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Structural Element Decays/Damages

1) Pop-outs
On Staircase

On Slab

(a) Explanation of the defection


A pop-out is a conical fragment that breaks out of the surface of the concrete leaving a
hole that may vary in size generally from 5 mm to 50 mm (1/4 in. to 2 in.) but up to as
much as 300 mm (1 ft) in diameter. Usually a fractured aggregate particle will be found at
the bottom of the hole, with part of the aggregate still adhering to the point of the pop-out
cone.
(b) Factor of defection

The cause of a pop-out usually is a piece of porous rock having a high rate of absorption
and relatively low specific gravity. As the offending aggregate absorbs moisture or
freezing occurs under moist conditions, its swelling creates internal pressures sufficient to
rupture the concrete surface. Pyrite, hard-burned dolomite, coal, shale, soft fine-grained
limestone, or chert commonly cause pop-outs. Pop-outs may also occur to relieve
pressure created by water uptake of expansive gel formed during the chemical reaction
between the alkali hydroxides in the concrete and reactive siliceous aggregates. Most
pop-outs appear within the first year after placement. Pop-outs caused by alkali-silica
reactivity (ASR) may occur as early as a few hours to a few weeks, or even a year, after
the concrete is placed. Pop-outs caused by moisture-induced swelling may occur shortly
after placement due to the absorption of water from the plastic concrete, or they may not
appear until after a season or year of high humidity or rainfall or after the concrete has
been exposed to freezing temperatures. Pop-outs are considered a cosmetic detraction and
generally do not affect the service life of the concrete.
(c) Effect of defection
Pop-outs defection is spots of mortar started popping off the surface of an exterior
broom-finished concrete. The spots have become holes.
(d) Method of prevention
The following steps can be taken to minimize or eliminate pop-outs:
1. Use concrete with the lowest water content and slump possible for the application.
2. Use a durable crushed-stone or beneficiated aggregate concrete.
3. During hot, dry, and windy weather, cover the surface with plastic sheets after
screeding and bullfloating to reduce evaporation before final finishing. This reduces the
migration of alkalies to the surface due to drying and therefore helps reduce pop-outs
caused by alkali-silica reactivity (ASR).
4. Do not finish concrete with bleed water on the surface.
5. Avoid hard-steel troweling where not needed, such as most exterior slabs.
6. Avoid use of vapor barriers. If required, cover the vapor barrier with 100 mm (4 in.) of
compactible granular fill, slightly dampened, and choked off with a fine-grade material to

reduce friction between the base material and the slab. This material should be dry
enough to act as a blotter for the concrete placed over it.
7. Use wet-curing methods such as continuous sprinkling with water, fogging, ponding,
or covering with wet burlap soon after final finishing. Wet-cure for a minimum of 7 days,
as wet cures can greatly reduce or eliminate pop-outs caused by ASR. Avoid plastic film,
curing paper, and especially curing compounds as they allow an accumulation of alkalies
at the surface. Flush curing water from the surface before final drying. Impervious floor
coverings or membranes should be avoided as they can aggravate pop-out development.
8. Use a blended cement or a supplementary cementitious material such as fly ash
(proven to control ASR) where pop-outs are caused by alkali-silica reactivity. Use of a
low-alkali cement is also beneficial.
9. Use two-course construction with clean, sound rock in the topping, and the offending
aggregates in the base slab, thus limiting the susceptible aggregates exposure to excess
moisture.
10. Slope the slab surface to drain water properly.
11. Use air-entrained concrete.
(e) Method of repair
Surfaces with pop-outs can be repaired. A small patch can be made by drilling out the
spalled particle and filling the void with a damp pack mortar, or other appropriate
patching material. If pop-outs are too numerous to patch individually, a thin bonded
overlay or surfaces grinding may be used to restore serviceability.

2) Plastic shrinkage

On Stair
(a) Explanatio
n

of

the

defection
Plastic
shrinkage is the
discreet,
parallel cracks
that look like
tearing of the
surface

are

caused

by

shrinkage while
the concrete is
still

fresh.

