a ring if the following conditions are satisfied:
(A, +) is an abelian group.
(A, ) is a semi group.
The operation is distributed over the operation +.

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Example.The trivial ring {0} has only one element which serves both as
additive and multiplicative identity.
Example. The set of all continuous real-valued functions defined on the
interval [a, b] forms a ring (even an associative algebra). The operations are
addition and multiplication of functions.
Example. (Example of a noncommutative ring:) For any ring R and any
natural number n, the set of all square n n matrices with entries from R,
forms a ring with matrix addition and matrix multiplication as operations.
For n = 1, this matrix ring is just (isomorphic to) R itself. For n > 2, this
matrix ring is an example of a noncommutative ring (unless R is the trivial
ring).
If a, b and c are arbitrary elements of R, the following properties are
derived quickly from the definition of a ring;
1. a0 = 0a = 0;
2. (a)b = a(b) = ab;
3. (1)(1) = 1;
4. (a)(b) = ab;
5. a(b c) = ab ac;
6. (a b)c = ac bc;
7. 1 6= 0;
8. The multiplicative identity is unique.
41

Lemma 0.43. If a ring element has a multiplicative inverse, then the inverse
is unique.
Lemma 0.44. If the ring has at least two elements then 0 6= 1.
Lemma 0.45. If m and n are integers and a and b are ring elements, then
(ma)(nb) = (mn)(ab).
Lemma 0.46. If a ring is a cyclic group under addition, then it is commutative.
Invertible. A nonzero element a of a ring is a invertible if there exists a
nonzero b such that ab = ba = 1.

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Divisor. If a and b are elements of the integral domain R, we say that a

divides b or a is a divisor of b or b is a multiple of a if and only if there exists
an element x in R such that ax = b.

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Zero Divisor. A nonzero element a of a ring is a left zero divisor if

there exists a nonzero b such that ab = 0. Right zero divisors are defined
analogously, that is, a nonzero element a of a ring is a right zero divisor if
there exists a nonzero b such that ba = 0. An element that is both a left and
a right zero divisor is simply called a zero divisor. If multiplication in the
ring is commutative, then the left and right zero divisors are the same. A
nonzero element of a ring that is neither left nor right zero divisor is called
regular.
Example. The ring Z of integers has no zero divisors, but in the ring
Z Z where addition and multiplication are carried out componentwise we
have (0, 1) (1, 0) = (0, 0) and so both (0, 1) and (1, 0) are zero divisors.
Left or right zero divisors can never be units, because if a is invertible
and ab = 0, then 0 = a1 0 = a1 ab = b.

42

Commutative Ring. A commutative ring is a ring in which the multiplication operation obeys the commutative law. This means that if a and b
are any elements of the ring, then a b = b a.
Example. The ring of integers with the two operations of addition and
multiplication. Ordinary multiplication of integers is commutative. This ring
is usually denoted Z.
Subring. A subring is an non-empty subset of a ring, which is itself a
ring.
Mathematically, Let (R, +, ) be a ring and let S R, S 6= . Then
(S, +, ) be a subring of (R, +, ), if (S, +, ) is itself a ring.

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Example. Let (I, +, ) be a ring, where I be set of integers. Let

S = {2x : x I}, then (S, +, ) is a subring. As S I and (S, +, )
is itself a ring.

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Following theorem gives the necessary and sufficient condition for a subset being a subring.
Theorem 0.47. Let (R, +, ) be a ring and let S R, S 6= . Then (S, +, )
be a subring iff
i
ab S

a, b S,

abS

a, b S.

ii
Proof. Necessary part is very trivial.
Sufficiency. Let a, b S and the condition given in theorem are true.
Since a S, then from condition (i), we have
a a = 0 S.
This shows the existence of additive identity in S.

43

Again, let 0 6= a, 0 S, then from condition (i), we have

0 a = a S.
This shows the existence of additive inverse in S.
Now let a, b S, this implies that a, b S because of existence of
additive inverse, then from condition (i), we have
a (b) = a + b S.
This implies the closure under addition.
Since all the elements of S are elements of R, then associativity holds.

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Theorem 0.48. Let (R, +, ) be a ring and let S and T be subring of a ring
R. Then S T is also a subring of R.
Proof. Let a, b S T, this implies a, b S and a, b T. Since S and
T be subring of ring R. Then
This implies

a b, ab T.

