UNIT 1

ELEMENTS OF LIGHT AND SOLID STATE PHYSICS

1.1 Wave nature of light
Light as an electromagnetic wave is characterized by a combination of time
varying electric (E) and Magnetic (H) fields propagating through space.
Maxwell showed that both these fields satisfy the same partial differential equation.
This is called the 'wave equation'.
It is encountered in many different kinds of physical phenomena such as
mechanical vibrations of a string or in a rod.
The frequency of oscillation of the fields 'V' and their wavelength in vacuum, o

are

related by C = V
In any other medium the speed of propagation given
V

Where

by

c
V
n

n is the refractive index of the medium

is the wavelength in the medium

n is given by
Where

and

r r

are the relative permeability and relative permittivity of the

medium respectively.
The electric and magnetic fields vibrate perpendicular to one another and
perpendicularly to the direction of propagation.

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In optical phenomena, we omit the magnetic field vector. The mathematical

equation for the simplest sinusoidal wave is given by

where,
E value of the electric field at the point x at time t
E0 amplitude of the wave

- angular frequency
= 2v

K wave number

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phase constant

The above equation describes a perfectly monochromatic plane wave of infinite

extent propagating in the positive 'x' direction is a solution of the wave equation.

The term (wt - kx + ) is the phase of the wave.

We can represent the wave equation diagrammatically by plotting `E' as a function
of either 'x' or t.

Figure 1.2 Electric field (E) of an EM wave plotted as a function of

(a) Spatial coordinate x and (b) the time
Figure 1.2 (a) shows the variation of Electric field with distance at a given instant of
time. In this we have taken E=E0 at x and t=0. So that

= 0.

The spatial variation of electric field is given by E= E0 cos kx

Figure 1.2 (b) shows the variation of electric field as a function of time at
some specific location in space. In this we have taken x=0 then the temporal

variation of electric field is given by E = E0 cos t.

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In the plane waves there are surfaces of constant phase which are referred to
as wave surfaces or wave fronts. As time elapses the wave fronts move through
space with a velocity 'V' is given by

which is called 'phase velocity'

To produce perfectly monochromatic waves, a group of waves of closely

similar wavelength is moving such that their resultant forms a packet. This packet
moves with the group velocity V g. The group velocity is based on the combination
of two waves of slightly different frequencies moving together is illustrated in figure

1.3 and is given by Vg =

w
k

Figure 1.3 Concept of wave group

The wave equations represent plane waves moving along the 'x' axis. Such a
wave moving in arbitrary directions can be characterized by a wave vector 'k' where
k

and wave equation becomes

E (x, y, z, =E0cos ( t - k. r +

where 'r' is a vector from the origin to the points (x, y, z).
Example: If a plane wave propagating in a direction ' ' to the 'x' axis with its wave
fronts normal to the (x,y) plane as shown is figure 1.4. We can write this as
k=ikx-jky and r=ix-jy
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where i and j are unit vectors in the x and y directions respectively.

Figure 1.4 Plane wave with its propagation vector k in the (x,y) plane
Combining the above two equations we have
k.r=xkx=y ky,
= x k cos = y k sin;
The wave vector equation can be rewritten as

E (x, y, t) = E0cos ( t - xkcos - yksin + );

For spherical waves, it can be written as

E = A/r cos ( t - k.r);

where

A constant ie. source strength

1/r- Decrease in amplitude of the wave

1.2 Polarization
The wave is said to be 'plane polarized', if the electric field vector of an
electromagnetic wave propagating in free space vibrates in a specific plane. Any
real beam of light comprises many individual waves and in general the planes of
vibration of their fields will be randomly oriented. Such a beam of light is
unpolarized and the resultant electric field vector changes orientation randomly in
time. The light beams are characterized by highly oriented electric fields and such

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light is referred to as being 'polarized'. The simplest form of polarization is plane

polarized light.
There are different ways the light can be polarized.