When concrete
is placed, if the
surface

is

allowed to dry
out before the
concrete

has

gained strength,
a

pattern

cracks
form

of
will

on

the

surface.
(b) Factor

of

defection
The

major

factor influencing the drying-shrinkage properties of concrete is the total water content of
the concrete. As the water content increases, the amount of shrinkage increases
proportionally. Large increases in the sand content and significant reductions in the size
of the coarse aggregate increase shrinkage because total water is increased and because
smaller size coarse aggregates provide less internal restraint to shrinkage. Use of highshrinkage aggregates and calcium chloride admixtures also increases shrinkage. Within
the range of practical concrete mixes280 to 445 kg/m3 cement content (470 to 750
lb/yd3, or 5- to 8-bag mixes)increases in cement content have little to no effect on
shrinkage as long as the water content is not increased significantly.
Concrete has a coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction of about 10 x 10-6 per C
(5.5 x 10-6 per F). Concrete placed during hot midday temperatures will contract as it
cools during the night. A 22C (40F) drop in temperature between day and nightnot
uncommon in some areaswould cause about 0.7 mm (0.03 in.) of contraction in a 3-m
(10-ft) length of concrete, sufficient to cause cracking if the concrete is restrained.
Thermal expansion can also cause cracking.
Insufficiently compacted subgrades and soils susceptible to frost heave or swelling can
produce cracks in slabs. Overloading of concrete slabs also results in flexural crack
formation and possible failure.
(c) Effect of defection
If concrete members were free to shrink, without restraint, shrinkage of concrete would
not be a major concern to structural engineers. However, the contraction of a concrete
member is often restrained by its supports or by the adjacent structure. Bonded
reinforcement also restrains shrinkage. Each of these forms of restraint involve the
imposition of a gradually increasing tensile force on the concrete which may lead to timedependent cracking (in previously uncracked regions), increases in deflection and a
widening of existing cracks. Restraint to shrinkage is probably the most common cause of
unsightly cracking in concrete structures. In many cases, these problems arise because
shrinkage has not been adequately considered by the structural designer and the effects of
shrinkage are not adequately modeled in the design procedures specified in codes of
practice for crack control and deflection calculation.

The advent of shrinkage cracking depends on the degree of restraint to shrinkage, the
extensibility and strength of the concrete in tension, tensile creep and the load induced
tension existing in the member. Cracking can only be avoided if the gradually increasing
tensile stress induced by shrinkage, and reduced by creep, is at all times less than the
tensile strength of the concrete. Although the tensile strength of concrete increases with
time, so too does the elastic modulus and, therefore, so too does the tensile stress induced
by shrinkage. Furthermore, the relief offered by creep decreases with age. The existence
of load induced tension in uncracked regions accelerates the formation of time-dependent
cracking. In many cases, therefore, shrinkage cracking is inevitable.
(d) Method of prevention
Plastic Shrinkage Cracking in concrete can be reduced significantly or eliminated by
observing the following practices:
1. Use proper subgrade preparation, including uniform support and proper subbase
material at adequate moisture content.
2. Minimize the mix water content by maximizing the size and amount of coarse
aggregate and use low-shrinkage aggregate.
3. Use the lowest amount of mix water required for workability; do not permit overly wet
consistencies.
4. Avoid calcium chloride admixtures.
5. Prevent rapid loss of surface moisture while the concrete is still plastic through use of
spray-applied finishing aids or plastic sheets to avoid plastic-shrinkage cracks.
6. Provide contraction joints at reasonable intervals, 30 times the slab thickness.
7. Provide isolation joints to prevent restraint from adjoining elements of a structure.
8. Prevent extreme changes in temperature.
9. To minimize cracking on top of vapor barriers, use a 100-mm thick (4-in.) layer of
slightly damp, compactible, drainable fill choked off with fine-grade material. If concrete
must be placed directly on polyethylene sheet or other vapor barriers, placed directly on
polyethylene sheet or other vapor barriers, use a mix with a low water content.
10. Properly place, consolidate, finish, and cure the concrete.
11. Avoid using excessive amounts of cementitious materials.

