Well-being: An array of approaches

Leijssen Mia. (Manuscript MOOC. Mia.leijssen@kuleuven.be )

In psychology, philosophy and medical science many scientific studies deal with well-being and how
to define it. Researchers are unable to agree on the exact meaning of this complex concept.
Some prefer to limit themselves to measuring 'objective' well-being. Here, the quality of life of a
person or a section of the population is charted by means of objective criteria such as income, level
of education, health, and life expectancy. But with this kind of measurement, no account is taken of
what individuals themselves consider to be important for their well-being.
When a personal evaluation of well-being is taken into consideration, we speak of 'subjective' wellbeing. Research on 'subjective' well-being can be subdivided into two approaches: a hedonic one, in
which the focus lies primarily on satisfaction and happiness; and a eudaimonic i one, in which selfrealization and the fulfillment of a purpose in life are central themes.
The difference between these two approaches can be illustrated by comparing the enjoyment of
eating a tasty meal with the satisfaction derived from helping someone. Both situations increase
one's feeling of well-being, have stress-reducing effects and positively influence one's physical and
mental health. The distinction between the two, however, is very relevant, and has even been
demonstrated in recent studies in the field of cellular biology. ii Eudaimonic well-being leads to more
antiviral cells being present in the body when compared to hedonic well-being. In this context, the
researchers speak of the intake of 'empty calories' for hedonic well-being, calories without any
nutritional value. Eudaimonic well-being makes you better 'armed' against the inevitable 'attacks'
you will encounter during your life.
After bringing together numerous theories of personal growth and mental health iii, Carol Ryff iv
concluded that six categories of what she terms 'psychological' well-being can be distinguished: selfacceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life and
personal growth.
There is a danger that theories of well-being express predominantly Western values. This is why
some researchers v prefer to attach more weight to 'spontaneous views' on well-being. Such
personal definitions may be useful in signaling new or changing attitudes on well-being.
The fact that there are different takes on wellbeing need not be an obstacle to embarking on a
journey to greater well-being and everything this implies. It is fascinating to welcome diverse
definitions and to increase your sensitivity to the complex interplay of factors in your own
experience. vi Not only are individual features such as self-acceptance or having a purpose in life
crucial elements of your experience of well-being, but also of significance is the interaction between
your personal characteristics and your environment. The specific qualities that contribute to your
well-being depend on the context. For example, someone scoring high on 'autonomy' will thrive
when living alone in an apartment, but will fade away rapidly when placed in a home for the elderly
where he lacks privacy.

The importance of context has inspired us to link well-being with the physical, social, personal and
spiritual dimension of life. To denote this broadening and deepening of the concept, we speak of
'existential' well-being. By doing so, we place ourselves within the tradition of existential
philosophy vii, in which 'Dasein', being in the world, is considered within different contexts of being:
'Umwelt', the physical and material world; 'Mitwelt', the self in relation to others; 'Eigenwelt', the
inner self; and 'Uberwelt', or the transcendental dimension.
With this holistic approach we transcend individual fields of study, such as medicine, in which the
focus primarily lies on physical aspects; sociology and psychology, which chart social and personal
factors; and philosophy and religion, the traditional players in the spiritual field. Human beings do
not function according to such distinct categories. We also integrate the hedonic approach, situated
primarily within the physical domain, as well as the eudaimonic approach, in which a central place is
given to personal, social and spiritual aspects of well-being.
Well-being operates in these four modalities, taking into consideration that each individual as well as
each community - and by extension, science - may attach more value to the physical, social, personal
or spiritual component. In each of these dimensions, different values are emphasized. Physical
health, safety, comfort, love of nature and beauty are important in the physical dimension. Esteem or
appreciation, success, solidarity, love for others and goodness are features of the social dimension.
Autonomy, freedom, knowledge, self-love and truth are predominant in the personal dimension.
Helpfulness, finding one's place in a greater whole, contributing to a better world and love without
self-interest are values belonging to the spiritual dimension.
Existential well-being involves values from several dimensions contributing to fulfillment in your life.
This implies that underinvestment as well as overinvestment in each dimension will result in
decreased well-being. Overinvestment in the physical dimension in the Western world has for
instance resulted in diseases of civilization. In the spiritual dimension overinvestment culminates in
fanaticism and the urge to covert others. Underinvestment in the physical dimension, on the other
hand, creates dreamers who do not make sure they 'have a roof over their head' and 'keep the pot
boiling'. Underinvestment in the spiritual dimension manifests itself in a feeling of emptiness and
considering life to be meaningless. These themes will be elaborated in subsequent sections of this
course.
For now, consider the following example of how you can have an eye for well-being that includes the
different dimensions of existence.
A high-ranking civil servant from a big city discusses the importance of garbage collection
from the point of view of the different dimensions of existence: "From a physical point of
view it is essential to remove garbage to keep the town free from diseases. The workers have
to wear decent protective clothing and their equipment has to be safe and efficient. In the
social dimension, garbage collection procures a rather substantial number of jobs, and it
allows many individuals to earn money so they can support their families. They also obtain a
clear and recognized place in society. In the personal dimension it becomes apparent how
important it is for these workers to be valued for what they are capable of, so that their
feeling of self-worth increases. Moreover, everything works better when the specific talents
of individuals are taken into account when work is distributed.