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a b, ab S,

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a b, ab S T.

Theorem 0.49. Let (R, +, ) be a ring and let H and K be subring of a ring
R. Then H K is not necessarily a subring of R.
Proof. Let I be set of all integers, then (I, +, ) be a ring. Now let
S = {2x : x I} and T = {3x : x I}. Then
2, 3 S T,
but 2 + 3
/ S T. This implies S T not closed under addition. Hence not
a subring.
Integral Domain. An integral domain is a commutative ring with an additive identity 0 and a multiplicative identity 1 such that 0 6= 1, in which the
product of any two non-zero elements is always non-zero (the zero-product
property); that is, there are no zero divisors. Integral domains are generalizations of the integers and provide a natural setting for studying divisibility.
Mathematically, Let (R, +, ) be an algebraic system with two binary
operations. Then (R, +, ) is called an integral domain if:
44

 (R, +) is an abelian group;

The operation is commutative. Further more if c 6= 0 and c a = c b,
then a = b, where 0 denotes the additive identity;
The operation is distributive over the operation +.
Alternatively and equivalently, an integral domain may be defined as a commutative ring in which the zero ideal {0} is prime, or as a subring of a field.
Additionally, a commutative ring R is an integral domain if and only if for
every element r of the ring, the Rmodule map induced by multiplication
by r is injective (such r are called regular).

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Theorem 0.50. A ring R is without zero divisor iff the cancelation law hold
in R.

ab = ac
ab ac = 0
a(b c) = 0
bc= 0b= c

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Proof Let R is with out zero divisors. Let 0 6= a, b, c R such that

ab = ac.

since R is without zero divisor and a 6= 0. thus the cancelation law hold in
R.
Conversely, Let cancelation law holds. Let ab = 0, a 6= 0, b 6= 0.
Then we have ab = a0, since a0 = 0.
Now a 6= 0, ab = a0 b = 0 by left cancelation law. This contradict our
assumption and hence R is without zero divisor.
Division Ring. A division ring, also called a skew field, is a ring with
0 6= 1 and such that every non-zero element a has a multiplicative inverse
(i.e. an element x with ax = xa = 1).
Field. A field is an algebraic structure in which the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division (except division by zero) may
be performed, and the same rules hold which are familiar from the arithmetic
45

of ordinary numbers.
Mathematically, A field is a commutative ring (F, +, ) such that 0 does
not equal 1 and all elements of F except 0 have a multiplicative inverse.
(Note that 0 and 1 here stand for the identity elements for the + and operations respectively, which may differ from the familiar real numbers 0 and 1).
Let (F, +, ) be an algebraic system with to binary operations. Then
(F, +, ) is called a field if:
(F, +) is an abelian group;
(F {0}, ) is an abelian group;

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The operation is distributed over the operation +.

Explicitly, a field is defined by these properties:

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Closure of F under + and

For all a, b belonging to F, both a + b and a b belong to F (or more
formally, + and are binary operations on F ).
Both + and are associative a+ (b+ c) = (a+ b) + c and a (b c) =
(a b) c, for all a, b, c F.
Both + and are commutative
a + b = b + a and a b = b a, for all a, b F.
The operation * is distributive over the operation +
a (b + c) = (a b) + (a c), for all a, b, c F.
Existence of an additive identity
There exists an element 0 F, such that for all a belonging to F, a+0 =
a.
Existence of a multiplicative identity
There exists an element 1 F different from 0, such that for all a
F, a 1 = a.

46

 Existence of additive inverses

For every a belonging to F, there exists an element a F, such that
a + (a) = 0.
Existence of multiplicative inverses
For every a 6= 0 belonging to F, there exists an element a 1inF, such
that a a1 = 1. The requirement 0 6= 1 ensures that the set which only
contains a single element is not a field. Directly from the axioms, one
may show that (F, +) and (F {0}, ) are commutative groups (abelian
groups) and that therefore (see elementary group theory) the additive
inverse a and the multiplicative inverse a1 are uniquely determined
by a. Other useful rules include

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a = (1) a
and more generally

as well as

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(a b) = (a) b = a (b)

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a 0 = 0,

all rules familiar from elementary arithmetic.

