METAL WORKING

METAL FORMING
Objectives of metal forming processes are to provide the desired shape
and size, under the action of externally applied forces in metals.
An intentional and permanent deformation of metals plastically
beyond the elastic range of the material is made.
The grains present in the metal are thus get elongated and dispersed
through out the metal.

RECRYSTALISATION
When a metal is heated and deformed under mechanical force,
an energy level will be reached when the old grain structure starts
disintegrating.
Simultaneously new grain structure with reduced grain size
starts forming and is known as Recrystalisation.
Temperature at which this phenomenon start is known as
Recrystalisation Temperature.
o Above Recrystalisation Temperature Hot working process
o Below Recrystalisation Temperature Cold working process
3

Hot Working
Temperature should not be too high to reach the solidus temperature;
otherwise the metal will melt and become unsuitable for use.
In hot working, the temperature of completion of metal working is
important since any extra heat left after working aid in grain growth.

Examples:
Hot rolling, Hot forging, Hot extrusion, Hot drawing, Hot
spinning, Hot piercing or seamless tubing, Tube Forming
and Hot forming of welded pipes

Merits of hot working

As the material is above the recrystallisation temperature, any amount of
working can be imparted since there is no strain hardening taking place
At a high temperature, the material would have higher amount of ductility and
therefore there is no limit on the amount of hot working that can be done on a
material. Even brittle materials can be hot worked.
Grain structure of the metal is refined and physical properties improved
Since the shear stress gets reduced at higher temperatures, this process
requires much less force to achieve the necessary deformation.
No residual stresses are introduced in the metal due to hot working.
5

Demerits of hot working

1. Due to high temperature a rapid oxidation or scale formation takes place

on the metal surface, leading to poor surface finish and loss of metal.
2. On account of the lost of carbon from the surface of the steel piece being
worked the surface layer loses its strength, This weakening of the
surface layer may give rise to a fatigue crack which may ultimately result
in fatigue failure of the part.
4. Close tolerances cannot be maintained.
5. It involves excessive expenditure on account of high cost of tooling. This,
however, is compensated by the high production rate and better quality
of products.
6

COLD WORKING
Cold working of a metal is carried out below its
recrystallisation temperature.

It involves plastic deformation of a metal, which results in

strain hardening

ADVANTAGES OF COLD WORKING

1.Smooth surface finish can be easily produced
2. Accurate dimensions of parts can be maintained.
3. Strength and hardness of the metal are increased but ductility decreased.
4. Since the working is done in cold state, no oxide would form on the surface and consequently
good surface finish is obtained.
5. Cold working increases the strength and hardness of the material due to the strain hardening
which would be beneficial in some situations.
6. There is no possibility of decarburization of the surface
8. It is far easier to handle cold parts and it is also economical for smaller sizes.
9. It is an ideal method for increasing hardness of those metals which do not respond to the heat
treatment.
8

DISADVANTAGES OF COLD WORKING

1.Some materials, which are brittle, cannot be cold worked
easily

2. A distortion of the grain structure is created.

3. Since the material gets strain hardened, the maximum
amount of deformation that can be given is limited. Any
further deformation can be given after annealing.
4. Internal stresses are set up which remain in the metal
unless they are removed by proper heat-treatment.
Video

FORGING
Forging & Press Working

INTRODUCTION
Forging is process of plastically
deforming metal or alloy to a
specific shape by a compressive
force
exerted
at
elevated
temperature by some external
agency like hammer, press, rolls,
dies or by an upsetting machine.

11

WHY FORGING IS IMPORTANT

This process is generally used to produce the discrete parts unlike
rolling.
In rolling different structural components are made on a
continuous basis Required length can be cut using shearing
machine.

Typical forged parts include rivets, bolts, crane hooks, connecting

rods, gears, turbine shafts , hand tools and the variety of the
structural components used to manufacture machinery.

FORGEABILITY
Fogeability is generally defined as the capability of a material to undergo
deformation without cracking.

Al and mg can be forged easily than Ti.

