PET E 373 (Fall 2016)

Homework 3
Due date: Monday, Oct 17, 4:00 pm

Problem1: Capillary Imbibition

Objective: Understanding the concept of capillary pressure and its effect on spontaneous & forced
imbibition
Fig (1) below shows forced imbibition of water into two capillary tubes of radii r1 and r2 (where r1<r2)
joined through a constriction (pore throat) of radius r (where r<r1). At this time, the water-gas meniscus
in tube 1 is static (no longer moving) but that of tube 2 is still moving to the right. Air is trapped in tube1
as shown. The water level in the tank is maintained constant through the experiment. The height of water
above both capillary tubes can be assumed to be h. The pressure at the surface of the tank and at the
outlet of tube 2 is equal to the atmospheric pressure.

Fig (1): Forced Imbibition

a) Given that the atmospheric pressure is Pa. Sketch the pressure profiles in capillary tubes 1 and 2,
superimposed on the same graph. Label your sketches and where appropriate, provide
expressions for important features of the profiles. Use the following nomenclature:
w = water density
= water-air interfacial tension
= water-air-solid contact angle
r1 = radius of capillary tube 1
r2 = radius of capillary tube 2
r = radius of the constriction
h = The height of water in the tank
Pa = Atmospheric pressure
b) What are the values of pressure at points A (inlet o tube 2) and B (right before water-air interface)
during the imbibition process? (your answer must be expressed in terms of Pa, h, , , and r2)
c) Given that the length of tube 1 is L, derive an expression for the time at which the air in tube 1
was trapped as a function of L and other pertinent variables of the problem
Hints:
In a similar way that Darcys equation describes flow in porous media, Hagen-Possueilles equation describes flow
through a tube, which in this case can be written as
2
=
=

8
Where the permeability of the tube i is given by

2
8

, and xi is the distance between the tube inlet and the advancing

water-air interface.
The pressure differential in this case will be the differential pressure between points A and B in tube 2. Similar
to the problem I solved in class!
Assume the following initial conditions to solve the integral:
x2=0 at t=0, where x2 is the distance travelled by the water-air interface in tube 2.

d) Now, assuming no additional water height above the level of tube 1 (no gravity effect and
spontaneous imbibition) as shown in Fig (2) below, sketch pressure profiles in capillary tubes 1
and 2, superimposed on the same graph

Fig (2): Spontaneous Imbibition

e) In which case do you think the air in tube 1 will be trapped faster (spontaneous or forced
ambition)? Why (please provide a brief explanation using the formula you derived in part b)

Problem 2: Oil Trapping in Porous Media

Objective: Understanding the concept of capillary-trapped oil (residual oil) after water flooding an oil
reservoir
Fig (3) shows an oil blob being displaced by water at the pore scale in a reservoir. The blob has
encountered a constriction at a pore throat. Obviously, in order for the oil blob to pass through the
constriction and be produced, a sufficiently high pressure gradient must be applied across the blob. If such
a pressure gradient cannot be generated by the water injection, then the blob will be trapped as residual
oil. The objective of this exercise is for you to calculate the pressure gradients necessary to mobilize the
blob for a variety of situations to determine whether or not such gradients can be created under normal
oilfield flow conditions. Here are additional facts about the problem:
Wetting phase
Oil-water interfacial tension
Contact angle
Radius of pore body
Radius of pore throat
Length of blob

=
=
=
=
=
=

water
dynes/cm

R cm
r cm
L cm

Fig (3): Schematic illustration of an oil blob trapped between a large capillary tube (representing a pore
body) and a small capillary tube (representing a pore throat)

a. Derive an expression for the pressure differential required to squeeze the blob through the pore
throat?
b. Calculate the pressure gradients required for mobilization of the blob for a medium sand and a
very fine sand. Assume the following:

Item

Symbol

Value

Units

Length of Blob

Radius of pore body

4xr

Oil-water interfacial tension

Degrees

Medium sand pore throat radius

75

Fine sand pore throat radius

15

Interfacial tension for normal waterflood

28

dynes/cm

Are you surprised by the magnitudes of the pressure gradients required to mobilize residual oil in a porous
medium?
c. Calculate the pressure gradients generated in a normal waterflood in a medium sand and a fine
sand using the Darcy equation and the following assumptions:
Darcy velocity
=
0.85 ft/day
Water viscosity
=
1 cp
Effective permeability to water for medium sand
=
4.5 D
Effective permeability to water for very fine sand
=
0.7 D
Are these pressure gradients sufficient to mobilize the oil blob of part (b)?
d. Repeat the calculations of part (b) for an enhanced waterflood in which a surfactant has been
added to the injected water so as to reduce the oil-water interfacial tension to 0.01 dyne/cm.
Comment on the effectiveness of the enhanced waterflood under normal oilfield flow conditions
for medium sand and very fine sand
e. Compare the capillary numbers for the ordinary waterflood and the enhanced waterflood for
medium sand and very fine sand. The capillary number is given by =
Where,
Nc
w
v

=
=
=
=

capillary number
water viscosity
Darcy velocity
water-oil interfacial tension

Problem 3: Water Saturation Profile in an Oil Reservoir

Objective: Understanding the concept of Drainage & Imbibition capillary pressure curves & their effect
on the reservoir
Your company has discovered a massive reservoir sand. The oil column is 1000 feet thick from the top of
the reservoir to the water-oil contact (which is above the free water level!). The reservoir is sufficiently
clean to be treated as a homogenous reservoir. It is your responsibility to advise management where to
perforate a well in the oil column to ensure water-free production, at least initially. The drainage and
imbibition capillary pressure curves for the reservoir (at reservoir conditions) are given by the BrooksCorey models:
Drainage:
1

= (
)
1
Imbibition:
1

=
where,
Pc
Pd
Sw
Swirr
Sor

=
=
=
=
=
=

[(1
)
-1]

capillary pressure, psi

displacement pressure, psi
water saturation, fraction
irreducible water saturation, fraction
residual oil saturation, fraction
pore size distribution index, dimensionless

The data for this reservoir are as follows:

Water-oil density difference () lb/ft3

11.7

Displacement pressure (Pd)

5.6 psi

Residual oil saturation for the sand (Sor)

35%

Irreducible water saturation (Swirr)

21%

Pore size distribution index ()

a. Plot drainage and imbibition capillary pressure curves on the same graph. Use Excel or Matlab.
Think why at the same Pc, Sw of drainage curve is higher than that of imbibition curve, and why at
the same Sw, Pc of drainage curve is higher than that of imbibition curve.

b. Calculate the depth of the free water level below the water-oil contact. You should use the
drainage Pc curve.
c. Sketch the expected water saturation versus depth from the top of the reservoir to the free water
level, similar to what I did in class. Show important points and values of your sketch,
d. Calculate the depth measured from the top of the reservoir below which water saturation is
higher than 40%.
e. Calculate the depth measured from the top of the reservoir below which perforation will result in
100% water production?
Hint:
Above the water-oil contact until a certain height, oil will not be produced because it is trapped by water.
You can find this point on the drainage Pc curve by drawing a vertical line from the Sor point on the imbibition
Pc curve. Note that perforations are not allowed below the water-oil contact. Therefore, the depth called
here is in the oil column

f.

Calculate the minimum displacement pressure for the reservoir cap rock to maintain the seal
integrity of this reservoir trap. What is the maximum pore diameter for the cap rock
corresponding to the minimum displacement pressure?