Motors come in many different types, shapes, and sizes.

Most of the motors used in motion control

can be divided into two categories: stepper motors and servo motors. This document describes these
two types of motors.

Table of Contents
1.

Stepper Motors

2.

Advantages of Stepper Motors

3.

Disadvantages of Stepper Motors

4.

Servo Motors

5.

Advantages of Servo Motors

1. Stepper Motors
Stepper motors are less expensive and typically easier to use than a servo motor of a similar size.
They are called stepper motors because they move in discrete steps. Controlling a stepper motor
requires a stepper drive and a controller (For more information about stepper drives, see the related
link, Stepper Motor Drives below). You control a stepper motor by providing the drive with a step and
direction signal. The drive then interprets these signals and drives the motor. Stepper motors can be
run in an open loop configuration (no feedback) and are good for low-cost applications. In general, a
stepper motor will have high torque at low speeds, but low torque at high speeds. Movement at low
speeds is also choppy unless the drive has microstepping capability (for more information on
microstepping see the microstep section of the Stepper Motor Switching Sequence link below). At
higher speeds, the stepper motor is not as choppy, but it does not have as much torque. When idle, a
stepper motor has a higher holding torque than a servo motor of similar size, since current is
continuously flowing in the stepper motor windings. For information about how stepper motors work,
see the following links:
See Also:
Types of Stepper Motors
Three basic types of stepper motors include the permanent magnet motor, the variable re-luctance
motor, and the hybrid motor, which is a combination of the previous two.

Table of Contents
1.

Permanent Magnet

2.

Variable Reluctance

3.

Hybrid

1. Permanent Magnet
Figure 11-54 shows a cutaway diagram of a typical permanent magnet stepper motor. The rotor for
the permanent magnet motor is called a canstack rotor and a diagram of it is shown in Fig. 11-55. The
canstack rotor shows that the permanent magnet motor can have multiple rotor windings, which
means that the shaft for this type of stepper motor will turn fewer degrees as each pulse of current is
received at the stator. For example, if the rotor has 50 teeth and the stator has 8 poles with 5 teeth
each (total of 40 teeth), the stepper motor is able to move 200 distinct steps to make one complete
revolution. This means that shaft of the motor will turn 1.8 per step. The main feature of the
permanent magnet motor is that a permanent magnet is used for the rotor, which means that no
brushes are required. The drawback of this type of motor is that it has relatively low torque and must

be used for low-speed applications.

FIGURE 11-54 Cutaway diagram of a permanent magnet stepper motor. (Courtesy of Parker
Compumotor Division.

FIGURE 11-55 Canstack rotor that is used in permanent magnet stepper motors. (Courtesy of
Parker Compumotor Division.)
Back to Top

2. Variable Reluctance
The variable-reluctance motor does not use permanent magnets, so the field strength can be varied.
The amount of torque for this type of motor is still small, so it is generally used for small positioning
tables and other small positioning loads. Since this type of motor does not have permanent magnets,
it cannot use the same type of stepper controller as other types of stepper motors.
Back to Top

3. Hybrid

The hybrid stepper motor is the most widely used and combines the principles of the permanent
magnet and the variable reluctance motors. Figure 11-56 shows an example of a hybrid stepper
motor. Most hybrid stepper motors have two phases and operate on the principle used to explain the
12-step motor previously.

Hybrid stepper motor combines features of the permanent magnet stepper and the variable
reluctance stepper motors. (Courtesy of Pacific Scientific.)
Stepper motor theory:
Stepper motors provide a means for precise positioning and speed control without the use of
feedback sensors. The basic operation of a stepper motor allows the shaft to move a precise number
of degrees each time a pulse of electricity is sent to the motor. Since the shaft of the motor moves
only the number of degrees that it was designed for when each pulse is delivered, you can control the
pulses that are sent and control the positioning and speed. The rotor of the motor produces torque
from the interaction between the magnetic field in the stator and rotor. The strength of the magnetic
fields is proportional to the amount of current sent to the stator and the number of turns in the
windings.
The stepper motor uses the theory of operation for magnets to make the motor shaft turn a precise
distance when a pulse of electricity is provided. You learned previously that like poles of a magnet
repel and unlike poles attract. Figure 11-57 shows a typical cross-sectional view of the rotor and stator
of a stepper motor. From this diagram you can see that the stator (stationary winding) has four poles,
and the rotor has six poles (three complete magnets). The rotor will require 12 pulses of electricity to
move the 12 steps to make one complete revolution. Another way to say this is that the rotor will move
precisely 30 for each pulse of electricity that the motor receives. The number of degrees the rotor will
turn when a pulse of electricity is delivered to the motor can be calculated by dividing the number of
degrees in one revolution of the shaft (360) by the number of poles (north and south) in the rotor. In
this stepper motor 360 is divided by 12 to get 30.
When no power is applied to the motor, the residual magnetism in the rotor magnets will cause the
rotor to detent or align one set of its magnetic poles with the magnetic poles of one of the stator
magnets. This means that the rotor will have 12 possible detent positions. When the rotor is in a
detent position, it will have enough magnetic force to keep the shaft from moving to the next position.
This is what makes the rotor feel like it is clicking from one position to the next as you rotate the rotor
by hand with no power applied.