12. Consider using a shrinkage-reducing admixture to reduce drying shrinkage, which


may reduce shrinkage cracking.
13. Consider using synthetic fibers to help control plastic shrinkage cracks.
(e) Method of repair
In hardened concrete, if the cracks are not wide at the surface then it may be best to
tolerate them. Where they are of concern for watertightness or protection of the
reinforcement, or 2 mm or wider, the cracks should be filled with a suitable proprietary
filler. The object of such treatment is not to camouflage the cracks but to improve the
performance of the concrete and ensure that the durability and wear characteristics of the
surface are not impaired.

3) Delaminations

On Wall
(a) Explanation of the defection
In most delaminated concrete slab, the top 1/8 to 1/4 inch (3 to 6mm) in densified,
primarily due to premature and improper finishing, separated from the base slab by a thin
layer of air or water. The delaminations on the surfaces on the surface of a slab surface
may exhibits cracking and color differences because of rapid drying of the thin surface
during curing.
(b) Factor of defection
When fresh concrete is placed and compacted, the solids (cement and aggregate) settle.
This natural settlement causes excess mix water and entrapped air to be displaced (called
bleeding), and the lighter materials migrate toward the surface. If finishing operations

start prematurely and close or seal the surface before bleeding is completed, air and/or
water are trapped under the densified surface mortar. As concrete hardens, subsurface
voids develop where the water or air is trapped. These voids create weakened zones right
below the surface that can eventually detach during slab use. Very thin mortar layers over
delaminations may even detach when struck with a hammer.
(c) Effect of defection
If the delamination is isolated to just one spot, it might not affect the performance of a
concrete slab. But if it's widespread, then there may be a more serious problem.
Delaminations come in various forms and degrees of severity. Blisters are small, isolated
delaminations, usually 1 to 3 inches in diameter. Blisters frequently happen when
relatively sticky mixes with higher percentages of fine aggregate are placed. They occur
in areas subject to moderate to high rates of evaporation and that are finished too soon.
(d) Method of prevention
Accelerators or heated concrete often prevent delamination in cool weather. Be wary of
concrete surface that appears to be ready to trowel before it would normally be expected.
Emphasis in finishing should be screeding, straight-edging, and floating the concrete as
rapidly as possible -- without working up an excessive layer of mortar and without
sealing the surface layer. In initial floating, the float blades should be flat to avoid
densifying the surface too early.
Final finishing operations to produce a smooth surface should be delayed as long as
possible, and the surface covered with polyethylene or otherwise protected from
evaporation.
(e) Method of repair
Delamination surfaces can be repaired by patching after the surface layer is removed and
the underlaying concrete is properly cleaned. Extensive delamination may need to be
repaired by grinding and overlaying a new surface. Delaminated surfaces due to steel
corrosion will additionally require sandblasting to remove rust from the steel.

4) Honeycombs and Voids

On Wall
(a) Explanation of the defection
Honeycomb forms when mortar fails to fill voids between coarse-aggregate particles. The
defect may be purely cosmetic or, depending on the location and extent of
honeycombing, may be structural and require repair. For instance, honeycombing behind
posttensioning anchors may require repair so the posttensioning forces dont cause
compressive failure of concrete in the bearing area. Voids form when concrete fails to fill
areas in a form, typically those under large blockouts, in very deep placements, or that are
heavily reinforced. Voids are almost always structural defects requiring repair.
(b) Factor of defection

