ToUnderstandaScandal:Watergate

beyondNixon
byDavidSarias
IntheearlyhoursofJune17,1972,policeofficersarrestedfivemen
suspectedofbreakingintotheofficesoftheDemocraticNational
CommitteeheadquartersinWashingtonDCsWatergateoffice
building.Thisbuildingwouldlenditsnametothesubsequentpolitical
scandalthatled,justovertwoyearslater,toRichardNixons
resignationonAugust8,1974.Todate,Nixonistheonlypresidentof
theUnitedStatestohaveresignedfromoffice.Hedidsoasadirect
consequenceofhisinvolvementintheattemptedcoverupofthelinks
betweenthearrestedmen,theWhiteHouse,andtheCommitteeto
ReElectthePresident(officiallynamedCRP,itbecameaptlyknown
asCREEP)duringthe1972presidentialelections.Intheprocess,
morethanfortymembersofNixonsadministration,includingsomeof
histopadvisorsandaformerUSattorneygeneral,wereinvestigated
andnineteenofthemwereindicted.

RichardNixononthedayofhis
resignation,August9,1974,withhis
daughterandsoninlaw,Edwardand
TriciaCox.(NationalArchivesand
RecordsAdministration)

TheWatergateimbrogliowasmarkedbythetremendouslypolarizingfigureofNixonhimselfthehigh
dramaofwidelywatchedcongressionalhearingstalesofabusesofpowerallegedlyinvolvingvarious
branchesofthenationssecretservicesreportsofcolorfullanguageemanatingfromtheovalofficeand
themuchpublicizedexploitsofheroicjournalistsdeterminedtotrackdowntherealstory.Itmesmerized
Americansatthetime,andeversinceithasremainedafixtureinthenationscollectivepsyche.Even
today,fourdecadesaftertheevents,itstillsymbolizesallthatis,andmightbe,wrongwiththeworkingsof
thefederalgovernment,electedofficialsand,ultimately,withthepoliticalsystemitself.
Yet,wecannotunderstandWatergateanditsconsequencesinisolationfromthehistoricalcontextin
whichtheyunfolded.Theseincludedpowerfulpoliticalandculturalforcessuchasthemovementsagainst
theVietnamWarandinfavorofcivilrightsforthenationsminoritiesthecountercultureandthe
expandingcredibilitygapseparatinghighnationalpoliticsandpoliticiansfromtheelectorate.AsRichard
Nixonandhissupportersoftenclaimedintheirowndefense,suchabuseswereanythingbutodditiesin
Americanpolitics.Inaparticularlyincensedfashion,Nixonsmostloyaldefendershavesoughtto
exoneratethedisgracedexpresidentbyemphasizingthatallthegreatDemocraticprogressive
administrations,includingthoseofFranklinD.Roosevelt,JohnF.Kennedy,andLyndonB.Johnson,had
indulgedinsimilarunderhandedtacticstogainandretainoffice.Nevertheless,bytheearly1970s,
neitherasignificantpartofthepressnorthegreatmajorityoftheAmericanpublicwerepreparedto
acceptthatkindofbehaviorinpubliclife.
AnoverviewoftheeventsthatsurroundedtheWatergatescandalisfollowedbyanexaminationofthekey
elementsthathelpexplainwhyapresidentendowedwithconsiderableintellectualtalentandanample
electoralmandatewaspoliticallydestroyedbyor,moreaccurately,selfdestructedthroughthefallout

