Respiration

1. Ventilation or breathing

Respiratory
System

2. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between

the air in the lungs and in the blood
3. Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
blood
4. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between
the blood and the tissues

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Functions
1.

Regulation of blood pH

2. Voice Production
3. Olfaction
4. Innate Immunity

ANATOMY OF THE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Upper Respiratory Tract

External nose
Nasal cavity
Pharynx
Associated structures

Nose

Nasal cavity

composed of mainly of hyaline

cartilage

Extends from nares

(nostrils) to choanae
contains pseudo-stratified
epithelium containing cilia
that trap debris and move it
to pharynx

bridge bone ; covered with

connective tissue and skin

Choanae
openings to pharynx

External nose

Hard palate
forms the floor of the
nasal cavity
separates the oral from
nasal cavity

 Conchae
on each side of nasal cavity
increase surface area of nasal cavity
help in cleaning, humidifying, warming of air

Filters
Airway for respiration

Paranasal sinuses

Functions of Nose

air filled spaces within bone

open into nasal cavity
lined with mucous
act as resonating chambers

Involved in speech
Olfactory receptors
Warms air

Nasolacrimal ducts
carry tears from eyes
open into nasal cavity

Sneezing dislodges materials from nose

SNEEZE REFLEX

Pharynx

Remove foreign substances from the nasal cavity

ACHOO autosomal-dominant-compelling-helioopthalmic-outburst

Throat
Common passageway for both respiratory and digestive systems

Foreign substances
detected by the
sensory receptors

Action potential
conducted along
the trigeminal
nerve

Nasopharynx
superior part located posterior to choanae and superior to soft palate
takes in air

Soft Palate
incomplete muscle separating nasopharynx from oropharynx

Uvula
little grape
extension of soft palate

Reflex

Medulla oblongata

Pharyngeal tonsil
aids in defending against infections

 Oropharynx
extends from uvula to epiglottis
stratified squamous epithelium to protect from abrasion
takes in food, drink, and air

Laryngopharynx
extends from epiglottis to esophagus
food and drink pass through
too much air can cause excess gas belching

14

Lower Respiratory Tract

Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Lungs

Larynx
In front of throat
Passageway between pharynx and trachea
Consists of 9 cartilage (3 unpaired, 6 paired) connected
to one another by muscles and ligaments
Thyroid cartilage
largest piece of cartilage
called Adams apple
attached to hyoid bone

Cricoid cartilage
forms the base of the larynx

6 Paired Cartilage
Cuneiform
top cartilage

Corniculate
middle cartilage

Arytenoid
bottom

Epiglottis
consists of elastic cartilage
flap that prevents swallowed materials from entering larynx

2 pairs of ligaments
Superior pair Vestibular folds (false vocal cords)
prevent the air from leaving the lungs
prevent food and liquid from entering the larynx

Inferior pair Vocal folds (true vocal cords)

Vocal folds/cords

source of voice production

air moves past them, they vibrate, and sound is produced
force of air determine loudness
tension determines pitch

Laryngitis
inflammation of vocal folds
caused by overuse, dry air, infection

Trachea
Windpipe
Consists of 16-20 C shaped pieces of cartilage
open passageway for the air

1.4 to 1.6 cm in diameter and 10-11 cm long

Divides into right and left primary bronchi (lungs)
Contains ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
and goblet cells mucus
Smoking kills cilia

Cough reflex dislodges materials from trachea

SR detects
foreign
substance

AP to the
vagus nerves

Medulla
oblongata

Reflex

Bronchi
Divide from trachea
Connect to lungs
Left
more horizontal because it is displayed by the heart

Right
foreign objects entered because it is wider, shorter and
mover vertical

Lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar

Contain C shaped pieces of cartilage

Lungs

Primary organ of respiration

Cone shaped
Rest on diaphragm
Contains many air passageways (divisions)

Right lung has 3 lobes

superior, middle and inferior
10 bronchopulmonary segments

Left lung has 2 lobes

superior and inferior
9 bronchopulmonary segments

Bronchopulmonary segments
deep prominent fissures that divides the lobes

Air Passageways of Lungs

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Primary bronchi
Lobar (secondary) bronchi
Segmental (tertiary) bronchi
Bronchioles
Terminal bronchioles
Respiratory bronchioles
Alveolar ducts
Alveoli
small air sacs; structures become smaller and more numerous
from primary bronchi to alveoli

Lungs
Alveoli

small air sacs

where gas exchange occurs
surrounded by capillaries
300 million in lungs

Asthma attack
contraction of terminal bronchioles leads to reduced air
flow
Albuterol- smooth muscle relaxation in the terminal
bronchioles walls so air can move freely.