But the real revelation comes from involving the spiritual dimension in this very earthly
domain. This evokes the very best in man. The workers are made aware of the broader
meaning and the transcending value of their work. This motivates them to do their work well,
not only because of the money they earn or because 'it needs to be done', but also because
they feel responsible for a healthy environment and the well-being of the city. It is no longer
necessary to elaborate rules and regulations for every detail of the job. When people feel
they are a part of a larger society, they respond in an appropriate way to unforeseen
situations. For instance, one day some workers noticed that the roll-down shutters of a
particular house remained down for a suspiciously long period of time, so they thought that
there might have been something wrong with the residents. Employees experience joy when
they 'are allowed' to contribute to the common good, which goes beyond their self-interest.
The reward lies in the feeling of gratitude and finding out that 'everything is okay'. This is the
level where 'faith can move mountains' or, in this case, 'remove garbage'. Even the best
manager cannot invent such a thing."
From our own research viii involving 280 elderly people over 70, it became clear that in situations
where the sources these people could draw from in the physical and social dimensions were
diminishing, input from the personal and spiritual dimensions was crucial to maintain their wellbeing. It appeared that self-acceptance is positively linked with well-being in elderly people, and that
people who participate in religious or spiritual activities experience more meaning in their lives.
This clearly shows that well-being is much more than living a perfect and happy life without pain and
misfortune. Well-being means practicing an 'art of living', with an eye for the positive aspects of life
and opportunities that emerge, but without denying the suffering and decay.

'Eudaimonic' is derived from the ancient Greek concept 'eudaimonia'. 'Eu' means 'good'. In Greek mythology,
the word 'daimon' denotes a generally benevolent creature that is situated somewhere in between gods and
mortals. Plato explains 'eudaimonia' as 'knowledge of the wise', even though it is more probable that this word
finds its origins in 'dai', meaning 'the distribution of destinies'. Socrates also refers to the 'daimon' as a
spiritual creature able to influence someone's character, a 'good spirit'. Socrates spoke of his 'daimon' or
'genius' as a spirit encouraging him to seek and spread the truth. The way in which Aristotle defines
'eudaimonia' comes closest to 'psychological well-being'. He refers to good feelings stemming from one's 'true
self' and as a source of meaning.
Human Cells Respond in Healthy, Unhealthy Ways to Different Kinds of Happiness. Science Daily, juli 29, 2013.
www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/07/130729161952.htm.

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Allport, 1961; Erikson, 1959; Jahoda, 1958; Jung, 1933; Maslow, 1968; Rogers, 1961.