fromwhatNixonspresssecretary,RonZiegler,labeledathirdrateburglary.Infact,breakinisamore
appropriatedescription,sincetheobjectiveoftheburglarswastoplantlisteningdevicesinthehopeof
gaininginformationusefultoNixonselectoralcampaign,andnothingwasstolenfromtheDNCoffices.
HowaThirdRateBurglaryLedaPresidenttoTwistSlowly,Slowly,intheWind
OnJune20,1972,threedaysafterthearrestofthefivemenwhohadillegallybrokenintotheDNC
offices,BobWoodwardreportedinthepagesoftheWashingtonPostthattheFBIhadfoundthenameof
E.HowardHuntintheagendasofBernardBarkerandEugenioMartinez,twooftheallegedburglars.A
formerCIAoperative,HunthadbeenhiredasasecurityassistantbytheWhiteHouseonthe
recommendationofpresidentialcounselCharlesColsonin1971,andhadsubsequentlymovedontowork
forCRP.Woodward,wenowknow,hadbeentippedoffbyMarkFelt,thedeputydirectoroftheFBI.The
Bureauhaditselfbecomeinvolvedintheinvestigationofamereburglarybecauseoncethepolicefound
wiretappingequipment,theinvestigationfellunderitsremit.Afewmonthslater,inSeptember,harriedby
thepressanddespitethebesteffortsoftheWhiteHouse,theFBIarrestedbothHuntandG.Gordon
Liddy,aformerFBIagentwhohadbecomeCRPsgeneralcounselfirstanditsfinancecommittees
counsellaterthankstothesupportofWhiteHousecounselJohnDean.[1]Yet,despitethetantalizing
reportsinthePostandthearrestsofrelativelyseniorCRPpersonnel,therestofthepresscorpsbelieved
theWhiteHousesvigorousdenialsofanyinvolvementinorknowledgeoftheissue,andfailedtopickup
thestory.WhiletheattentionoftheWashingtonpresscorpsandthepublicatlargeremainedfixedonthe
unfoldingpresidentialcampaign,RichardNixonandseniorWhiteHousepersonnelincludingChiefofStaff
BobHaldemananddomesticpolicytsarJohnEhrlichmandevisedastrategytoblocktheinvestigation.
ThisbegantounfoldasearlyasJune23,amerethreedaysafterthebreakin.Thatday,Haldeman
proposedtoNixontohave[Vernon]Walters[deputydirectoroftheCIA]callPatGray[directoroftheFBI]
andjustsaystaytheh*lloutofthisongroundsofnationalinterest.[2]Unbeknownsttomostofhis
staffers,NixonhadinstalledanaudioactivatedrecordingsystemintheOvalOfficethatwasintended,he
subsequentlyclaimed,topreventjournalistsandhistoriansfromdistortingthelegacyofhispresidency.
Twoyearslater,however,therecordingofthatconversationbetweenNixonandHaldemandevisinga
plantoobstructtheFBIinvestigationsawthelight,becameknownasthesmokingguntape,andsealed
thefateofthePresident.
Duringlate1972andearly1973theWhiteHouseseemedtohavesucceededinstallingtheFBI
investigation.TheofficialstoryputforthbythePresidentsmen,however,begantofallapartonFebruary
28,1973,whenL.PatrickGray,thethenactingFBIdirector,admittedhebelievedthatJohnDeanhad
probablyliedtotheagentsinvestigatingthebreakin,andalsoconfessedtohavingfollowedDeans
orderstokeeptheWhiteHouseinformedabouttheevolutionoftheinvestigation.GraysslipmovedJohn
Ehrlichmantopronouncehisfamousdictum:theWhiteHouseshouldleaveGraytotwistslowly,slowly,in
thewind.Thistheydiduntilaboutamonthlater,onApril27,whenGraywasforcedtoresignafterowning
uptohavingdestroyedsecretdocumentsremovedfromHowardHuntssafe,againundertheordersof
JohnDeanandostensiblyonnationalsecuritygrounds.BythetimeGrayfellintodisgrace,James
McCordformerCRPsecuritychiefand,amazingly,oneofthefivemenalreadyservingprisonsentences
brokedownandsentalettertojudgeJohnSiricaadmittingtohavingcommittedperjuryduringhistrial
andwithdrawingthetestimonyinwhichhehadblamedtheCIAforthebreakin.Immediatelyafterwards,
McCordledinvestigatorsintotheWhiteHouse,JohnDeangaveintooand,fromApril1973onwards,
begantocooperatewiththeprosecutioninexchangeforleniency.

