WORKINGCOPY

Charles Lugg
Stockton Farm Project
1 December 2016

Companion Planting, Intercropping, and Crop Rotation

Intro
Companion planting, intercropping, and crop rotation are principles used as a
possible means to optimize health and yield of crops. At a time of acknowledgement of
the harmful ecological effects of improper fertilization and pest control techniques, these
principles seek to improve agricultural production without contributing to negative
ecological consequences. Through the optimized design of each agricultural
landscape, high yields can be accomplished with sustainable practices, while limiting
ecologically harmful effects. This paper aims to discuss/review some principles of
companion planting, intercropping, and crop rotation and to suggest future possibilities
in application of principles.
Companion Planting
Companion planting is the concept of planting two or more species of plants
together that will result in beneficial relationships. The relationships can be the result of
allelopathic chemicals produced, nutrient demand differences, weed suppression, or
from a decrease in herbivory rates due to increased predatory populations. Increasing
the positive relationships in an agricultural landscape will increase health and diversity.
The general concept is that resiliency and stability are increased as an ecosystems
diversity increases, either natural or agricultural.
Although these relationships can also exist outside of agricultural systems, the
general focus of research/available information has been on companion planting and
intercropping in either small scale gardening or large scale crop production. ****There is
a disconnect between information from scientific studies, information from gardening
books, and information that has been passed down from others experience.

There are multitude of books containing lists of companion planting combinations

with common agricultural/gardening crops, some with peer-reviewed sources and some
without. A large body of knowledge of companion planting is passed down information
from experiences of others. Gardening/farming books contain possible reasons for
positive/negative relationships and list potential crop pairings, but rarely have supporting
scientific data. Peer-reviewed sources focus mainly on entomological aspects and
seemed to center around a short list of production crops (mainly corn, cereals, legumes
and cruciferous family plants). The expanding area of plant relationships with
intercropping and companion planting still has many unverified companion pairings that
could lead to potential future studies.
Research into the benefits of allelopathic chemical processes is somewhat
limited but has been documented for herbivory suppression (direct or indirect) and weed
suppression. Allelopathic chemicals are mechanisms involved in plant-plant, plantinsect, plant-soil, and plant-microorganism interactions. These can be produced by both
plant and microorganism and are mostly secondary metabolites (terpenoids, phenolic
compounds, organic cyanides)(Gniazdowska, 2005). Asparagus beetles are
discouraged by solanine produced by tomatoes (Riotte, 1998). Barley contains the
alkaloid gramine and hordenin which inhibits the weeds Capsella bursa-pastoris and
Stellaria media. A variety of other weed species show a decrease in germination, growth,
or root growth, inhibited by sweet potatoes, secale cereals(rye), wheat, sunflower, and rice of
allelopathic variety (Khalid, 2002)
Positive relationships can also be due to the effect of weed suppression from companion
plants and cover crops nearby. Surely, cover crops are valued for their ability to reduced undesired weed growth but they can also be used in conjuction with crops, which benefit from their
close proximity. Velvet Bean, a crop grown typically as green manure, has been observed to
increase yield of companion graminaceous plants. The velvet bean also has been observed in
the surpression of weeds such as nutsedge (Cyperus spp.) and alang-alang (Imperata
cylindrica). (Fujii, 1999).
Another useful practice is to surround young squash varieties with lettuce, spinach, and
other cold season crops. In the early season, the lettuces and greens provide weed
suppression to surrounding area until young squash mature. At lettuce harvest time, the squash
is large enough to provide its own shaded weed suppression areas.
Companion plants can also aid other plants by providing protection from wind,
precipitation, or sunlight. Pole beans grown around corn can provide strength to corn stalks as
well as protection from wind, alongside the addition of increased nitrogen availability to corn.
Melons and squash benefit from the shade provided by corn and also make it difficult for