TYPES OF FORGING PROCESSES

HOT forging
COLD forging

When a piece of metal is hot forged it must be heated

significantly. The average temperatures necessary for hot
forging are:
Up to 1150 degrees Celsius for Steel
360 to 520 degrees Celsius for Al-Alloys
700 to 800 degrees Celsius for Cu-Alloys

Advantages of Hot forging

Forged parts possess high ductility and offers great resistance to
impact and fatigue loads.
Forging refines the structure of the metal.
It results in considerable saving in time, labor and material as
compared to the production of similar item by cutting from a solid stock
and then shaping it.
Forging distorts the previously created unidirectional fiber as created
by rolling and increases the strength by setting the direction of grains.

Although there are some disadvantages

some scale formation may takes place
control over the flow of the metal is not too much in our hand.
Dimensional control may not be that good by this.
Advantages of cold forging
Surface finish will be considerably better.
In cases where it is desirable to create a favourable strain
hardening of the part .- A cold die forging may be employed.
produce greater surface finish and dimensional accuracy than
hot die forging.
Some specific metal forging processes are always be performed
such as coining.

Disadvantages of cold forging

Requiring higher forces
Process is not suitable for large scale production.
Heavier and more powerful equipment is required

CLASSIFICATION OF FORGING
On the basis of process :
1. Open die Forging
2. Closed die Forging
On the basis of equipment :
1. Drop Forging
2. Power (Hammer & press)

Forging
Process

Open die
Forging
Hand
Forging

Closed die
Forging

Power
Forging

Drop
Forging

Forging

3. Hand Forging
4. Machine Forging

Power
Hammer

Press
Forging

Press
Forging

Machine
Forging

OPEN DIE FORGING

This process also known as smiths die forging or flat die

forging.
The operation is carried out between two flat dies of very
simple shape generally b/w the bottom surface of
hammer & top surface of anvil..
The work piece reduces their height/plastically deform by
compressing it.
The process is used for mostly large objects or when the
number of parts produced is small & to perform the workpiece for closed-die forging.
Tooling is simple, inexpensive and allows the production
of a large variety of shapes.

CLOSED DIE FORGING

This process is also called impression die forging.

In this metal is deformed under high pressure between two dies (called tooling) or in a closed cavity that contain a profile of
the desired part.

Closed die forging are commonly use where mass production of identical & more complex shapes of greater accuracy are
required.

The process provide precision forging with close dimensional tolerance.

Normally used for smaller components.

Closed dies are expensive.

HAND FORGING
Sometimes called smithing, or blacksmithing
hand forging is the simplest form of
forging and it is one of the methods by which
metal was first worked.
The metal to be forged is first heated to red
hot in the fire of a forge, and then is beaten
into shape on a metal anvil with sledges or
hammers.

FORGING TOOLS

FORGING TOOLS
TONGS :
Tongs are used mainly for holding work of many section.

FLATTER :
Flatter is used to give smoothness & accuracy to articles which have already
been shaped by fullers and swages.

SWAGE :
Swage is used to reduce/finish to round, square/hexagonal form. It consists of
two parts-The top part having a handle. The bottom part having a square
shank.

 ANVIL :
Anvil is used for supporting hot job while hammering is done for shaping it
into various shapes. It is made of cast steel.

 SWAGE BLOCK :
It is used for holding hot bars during bending, support for punching holes in
a job & various holes.
FORGING & PRESS WORKING

 FULLERS :
Fullers are used for necking down/to form
depressions.
26

26

FORGING TOOLS
HAND HAMMER :

CHISELS :

SLEDGE HAMMER :

PUNCH :

FORGING OPERATIONS
UPSETTING :
It is the operation by which the thickness/crosssectional area of the work piece is increased at the
expense of its length.

DRAWING DOWN :
It is the operation by which the thickness/crosssectional area of the work piece is reduced by
increasing length.

SETTING DOWN :
It is the local thinning operation performed by the set
hammer.

 BENDING :
It is the operation by which the bend may be either curve/sharp corner can
be produced. Bending can be done using beak of anvil.