FIGURE 11-57 Diagram that shows the position of the six-pole rotor and four-pole stator of a
typical stepper motor. (Courtesy of Parker Compumotor Division.)
When power is applied, it is directed to only one of the stator pairs of windings, which will cause that
winding pair to become a magnet. One of the coils for the pair will become the north pole, and the
other will become the south pole. When this occurs, the stator coil that is the north pole will attract the
closest rotor tooth that has the opposite polarity, and the stator coil that is the south pole will attract
the closest rotor tooth that has the opposite polarity. When current is flowing through these poles, the
rotor will now have a much stronger attraction to the stator winding, and the increased torque is
called holding torque.
By changing the current flow to the next stator winding, the magnetic field will be changed 90. The
rotor will only move 30 before its magnetic fields will again align with the change in the stator field.
The magnetic field in the stator is continually changed as the rotor moves through the 12 steps to
move a total of 360. Figure 11-58 shows the position of the rotor changing as the current supplied to
the stator changes.

FIGURE 11-58 Movement of the stepper motor rotor as current is pulsed to the stator. (a)
Current is applied to the top and bottom windings, so the top winding is north, (b) Current is
applied to left and right windings, so the left winding is north, (c) Current is applied to the top
and bottom windings, so the bottom winding is north, (d) Current is applied to the left and
right windings so the right winding is north. (Courtesy of Parker Compumotor Division.)
In Fig. ll-58a you can see that when current is applied to the top and bottom stator windings, they will
become a magnet with the top part of the winding being the north pole, and the bottom part of the
winding being the south pole. You should notice that this will cause the rotor to move a small amount
so that one of its south poles is aligned with the north stator pole (at the top), and the opposite end of
the rotor pole, which is the north pole, will align with the south pole of the stator (at the bottom). A line

is placed on the south-pole piece that is located at the 12 o'clock position in Fig. ll-58a so that you can
follow its movement as current is moved from one stator winding to the next. In Fig. ll-58b current has
been turned off to the top and bottom windings, and current is now applied to the stator windings
shown at the right and left sides of the motor. When this occurs, the stator winding at the 3 o'clock
position will have the polarity for the south pole of the stator magnet, and the winding at the 9 o'clock
position will have the north-pole polarity. In this condition, the next rotor pole that will be able to align
with the stator magnets is the next pole in the clockwise position to the previous pole. This means that
the rotor will only need to rotate 30 in the clockwise position for this set of poles to align itself so that
it attracts the stator poles.
In Fig. ll-58c you can see that the top and bottom stator windings are again energized, but this time
the top winding is the south pole of the magnetic field and the bottom winding is the north pole. This
change in magnetic field will cause the rotor to again move 30 in the clockwise position until its poles
will align with the top and bottom stator poles. You should notice that the original rotor pole that was at
the 12 o'clock position when the motor first started has now moved three steps in the clockwise
position.
In Fig. ll-58d you can see that the two side stator windings are again energized, but this time the
winding at the 3 o'clock position is the north pole. This change in polarity will cause the rotor to move
another 30 in the clockwise direction. You should notice that the rotor has moved four steps of 30
each, which means the rotor has moved a total of 120 from its original position. This can be verified
by the position of the rotor pole that has the line on it, which is now pointing at the stator winding that
is located in the 3 o'clock position.

Selecting the Proper Size Stepper Motor

1. Overview
When a stepper motor is selected, eight different things must be considered:
1.

Operating speed in steps/second

2.

Torque in oz-in.

3.

Load inertia in Ib-in.2

4.

Required step angle

5.

Time to accelerate in ms

6.

Time to decelerate in ms

7.

Type of drive to be used

8.

Size and weight considerations

Some of this information will be provided from application specifications, such as the size and weight
considerations, step angle, and the operating speed. Other information must be calculated. Several
formulas are provided to help you with these calculations.
Calculating Torque

The formula for calculating the torque is

Calculating Load
The formula for equivalent inertia to overcome friction in the system and enough torque to start or stop
all inertia loads is

Frictional and Rotational Acceleration Considerations

The formula for calculating the torque required to rotationally accelerate an inertia load is

2. Advantages of Stepper Motors

Some of the advantages of stepper motors over servo motors are as follows:

Low cost

Can work in an open loop (no feedback required)

Excellent holding torque (eliminated brakes/clutches)

Excellent torque at low speeds

Low maintenance (brushless)

Very rugged - any environment

Excellent for precise positioning control

No tuning required

Back to Top

3. Disadvantages of Stepper Motors

Some of the disadvantages of stepper motors in comparison with servo motors are as follows:

Rough performance at low speeds unless you use microstepping For more information about
microstepping, see the Stepper Motor Switching Sequence link below)

Consume current regardless of load

Limited sizes available

Noisy

Torque decreases with speed (you need an oversized motor for higher torque at higher
speeds)
Stepper motors can stall or lose position running without a control loop
See Also:
Stepper Motor Switching Sequence

Stepper Motor Switching Sequence

Publish Date: Sep 23, 2013 | 0 Ratings | 0.00 out of 5 | Print

Table of Contents
1.

