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WeldDistortion
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Beginningweldersandeventhosethataremoreexperiencedcommonlystrugglewiththeproblemofwelddistortion,(warpingofthebaseplatecausedbyheat
fromtheweldingarc).Distortionistroublesomeforanumberofreasons,butoneofthemostcriticalisthepotentialcreationofaweldthatisnotstructurally
sound.Thisarticlewillhelptodefinewhatwelddistortionisandthenprovideapracticalunderstandingofthecausesofdistortion,effectsofshrinkageinvarious
typesofweldedassembliesandhowtocontrolit,andfinallylookatmethodsfordistortioncontrol.
WhatisWeldDistortion?
Distortioninaweldresultsfromtheexpansionandcontractionoftheweldmetalandadjacentbasemetalduringtheheatingandcoolingcycleofthewelding
process.Doingallweldingononesideofapartwillcausemuchmoredistortionthaniftheweldsarealternatedfromonesidetotheother.Duringthisheatingand
coolingcycle,manyfactorsaffectshrinkageofthemetalandleadtodistortion,suchasphysicalandmechanicalpropertiesthatchangeasheatisapplied.For
example,asthetemperatureoftheweldareaincreases,yieldstrength,elasticity,andthermalconductivityofthesteelplatedecrease,whilethermalexpansion
andspecificheatincrease(Fig.31).Thesechanges,inturn,affectheatflowanduniformityofheatdistribution.
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Fig.31Changesinthepropertiesofsteelwith
increasesintemperaturecomplicateanalysisofwhat
happensduringtheweldingcycleand,thus,
understandingofthefactorscontributingtoweldment
distortion.
ReasonsforDistortion
Tounderstandhowandwhydistortionoccursduringheatingandcoolingofametal,considerthebarofsteelshowninFig.32.Asthebarisuniformlyheated,it
expandsinalldirections,asshowninFig.32(a).Asthemetalcoolstoroomtemperatureitcontractsuniformlytoitsoriginaldimensions.
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Fig.32Ifasteelbarisuniformlyheatedwhile
unrestrained,asin(a),itwillexpandinalldirectionsand
returntoitsoriginaldimentionsoncooling.Ifrestrained,
asin(b),duringheating,itcanexpandonlyinthevertical
directionbecomethicker.Oncooling,thedeformedbar
contractsuniformly,asshownin(c),and,thus,is
permanentlydeformed.Thisisasimplifiedexplanationof
basiccauseofdistortioninweldingassemblies.
Butifthesteelbarisrestrainedasinavisewhileitisheated,asshowninFig.32(b),lateralexpansioncannottakeplace.But,sincevolumeexpansionmust
occurduringtheheating,thebarexpandsinaverticaldirection(inthickness)andbecomesthicker.Asthedeformedbarreturnstoroomtemperature,itwillstill
tendtocontractuniformlyinalldirections,asinFig.32(c).Thebarisnowshorter,butthicker.Ithasbeenpermanentlydeformed,ordistorted.(For
simplification,thesketchesshowthisdistortionoccurringinthicknessonly.Butinactuality,lengthissimilarlyaffected.)
Inaweldedjoint,thesesameexpansionandcontractionforcesactontheweldmetalandonthebasemetal.Astheweldmetalsolidifiesandfuseswiththebase
metal,itisinitsmaximumexpandedfrom.Oncooling,itattemptstocontracttothevolumeitwouldnormallyoccupyatthelowertemperature,butitisrestrained
fromdoingsobytheadjacentbasemetal.Becauseofthis,stressesdevelopwithintheweldandtheadjacentbasemetal.Atthispoint,theweldstretches(or
yields)andthinsout,thusadjustingtothevolumerequirementsofthelowertemperature.Butonlythosestressesthatexceedtheyieldstrengthoftheweldmetal
arerelievedbythisstraining.Bythetimetheweldreachesroomtemperatureassumingcompleterestraintofthebasemetalsothatitcannotmovetheweldwill
containlockedintensilestressesapproximatelyequaltotheyieldstrengthofthemetal.Iftherestraints(clampsthatholdtheworkpiece,oranopposing
shrinkageforce)areremoved,theresidualstressesarepartiallyrelievedastheycausethebasemetaltomove,thusdistortingtheweldment.
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Fig.37Distortioncanbepreventedorminimizedby
techniquesthatdefeatoruseconstructivelytheeffects
oftheheatingandcoolingcycle.
3.Useasfewweldpassesaspossible
Fewerpasseswithlargeelectrodes,Fig.37(d),arepreferabletoagreaternumberofpasseswithsmallelectrodeswhentransversedistortioncouldbea
problem.Shrinkagecausedbyeachpasstendstobecumulative,therebyincreasingtotalshrinkagewhenmanypassesareused.
4.Placeweldsneartheneutralaxis
Distortionisminimizedbyprovidingasmallerleveragefortheshrinkageforcestopulltheplatesoutofalignment.Figure37(e)illustratesthis.Bothdesignofthe
weldmentandweldingsequencecanbeusedeffectivelytocontroldistortion.