Respiratory Membrane
In lungs where gas exchange between air and blood occurs
Formed by walls of alveoli and capillaries but alveolar ducts
and respiratory bronchioles also contribute
Very thin for diffusion of gases
6 Layers of Respiratory Membrane
1. Thin layer of fluid from alveolus surfactant
2. Alveolar epithelium (simple squamous) elastic fibers
3. Basement membrane of alveolar epithelium
4. Thin interstitial space
5. Basement membrane of capillary endothelium
6. Capillary endothelium (simple squamous)

Pleural Membranes and Cavities

Pleural cavity
space around each lung

Pleura
double-layered membrane around lungs

Parietal pleura
membrane that lines thoracic cavity

Visceral pleura
membrane that covers lungs surface

Pleural fluid
lubricant allowing the parietal and visceral to slide past each
other
hold the pleural membranes together
33

Ventilation
Breathing
Process of moving air in and out of lungs
Uses diaphragm: skeletal muscle that separates thoracic
and abdominal cavities
Phases of Ventilation
Inspiration
breathe in
uses external intercostal muscles

Expiration
breathe out
uses internal intercostal muscles
35

Pressure Changes and Air Flow

When thoracic cavity volume increases pressure
decreases.
When thoracic cavity volume decreases pressure
increases.

Inspiration
Diaphragm descends and rib cage expands
Thoracic cavity volume increases, pressure decreases
Atmospheric pressure is greater than (high) alveolar
pressure (low)

Air flows from an areas of high to low pressure.

produced by changes in thoracic volume

Air moves into alveoli (lungs)

37

Expiration
Diaphragm relaxes and rib cage recoils
Thoracic cavity volume decreases, pressure increases
Alveolar pressure is greater than (high) atmospheric
pressure (low)
Air moves out of lungs

39

38

Lung Recoil

Surfactant

Tendency for an expanded lung to decrease in size

Occurs during quiet expiration
Due to elastic fibers and thin film of fluid lining alveoli
which has surface tension

mixture of lipoproteins
produced by secretory cells of alveoli
forms a single layer on surface of thin fluid lining alveoli
reduces surface tension
keeps lungs from collapsing

Pleural pressure
Surface tension
exists because oppositely charge ends of water molecules
are attracted to each other

pressure in pleural cavity

less than alveolar pressure
keep alveoli from collapsing

2 factors that keep the lungs from collapsing

Surfactant
Pressure in the pleural cavity

Factors that Influence Pulmonary

Ventilation

Respiratory Volumes and Capacities

Spirometry

Lung elasticity

process of measuring volumes of air that move into and out

of the respiratory system

lungs need to recoil between ventilations

decreased by emphysema

Spirometer
device that measures pulmonary volumes

Lung compliance
expansion of thoracic cavity
affected if rib cage is damaged

Respiratory volume
measure the amount of air movement during different
portions of ventilation

Respiratory passageway resistance

occurs during an asthma attack, infection, tumor

Respiratory capacities
sum of the two or more respiratory volumes.
43

44

 Tidal volume (TV)

Functional Residual Capacity

ERV + RV
amount of air remaining in the lungs
normally about 2,300 mL at rest

volume of air inspired and expired during quiet breathing

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

volume of air that can be inspired forcefully after a normal
inspiration

Inspiratory Capacity
TV + IRV
amount of air a person can inspire maximally
3, 500 mL at rest

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

volume of air that can be expired forcefully after a normal
expiration

Vital Capacity (VC)

maximum amount of air a person can expire after a maximum
inspiration
VC = IRV + ERV + TV

Residual volume (RV)

volume of air remaining in lungs after a maximum expiration
(cant be measured with spirometer)
45