If the requirement of commutativity of the operation is dropped, one distinguishes the above commutative fields from non-commutative fields. Fields
which are not assumed to be commutative are usually called division rings
or skew fields.
Example. (C, +, ), is a field, under the usual operations of addition +
and multiplication , where C is the set of complex numbers.
Example. (R, +, ) is a field, under the usual operations of addition + and
multiplication , where R is set of real numbers.
Theorem 0.51. Every field is an integral domain.
Proof. In order to show that every field is an integral domain, it is
sufficient that field is without zero divisors.
Let a, b F with a 6= 0 such that ab = 0. Since every non zero element have

47

its multiplicative inverse in F, we have a1 F. Now

ab = 0 a1 (ab) = a1 0
(a1 a)b = 0
b = 0.
Similarly, let ab = 0 and b 6= 0. Then b1 F. we have
ab = 0 (ab)b1 = 0b1
a(b1 b) = 0
a = 0.
This implies that a field has no zero divisor.

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Theorem 0.52. Every finite integral domain is a field.

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Proof. Let 0, 1, a1 , . . . , an be all elements of a finite integral domain

D. For begin a field every non zero element of D must have multiplicative inverse, i.e., 0 6= a D, then b D such that ab = 1. Now consider 0, a1, aa1 , aa2 , . . . , aan . Since D is closed under multiplication, we have
0, a1, aa1 , aa2 , . . . , aan D. This implies that 0, a1, aa1 , aa2 , . . . , aan is just a
different arrangement of 0, 1, a1 , . . . , an . This implies either a1 = 1 and hence
a = 1 or aai = 1 for some i. Thus a is the multiplicative inverse of ai .
Theorem 0.53. The set of non-zero elements of a field F (typically denoted
by F ) is an abelian group under multiplication. Every finite subgroup of
F is cyclic.
Theorem 0.54. A commutative ring is a field if and only if it has no ideals
except {0} and itself.

48

Subfield. Let F be a field and K be a nonempty subset of F. Then K

is a subfield of F, if K is itself a field.
Theorem 0.55. The necessary and sufficient conditions for a non empty
subset K of a field F to be a subfield are
1. a K, b K a b K.
2. a K, 0 6= b K ab1 K.

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Proof.
Necessity. Let K be a subfield and a, b K. then b K, by the existence of additive inverse. This implies a + (b) K, (by closure) and hence
a b K.
Now a, 0 6= b K we have b1 K since every non zero element of K must
have multiplicative inverse in K. This implies ab1 K.

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Sufficiency. Let a K, b K a b K. Then b b = 0 K, implies

the existence of identity.
Now let 0 K, a K implies 0 a = a K, implies existence of inverse.
Again a K, b K a K, b K, then a (b) = a + b K, this
implies closure. Hence K is subgroup of F under addition.
Let a K, 0 6= b K ab1 inK. Then bb1 = 1 K, this implies existence
of multiplicative identity.
Now let 1 K, a K implies 1a1 = a1 K, implies existence of inverse.
Again a K, 0 6= b K a K, b1 K, then a(b1 )1 = ab K, this
implies closure.
This implies K is a subfield of F.
Characteristic of a Ring. Let R be a ring with zero element and suppose a positive integer n such that na = a+a+a+. . .+ntimes = 0a R.
The smallest positive integer n is called the characteristic of the ring R. If
exists no such integer then R is said to be of characteristic 0 or .
Example. Let I be a set of first six non negative integer, i.e., {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
Than (I6 , +6 , 6 ) is a ring and the characteristic of ring is 6. Since 6x =
0, x R. Obviously no positive integer smaller than 6 satisfies this property. For example 5 cant be the characteristic, since 5(2) = 4 in (I6 , +6 , 6 ),
49

and 5(3) = 3 in (I6 , +6 , 6 ).

Theorem 0.56. The characteristic of a ring with unity is 0 or n > 0, according as the order of the unity 0 or n > 0.(Note: For finding order of unity,
consider unity as a member of additive group.)
Proof. Let R be a ring with unity. If I has some finite order n, so that
1 + 1 + 1 + . . . + n times = 0, i.e., n 1 = 0.
Let an arbitrary element a R. Then

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na = a + a + a + . . . + n times
= (1 + 1 + 1 + . . . + n times) a
= (n 1) a = 0 a = 0.