raccoons and other thieves to access corn with the surrounding vines. (Riotte, 1998). Simple
physical protection can be a benefit from the intercropping of plants that have no other known
effects.
Studies on nutrient demands mostly involve the rotation or intercropping of legumus
plants with a high demanding crop to restore nitrogen levels. A general rule of intercropping is
to plant crops with light nutrient demands with those of high demand. This is especially
important if late season crops succeed earlier harvested crops for optimization of available
space.
A study done in 2005 looked at cabbage fly and onion fly discovery of their host plant
with different aromatic and non-host plants in surrounding area. The study concluded that the
size and shape of the leaves had more disruptive effects on the ability of the flies to find their
host plant. The flies would spend more time with contact on non-host leaves and less time
searching and discovering host plant species, even when very close. This raises an idea that it
may be more important to the protection of a host plant to have a surrounding with the greatest
number/size of non-host plant leaves(Morley, 2005).
Through increasing biological diversity of a garden or agricultural landscape, protection
from herbivory can occur simply by making it harder for pests to locate and destroy their
preferred food source/host plant. By increasing diversity, pests have a higher chance of
interacting with non-stimulating/deterring plant surfaces and spend less time in searching for the
crop in need of protection(Finch, 2005).
Some alternative pest management practices involve the intercropping/companion
planting of species known in increase beneficial insect populations or deter herbivory, acting as
a biological control. Dill planted next to green zucchini, yellow squash, and cucumbers has
potential to increase presence of predatory wasps and flies. Tomato hornworms dislike basil in
close proximity (Smith, 2000). To attract beneficial ladybugs, morning glories can be planted
near susceptible crops. Another common practice is the use of marigolds to repel tomato
hornworms, bean beetles, cucumber beetles, asparagus beetles. Nasturtiums deter squash
bugs, whiteflies, and other pests as well as provide flowers/nectar for beneficial insects (Smith,
2000).
Intercropping with wildflower and cornflower plants has been observed to increase
number of natural enemies to pest species of cabbage crops. The parasitation/predation of
Mamestra larvae and eggs, herbivores to cabbage, was increased with the intercropping of
cornflowers leading to an increased yield of the cabbage crop. (Balmer, 2014).
A pragmatic approach is necessary to proper implementation of these concepts, with a
focus on personal experience for a given location. What works in one area may not be able to
be replicated in a different location, unique with its own variables/characteristics. Future studies

could attempt to quantify the effectiveness of these biological pest controls. The following is a
list of possible pest control benefits of common plants:
Bug plant list
Dill attracts predatory wasps and flies
Yarrow attracts ladybugs and other beneficial predators
Morning glory vines attract ladybugs and hoverflies
Goldenrod attracts ladybugs, assassinbugs, and parasitic wasps
Nasturtiums deter squash bugs, whiteflies and other pests

The general principle is the increase of natural habitat to encourage populations of

predators and parasitoids of pest, as a form of pest management. The habitat management
goal is to create/sustain surrounding ecological infrastructure in order to support beneficial
populations, provide alternative prey or hosts, and shelter throughout the agricultural landscape.
(Landis, 2000).
Application of companion and intercropping knowledge must be implemented with
caution and careful pragmatic observation of personal results is key for maximum crop potential.
When preparing your own planting schemes, avoidance of negative relationships between plant
species is of greatest importance. It would be no good to plan on good relationships if you
unknowingly place plants in close proximity that have an inhibitory effects on another. When
planning your garden or agricultural field, eliminate negative relationships first, and once
complete, seek to pair plants with positive effects.
Some possible negative pairings:
Carrot growth inhibited by celery, parsnips, and dill**
Bean growth inhibited by members of onion family*
Beets inhibited by pole beans*
Fennel has negative effects on anything other than sage or other mint family members**
Corn and tomatoes have same pest and can lead to major pest infestations if close in
proximity

*Riotte, 1998
**Smith, 2000
Some possible positive pairings:

Carrot flies, which feed on young roots, discouraged by onions, leeks, rosemary**
Asparagus beetles discouraged from solanine produced by tomatoes
-In return, asparagus juice has been found to tomatoes as a remover of
nematodes.*
Eggplant more resistant to herbivory if near redroot pigweed, Amaranthus retroflexus
Carrots can be grown with tomatoes and lettuce to mutual benefit **
Sunflowers help reduce herbivory of cabbage crops***
Dill with squash.cucumbers to help control beetles

*Riotte, 1998
**Smith, 2000
***Balmer, 2014

crop rotation

Nutrients
Growth

Crop rotation is an important part of a sustainable and high functioning agricultural

system. Improper practices of monocultural repetitive crop production can result in negative
effects including specific nutrient drain, pest-host relationships, and the production of
phytotoxins from crop residues left behind. When determining pattern of crop rotation, care must
be given to the possible allelopathins produced by the proceeding crop. Crop residues may
have favorable or adverse effects on the following crop. (Khalid, 2002). Crops such as rice and
mung bean are affected by their own decomposing crop residue through the production of
phytotoxins. Crop rotation is of special concern to crops such as these and many others.
Although these inhibitory effects normally be of ephemeral nature, not lasting longer than 21
days, degree of toxicity and effects may vary with species. (Khalid, 2002)
Bugs

Production

Some possible negative rotations?:

Some possible positive rotations:

Rotation good vs bad

Bad example

Good examples

Plan

Map
Future
Conclusion

Literature Cited:
Morley, Kate. Finch, Stan. Collier, Rosemary H. (2005). Companion planting - behavior
of the cabbage root fly on host plants and non-host plants. Entomolgia
Experimentallis et Applicata, Volume 109(3), pp. 183-195. doi
10.1111/j.
1570-7458.2005.00325.x
(flys stayed longer on non-host plants- 600 female cabbage root flies (Delis
radium L.)flies ave2.25 min on host, 8.5 non-host)

Finch, Stan. Billiald, Helen. Collier, Rosemary H. (2005). Companion planting - do

aromatic plants disrupt host-plant finding by the cabbage root flu and
onion fly
more effectively than non-aromatic plants. Entomology
Experimentallis et
Applicata, Volume 109(3), pp 195. doi
10.1046/j.0013-8703.2003.00102.x

(Green leaves responsible for fly finding disruption than aromatic plant
signnificance)

Bomfor, Michael K. (2004). Yield, pest density, and tomato flavor effects of companion
planting in garden-scale studies incorporating tomato, basil, and brussel
sprouts.
Scott, Robert. Sullivan, William C. (2007). A review of suitable companion crops for black
walnut. Agroforestry Systems. Volume 71(3). pp 193. doi 10.1007s10457_0
07_9071-8
(Companion crops for black walnut serve multiple functions, including nitrogen fixation,
added yields, the development of straight walnut stems, and added protection from forest pests
such as deer)

Fujii, Yoshinharu. (1999). Allelopathy of Velvetbean: Determination and Identification of

L-DOPA as a Candidate of Allelopathic Substances. In Horace G. Cutler,
Biologically Active Natural Products: Agrochemicals. pp. 36.
Retrieved from
https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=IFIjmMJAvQC&oi=fnd&pg=PA33&dq=companion+planting
+inhibit &ots=
FSEMUrHH5V&sig=kLpsYrz6Oe64gt3oVpDD0wE4nG4#v=onepage
&q=companio n%20planting%20inhibit&f=false
Velvet Bean (Mucuna pruriens (L.) var utilis or Stizolobium deeringianum), a crop
grown typically as green manure, has been observed to increase yield of companion
graminaceous plants. The velvet bean also has been observed in the surpression of weeds
such as nutsedge (Cyperus spp.) and alang-alang (Imperata cylindrica). (Fujii, 2004).