Oncethedamofliescracked,itquicklycollapsedundertheincreasingflowofrevelationsthatwould
eventuallydrownthepresidency.Haldeman,Ehrlichman,andUSAttorneyGeneralRichardKleindienst
resignedonthesameday(April30)thatDeanwassacked.Shortlythereafter,theWhiteHousewas
forcedtoappointArchibaldCoxasspecialprosecutortoinvestigatethePresidentsownconduct.Even
worsefromNixonsperspective,bythentheSenateSelectCommitteeonPresidentialCampaign
Activities(variouslyknownastheWatergateCommitteeortheErvinCommittee,afteritspresident,Sam
Ervin)hadbegunitsnationallytelevisedhearings.Bythatpoint,therefore,thewholeaffairwasbeing
investigatedbytheSenatecommittee,SpecialProsecutorCox,andJudgeJohnSirica,nottomention
WoodwardandBernsteinoftheWashingtonPostandanincreasingnumberofjournalistsfromother
majornationalnewspapers.ThepenultimateactoftheWatergatedramaunfoldeddeliveredlivetothe
homesoftheAmericanpubliconJuly13,whenNixonsappointmentssecretary,AlexanderButterfield,
letslipthatthePresidenthadinstalledthesoontobefamousrecordingsystem.InstantlybothCoxand
Ervindemandedthetapes,whichNixonflatlyrefusedtohandover,claimingexecutiveprivilegethatis,
therightofthepresidenttowithholdinformationfromCongressorthetribunalsonnationalsecurity
grounds.
ThePresidentsrefusal,whichledtohisorderingCoxsdismissalandacceptingtheindignantresignations
ofbothElliotRichardson(whohadreplacedKleindienstasattorneygeneral)andRichardsonsdeputy,
WilliamRucklehaus,inwhatbecameknownastheSaturdayNightMassacre,didnothingtoimprovehis
publicstanding.Moreover,itservedasfurtherevidenceofNixonstendencytoabusethepowerofhis
office.Whatwasstilla(certainlygrowing)suspicionbecameacertaintywhen,aftertheSupremeCourtin
UnitedStatesv.RichardNixonorderedthePresidenttohandoverthetapes,thesmokinggun
conversationbecamepubliconAugust5,1974.ThereislittleevidenceofNixonapprovingof,oreven
havinganypriorknowledgeofthebreakin,whichhadbeenauthorizedbyCRPseniorstaffersJohn
Mitchell,JebStuartMagruder,andRobertMardian.[3]Nixon,infact,canbeheardinthetapeswondering
aloudaboutwhocouldhaveapprovedsuchafoolishaction(although,ontheotherhand,heknewhewas
beingrecorded),anditisabundantlyclearhewasliedtobyhissubordinates.
Yet,evenifhehadlittletodowithorganizingthebreakin,thetapeabundantlydemonstratedhow,inthe
courseofthesubsequentcoverup,thePresidentsconductfellwithinallthreearticlesofimpeachment
passedbytheHouseJudiciaryCommittee:obstructionofjustice,abuseofpower,andcontemptof
Congress.AfteragroupofseniorRepublicansenatorsledbyBarryGoldwaterlethimknowthatthey
couldnotguaranteehistenure,RichardNixonbecamethefirstpresidentoftheUnitedStatestoresign
fromoffice,onAugust8,1974.TheWatergatescandaldrewtoaclosewhen,totheconsiderable
frustrationofmanysegmentsoftheAmericanpublic,Nixonssuccessor,GeraldR.Ford,grantedthe
disgracedexpresidentafullpardon,whichputanendtoallfurtherinvestigationsintohisconductin
office.FordsstatedintentforissuingthepardonwastoendtheagonythatNixonhadinflicteduponthe
nation,andtoprotectwhateverwasleftoftheprestigeaccordedtohighestofficeintheland.Asitwas,
Fordsdecisionsignificantlycontributedasheknewitwouldtohislosingthe1976election.
Nevertheless,thissacrificepossiblycontributedtobringingaboutmuchneedednationalhealingearlier
thanwouldotherwisehavebeenpossible,anditalmostcertainlysavedtheentirepoliticalclasssome
considerableembarrassment.Alas,italsofueledthesubsequent,andpersistent,perceptionofWatergate
asunfinishedbusiness.TheabsenceofaNixontrialhasfosteredbothasenseofinjusticeandthefeeling
thatnoteverything(perhapsnoteventhemostimportantdetails)isyetknownaboutWatergate.[4]
UnderstandingWatergate:AGreekTragedyortheLastImperialPresidency