 PUNCHING :
It is the process of making holes in the work piece using punch & hammer.

 WELDING :
It is the process of joining two surfaces of metal under pressure after they are
heated to the welding temperature.

 CUTTING :
It is a form of chiseling where a long piece of stock is cut into several pieces
of required length.

Powered Forging

Drop Forge by
mechanical
Gravity Ram

Crank and
Ram (Forging
Press)

Drop Forge by
hydraullic
Steam

Hydraullic
fluids

Precision
Forging
Flashless
Forging

DROP FORGING

FORGING & PRESS WORKING

34

DROP FORGING
It is also called as stamping. It consists of special type of hammer known as
drop hammer or drop stamp.

Perfectly made steel dies are used for forging.

The top part of the die is raised by mechanical links to a certain height.
The heated metal placed accurately in the bottom part of the die.
The top part of the die is then allowed to fall suddenly.
This gives a high blow and completes the workpiece in a single operation.

35

PRESS FORGING

The upper die and

36

PRESS FORGING
Pressure force is applied to perform forging process is known as press
forging.

The material gets uniformly deform throughout its entire depth.

Hydraulic presses are load-restricted machines in which hydraulic pressure
moves a piston in a cylinder.

The full press load is available at any point during the full stroke of the ram.
Due to slow speed, contact time is longer at the die-metal interface, which
causes problems such a heat lost from work-piece

 Crank press translates rotary motion

into reciprocating linear motion of
the press slide.

The ram stroke is shorter than in a

hammer or hydraulic press.

The blow press is more like squeeze

than like the impact of the hammer,
therefore, dies can be less massive
and die life is longer than with a
hammer.
MECHANICAL PRESS

HAMMER FORGING (Hydraullic)

Process by which a blow or impact is performed for
forging process is known as hammer forging.

Power hammer provides greater capacity, in which the

Steam drop
hammer

ram is accelerated on the down stroke by steam or air

pressure in addition to gravity.
Steam or air pressure is also used to raise the ram on
the upstroke.

The upper die and ram are raised by friction rolls

gripping the board.
After releasing the board, the ram falls under gravity to
produce the blow energy.
The hammer can strike between 60-150 blows per
minute depending on size and capacity.

39

MACHINE FORGING
In machine forging the material is
only upset to get the desire
shape.

The die consists of two parts, one

called the stationary gripper die
which is fixed to the machine
frame and the other movable
gripper die which moves along
with the die slide of the up setter.
The stock is held then between
these two gripper dies.

It is used for making gears, blanks,

shafts, excels, and similar parts.

PRECISION FORGING
If we want that the product which we are getting near net shape .it should be
according to the desired shape & dimensional accuracy and the finishing should
be extremely good then we go to precision forging no further machining is
required.
it may produce some or no flash The number of manufacturing operations is
reduced as well as the material wasted.
The disadvantages of these advanced forging methods are that special
machinery and die are needed, also more careful control of the manufacturing
process i s required.
Its most basic type is flashless forging

FLASHLESS FORGING
Flashless forging is a type of precision forging process in
which the entire volume of the work metal is contained
with in the die and no material is allowed to escape during
the operation. Since no material can leave the mold as the
part is forged, no flash is formed.

DEFECTS IN FORGING
Defects of metal forged product include exterior cracking,
interior cracking, laps, cold shuts, warping of the part, improperly
formed sections and dead zones.
Cracking both interior and exterior is caused by excessive stress,
or improper stress distribution as the part is being formed. high
thermal gradient can cause the cracks in the forged parts.
Warping of a forged part can happen when thinner sections
cool faster than the rest of the forging .

 Cold shuts occur when metal flows of different temperatures meet,

they do not combine smoothly, a boundary layer, (cold shut), forms at
their intersection. It indicates that there is is problem with the metal
flow in the mold as the part is being formed.
Laps in a metal forging are caused by a buckling of the part , laps can
be a result of too little material in the work piece.
Improperly formed sections and dead zones can be a result of too little
metal in the work piece. flawed forging die design resulting in
incorrect material distribu tion during the process.