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Thus, order of a is leqn. Hence the characteristic of the ring is n.

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Theorem 0.57. Each non-zero element of an integral domain is of the same

order.
Proof. Let D be an integral domain and let 0 6= a D and order of a is
finite. We have o(a) = n.
Let b is an other non-zero element of D and o(b) = m.
Since we have o(a) = n, then
na
(na)b
(a + a + . . . + n times)b
a(1 + 1 + . . . + n times)b
a(b + b + . . . + n times)
(b + b + . . . + n times)
nb
o(b)

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

0
0b=0
0
0
0
0,
since D is without zero divisor.
0
n.

50

This implies m n. Similarly, we have o(b) = m, then

mb
(mb)a
(b + b + . . . + m times)a
b(1 + 1 + . . . + m times)a
b(a + a + . . . + m times)
(a + a + . . . + m times)
ma
o(b)

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

0
0b=0
0
0
0
0,
since D is without zero divisor.
0
n.

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This implies n m. Hence m = n, this implies each non-zero element of D

is of same order.

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Theorem 0.58. The characteristic of an integral domain is 0 or n > 0,

according as the order of any non-zero element of an integral domain is either
0 or n.

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Proof. Let D be an integral domain and let 0 6= a D and order of 0.

Then characteristic of D is 0.
Again, let order of an arbitrary element a is some finite integer n. Then
na = 0.
Let b is an other non-zero element of D and o(b) = m.
Since we have o(a) = n, then
na
(na)b
(a + a + . . . + n times)b
a(1 + 1 + . . . + n times)b
a(b + b + . . . + n times)
a(nb)

=
=
=
=
=
=

0
0b=0
0
0
0
0

This implies that nb = 0, since a 6= 0 and D is an integral domain, hence D

is without zero divisor. It is give that the order of a is n. Then n must be
51

the least positive integer such that na = 0. Also we have n0 = 0. Thus n is

the least positive integer such that nx = 0 x D.
Left Ideal. Let (R, +, ) be a ring and H be a subset of R. Then H is
said to be an left ideal if the following condition are satisfied:
(H, +) is a subgroup of (R, +);
xy H

x R and y H.

Right Ideal. Let (R, +, ) be a ring and H be a subset of R. Then H is

said to be an Right ideal if the following condition are satisfied:
(H, +) is a subgroup of (R, +);
x R and y H.

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yxH

Ideal. Let (R, +, ) be a ring and H be a subset of R. Then H is said to be

an ideal if the following condition are satisfied:

x R and y H.

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x y, y x H

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(H, +) is a subgroup of (R, +);

Theorem 0.59. The intersection of any two left(right) ideals of a ring is

again a left(right) ideal.
Proof. Let Ii , i = 1, 2 are left ideals of a ring R. Then Ii , i = 1, 2 are
subgroup of R under addition. This implies I1 I2 is again a subgroup of R
under addition.
Now to show that I1 I2 is a left ideal of R, we have to only show that
x R, s I1 I2 rs I1 I2 .
Since I1 and I2 are left ideals then x R, s I1 rs I1 and
x R, s I2 rs I2 . This implies x R, s I1 I2 rs I1 I2 .
Hence I1 I2 is an left ideal.
Theorem 0.60. Let (R, +, ) be a commutative ring and a R, then Ra =
{ra : r R} is an ideal of R.
Proof. For being an ideal Ra must satisfied following conditions:
(Ra, +) should be subgroup of (R, +).
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 For all x, y Ra we must have xy, yx Ra.

Since R is a commutative ring, we have xy = yx.
let u, v Ra, then u = r1 a and v = r2 a for some r1 , r2 R.
we have u v = r1 a r2 a = (r1 r2 )a Ra, since r1 r2 R. This implies
u v Ra. Hence Ra is a subgroup under addition.
Now Let x R and y Ra, then
xy = x(ra) = (xr)a Ra,
since xr R. This implies Ra is an ideal of R.

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Theorem 0.61. Let (R, +, ) be a commutative ring and a R, then T =

{x R : ax = 0}. Show that T is a right ideal of R.
Proof. For being a right ideal T must satisfied following conditions:

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(T, +) should be subgroup of (R, +).

For all x T, yinR, we must have xy T.