OneofthemostconsistentlyrepeatedanddifficulttoanswerquestionsregardingWatergateis:Why?
Withthebenefitofhindsight,weknowthatRichardNixonwentontowinthe1972electionbythelargest
margininpostwarhistoryandthatthewiretapsthatthePresidentsmenhadinstalledattheDNCdidnot
produceanyinformationusefultothecampaign.Thebreakinwassuchanimprobable,apparentlyabsurd
actthatbothjournalistsandpoliticianswereactuallydeterredfromfollowingBernsteinandWoodwards
investigativeleadatthetime.Afterthepassageofdecades,evenprofessionalhistorianshavestrivedto
figureoutrationalexplanationsforanapparentlybizarreandultimatelyselfdestructivedecision.[5]
Whateverthedetailsofthebreakinitself,theknownfactspointtoacomplexanddiffuseexplanationfor
theeventsthatledtoNixonsdownfall.
TheonechiefcauseoftheWatergatescandalwasdoubtlesslyNixonhimself.Hehadfeltincreasingly
resentfulsincehisnarrowlossinthe1960presidentialelectionwhichhebelievedhadbeenstolen
throughelectoralriggingbythelikesofMayorRichardDaleyofChicagoorevensincethe1952election,
whenhehadsufferedpersonal(andungrounded)accusationsofcorruption.By1968Nixonhadgrown
intoanearparanoid,embattledpoliticianwhobelievedhimselfatwarwiththebulkofAmericas
intelligentsia,includingthemainstreammediaandacademia.[6]Throughouthisentirefirstterm,asthe
memoirsleftbyformerWhiteHouseofficialssuchasspeechwriterWilliamSafireandheadofthe
researchandwritingstaffJamesKeoghshow,Nixonssenseofvictimizationandinstinctive
aggressivenesstowardhiscriticspermeatedthewholeadministration.This,inturn,createdasiege
mentality,dominatedbyacollectivesenseoffearandsuspicionthatpropelledhisadvisorstoadvocate,
justify,andsometimescarryoutextrememeasureswhich,perversely,alsofueledthefearofthe
administrationonthepartofthepress.[7]CharlesColsonssuggestionthattheBrookingsInstitution,a
progressiveleaningthinktank,oughttobefirebombedstillstandsoutasaparticularlyatrocious
anecdote.Yetthemoreseriouseffortstolimitcivillibertiesandexpandthefederalgovernments
surveillancecapacitiesembodiedintheinfamousHustonPlanwereclearsignalsofamoreseriousand
pervasivemaladyonesoacutethatitalarmednolessthanFBIdirectorJ.EdgarHoover,noshrinking
violetwhenitcametotreatingthecivilrightsofUScitizenswithsomeflexibility.Similarly,Nixons
obsessionwithsecrecyanddisdainforpublicopinionwhenitcametoforeignpolicywentfartoward
explainingthedescentintotheabyssthatledtoWatergate.
Thus,asearlyas1969andthroughout1970Nixon,eggedonbythethenequallyaggressiveand
paranoidHenryKissinger,hadtheFBIwiretapsomemembersoftheNationalSecurityCouncilafterleaks
oftheairbombingsofCambodiaappearedinthepagesoftheNewYorkTimeswhichinturnhad
revealedtothepublicanoperationsosecretandillegalthattheofficialflightlogshadbeentamperedwith
andthepilotsthemselvesweremisledintobelievingtheywerebombingVietnam.[8]Formany,includinga
significantnumberofhisfoes,NixonsstoryisoneofShakespeareantragedy,oneinwhichapresidents
innerdemonsfrustratedthepromisesheldbyhisundeniableintellectualtalentsandcapacityforhard
workafterhehadachieved(twice)hislifetimeobjective:toleadthenation.[9]HenryKissinger,notknown
asamanpronetosentimentality,oncefamouslywonderedhowgreatamanRichardNixonwouldhave
beenifsomeonehadshownhimsomelove.[10]
Andyet,RichardNixonandhisstaffsparanoidsenseofembattlementwasnotonlytheproductof
overheatedimaginations.Discomfitingleaks,afterall,certainlyexisted.NotleastthatofthePentagon
Papers,anexaminationofUSpolicyinIndoChinacollectedbytheDepartmentofDefense,which
acknowledgedthatfourconsecutiveadministrationsfromHarryS.TrumantoLyndonJohnsonhad
consistentlyliedtoandmisledtheAmericanpublicaboutUSpolicyinVietnam,thatwasleakedtothe