Applications of forging
Forging is generally carried out on carbon alloy steels, wrought iron, copper-base alloys,
alumunium alloys, and magnesium alloys.
Stainless steels, nickelbased super-alloys, and titanium are forged especially for
aerospace uses.
In automotive applications, forged components are commonly found at points of shock
and stress. Forged automobile components include connecting rods, crankshafts, wheel
spindles, axle beams, pistons, gears, and steering arms.
Forgings are also used in helicopters, pistonengine planes, commercial jets, and supersonic
military aircraft. Many aircraft are "designed
around" forgings and contain more than 450
structural forgings, including hundreds of forged
engine parts.
"Forged" is the mark of quality in hand tools
and hardware. Pliers, hammers, sledgers,
wrenches, garden implements, and surgical tools
are almost always produced through forging.
46

47

Rolling Process

48

WHAT IS ROLLING??
The process of plastically deforming metal by passing it between rolls.

Rolling is the most widely used

forming process, which provides high
production and close control of final
product.
The metal is subjected to high
compressive stresses as a result of
the friction between the rolls and the metal surface

Hot Rolling
Rolling is the most rapid method of forming metal into desired shapes by plastic
deformation through compressive stresses using two or more than two rolls.
The main objective of rolling is to convert larger sections such as ingots into smaller
sections either directly in as rolled state or as stock for working through other processes.
The coarse structure of cast ingot is converted into a fine grained structure using rolling
process.

The crystals in parts are elongated in the

direction of rolling, and they start to reform
after leaving the zone of stress.

Hot rolling process is being widely used in

the production of large number of useful
products such as rails, sheets, structural
sections, plates etc.
50

Types of Roll Mills

51

FORGING & PRESS WORKING

52

FORGING & PRESS WORKING

53

FORGING & PRESS WORKING

54

Types of Roll Mills

55

56

Cold Rolling
Cold rolling is the most rapid method of forming metal into desired shapes by plastic
deformation through compressive stresses using two or more than two rolls with or
without spraying water.
Coldrolling metals impart smooth bright surface finish and in good physical and
mechanical properties to cold rolled parts.

The preliminary step to the cold-rolling operation, the sheets of pre hot-rolled steel are
immersed in an acid solution to remove the washed in water and then dried.
The cleaned steel is passed through set of
rolls of cold rolling process thereby
producing a slight reduction in each the
required thickness is obtained
.
Cold rolling process is being widely used in
the production of large number of useful
products such as rails, sheets, structural
sections, plates etc.
57

The arrangement of rolls in a rolling mill, also called rolling stand, varies depending on
the application.
The various possible configurations of rolls are similar to hot rolling.

The names of the rolling stand arrangements are generally given by the number of rolls
employed.
These stands are more expensive compared to the non-reversible type because of the
reversible drive needed.
Internal stresses are set up in cold rolled parts which remain in the metal unless they are
removed by proper heat-treatment.

This process needs more power for accomplishing the operation in comparison to hot
rolling.

58

Types of Roll Mills

59

EXTRUSION

INTRODUCTION
Extrusion: It is a manufacturing process, in which a block of metal enclosed in a container is forced to
flow through the opening of a die.
The metal is subjected to plastic deformation & it undergoes reduction & elongation.
Basically it is an adaption of
Open Die forging.

Uses: Manufacture of solid & hollow sections from non ferrous metals & alloys.
Sliding doors, tubing having various cross sections, door & window frames.

CLASSIFICATION OF EXTRUSION PROCESSES

Extrusion

By Direction

Direct /
Forward

Indirect /
Backward

By Operating
Temperature

Hot

Cold

By Equipment

Horizontal

Vertical

CLASSIFICATION BY DIRECTION

1. Direct Extrusion: It is a process in which the metal billet, placed in a container is forced by a ram to pass
through a die.
In this type the direction
of flow of metal is, in same

as that of movement of ram.

The punch closely fits the die cavity to prevent backward flow of the material.