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Let x1 , x2 T. Then ax1 = 0, ax2 = 0.

Now,
a(x1 x2 ) = ax1 ax2 = 0 0 = 0.
This implies x1 x2 T and hence (T, +) be a subgroup of R.
Again let x T and y R. Then
a(xy) = (ax)y = 0 y = 0.
This implies xy T.
Thus T be a right ideal of R.
Principal Ideal. An ideal S of a ring is said to be a principal ideal, if
a S such that any ideal T of R containing a also contains S.
Principal Ideal Ring. A commutative ring R with out zero divisors and
with unit element is a principal ideal ring if every ideal S R is a principal
ideal, i.e., if every ideal S R of the form of S = (a) for some a S.

53

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Notes: Every ring R always possesses two improper ideals. One R itself
and other consisting 0 only. These ideals are respectively known as the unit
ideal and null ideal.
Any other ideal of R are called proper ideals. A ring having no proper
ideals is called simple ring.

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Finite Field. A finite field or Galois field is a field that contains only
finitely many elements.
Ring homomorphism A ring homomorphism is a function between two
rings which respects the operations of addition and multiplication.
More precisely, if R and S are rings, then a ring homomorphism is a function
f : R S such that
f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b),
f (ab) = f (a)f (b),

a, b R.

a, b R.

f (1) = 1.

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Ring homomorphism is called into or onto homomorphism depending on the

mapping f is into or onto.

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Note.The composition of two ring homomorphisms is a ring homomorphism. It follows that the class of all rings forms a category with ring homomorphisms as the morphisms.
Theorem 0.62. Let f be a homomorphism of a ring R in to ring S then:
1. f (0) = 0 where 0 and 0 are the additive identities of R and S respectively.
2. f (a) = f (a),

a R.

Proof. 1. Let a R. Then f (a) S, we have

f (a) + 0 = f (a) = f (a + 0),
since 0 and 0 are zero elements of R and S respectively
= f (a) + f (0),
since f is homomorphic.

0 = f (0)
since left cancelations law holds.
2. Let a R. Then a R, we have
0 = f (0) = f (a + (a))
= f (a) + f (a)
since f is homomorphic.
f (a) = f (a)
due to existence of additive inverse in S.
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Theorem 0.63. Let f be a homomorphism of a ring R in to ring S. Let T

be an homomorphic image of R in to S. Then T be a sub ring in S.
Proof. Since T is the image of R in S corresponding to mapping f,
therefore f (R) = T S.
Let a , b T. Since T = f (R), therefore a, b, R such that f (a) = a
and f (b) = b . We have
a b = f (a) f (b) = f (a b),

because f is homomorphic.

Now a b R is such that a b = f (a b). Therefore a b T.

Further, a b = f (a)f (b) = f (ab) T, since ab R.
Thus a b T a b , a b T. Therefore T is a subring of S.

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Kernel of Ring Homomorphism. Let f be a homomorphism of ring

R in to ring S, then the kernel of f is define as

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ker(f ) = {x R : f (x) = 0 },

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where 0 be the zero element of ring S.

Theorem 0.64. Let f be a homomorphism of ring R in to ring S, with kernel

T, then kernel T is an ideal of R.
Proof. Given f be a homomorphism of ring R in to ring S, and T be the
kernel of f. Then T = {x R : f (x) = 0 }, where 0 be the zero elements of
S. Since f (0) = 0 therefore at least 0 T, where 0 be the zero elements of
R. Thus T 6= .
Let a, b T, then f (a) = 0 = f (b), we have
f (a b) = f (a + (b)) = f (a) + f (b),
since f is homomorphic.
= f (a) f (b),
since f (b) = f (b).
= 0 0 = 0 .
a b S.
Again, Let r R and a T, then
f (ar) = f (a)f (r) = 0 f (r) = 0 .
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f (ra) = f (r)f (a) = f (r)0 = 0 .

This implies ar, ra T. Thus a, b T and r R this implies a b T and
ar, ra T for all r R. Hence T is an ideal.
Rings of Residue Classes (Quotient Ring). Let R be a ring and S
be an additive sub group of R. Then cosets of S in R called Quotient ring of
S in R.
We denote the set of all residue classes of S in R by R | S and define as:
R | S = {S + a : a R}.