Polarization by Reflection.
Polarization by absorption.
When unpolarized light is incident on a material surface, the light with its
polarization vector perpendicular to the plane of incidence (denoted by---) is
preferentially reflected in comparison to light polarized parallel to the plane of
incidence (denoted by +++). The unpolarized light comprises two equal plane
polarized components with orthogonal orientations. The reflectance of the surface
for the perpendicular and parallel components varies as a function of the angle of
incidence.

Figure 1.6 (a) Partially plane polarized (b) Completely plane polarized
In figure 1.6 (a) the light reflected from the interface between the two media of
refractive index n1 and n2 is partially plane polarized. For the parallel component
the reflectance is Zero at the specific angle of incidence ( = B). For this angle of
incidence which is called the 'Brewster angle' the entire parallel component is
transmitted. For incidence at the Brewster angle, the reflected and refracted rays
are perpendicular to one another. Using Snells law for the refraction of light at the
interface between two media of refractive incides n1 and n2,
n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2
where 1 and 2 are the angles of incidence and refraction respectively.

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This equation is known as Brewsters law.

One way of polarizing light is simply to pass it through a series of glass plates

oriented at the Brewster angle. Then each surface, some of the light polarized
perpendicularly to the plane of incidence is reflected while all of the parallel
component is transmitted.

Figure 1.7 Production of plane polarized light by reflection using a pile of plates

After passing through about six plates, the transmitted light is highly plane

polarized. The lasers include surfaces inclined at the Brewster angle to minimize
optical losses for one particular orientation of polarization of light passing through
the surfaces. Such lasers emit plane polarized light. Assume n2 > n1, but for
incidence at a boundary separating a more optically dense medium from a less
optically dense medium. Hence the Brewster angle in air is different from the
Brewster angle in the material. The reflectance of light polarized parallel or
perpendicular to the plane of incidence varies with the angle of incidence in the
more dense medium (ie. n1 > n2). For angles greater than a certain angle c, the
critical angle, there is no transmitted light. ie. Total internal reflection has taken
place.

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At = c the angle of refraction (in the less dense medium is 90). We can

write this
n1 sin c = n2 sin 90
c=sin-1(n2/n1)

If the light incident on such a linear polarizing device is already plane

polarized, then the amount of light transmitted depends on the angle 0 between
the plane of polarization of the incident light and the plane of polarization of the
light transmitted by the polarizer.

If E0 is the amplitude of the incident light then the transmitted amplitude is

E0 cos0 and the irradiance of the transmitted light is given by

I= (E)2cos2
= I0cos2
This relationship is called `Malus's law'.
1.3 Interference

The basic mathematical description of 'two beam' interference is given by

This equation shows that the irradiance distribution of the fringes is given by

a (cosine)' function.

If the contributions from the coherent sources are equal the irradiance of the

fringes varies from 4I2 to zero as (2-1) varies between '0' and '' If (E 01 is not
equal to E02), the irradiance varies between (I1 + I2)2 and (11 12)2.

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To obtain the coherent wave trains needed for the observation of interference

before the advent of lasers one had to ensure that.

(i)

The sets of wave trains were derived from the same small source of light and

then brought together by different paths.

(ii)

The differences in path were short enough to ensure at least partial

coherence of the wave trains (ie.the differences in path were less than the
coherence length of the source).

The

basic

ways

of

satisfying

these

requirement

and

demonstrating

interference can be classified groups.

(a)

Division of wave front and

(b)

Division of amplitude

Division of wavefront:

Figure 1.8 Schematic layout of young's double slit interference experiment

Division of wave front is a young's double slit interference experiment. In this
experiment the monochromatic light is passed through a pinhole `S' so as to
illuminate a screen containing two further identical pinholes or narrow slits placed