NewYorkTimesbyformerdefenseanalystDanielEllsberg.AlthoughtheNixonadministrationwasnot
coveredintheanalysis,thePresidentandhisadvisorscorrectlybelievedthatitsreleasewouldreignite
alreadyfeverishantiwarsentimentandhampertheirowninitiativesinSoutheastAsia.Nixonsmen
reactedbysendingthesameteamofoperativeswholaterbrokeintotheWatergatebuilding(calledthe
plumbersaftertheirmissiontostopleaks)toburglarizetheofficeofEllsbergspsychiatrist,soasto
discredittheleak.[11]Ataroundthesametime,asahistorianandjournalisthasgraphicallyremindedus,
theWhiteHousecouldbefoundliterallylaageredbyaringofdozensofsilverMetrobusessoasto
protectitfromahordeofhalfnakedstudentsquitewillingto,forinstance,carryaroundthebleeding
headofalamb,nottomentionthrowingabuseatfederalemployeespassingbyinprotestagainstthe
war.[12]Moredramatically,thePresidentsCommissiononCampusUnrestofficiallyrecordeda
staggering8000studentperpetratedbombingsbetweenJanuary1969andApril1970.Tothesemustbe
addedtheraceriotsexperiencedinlocationsasvariedasHarlem(1964)Watts,LA(1965)andNewark
(1967),nottomentionthedisturbances,seeninmorethanahundredcitiesafterthe1968assassination
ofMartinLutherKingJr.,thatburnedacrosstheinnercitiesofWashingtonDC,Baltimore,andChicago.
BythetimeNixontookoffice,DanielPatrickMoynihans1968dictumthatthenationwasexhibitingthe
qualitiesofanindividualgoingthroughanervousbreakdownseemedratherappropriate.[13]
TheexplosivesocialandculturaltensionsthatengulfedthenationasNixonenteredtheWhiteHouse
magnifiedthedarksideofthePresidentscharacterandthebalefuleffectsofhisinnerdemons.The
poisonousinheritanceofpreviousadministrationspoliciesinIndochinahadcrystallizedinagrowing
credibilitygapbetweenofficialliesorhalftruthsandreality,atatimewhencivilrightsstrugglesreached
theirapexanduniversitystudentswererejectingacceptednormsofbehaviorinareasrangingfromfamily
relationstoacceptedhierarchies.[14]Nixonwassingularlyillsuitedtoleadthenationatthistransitional
moment,duringwhichgovernmentexcessesonbehalfofnationalsecurityandlowpoliticaldirtytricks
werebecomingnomoreacceptablethanJimCroworwomenssubmissiontotheirhusbands.Itmay
indeedbetrueenoughthattheCRPdidnothingonbehalfofRichardNixonthathadnotbeendonebefore
byFranklinD.Roosevelt,JohnF.Kennedy,orLyndonB.Johnson.Itisalsoreasonabletonotethatthe
frenziedattackagainsttheadministrationasWatergateunraveledwasfueledbyaninstinctive,growing
dislikeofthePresident(whichNixontookgoodcaretofeed)onthepartofasignificantsectorofthepress
andtheintellectualclasses.YetthefactremainsthatthePresidentsactions,andthoseofhis
subordinates,werebothwrongandcriminal.
Watergate,intruth,isatestamenttotheenduringresilienceofliberaldemocracyintheUnitedStates.The
Watergateinvestigationsweredoubtlesslyinfluencedbypoliticalpartisanshipandthepursuitofself
aggrandizementonthepartofsomeofthePresidentsadversaries.Despitethis,andindeedperhaps
becauseofit,itremainsaprimeexampleofthecapacityofAmericaninstitutionstoadjustandevolvein
responsetodemandsforgreaterindividualfreedomandstricterstandardsofconductonthepartof
governmentofficialsandpublicrepresentatives.AfterWatergate,presidentscloakthemselvesinimperial
robesandtakefreedomofthepressandtheseparationofpowerslightlyattheirownperil.
[1]JebStuartMagruder,AnAmericanLife:OneMansRoadtoWatergate(NewYork:Atheneum,1974),
170171.
[2]AsquotedinJohnEhrlichman,WitnesstoPower:TheNixonYears(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,
1982),346.