Causes of honeycomb and voids include stiff or unworkable concrete, segregation,


congested rebar, insufficient consolidation, and improper placing practices.
(c) Effect of defection
Honeycombs as a defect not only reduces the load bearing capacity but water finds an
easy way to reinforcement rods and rusting and corrosion starts. Corrosion is a process
which continues through reinforcement rods even in good concrete, this result in loosing
grip between rods and concrete, which is very dangerous to safety and life of concrete
structures.
(d) Method of prevention
Preventing honeycomb and voids starts with attention to concrete mix proportions. Proper
techniques for forming, rebar placement, and concrete placement also are important.
1) Concrete proportions :
Provide enough paste. Concrete not containing enough cementitious material and fine
sand will be prone to segregation and wont flow well. Consider adding a blend sand or
additional portland cement or fly ash to increase the amount of fines. Increasing the ratio
of fine-to-coarse aggregate will increase workability only if 5% to 10% of the sand passes
the No. 100 sieve.
Increase slump. Even with the correct amount of paste, a mix can lack workability and
wont flow into place. To improve flow, incr ease slump to 6 to 8 inches by adding a
water reducer or superplasticizer.
Reduce aggregate size. If closely spaced reinforcement or other obstacles hinder
concrete flow, consider reducing coarse aggregate size below the maximum allowed by
ACI 318-99, Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete. Such a change
requires an overall review of mix proportions .
Control setting rate. Slow placement rates and high ambient and concrete temperatures
can cause concrete to stiffen, reducing its flowability. Adding a retarder may help, but
retarders dont necessarily prevent slump loss.
2) Forming and rebar placement :
Review reinforcement details. Closely spaced rebar, insufficient clearance between the

rebar and forms, and closely spaced lap splices all interfere with concrete flow and
vibration. Work with the steel detailer to minimize these problems.
Provide access to forms. Narrow or tall forms prevent observation and access during
concrete placement. Consider reducing lift heights or using flexible tremie hose. You may
have to cut placing ports into forms containing heavily reinforced sections.
Build tight form joints. Mortar loss through form joints may cause honeycomb,
particularly with wetter mixes. Tighten or tape form joints as necessary.
3) Concrete placement:
Vibrate properly. Workers must be trained to vibrate concrete correctly to ensure that it
flows around reinforcing steel, embedments, and blockouts.
Ensure flow under blockouts. Build up a head of concrete on one side of small
blockouts, and vibrate the concrete until it appears on the other side. Large blockouts
require concrete to flow many feet laterally, so you may need to use pour pockets beneath
these blockouts. Drill holes in the bottom of a blockout to allow displaced air to escape.
Avoid delays. If the placement is not going as fast as planned, ready-mixtrucks may
have to wait before discharging material and the concrete will start to stiffen. You can
reduce stiffening by using retarding admixtures, but a better approach is to alert the
concrete producer when unavoidable placing delays occur.
(e) Method of repair
A honeycomb area in a foundation is the result of improper vibration or settling of the
concrete thus leaving voids and pockets in the wall. While repairing voids or honeycomb
in concrete surface, the most common question that arises is what should be the thickness
of the repair. Some agencies do not require a minimum thickness, while others set limits,
such as 1 inch or 2 inches (25 mm to 50 mm). Some suggests using an epoxy as bonding
agents while other suggests using of cement grout. On the other hand, injecting a
urethane resin under pressure will seal and fill these voids and pockets thus stopping the
leak.

5) Vertical Crack

On Wall
(a) Explanation of the defection
Vertical cracking at the end of a structure is typically due to a concentrated force being
applied at the top of a structure which exceeds the shear capacity within the end section
of the structure. This type crack typically maintains a tight appearance at the top and at
the bottom but may show a wider gap at approximately mid-height of the structure. This
would tend to indicate a bulging effect of the end segment of the structure away from the
remainder of the structure.
(b) Factor of defection
While a vertical foundation crack could be serious depending on its cause and on the type
of foundation in which it appears (stone, brick, masonry block, concrete), these are often
the least threat to the building. If the cause is shrinkage (concrete, masonry block) it is
probably less of a concern than if due to settlement. A vertical crack due to earth loading
or frost would be unusual. If there is significant vertical dislocation or signs of ongoing
movement, further investigation is more urgent.
(c) Effect of defection
Vertical crack may weaken the wall structure and hence reduce the load bearing capacity
of the wall.
(d) Method of prevention
i.