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close together. The presence of the single pinhole `S' provides the necessary
mutual coherence between the light beams emerging from the slits S1 and S2.
The wave fronts from `S' intersect S1 and S2 simultaneously so that the light
contributions emerging from S1 and S2 are derived from the same original wave
front and therefore coherent. These contributions spread out from S1 and S2 as
cylindrical wave fronts and interfere in the region beyond the screen. If a second
screen is placed as shown then an interference pattern consisting a straight line
fringes parallel to the slits is observed on it. To find the irradiance at a given point P
it is necessary to find the phase difference between the two sets of waves
arriving at P from S1 and S2. This is depends on the path difference (D2-D1) as in
general
Phase difference =

(optical path difference)

Provided both y and H are small compared to 'x'. Here 'H' is the slit separation
and
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`x' is the distance from the screen containing the slits to the observing
screen.
Division of amplitude:
Interference effects involving amplitude division can be observed in thin films
or plates.

Figure 1.9 Interference effects in a thin film

In this, interference occur between the light reflected at A on the front surface
of the plate and at B on the rear surface.

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Multiple Beam Interference:

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 If the reflectance of the surfaces of the plate were increased there would be
many reflected beam to contribute to the interference pattern.

In practice the resultant interference is seen more clearly if the transmitted beams
rather than the reflected ones are used.
If the plate has parallel sides then the multiple beams are parallel and are
brought together to interface in the focal plane of the lens. The resultant of
superposing there beams can be calculated quite easily as the phase difference
from one beam to the next is constant.
The phase difference is due to two additional traversals of the plate plus any
phase changes which may occur on reflection at the surfaces of the plate.

The irradiance distribution is given by

Where

I0 - irradiance of the incident beam

R - Reflectence
T - transmittance of the plate surfaces
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8 - Total phase change between successive beams.

1.4 Diffraction

If an opaque object is placed between a source of light and a screen, the

shadow cast on the screen is not perfectly sharp. Some light is present in the dark
Zone of the geometrical shadow. Similarly light which emerges from a small
aperture or narrow slit is observed to spread out. This failure of light to travel in
straight lines is called `diffraction'.

Huygen's principle explains the essential features of diffraction.

Huygen's principle states that the propagation of a light wave can be

predicted by assuming that each point on the wave front acts as a source of
secondary wavelets which spread out in all directions. The envelope of these
secondary wavelets after a small interval of time is the new wave front.

The propagation of a plane wave according to huygen's principle is shown in

figure
In this the wavefronts develop some curvature at the edges due to the
radiation from the end points being directed away from the axis. Succeeding
wave fronts become more and more curved so that the beam diverges.
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Figure 1.12 Illustration of Huygens principle of the propagation of wavefront

A quantitative description of diffraction can be obtained by setting, Huygen's

principle in a mathematical form known as the Treshel-Kirchhoff'
formula.

In the detailed treatment of diffraction it is customary td distinguish between

two general cases known as `Fraunhofer' and `Fresnel' diffraction.
Fraunhofer diffraction occurs when the incident and diffracted waves are
effectively plane. In Fresnel diffraction the curvature of the wave front is
significant.

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The Fraunhofer diffraction produced by a narrow slit is shown in figure1.13

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In the circular aperture case which produces a pattern consisting of a central bright
area surrounded by concentric dark and bright rings. About 84% of the light is
concentrated within the dental spot is called 'Airy disk'.

A measure of amount of diffraction is given by the angle '0' at which the first

dark ring occurs. Using the Fresnel Kirchhoff formula is given by

Where D diameter of the aperture

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The diffraction sets a theoretical limit to the resolving power of optical

instruments and it is also responsible for the occurance of missing orders in the
interference pattern produced by double and multiple split arrangements.
The irradiance distribution of such patterns has an envelope which is the single slit
diffraction pattern is shown in figure 1.14
1.5 Light Source: (Block body radiation)

The sources discussed here are called 'classical' or 'thermal' sources.

Thermal sources means they radiate electromagnetic energy in direct relation

to their temperature.

There are two classes of thermal sources

1.

Black body radiations and 2. Line sources

'Black body radiators' are opaque bodies or hot, endse gases which radiate at

virtually all wavelengths.

'Line sources' radiate at discrete wavelength.