[3]Magruder,AnAmericanLife,195.
[4]SeeforinstanceDavidGreenberg,TheUnsolvedMysteriesofWatergate,TheNewYorkTimes,
June5,2005.
[5]SeeforinstanceJoanHoff,NixonReconsidered,301346.
[6]AftertheleakofthePentagonPapers,forinstance,NixonbelievedDanielEllsbergwaspartofa
conspiracygoingbacktothedaysoftheHisscase.H.R.Haldeman,TheHaldemanDiaries:Insidethe
NixonWhiteHouse(NewYork:BerkleyBooks,1995),368,377,381.
[7]RaymondPrice,WithNixon(NewYork:VikingPress,1977),188191JamesKeogh,PresidentNixon
andthePress(NewYork:FunkandWagnalls,1972),39,132145Magruder,AmericanLife,196197
CarlBernsteinandBobWoodward,AllthePresidentsMen(London:Bloomsbury,1998),87,233.
[8]SeymourM.Hersh,ThePriceofPower:KissingerintheWhiteHouse(London:Faber,1983),6162,
8688,319MatthewDallek,NixonandKissinger,PartnersinPower(NewYork:Penguin,2007),118
124.
[9]SeeforinstanceRonBriley,NixonandHistoricalMemory,Perspectives36,no.3(1996).
[10]HenryKissinger,YearsofUpheaval(Boston:Little,BrownandCompany,1982),1184.
[11]Hersh,383401,andDavidGreenberg,NixonsShadow:TheHistoryofanImage(NewYork:W.W.
Norton,2003),114116,32329.
[12]GodfreyHodgson,TheGentlemanfromNewYork:DanielPatrickMoynihan,ABiography(Boston:
HoughtonMifflin,2000),151.
[13]AsquotedinRobertMason,RichardNixonandtheQuestforaNewMajority(ChapelHill:University
ofNorthCarolinaPress,2004),22.
[14]SeeforinstanceHunterS.Thompson,FearandLoathingontheCampaignTrail72(London:
HarperCollins,1973).
DavidSariasisaprofessorofhistoryattheUniversidadReyJuanCarlosinMadrid,Spain.

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RELATED SITE CONTENT

GlossaryTermPerson: RichardNixon
PrimarySource: J.EdgarHooveroncampusunrest,1970
Multimedia: GrandExpectations:TheUnitedStates,19451974

Multimedia: Nixon,ExecutivePower,andtheConstitution
VideoSeries: Presidents
PrimarySource: ProclamationpardoningRichardNixon,1974
PrimarySource: RobertF.KennedyonVietnam,1967
Essay: TheConsequencesofDefeatinVietnam
GlossaryTermEvent: Watergatehearings
Product: #51NixonandMao,1972

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