Fig.37Distortioncanbepreventedorminimizedby
techniquesthatdefeatoruseconstructivelytheeffects
oftheheatingandcoolingcycle.
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5.Balanceweldsaroundtheneutralaxis
Thispractice,showninFig.37(f),offsetsoneshrinkageforcewithanothertoeffectivelyminimizedistortionoftheweldment.Here,too,designoftheassembly
andpropersequenceofweldingareimportantfactors.
6.Usebackstepwelding
Inthebacksteptechnique,thegeneralprogressionofweldingmaybe,say,fromlefttoright,buteachbeadsegmentisdepositedfromrighttoleftasinFig.3
7(g).Aseachbeadsegmentisplaced,theheatededgesexpand,whichtemporarilyseparatestheplatesatB.ButastheheatmovesoutacrosstheplatetoC,
expansionalongouteredgesCDbringstheplatesbacktogether.Thisseparationismostpronouncedasthefirstbeadislaid.Withsuccessivebeads,theplates
expandlessandlessbecauseoftherestraintofpriorwelds.Backsteppingmaynotbeeffectiveinallapplications,anditcannotbeusedeconomicallyin
automaticwelding.
Fig.37Distortioncanbepreventedorminimizedby
techniquesthatdefeatoruseconstructivelytheeffects
oftheheatingandcoolingcycle.
7.Anticipatetheshrinkageforces
Presettingparts(atfirstglance,Ithoughtthatthiswasreferringtooverheadorverticalweldingpositions,whichisnotthecase)beforeweldingcanmake
shrinkageperformconstructivework.Severalassemblies,presetinthismanner,areshowninFig.37(h).Therequiredamountofpresetforshrinkagetopullthe
platesintoalignmentcanbedeterminedfromafewtrialwelds.
Prebending,presettingorprespringingthepartstobewelded,Fig.37(i),isasimpleexampleoftheuseofopposingmechanicalforcestocounteractdistortion
duetowelding.Thetopoftheweldgroovewhichwillcontainthebulkoftheweldmetalislengthenedwhentheplatesarepreset.Thusthecompletedweldis
slightlylongerthanitwouldbeifithadbeenmadeontheflatplate.Whentheclampsarereleasedafterwelding,theplatesreturntotheflatshape,allowingthe
weldtorelieveitslongitudinalshrinkagestressesbyshorteningtoastraightline.Thetwoactionscoincide,andtheweldedplatesassumethedesiredflatness.
Anothercommonpracticeforbalancingshrinkageforcesistopositionidenticalweldmentsbacktoback,Fig.37(j),clampingthemtightlytogether.Theweldsare
completedonbothassembliesandallowedtocoolbeforetheclampsarereleased.Prebendingcanbecombinedwiththismethodbyinsertingwedgesatsuitable
positionsbetweenthepartsbeforeclamping.
Inheavyweldments,particularly,therigidityofthemembersandtheirarrangementrelativetoeachothermayprovidethebalancingforcesneeded.Ifthese
naturalbalancingforcesarenotpresent,itisnecessarytouseothermeanstocounteracttheshrinkageforcesintheweldmetal.Thiscanbeaccomplishedby
balancingoneshrinkageforceagainstanotherorbycreatinganopposingforcethroughthefixturing.Theopposingforcesmaybe:othershrinkageforces
restrainingforcesimposedbyclamps,jigs,orfixturesrestrainingforcesarisingfromthearrangementofmembersintheassemblyortheforcefromthesagina
memberduetogravity.
8.Plantheweldingsequence
Awellplannedweldingsequenceinvolvesplacingweldmetalatdifferentpointsoftheassemblysothat,asthestructureshrinksinoneplace,itcounteractsthe
shrinkageforcesofweldsalreadymade.Anexampleofthisisweldingalternatelyonbothsidesoftheneutralaxisinmakingacompletejointpenetrationgroove
weldinabuttjoint,asinFig.37(k).Anotherexample,inafilletweld,consistsofmakingintermittentweldsaccordingtothesequencesshowninFig.37(l).In
theseexamples,theshrinkageinweldNo.1isbalancedbytheshrinkageinweldNo.2.
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Fig.37Distortioncanbepreventedorminimizedby
techniquesthatdefeatoruseconstructivelytheeffects
oftheheatingandcoolingcycle.
Clamps,jigs,andfixturesthatlockpartsintoadesiredpositionandholdthemuntilweldingisfinishedareprobablythemostwidelyusedmeansforcontrolling
distortioninsmallassembliesorcomponents.Itwasmentionedearlierinthissectionthattherestrainingforceprovidedbyclampsincreasesinternalstressesin
theweldmentuntiltheyieldpointoftheweldmetalisreached.Fortypicalweldsonlowcarbonplate,thisstresslevelwouldapproximate45,000psi.Onemight
expectthisstresstocauseconsiderablemovementordistortionaftertheweldedpartisremovedfromthejigorclamps.Thisdoesnotoccur,however,sincethe
strain(unitcontraction)fromthisstressisverylowcomparedtotheamountofmovementthatwouldoccurifnorestraintwereusedduringwelding.