2. In-direct Extrusion:-

It is a process in which a hollow ram containing the die is forced into the container,
containing metal.

Hollow ram limits the applied load.

The movement of metal is opposite to the direction of ram motion.

CLASSIFICATION BY OPERATING TEMPERATURE

1.Hot Extrusion: It is done at fairly high temperatures, approximately 50 to 75% of the melting point of
the metal.

Die life and components are effected

due to the high temperatures and
pressures, which makes lubrication
necessary.

Pressures Ranges: 35-700 Mpa.

TYPES OF HOT EXTRUSION

Hot Extrusion

Lubricated

Non-Lubricated

Hydrostatic

LUBRICATED HOT EXTRUSION

Before the billet is inserted into the hot extrusion container, a suitable lubricating
system is positioned immediately ahead of the die in order to reduce frictional stresses.
Oil and graphite are used at lower temperature whereas at
higher temperatures, glass powder is used.
Copper alloys, titanium alloys, alloy steels,
stainless steels, and tool steels are extruded using lubrication.

NON-LUBRICATED HOT EXTRUSION

No lubrication is used on the billet, container, or die for reducing frictional stresses.
It has the ability to produce very complex
sections with excellent surface finishes
and low dimensional tolerances.

Solid and hollow dies with flat shear faces are typically used.

HYDROSTATIC EXTRUSION
In the hydrostatic extrusion process the billet is completely surrounded by a
pressurized liquid, except where the billet contacts the die.
The rate, with which the billet moves when pressing in the direction of the die, is thus
not equal to the ram speed, but is proportional to the displaced hydrostatics medium
volume.
The process must be carried out in a sealed cylinder to contain the hydrostatic
medium.
Pressure = 1400 Mpa (approx.)

Advantages:
Elimination of large friction force between the billet and the container wall.

Possible to use dies with a very low semi cone angle (-200).
This process can be done hot, warm, or cold, however the temperature is limited by
the stability of the fluid used.

Limitations:

Not suitable for hot-working due to pressurized liquid.

A practical limit on fluid pressure is around 1.7GPa currently exists because of the
strength of the container.
The liquid should not solidify at high pressure this limits the obtainable.
Applications:
Cladding of metals
Making wires of less ductile materials

Nuclear reactor fuel rods

ADVANTAGES OF HOT EXTRUSION

Complex solid or hollow shapes can be produced.

Small quantities can be economically produced.
Delivery times are often far shorter than alternative processes.

LIMITATIONS OF HOT EXTRUSION

High equipment set up and maintenance cost.
Extrusion process for metals is at very high temperatures.
Die is preheated to increase its life, so there are chances of oxidation of hot billet.
Process Wastage is higher as compared to rolling.
Non-homogeneous.

CLASSIFICATION BY OPERATING TEMPERATURE

2. Cold Extrusion: Cold extrusion is the process done at room temperature or slightly elevated
temperatures.

This process can be used for materials that can withstand the stresses created by
extrusion.

ADVANTAGES OF COLD EXTRUSION

Improved Mechanical properties.
Good control of dimensional tolerances.
Improved surface finish.
No need for heating billet.

No oxidation takes place.

DISADVANTAGES OF COLD EXTRUSION

Tooling cost is high, therefore large production lot size is required.
Special coating is required to reduce friction and to maintain a lubricant film
throughout.
Limited deformation can be obtained.

APPLICATIONS OF COLD EXTRUSION

Cu, Pb, Sn, Al Alloys, Ti, Mo, V, Steel, Zr parts can be extruded.

Tubes, Gear Blanks, Aluminum Cans, Cylinders, Fire Extinguisher Cases, Shock
Absorber Cylinders, and Automotive Pistons are manufactured.

IMPACT EXTRUSION
Impact extrusion

A manufacturing process in which a small shot of

solid material is placed in the die and is impacted by
a ram, which causes cold flow in the material.

It may be either direct or indirect extrusion and it is

usually performed on a high- speed mechanical
press.

Applications

Although the process is generally performed cold, considerable heating results from
the high speed deformation.