Ryff, C.D., & Keyes, C.L.M. (1995), The Structure of Psychological Well-Being Revisited. Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 69, 719-727.
Ryff describes the different categories as follows:
Self-Acceptance: High scorer: possesses a positive attitude toward the self; acknowledges and accepts multiple
aspects of self, including good and bad qualities; feels positive about past life.
Low scorer: feels dissatisfied with self, is disappointed with what has occurred in past life, is troubled about
certain personal qualities, wishes to be different than what he or she is.
iv

Positive Relations With Others: High scorer: has warm, satisfying, trusting relationships with others; is
concerned about the welfare of others; capable of strong empathy, affection, and intimacy; understands give
and take of human relationships.
Low scorer: has few close, trusting relationships with others; finds it difficult to be warm, open, and concerned
about others; is isolated and frustrated in interpersonal relationships; not willing to make compromises to
sustain important ties with others.
Autonomy: High scorer: is self-determining and independent, able to resist social pressures to think and act in
certain ways, regulates behavior from within, evaluates self by personal standards.
Low scorer: is concerned about the expectations and evaluations of others, relies on judgments of others to
make important decisions, conforms to social pressures to think and act in certain ways.
Environmental Mastery: High scorer: has a sense of mastery and competence in managing the environment,
controls complex array of external activities, makes effective use of surrounding opportunities, able to choose
or create contexts suitable to personal needs and values.
Low scorer, has difficulty managing everyday affairs, feels unable to change or improve surrounding context, is
unaware of surrounding opportunities, lacks sense of control over external world.
Purpose in Life: High scorer: has goals in life and a sense of directedness, feels there is meaning to present and
past life, holds beliefs that give life purpose, has aims and objectives for living.
Low scorer: lacks a sense of meaning in life; has few goals or aims, lacks sense of direction; does not see
purpose in past life; has no outlooks or beliefs that give life meaning.
Personal Growth: High scorer: has a feeling of continued development, sees self as growing and expanding, is
open to new experiences, has sense of realizing his or her potential, sees improvement in self and behavior
over time, is changing in ways that reflect more self-knowledge and effectiveness.
Low scorer: has a sense of personal stagnation, lacks sense of improvement or expansion over time, feels bored
and uninterested with life, feels unable to develop new attitudes or behaviors.
Ryff, C.D. (1989), Happiness Is Everything, or Is It? Explorations on the Meaning of Psychological Well-Being.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069-1081.
Ryff, C.D., & Singer, B.H. (1998), The Contours of Positive Human Health. Psychological Inquiry, 9(1), 1-28.
Ryff, C.D., & Singer, B.H. (2006), Best News yet on the Six-Factor Model of Well-Being. Social Science Research,
35(4), 1103-1119.
Ryff, C.D., Singer, B.H., & Diener Love, G. (2004), Positive Health: Connecting Well-Being with Biology.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 359(1449), 1383-1394.
Fleury, J. (1998), On Promoting Positive Human Health. Psychological Inquiry, 9(1), 40-43.
McNulty, J.K., Fincham, F.D. (2012), Beyond Positive Psychology? Toward a Contextual View of Psychological
Processes and Well-Being. American Psychologist, 67(2), 101-110.

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Prof. dr. E. van Deurzen was our European partner in a Leonardo-project in which different universities
(London, Sheffield, Bordeaux, Louvain) were financed by the European Union to develop an innovative learning
environment. Following Binswanger and Rollo May, van Deurzen describes physical, social, personal and
spiritual dimensions of existence. Van Deurzen, E. (1997), Everyday Mysteries. Existential Dimensions of
Psychotherapy. London: Brunner-Routledge.
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The following selection criteria were applied in the pilot study: the participants had to be older than 70 and
not show signs of dementia. This sample (N = 280) consisted of 124 men (44.3%) and 156 women (55.7%). The
average age was 76 (SD = 5.00; range: 70 - 91). 67.7% of the participants were married, 21.2% widowed, 5.4%
single, 4.0% lived together and 1.8% were divorced. With regard to education level, 33.2% had completed
higher or university-level studies, 35.5% had obtained a degree in secondary education and 31.4% had a
certificate of elementary education. The well-being of the participants ranged from average to low. This is not
'bad' for an age group which is usually believed not to be be doing so well anymore.
Parts of the data from this population have been processed by, amongst others:
Tinne Vanhoof. Existentieel welzijn en zingeving bij ouderen, KU Leuven, 2013. Master thesis in psychology
under supervision of prof. dr. M. Leijssen and dr. J. Dezutter;
Anneleen Vandekeybus. Welzijnstherapie. Een verkenning van welzijnsverhogende variabelen, KU Leuven,
2013. Master thesis in psychology under supervision of prof. dr. M. Leijssen and dr. J. Dezutter.