Black body sources:

The radiation from opaque objects and dense gases resulting in the

formulation of the empirical lows. 'First law', is that the rate at which energy is
emitted is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature ie

Where

W - total radiated power per unit area

a - stefan's constant

This equation is known as "Stefen Boltzmann law". It is only true for an

ideal black body which is the most efficient emitter of thermal radiation.

An ideal black body can be made by piercing a small hole in closed cavity,

then if the cavity is maintained at a uniform, constant temperature, the radiation

leaving the hole is essentially that of a black body.

Most hot surfaces only approach the ideal and the above equation is modified

to
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The 'second law' is that the spectral distribution of the energy emitted at a

given temperature has a definite maximum and that this maximum shifts to shorter
wave lengths as the temperature increases.

This shift is given by 'Wien's displacement law' which is expressed as

Where m - wave length at which the radiated power is a maximum for a given
temperature T.

Figure 1.15 Distribution of energy in the spectrum of blackbody radiator at various

temperature

The two laws are described by Planck's formula which can be written as.

.
According to Planck, matter could only emit discrete quantities of radiation
which were called photons.
Line sources:
In the case of excited gases in which there is little interaction between the
individual atoms, ions or molecules, the electromagnetic radiation is emitted at
well-defined wavelengths.

This can be understood by 'Bohr model' of the atom in which it is considered

that the atom consists of a positive nucleus of charge Ze (Z is the atomic mumber of
the atom) with electrons of mass 'in' and charge `e' in certain 'allowed' bound
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orbits around it. Each of these orbits corresponds to a well-define energy level. The

energy is given by
Where n integer known as the principal quantum number

The outermost electron may be excited from its normal or ground state orbit

to higher energy orbits which are normally unoccupied.

When an electron undergoes a transaction from one of these excited orbits to

a lower orbit it emits a quantum of radiation.

The energy of the quantum is just the difference AE between the energies of

the initial and final orbit. Thus the quantum energy is

Where nf & ni values of the principal quantum number corresponding to the final
and initial orbits involved in transition.

The spectral lines emitted in this way can have a very narrow frequency

spread ie almost monochromatic.

There is a number of causes of spectral broadening which increase the spread

of wavelength associated with emitted photons. Finally Einstein explained the

emission of electrons from metal surfaces exposed to the light as being due to
transfer of energy from a single photon to a single electron.

It was found that

a)

The energy of the emitted electrons depends not on the irradiance of the

incident light but rather on its frequency.

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b)

For light of a given frequency the photo electrons have a maximum energy E.

and
c)

For a given metal there is a minimum frequency for the light which will cause

electrons to be emitted. The Einsteins photo electric equation is given by

1.6 Review of Quantum mechanical concepts

We know that the light displays a dual nature, that of particle and wave. Now

the energy of a light particle, the photon can be written as E=hv

Where v frequency of wave associated with the photon.

As the rest mass of the photon is Zero, its momentum P can be written as

Therefore this equation is known as 'de Broglie relation'.

This can be applied to particles such as electrons and atoms which also exhibit a
dual nature as demonstrated.
Example : By electron diffraction.

Born showed that the wave amplitude is related to the probability of locating

the particle in a given region of space.

In quantum mechanical problems, we attempt to find a quantity `41' called

the wave function.

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Rather, the wave description of a particle is given in terms of a wave packet

which is the sum of individual waves with varying amplitudes and frequencies.
These waves interfere destructively except for a certain region in space where the
probability of finding the particle is high.

The speed of the particle 'V' is the same as the group velocity of the wave

packet.

The probability of finding the particle is greatest at the center of the wave

packet, x=0. This is shown in figure 1.16

Figure 1.16 Wave packet of length Ax

There is a smaller but finite probability of finding it anywhere in the region Ax.

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 Now it may be shown from the fourier integral that the narrower is Ax, that is,
the more accurately the position of the particle is know, the wider must be the
range of wavelengths A, comprising the wave packet.

Implies a greater uncertainty, AP in the momentum of the particle.