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Theorem 0.65. Let S be an ideal of a ring R, then the set R | S = {S + a :

a R} of all residue classes of S in R forms a ring with respect to following
composition in R | S:

Proof.Trivial proof.

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(S + a) + (S + b) = (S + (a + b))
(S + a)(S + b) = (S + (ab))

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Ring Isomorphism. A bijective ring homomorphism is called ring isomorphism.

Theorem 0.66. Let f be a homomorphism mapping from a ring R into ring
S is an isomorphism of R in to S, iff ker(f ) = 0.
Proof. Let f be a homomorphism of a ring R in to a ring S. Let 0 and
0 be the zero elements of R and S respectively. Let

S = ker(f ) = {a R : f (a) = 0 }.
Suppose f is an isomorphism of ring R into ring S. Then f is one-one. Let
a S, then f (a) = 0 .
f (a) = f (0) a = 0.
Thus a S a = 0. In other words 0 is the only element of R, belongs to S.

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Conversely, suppose that S = {0}. Then to prove f is isomorphic from R

in to S, i.e., we have to show that f is one-one.
If a, b R, then f (a) = f (b).

f (a) f (b) = 0 .
f (a b) = 0 .
a b = S.
a b = 0.
since 0 is the only element of S.
a = b.

This implies f is one-one.

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Fundamental Theorem on Homomorphism of Ring.

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Theorem 0.67. Every homomorphic image of a ring R is isomorphic to

some residue classes of ring.

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Proof. Let R be the homomorphic image of a ring R and f be the corresponding homomorphism. Then f is a homomorphism of R on to R . Let
S be the kernel of this homomorphism. Then S is an ideal of R. Therefore
R | S is a ring of residue classes of R related to S.
We shall prove that R | S
= R .
If a R, then S + a R | S and f (a) R . Consider the mapping
: R | S R such that
(S + a) = f (a)a R
First we have to show that the mapping is well defined, i.e., if a, b R and
S + a = S + b, then
f (S + a) = f (S + b).

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we have
S+a
ab
f (a b)
f (a + (b))
f (a) f (b)
f (a)
(a)

=
=
=
=
=

S+b
S
0
since a b is an element of kernel.

0.
0
by homomorphism
f (b)
additive inverse exists in R and cancelation law hold.
(b).

This implies that is well define.

f (b)
0
by homomorphism

0.
0
S
S + b.

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=
=
=
=

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f (a)
f (a) f (b)
f (a + (b))
f (a b)
ab
S+a

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is one-one. We have f (S + a) = f (S + b).

This implies that is one-one.

is onto. Let y be an element of R Then y = f (a) for some a R,

because f is on to R . Now S + a R | S and we have
(S + a) = f (a) = y.
Therefore f is on to R .
Finally, we have
((S + a) + (S + b)) = f (S + (a + b)) = f (a + b)
= f (a) + f (b) = (a) + (b).
and
((S + a)(S + b)) = f (S + (ab)) = f (ab)
= f (a)f (b) = (a)(b).
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This implies f is an isomorphism from R | S on to R .

Polynomial Ring. Let R be an arbitrary ring and let x be any symbol
not an element of R. (x is called an indeterminate.) By a polynomial in x
over R is meant an expression of the form.
f (x) : a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + . . .
where a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . R and only a finite member of them are not equal to
0 R.
Set of all Polynomials over a Ring. Let R be an arbitrary ring and
x be na indeterminate. The set of all polynomials f (x), define as
an xn ,

an R,

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f (x) :=

X
n=0

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where a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . R and only a finite member of them are not equal

0 R, is called set of polynomials over R, and denoted by R[x].

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Some Properties. Let R be an arbitrary ring and

f (x) = a0 x0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + . . . ,
and

g(x) = b0 x0 + b1 x + b2 x2 + . . . ,
are any two arbitrarily chosen elements of R[x]. Then
1. f (x) = g(x), iff an = bn , n I + .
2. f (x) + g(x) = c0 x0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + . . . , where cn = an + bn , n I + .
P
3. f (x)g(x) = d0 x0 +d1 x+d2 x2 +. . . , where dn = i+j=n ai +bj , n I + .

Example. Add and multiply the following polynomial over the ring (I6 , +6 , 6 ) :
f (x) = 2 + 5x + 3x2 ,

g(x) = 1 + 4x + 2x2 .