A short lengths of hollow shapes, such as collapsible toothpaste tubes or spray cans.

Requires soft materials such as Al, Pb, Cu or Sn.

CLASSIFICATION BY EQUIPMENT
Horizontal extrusion process

The layout of operating machine is horizontal and movement of billet as well as of ram
is horizontal in direction.

15- 50 MN capacity or upto 140 MN)

It is mostly used for commercial

extrusion of bars and shapes.

CLASSIFICATION BY EQUIPMENT
Vertical extrusion process

The movement of billet and ram is vertical in orientation.

3-20 MN capacity.
Mainly used in the production of thin-wall tubing.

Advantages:
Easier alignment between the press ram and tools.
Higher rate of production.
Require less floor space than horizontal presses.
uniform deformation, due to uniform cooling of the
billet in the container.

DIE MATERIALS
Commonly used materials are Tool Steels and Carbides
Diamond dies are used for fine wire.
For improved wear resistance, steel dies may be chromium plated, and carbide dies
may be coated with titanium nitride
For Hot drawing, cast-steel dies are used .
Dies are made from highly alloy tools steels or ceramics (Si3N4).
Heat treatments such as nitriding are required (several times) to increase hardness
(1000-1100 Hvor 65-70 HRC). This improves die life.

LUBRICATION
NEED Proper lubrication is essential in extruding, in order to improve die life, reduce
drawing forces and temperature, and improve surface finish.

a)
b)
c)
d)

Types of LubricationWet drawing : Dies and Rods are completely immersed in lubricant.
Dry drawing : Surface of the rod to be drawn is coated with a lubricant.
Coating : Rod or Wire is coated with a soft metal that acts as a solid lubricant.
Ultrasonic Vibration : of the dies and mandrels.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE EXTRUSION FORCE

1.

Type of extrusion

2.

Extrusion ratio

3.

Working temperature

4.

Deformation

5.

Frictional conditions at the die and the container wall

MATHEMATICAL RELATIONS
1. Extrusion ratio, R -

It is defined as the ratio of the initial cross-sectional area , Ao, of the billet to the
final cross-sectional area , Af, after extrusion.
R ~ 40:1 for hot extrusion of steels.
R ~ 400:1 for aluminum.

A0
R
Af

2.Fractional reduction in area, r -

r 1

Af
A0

1
R
1 r

3. Velocity Velocity of extruded product = (Ram velocity) x (R)

4. Extrusion force -

A0
P kA0 ln
Af
where k = extrusion constant,

EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON HOT EXTRUSION

The temperature of the work piece in metal working depends on:The initial temperature of the tools and the materials.
Heat generated due to plastic deformation.
Heat generated by friction at the die/material interface.
Heat transfer between the deforming material and the dies and
surrounding environment.

EXTRUSION DEFECT
1) Inhomogeneous deformation
In direct extrusion, a dead zone along the outer surface of the billet
due to the movement of metal in the centre being higher than the
periphery.

After 2/3 of the billet is extruded, the outer surface of the billet
(normally with oxidised skin) moves toward the centre and extrudes to
the through the die, resulting in internal oxide stringers.

2) Surface cracking
It is the ranging from a badly roughened surface to repetitive transverse
cracking called fir-tree cracking.
It is due to longitudinal tensile stresses generated as the extrusion
passes through the die.

In hot extrusion, this form of cracking usually is intergranular and is

Associated with hot shortness.
The most common case is too high ram speed for the extrusion
temperature.

3) Centre burst or chevron cracking

It can occur at low extrusion ratio due to low frictional conditions on the
zone of deformation at the extrusion die.
High friction(at a the tool-billet interface).
Low friction centre burst.

4) Variations in structure and properties

Structure & properties are varied within the extrusions due to nonuniform deformation for example at the front and the back of the
extrusion in both longitudinal and transverse directions.
Regions of exaggerated grain growth,
due to high hot working temperature. Grain
Growth

5) Hot shortness (in aluminium extrusion)

High temperatures generated cause incipient melting, which causes

cracking.