Heisenberg showed that in any simultaneous measurement of the position and
momentum of a particle, the uncertainties in the two measured quantities are
related by an equation of the form

This equation is called 'Heisenberg's uncertainity principle'.

1. Schrodinger equation:
The schrodinger equation includes both space and time dependencies and is of
the form

The above eqn. is known as the time dependent schrodinger equation.

This equation is complicated and can only be solved in a limited number of cases.
It is sufficient to consider situations in which potential energy of the particle does not
depend explicitly upon time. In this case the above equation reduces to the time
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(a) Potential well:

It is difficult to find solutions of the schrodinger equation for most realistic potential
distributions.

A free electron trapped in a metal on charge carriers trapped by the potential

barriers of a double hetrojunction which can be approximated by an electron in an
infinitely deep, one dimensional potential well.

The figure 1.17 shows this situation where for simplicity we have taken V(x)
=0 except at boundaries where V(k) is infinitely large.

ie. The boundary conditions are

V(x) = 0, 0<x<L
And,

V(x) = co, x < 0, x > L

Inside the potential well, the time independent schrodinger equation becomes

This is the wave equation for a free particle in a region where v(x)=0.
A possible solution to above equation is
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 Applying the boundary conditions, T(x) must be zero at the boundaries of the well.
Otherwise, there would be a non zero value of IT1 2 outside the well, which is
impossible because a particle cannot penetrate an infinity high potential
barrier.
Thus as T(x) =0 at x=0, B must be zero and as T(y) = 0 at x = L, k must be
defined so that Sinkx=0 at x=L;

Figure 1.18 Ground State and first two excited states of an electron in a potential
well

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1.7 Review of solid state physics

Energy bands in solids:

As isolated atoms are brought together to form a solid various interactions

occur between neighboring atoms. The forces of attraction and repulsion between
atoms find a balance at proper interatomic spacing for the crystal.

In the process important changes occur in the electron energy levels, which

result in the varied electrical properties of different classes of solids.

When the atoms are isolated, as in a gas, there is no interaction of the

electron wave functions, each atom can have its electrons in identical energy levels.

As the inter atomic spacing decreases, the electron wave functions begin to

overlap and to avoid violating the Pauli principle, there is a splitting of the discrete
energy levels of the isolated atoms into new levels belonging to the collection of
atoms as whole.

In a solid many atoms are brought together. So that the split energy levels

form a set of bands of very closely spaced levels with forbidden energy gaps
between them.

Figure 1.19 Energy levels of interacting atoms forms energy bands in solids
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Figure 1.19 shows the different energy bands of solids. In this the lower

energy bands are occupied by electrons first, which determines the electrical
properties of the solid.

Next, the electrons in the higher energy bands of the solid determines the

physical properties of the solid.

The two highest energy bands are called the 'valence' and 'conduction' bands.

The gap between the valence and conduction bands are called 'forbidden'

energy region (or) 'Energy gap Eg

In different solids the valence band might be completely filled, nearly filled or

only half filled with electrons. In conduction band is never more than slightly filled.

The bands occupied and size of the energy gap determines the nature of a

given solid.

The potential experienced by an electron in the solid corresponding spatially

periodic, so that after a distance in the crystal equal to the lattice spacing, the
potential 'V repeats itself
ie V(x) = V (x+a) = V (x+2a) = . Where a periodicity of the lattice.

The Kronig penny model approach considers a single electron impinging on

a 1- D array of atoms represented by a periodic series of rectangular potential

wells.

The discontinuities between allowed and forbidden energy values occur at

values of the wave vector le given by

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E-K curve for electron subjected to the potential distribution of the Kronig-

Penney model.

1.8 Conductors, semiconductors and insulators

The electrons occupy the allowed states in the energy bands starting from

the lowest until they are all accommodated.

Above the highest occupied energy state there may be other allowed states

which are empty.