Then
f (x) + g(x) = (2 +6 1) +6 (5 +6 4)x +6 (3 +6 2)x2
= 3 + 3x + 5x2 .
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and
f (x) 6 g(x) = (2 + 5x + 3x2 ) 6 (1 + 4x + 2x2 )
= d0 + d1 + d2 + d3 + d4 ,
where d0 = (2 6 1) = 2, d1 = (2 6 4) +6 (1 6 5) = 2 +6 5 = 1, d2 = (2 6
2)+6 (36 1)+6 (56 4) = 4+6 3+6 2 = 3, d3 = (36 4)+6 (56 2) = 0+6 4 = 4
and d4 = (3 6 3) = 3.
Zero Polynomial. The polynomial f (x) :=
all ai s equal to zero is called zero polynomial.

n=0

an xn , an R, with

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Degree of Polynomial. Degree of polynomial is equal to n, if an 6= 0

and am = 0, m n.
Set of constant Polynomial over a Ring. Let R be an arbitrary ring
and R[x] be the set of all polynomials over R. Let R is defined as

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R = {ao x0 : a0 R}.

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Then R will called as the set of constant polynomials in R[x].

Theorem 0.68. The set R[x] of all polynomials over an arbitrary ring R is
a ring with respect to addition and multiplication of polynomials.

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Graph Theory.

1.1

What is a Graph?

Basic Terminology.

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1.2

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The word graph refers to a specific mathematical structure usually represented as a diagram consisting a set of points(vertex set), and lines connecting these points.
Now the day graph are used as an important tool in various areas of computing, social and natural sciences. Many of standard text refer that graph
theory begins in 1736 when Swiss mathematician L.Euler considered the
K
onigsberg bridge problem: The city of K
onigsberg was located on the Pregel
river in Prussia. The city occupied the islands plus areas of both banks.
These regions were linked by seven bridges as shown in the figure.
People of Prussia wrote a letter to Euler, in which they asked whether a
person leaves his home, cross every bridge exactly once, and return to home?
Euler prove that such a walk is impossible.

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A graph G is a triple consisting of a vertex set V (G), an edge set E(G), and a
relation that associates with each edge two vertices (not necessarily distinct)
called its endpoints.
Adjacent Vertices. Vertices u and v are said to be adjacent if there is
an edged e = {u, v}, and u and v are called the endpoints of e. The edge e is
said to be incident on each of its endpoints u and v.
Loop. A loop is an edge whose endpoint are same. Multiple edge are the
edges having the same pair of endpoints.
Simple Graph. A simple graph is a graph having no loops or multiple
edges.
Finite Graph. A graph is finite if its vertex set is finite.
Null Graph. A graph is null if its vertex set is empty.
Labelled Graph. having labelled or named vertices.

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Weighted Graph. having weight associated with edges.

Directed Graph having directed edges.
Connected Graph has a path between every pair of vertices. A disconnected graph is a graph which is not connected.
of a simple graph G is
Complement of a Graph. The complement G
iff uv
the simple graph with vertex set V (G) defined by uv E(G)
/ E(G).
Clique. A clique in a graph is a set of pairwise adjacent vertices.

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Stable Set. An stable set(or independent set) in a graph is a set of

pairwise non-adjacent vertices.

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Trail is a walk in which all the edges (but not necessarily all the vertices)
are distinct.
Path is a walk in which all the vertices and all the edges are distinct.

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Bridge. An edge in a connected graph is a bridge if its removal leaves a

disconnected graph.
Cycle is a closed path, i.e., a path starting and ending at the same vertex.
Girth is a graph with a cycle is the length of its shortest cycle. A graph
with no cycle has infinite girth.
Degree of a Vertex. The degree of a vertex u in a graph G, is the
number of incident edges.
Regular Graph all vertices have the same degree. If the degree is r the
graph is r regular.
Complete Graph is a graph in which every vertex is joined to every
other vertex by exactly one edge. The complete graph with m vertices is
denoted by Km . Km is (m 1)regular and so have m(m 1)/2 edges.