9.Removeshrinkageforcesafterwelding
Peeningisonewaytocounteracttheshrinkageforcesofaweldbeadasitcools.Essentially,peeningthebeadstretchesitandmakesitthinner,thusrelieving
(byplasticdeformation)thestressesinducedbycontractionasthemetalcools.Butthismethodmustbeusedwithcare.Forexample,arootbeadshouldnever
bepeened,becauseofthedangerofeitherconcealingacrackorcausingone.Generally,peeningisnotpermittedonthefinalpass,becauseofthepossibilityof
coveringacrackandinterferingwithinspection,andbecauseoftheundesirableworkhardeningeffect.Thus,theutilityofthetechniqueislimited,eventhough
therehavebeeninstanceswherebetweenpasspeeningprovedtobetheonlysolutionforadistortionorcrackingproblem.Beforepeeningisusedonajob,
engineeringapprovalshouldbeobtained.
Anothermethodforremovingshrinkageforcesisbythermalstressrelievingcontrolledheatingoftheweldmenttoanelevatedtemperature,followedby
controlledcooling.Sometimestwoidenticalweldmentsareclampedbacktoback,welded,andthenstressrelievedwhilebeingheldinthisstraightcondition.The
residualstressesthatwouldtendtodistorttheweldmentsarethusminimized.
10.Minimizeweldingtime
Sincecomplexcyclesofheatingandcoolingtakeplaceduringwelding,andsincetimeisrequiredforheattransmission,thetimefactoraffectsdistortion.In
general,itisdesirabletofinishtheweldquickly,beforealargevolumeofsurroundingmetalheatsupandexpands.Theweldingprocessused,typeandsizeof
electrode,weldingcurrent,andspeedoftravel,thus,affectthedegreeofshrinkageanddistortionofaweldment.Theuseofmechanizedweldingequipment
reducesweldingtimeandtheamountofmetalaffectedbyheatand,consequently,distortion.Forexample,depositingagivensizeweldonthickplatewitha
processoperatingat175amp,25volts,and3ipmrequires87,500joulesofenergyperlinearinchofweld(alsoknownasheatinput).Aweldwithapproximately
thesamesizeproducedwithaprocessoperatingat310amp,35volts,and8ipmrequires81,400joulesperlinearinch.Theweldmadewiththehigherheatinput
generallyresultsinagreateramountofdistortion.(note:Idon'twanttousethewords"excessive"and"morethannecessary"becausetheweldsizeis,infact,
tiedtotheheatinput.Ingeneral,thefilletweldsize(ininches)isequaltothesquarerootofthequantityoftheheatinput(kJ/in)dividedby500.Thusthesetwo
weldsaremostlikelynotthesamesize.
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Fig.333Awatercooledjigforrapidremovalof
heatwhenweldingsheetmeta.
Strongback
The"strongback"isanotherusefultechniquefordistortioncontrolduringbuttweldingofplates,asinFig.334(a).Clipsareweldedtotheedgeofoneplateand
wedgesaredrivenundertheclipstoforcetheedgesintoalignmentandtoholdthemduringwelding.
Fig.334Variousstrongbackarrangementsto
controldistortionduringbuttwelding.
ThermalStressRelieving
Exceptinspecialsituations,stressreliefbyheatingisnotusedforcorrectingdistortion.Thereareoccasions,however,whenstressreliefisnecessaryto
preventfurtherdistortionfromoccurringbeforetheweldmentisfinished.
Summary:AChecklisttoMinimizeDistortion
Followthischecklistinordertominimizedistortioninthedesignandfabricationofweldments:
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Donotoverweld
Controlfitup
Useintermittentweldswherepossibleandconsistentwithdesignrequirements
Usethesmallestlegsizepermissiblewhenfilletwelding
Forgroovewelds,usejointsthatwillminimizethevolumeofweldmetal.Considerdoublesidedjointsinsteadofsinglesidedjoints
Weldalternatelyoneithersideofthejointwhenpossiblewithmultiplepasswelds
Useminimalnumberofweldpasses
Uselowheatinputprocedures.Thisgenerallymeanshighdepositionratesandhighertravelspeeds
Useweldingpositionerstoachievethemaximumamountofflatpositionwelding.Theflatpositionpermitstheuseoflargediameterelectrodesandhigh
depositionrateweldingprocedures
Balanceweldsabouttheneutralaxisofthemember
Distributetheweldingheatasevenlyaspossiblethroughaplannedweldingsequenceandweldmentpositioning
Weldtowardtheunrestrainedpartofthemember
Useclamps,fixtures,andstrongbackstomaintainfitupandalignment
Prebendthemembersorpresetthejointstoletshrinkagepullthembackintoalignment
Sequencesubassembliesandfinalassembliessothattheweldsbeingmadecontinuallybalanceeachotheraroundtheneutralaxisofthesection
Followingthesetechniqueswillhelpminimizetheeffectsofdistortionandresidualstresses.
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