Total lung capacity (TLC)

TLC = VC + RV
about 5,800 mL

Factors that Influence Pulmonary Volumes

Figure 15.12b

Gender
Age
Height
Weight

48

Gas Exchange
Respiratory membrane

where gas exchange between blood and air occurs

primarily alveoli
some in respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts
does NOT occur in bronchioles, bronchi, trachea
Anatomical dead space
volume of the passageways

Respiratory Membrane Thickness

Increased thickness decreases rate of diffusion
Pulmonary edema decreases diffusion
Rate of gas exchange is decreased
O2 exchange is affected before CO2 because CO2
diffuse more easily than O2

influenced by
thickness of membrane
total area of membrane
partial pressure of gases

Surface Area
Total surface area of respiratory membrane is 70
square meters (basketball court)
Decreased due to removal of lung tissue, destruction
from cancer, emphysema

Partial Pressure
Pressure exerted by a specific gas in a mixture of gases
such as air
Example:
Total pressure of all gases is 760 (mm Hg) and 21% of
mixture is O2
then partial pressure for O2 is 160 mm Hg
Symbol is P and gas (Po2)

Diffusion of Gases in Lungs

Cells in body use O2 and produce CO2.
Blood returning from tissues and entering lungs has a
decreased Po2 and increased Pco2
O2 diffuses from alveoli into pulmonary capillaries
(blood)
CO2 diffuses from capillaries into alveoli

Diffusion of Gases in Tissues

Blood flow from lungs through left side of heart to
tissue capillaries
Oxygen diffuses from capillaries into interstitial
fluid because Po2 in interstitial fluid is lower than
capillary
Oxygen diffuses from interstitial fluid into cells
(Po2) is less

Carbon Dioxide Transport and Blood pH

CO2 diffuses from cells into capillaries
CO2 enters blood and is transported in plasma,
combined with blood proteins, bicarbonate ions
CO2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid when
forms H+ + bicarbonate ions
Carbonic anhydrase (RBC) increases rate of CO2
reacting with water
CO2 levels increase blood pH decreases
due to the formation of carbonic acid

Rhythmic Ventilation

Medullary Respiratory Center

Dorsal respiratory group

Normal respiration rate is 12-20 breaths per minute

(adults)
Rate is determined by the number of times respiratory
muscles are stimulated

stimulate diaphragm contraction

Ventral respiratory group

stimulate external and internal
intercostal and abdominal muscles
pre-Botzinger complex
establish the basic rhythm of breathing

Potine Respiratory Group

Controlled by neurons in medulla oblongata

collection of neurons in the pons

switch between inspiration and
expiration

Generation of Rhythmic Breathing

1. Starting inspiration
stimulation from many sources (blood gas levels)
medullary respiratory center stimulated threshold level
stimulate the respiratory muscles inspiration starts.

2. Increasing inspiration
more neurons become active
stronger stimulation of the respiratory muscles

Nervous Control of Breathing

Higher brain centers allow voluntary breathing
Emotions and speech affect breathing
Hering-Breuer Reflex
inhibits respiratory center when lungs are stretched during
inspiration
prevents overinflation of the lungs

3. Stopping inspiration
inhibition of the respiratory muscles relax
Relaxation expiration for about 3 secs

Chemical Control of Breathing

Chemoreceptors in medulla oblongata respond to
changes in blood pH
Blood pH are produced by changes in blood CO2 levels
An increase in CO2 causes decreased pH, result is
increased breathing
Low blood levels of O2 stimulate chemoreceptors in
carotid and aortic bodies, increased breathing

Respiratory Adaptation to Exercise

Training/Exercise results in increased minute
volume at maximal exercise due to an increased
tidal volume and respiratory rate

Effects of Aging on the Respiratory

System
1. Vital capacity and maximum minute ventilation
decrease due to weakening of the respiratory muscles
and stiffening of the thoracic cage
2. Residual volume and dead space increase because
diameter of respiratory passageway increase
3. Increase in resting tidal volume compensates for
increased dead space, loss of alveolar wall, and
thickening of alveolar walls
4. Ability of removing mucus from the respiratory
passageways decreases