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Cyclic Graph consists of a single cycle of vertices and edges. The cyclic
graph with m vertices is denoted Cm .
Bipartite. A graph G is bipartite if its vertices can be split into two
subsets A and B in such a way that every edge of G joins a vertex in A with
one in B.
Complete bipartite is a bipartite graph in which every vertex in A is
joined to every vertex in B by exactly one edge.
Forest is a graph with no cycle.
Tree is a connected graph with no cycle.

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Note. If G is a simple graph with n vertices, then the following statements are equivalent.

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G is a tree.

In G there is just one path between any pair of vertices.

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G have n 1 edges and no cycles.

G is connected.

In G every edge is a bridge.

If we introduce an edge G does not remains a tree.
A forest is a graph in which each component is a tree.
Center of Tree. Let V be a set. A function d : V V R is called a
metric on G if it satisfies the following conditions:
1. d(x, x) = 0,

x V.

2. d(x, y) > 0,

x, y V.

3. d(x, y) = d(y, x),

x, y V.

4. d(x, y) d(x, z) + d(z, y),

x, y, z V.

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The ordered pair (V, d) is called the metric space.

Center of Graph. Let G be a graph and x V (G).
The eccentricity G (u) of u G is the distance from u to the vertex farthest
from u G, i.e.,
G (u) := max({dG (u, v) : v V (G)}).
The center of graph G is a vertex having minimum eccentricity.
Union of Graphs. Let G1 = (V1 , E1 ) and G2 = (V2 , E2 ) be simple
graphs. the union of G1 and G2 is the simple graph
G1 G2 = (V1 V2 , E1 E2 ).

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Intersection of Graphs. Let G1 = (V1 , E1 ) and G2 = (V2 , E2 ) be simple

graphs. the Intersection of G1 and G2 is the simple graph
G1 G2 = (V1 V2 , E1 E2 ).

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Symmetric difference of Graphs. Let G1 = (V1 , E1 ) and G2 = (V2 , E2 )

be simple graphs. the Symmetric difference of G1 and G2 is the simple
graph
G1 G2 = (V1 V2 , E1 E2 ).
Path Graph is a tree consisting of a single path through all its vertices.
The path graph with m vertices is denoted Pm .
Subgraph of a graph G is a graph H such that V (H) V (G) and
E(H) E(G) and the assignment of endpoints of edges in H is same as in
G. We then write H G.
Decomposition of a graph is a list of subgraphs such that each edge
appear in exactly one subgraph in the list.
Component of a graph G are its maximal connected subgraphs.
A component is trivial if it has no edges; otherwise it is non trivial.
An isolated vertex is a vertex of degree 0.
Cut-vertex. A vertex v is a cut-vertex if G\v has more components than G.

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Cut-edge. A edge e is a cut-edge if G \ e has more components than G.

Contraction Let G := (V, E) be a simple graph and e E having end
vertices u and v. Let w
/ V, and a mapping : V (V \ {u, v} w,

x, x
/ {u, v};
(x) =
w, x {u, v}.
The simple contraction of G by e is the graph
G/e := ((V ), (E \ {e})),
where (E \ {e}) = {{(x), (y)} : {x, y} E \ {e}}.

Matrices and Isomorphism.

Matrix Representation of Graph.

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1.3

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Adjacency Matrix. Let G be a loopless graph with vertex set V (G) =

{x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } and edge set E(G) = {e1 , e2 , . . . , em }. The adjacency matrix
of G, written A(G), is the n n matrix with entries ai,j s define as

1, for {vi vj } E(G);
ai,j =
0, otherwise.
Example.
A graph usually have many different adjacency matrices, depending on the
vertex ordering in V (G). Every adjacency matrix is symmetric (aij = aji i, j).
For the simple graph the entries of adjacency matrix are 0 and 1 and the diagonal elements are always zero.
Incidence Matrix. Let G be a loopless graph with vertex set V (G) =
{x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } and edge set E(G) = {e1 , e2 , . . . , em }. The incidence matrix
of G, written M(G), is the n m matrix with entries mi,j s define as

1, for vi is an endpoint of ej ;
mi,j =
0, otherwise.
Example.

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Isomorphism of Graphs. Two graphs G and H are isomorphic, demoted by G

= H, if there exits a bijection f : V (G) G(H) such that
{uv} E(G) f (u)f (v) E(H),

u, v G.

Hence G and H are isomorphic if the vertices of H are relabeled of those of

G.

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Bhupendra Gupta

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