The electrons in a solid may respond to an applied electric field such empty

levels must be readily available. This is because if an electron is to be accelerated

by the field it will acquire energy and move to a higher level. This it may do only if
the higher levels are unoccupied and not separated by a large, forbidden energy
gap.
Conductors:

In monovalent metallic conductors, the top occupied band is only partially

filled and electrons can gain energy from an external field resulting in high
conductivity.
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In some metals, for example divalent atoms, the highest two bands overlap

to some extent resulting in different conducting properties.

Insulators:

In insulators the upper occupied band, the valence band is completely filled

with electrons.

The nearest empty states are in the conduction band, but these are

separated from the valence band by a large energy gap.

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At room temperature KT is about 1 /40 eV therefore Eg =4eV

Therefore very few electrons can respond to a field and virtually no

conduction occurs.
1.9 Review of Semiconductors physics

In intrinsic semiconductors at low temperatures the valence band is full and

the conduction band is empty. In this case, the energy gap is sufficiently small
(above 1 eV) that some electrons are excited across it 'at higher temperatures.

The electrons excited into the conduction band can contribute to current flow.

Similarly, as there are now vacant states in the valence band. It is shown in the
figure.

The electrons in that band can also respond to an applied field and contribute

to the current flow. There are very large number of electrons and a small number
of unoccupied states in the band hence it is difficult to evaluate this contribution in
terms of electron movement. It turns out that contribution to the current flow from
all the electrons in the nearly full valence band is the same as that which would
arise from the presence of a small number of fictitious positive charge carriers
called holes in empty band. The number of holes is equal to the number of empty
states in the valence band. At any temperatures above absolute Zero some
electrons will be excited from the valence band to the conduction band as a result
of their thermal energy.
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Semi-Conductors:
Intrinsic Semiconductors:
A perfect semiconductor crystal containing no impurities or lattice defects is
called an intrinsic semiconductor.
In this material, there are no charge carriers at absolute Zero but as the
temperature rises electron-hole pairs are generated.
As the carriers are generated in pairs the concentration 'n' of electron in the
conduction band equals the concentration 13' of holes in the valence band,
ie n=p=n i
Where ni intrinsic carrier concentration.

The value ofvaries exponentially with temperature.

At a given temperature there is a steady state carrier concentration, there must
be a `recombination' of electron hole pairs at the same rate as that at which
the thermal generation occurs.
Recombination takes place when an electron in the conduction band makes a
transition into a vacant state in the valence band.
The energy related in the recombination, which is about Eg , may be emitted
as a photon or given up as heat to the crystal lattice in the form of
quantized lattice vibrations which are called 'phonons' depending on the
nature of recombination mechanism.
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There are two types of recombination mechanism.

(i) Radiative recombination: (band to band recombination)

*

When a photon is released the process is called radiative recombination.

Direct transitions

Direct transitions

(ii) Non radiative recombination: (Defect center recombination)

The absence of photon emission indicates a non-radiative process.

In-direct transitions

Figure 1.26 Illustration of recombination process (a) Bond-to-bond (b) Defect

Center

In the band-to-band process, an electron in the conduction band makes a

transition directly to the valence band to recombine with a hole.

In the defect center process, the recombination takes place via recombination

centers or traps.

These are energy levels E, in the forbidden energy gap which are associated

with defect states caused by the presence of impurities or lattice imperfections.

The precise mechanism of a defect center recombination event depends on

the nature and energy of the defect state.

(i)

The first step is an electron is trapped by the recombination center, which

subsequently captures a hole.

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(ii)
an

When both of these events have occurred the net result is the annihilation of
electron-hole

pair

leaving

the

center

ready

to

participate

in

another

recombination event.
(iii)

The energy released in the recombination is given up as heat to the lattice.

If thermal generation rate is `gi and the recombination rate is `ri' then in

equilibrium,

At any temperature the probability of an electron recombining is proportional

to the number of holes present, thus electron will disappear at a rate proportional
to the product of the electron and hole concentrations.
ie.

Where B constant of proportionality

(ii) Extrinsic Semiconductors:

The number of charge carriers in a semiconductor can be increased by adding

impurities in the crystal lattice. This process is called doping'.