Khalid, Shahida. Ahmad, Tahira. Shad, R.A. (2002). Use of Allelopathy in Agriculture.
Asian Journal of Plant Sciences, Volume 1(3), pp. 297. Retrieved from
http://
docsdrive.com/pdfs/ansinet/ajps/2002/292-297.pdf
http://docsdrive.com/pdfs/ansinet/ajps/2002/292-297.pdf
A look at allelochemicals said to be biocommunicator. barley contains the alkaloid gramine and
hordenin which inhibits stellaria media and Capsella bursa - pastoris Sinapis alba. Also, sweet

potato, secale cereal (rye), wheat, sunflower, and rice (allelopathic varieties) inhibits a variety of
weed species from either germination, growth, and root growth. (Khalid, 2002needs work).
Crops such as rice and mung bean are affected by their own decomposing crop residue through
the production of phytotoxins. Crop rotation is of special concern to crops such as these and
many others. (Khalid, 2002)
Inhibition from toxic effects of plant residues normally of ephemeral nature, not lasting longer
than 21 days but degree of toxicity and effects may vary with species. (Khalid, 2002)
(production of secondary allelpathic compounds may act as attractants or repellants, producing
favorable nutrients or toxins to phytophagous insects.)
When determining pattern of crop rotation, care must be given to the possible allelopathins
produced by the proceeding crop. Crop residues may have favorable or adverse effects on the
following crop. (Khalid, 2002).
Balmer, Oliver. Geneau, Celine E. Belz, Elodie. Weishaupt, B. Forderer, G. Moos, S.
Ditner, N. Luka, H. (2014). Wildflower companion plants increase pest
parasitation and yield in cabbage fields: Experimental
demonstation and call for
caution. Elsevier. Volume 76. pp.27. Retrieved from
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.biocontrol.2014.04.008

We performed replicated field experiments in 2 years and found that adding cornflowers
(Centaurea cyanus) into cabbage (Brassica oleracea) fields significantly increased larval and
egg parasitation and egg predation of the herbivore, reduced herbivory rates, and increased
crop biomass in at least 1 year.
Intercropping with wildflower plants has been observed to increase number of natural ememies
to pest species of cabbage crops. The parasitation/predation of mamestra larvae and eggs,
herbivores to cabbage, was increased with the intercropping of cornflowers. Cornflowers also
increased the yield of the cabbage crop. (Balmer, 2014).

Campbell, Colin A. M. Ridout, Martin S. (2001). Effects of plant spacing and interplanting
with oilseed rape on colonisation of dwarf hops by the damson-hop apphid,
Phorodon humuli. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. Volume
99(2). pp.
216. doi 10.1046/j.1570-7458.2001.00819.x

Riotte, Louise. (1998). Carrots Love Tomatoes: Secrets of Companion Planting for
Successful Gardening. North Adams, Massachusettts: Storey Publishing.

https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=pw5-CPDLV4C&oi=fnd&pg=PP5&dq=companion+planting+mutual&ots=LKzMn689uh&sig=WYcjDUWRn
qnWnjWw-fjLImPDREw#v=onepage&q=companion%20planting%20mutual&f=false

Smith, Edward C. (2000). The Vegtable Gardeners Bible. North Adams, Massachusetts:
Story Publishing.
Flint, Mary Louise. Roberts, Phillip A. (2009). Using crop diversity to manage pest
problems: Some California examples. American Journal of Alternative
Agriculture. Volume 3(4). pp. 167. 10.1017/s0889189300002447
Landis, Douglas A. Wratten, Stephen D. Gurr, Geoff M. (2000). Habitat Management to
Conserve Natural Enermies of Arthropod Pests in Agriculture. Annual
Review of
Entomology. Volume 45. pp. 201. 10.1146/annurev.ento.45.1.175

407.

Gniazdowska, A. Bogatek, R. (2005). Allelopathic interactions beween plants. Multi site

action of allelochemicals. Acta Physiologiae Plantarum, Volume 27(3). pp.
10.1007/s11738-005-0017-3