Minimize the mix water content by maximizing the size and amount of coarse
aggregate and by using low-shrinkage aggregate.

ii. Use the lowest amount of mix water required for workability and placement; do not
permit overly wet consistencies.
iii. Use calcium chloride admixtures only when necessary.
iv. Prevent rapid loss of surface moisture while the concrete is still plastic through use
of spray-applied finishing aids or plastic sheets to avoid plastic-shrinkage cracks
(more important in slabs)

v.

Provide contraction joints at reasonable intervals, 30 times the wall thickness is a


good rule-of-thumb.

vi. Prevent extreme changes in temperature after placement and initial cure. Properly
place and consolidate the concrete.
(e) Method of repair
i.

Caulk Crack Repair


Many homeowners will try to patch a leaking crack with a caulk seal. However, this
fix is only skin deep, and water is still filling the crack behind the patch.
Efflorescence- a white, powdery mineral salt that is deposited by the water, will
break the seal of caulk, while the pressure from the water will cause it to peel off.
This repair lasts about 6 months to a year.

ii. Hydraulic Cement Crack Fillings


Instead of using caulk, many homeowners- and even some contractors- will attempt
to repair the crack by chiseling it into an inverted V-groove and fill it with hydraulic
cement. This rigid cement will plug the hole, but it bonds with the cement very
poorly. As the concrete wall fluctuates with different temperatures and moisture
levels, the plug will weaken. Efflorescence will begin to work its way around the
rigid cement fill, and soon after water will begin to leak through. This fix usually
lasts about two years before it fails and allows water into the basement or crawl
space again.
iii. Epoxy Crack Injections
Sometimes, contactors will inject epoxy or even grout into a foundation wall crack to
seal it. These seals are powerful and can even make the basement wall stronger.
However, epoxy can only be applied to a completely dry surface, and because it
cures very slowly, it can run out the other side of the wall crack before it hardens,
making it ineffective. Like hydraulic cements, epoxy crack fillings are rigid,
inflexible plugs. As the concrete wall fluctuates, this plug will also fail as the seal
bonds. In some situations, it can even lead to a new crack developing near the
existing crack, as the water pressure may have caused the crack in the first place was
never addressed.

iv. Fixing Wall Cracks from the Exterior


One extreme repair method is to excavate the entire outside of the wall where the
crack appeared. Landscaping, sidewalks, steps, gardens, porches, and anything else
outside of the foundation will need to be removed while mounds of dirt are piled on
the lawn during excavation. Once this has been accomplished, multiple layers of
synthetic waterproof material are installed to prevent any further movement of the
wall and lock water out. After this has been completed, the mounds of dirt and
landscaping are returned, and the repair is complete. However, the excavated soil will
begin to settle, and you will need to regrade it a year later so water does not pool
around the foundation.
v.

Urethane Injection
One of the better methods of sealing leaking wall cracks is to inject it with a urethane
injection. This method effectively seals off the crack without running out the other
side. Unlike the rigid alternatives, it is able to flex slightly with wall movement,
allowing it to last longer than all the alternatives previously mentioned. However, a
1/16th inch crack can easily expand to 1/8th inch, and urethane isn't able to expand
nearly that much. Eventually, even this solution will fail, and the gap will begin to
leak once more.
vi. Polyurethane Polymer Injection
The best (and least invasive) method to repair a leaking wall crack is to inject a highviscosity polyurethane polymer into the crack. Unlike epoxy, polyurethane can bond
well to both wet and dry concrete, and its high viscosity will allow it to fill even
hairline cracks. Unlike urethane, a polyurethane polymer can be designed to expand
as much as 20 times its volume if needed. This means that the seal it provides will
not be lost as the wall continues its natural process of shifting and moving. And
unlike expensive exterior methods, the work can be completed in a few hours, with
no need to dig up the yard.

References:
1) Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures, ACI 224R, American Concrete Institute,
Farmington Hills, MI.

2) Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab Construction, ACI 302. IR, American Concrete
Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.
3) Concrete Slab Surface Defects: Causes, Prevention, Repair, IS177 , Portland Cement
Association, Skokie, II.

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