In doped semiconductors the carrier concentrations are no longer equal and

the material is said to be 'extrinsic'.

The crystal can be altered so that it has a predominance of either electrons or

holes ie
(i)

n-type (the majority carriers electrons and the minortiy carriers are holes).

(ii)

P-type (the majority carriers are positive holes).

Boron are used to produce `n-type' semiconductor and Indium are used to

produce `p-type' semiconductor.

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When intrinsic silicon is doped with phosphorous, the phosphorous atoms are

found to occupy atomic sites normally occupied by silicon atoms as shown in figure
1.27

Since the silicon atoms are tetravalent only four of the five valence atoms
of phosphorous are used in forming covalent bands, leaving one electron
weakly bound to its parent atom. This electron is easily freed, ie it can easily
be excited in to the conduction band. Therefore in the energy band model the
energy levels for the extra electrons associated with these impurities lie at Ed
just beneath the conduction band. Such impurities are referred to as donors
and the energy levels at Ed as donor levels, since they denote electrons to
the conduction band.
The energy required to excite an electron from the donor levels into the
conduction band is ED
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ED = Ec Ed
Where Ec energy of the bottom of the conduction band

We take the energy E, at the top of the valence band to be Zero, then Eg =Ec

and then ED = Eg-Ed*

At absolute Zero the levels ae all occupied but, because ED is so small, the

most of the electrons are excited in to the conduction band thereby increasing the
free electron concentration and the conductivity of the material.

The excitation energy ED is given by

(iii) Excitons:
A bound electron-hole pair is called an exciton.

The binding energy Ee, of the exciton is then given by

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1.10 Review of semiconductor Junction Device

Most of the useful electronic devices contain junction between dissimilar

materials which may be metal-metal, metal-semiconductor or semiconductor semiconductor combination.

In this section we shall concentrate our attention on p-n homojunctions in which a
junction is formed between p and n variants of the same semiconductor. Such
junctions from the basis of photodiodes, light emitting diodes and photovoltaic
devices.

Many other devices, example; bipolar transitor and thyristors contain two or

more such junctions.

1.10.1 p-n junction in Equilibrium

A p-n junction may be fabricated as a single crystal of semiconductor by a

number of different techniques. Behaviour of junction depends on, the fabrication

process used, which determines the distances over which the change from p to n
type nature occurs. For mathematical convenience we shall assume that the
junction is 'abrupt'. ie. there is a step change in impurity type.

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 In figure 1.30 the corresponding carrier concentrations p p, nP and no pn on the `p' and
`n' sides of the junction respectively.
Let us assume that the junction is formed by bringing initially isolated pieces of ntype and p-type materials into intimate contact then, there are many more holes in
the p-type than in the n-type material, holes will diffuse from the 13' to the 'n' region.
The holes diffusing out of the p-type side leave behind uncovered or ionized acceptors,
thereby building up a negative space charge layer in the p-type side close to the
junction.
Similarly electrons, diffusing into the p-type side, leave behind a positive space
charge layer of ionized donors.
This double space charge layer causes an electric field to be set up across a narrow
region on either side of a junction, directed on either side of the junction, directed
from the n-to the p-type region.

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 The direction of the junction electric field is such as to inhibit further diffusion
of the majority carriers, though such diffusion of the majoritycarriers, though
such diffusion is not prevented altogether.
This must be so the electric field will sweep-minority carriers across the
junction.
So that there is a drift current of electrons from the p - to the n-type side and
of holes from the n - to the p-type side which is in the opposite direction to
the diffusion current.
The junction field thus builds up until these two current flows are equal, at
which stage the Fermi level is constant across the junction indicating that
equilibrium has been reached within the crystal as a whole.
Thus, as there is no net current flow in equilibrium.

The
induced electric field establishes a contact or diffusion potential Vo between the
two regions and the energy bands of the p-type side are displaced relative to
those of the temperature and the doping levels.

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Relationship between carrier concentrations on the two sides of the junction is as

follows:

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