Overview

2.

Full-Step

3.

Half-Step

4.

Micro Step Mode

5.

Buy the Book

1. Overview
This document describes the switching sequences for stepper motors: full-step, half-step, and
microstep.

Back to Top

2. Full-Step

The stepper motor uses a four-step switching sequence, which is called a full-step switching
sequence. Figure 11-59 shows a switching diagram and a table that indicates the sequence for the
four switches used to control the stepper motor. The diagram shows four switches with four separate
amplifiers. The diagram for the motor shows the same four windings that were discussed in the theory
of operation the previous section. Each of the windings is tapped at one end and they are connected
through a resistor to the negative terminal of the power supply.

FIGURE 11-59 (a) Diagram of switching circuits for stepper motor. (b) The switching sequence
for a four-step (full-step) switching mode. (Courtesy of Superior Eletric, Warner Electric.)

FIGURE 11-60 The diagrams that show the position of each pole while the motor is in full-step
mode. The diagrams a, b, c, and d show the movement of the rotor in sequence. (Courtesy of
Parker Compumotor Division.)

The table shows the sequence for energizing the coils. During the first step of the sequence, switches
SW1 and SW3 are on and the other two are off. During the second step of the sequence, switches
SW1 and SW4 are on and the other two are off. During the third step of the sequence, SW2 and SW4
are on and the other two are off. During the fourth step of the sequence, SW2 and SW3 are on and
the other two are off. This sequence continues through four steps, and then the same four steps are
repeated again. These steps cause the motor to rotate one step or tooth on the rotor when a pulse is
applied by closing two of the switches. Figure 11-60 shows the position of the poles during each step
when the motor is in full-step mode.
Back to Top

3. Half-Step

Another switching sequence for the stepper motor is called an eight-step or half-step sequence. The
switching diagram for the half-step sequence is shown in Fig. 11-61. The main feature of this
switching sequence is that you can double the resolution of the stepper motor by causing the rotor to
move half the distance it does when the full-step switching sequence is used. This means that a 200step motor, which has a resolution of 1.8, will have a resolution of 400 steps and 0.9. The half-step
switching sequence requires a special stepper motor controller, but it can be used with a standard
hybrid motor. The way the controller gets the motor to reach the half-step is to energize both phases
at the same time with equal current.

FIGURE 11-61 (a) The stepper motor with its switches, (b) The switching sequence for the
eight-step input (half-step mode). (Courtesy of Superior Electric, Warner Electric.)

In this sequence the first step has SW1 and SW3 on, and SW2 and SW4 are off. The sequence for
the first step is the same as the full-step sequence. The second step has SW1 on and all of the
remaining switches are off. This configuration of switches causes the rotor to move an additional halfstep. The third step has SW1 and SW4 on, and SW2 and SW3 are off, which is the same as step 2 of
the full-step sequence. The sequence continues for eight steps and then repeats. The main difference
between this sequence and the full-step sequence is that steps 2, 4, 6, and 8 are added to the fullstep sequence to create the half-step moves.
Back to Top

4. Micro Step Mode

The full-step and half-step motors tend to be slightly jerky in their operation as the motor moves from
step to step. The amount of resolution is also limited by the number of physical poles that the rotor
can have. The amount of resolution (number of steps) can be increased by manipulating the current
that the controller sends to the motor during each step. The current can be adjusted so that it looks
similar to a sine wave.
Figure 11-62 shows the waveform for the current to each phase. From this diagram you can see that
the current sent to each of the two sets of windings is timed so that it is always out of phase with each
other. The fact that the current to each individual phase increases and decreases like a sine wave and
that is always out of time with the other phase will allow the rotor to reach hundreds of intermediate
steps. In fact it is possible for the controller to reach as many as 500 microsteps for a full-step
sequence, which will provide 100,000 steps for each revolution.
The voltage sent to the motor is now a sine wave. The motor for this type of application is generally a
permanent magnet brushless DC motor. When the sine wave is sent to the motor at 60 Hz, it will
cause the motor shaft to rotate at 72 rpm. The motor windings will require a capacitor to be wired in
series for this type of application.

FIGURE 11-62 Phase-current diagram for a stepper motor controller in microstep mode.
(Courtesy of Parker Compumotor Division.)

4. Servo Motors
One of the main differences between servo motors and stepper motors is that servo motors, by
definition, run using a control loop and require feedback of some kind. A control loop uses feedback
from the motor to help the motor get to a desired state (position, velocity, and so on). There are many
different types of control loops. Generally, the PID (Proportional, Integral, Derivative) control loop is
used for servo motors. For more information, see the related link, PID Controller: Theory and Practice.
When using a control loop such as PID, you may need to tune the servo motor. Tuning is the process
of making a motor respond in a desirable way. Tuning a motor can be a very difficult and tedious
process, but is also an advantage in that it lets the user have more control over the behavior of the
motor. For more information about tuning servo motors see the related link, Basics of Tuning Servos
Using PID.
Since servo motors have a control loop to check what state they are in, they are generally more
reliable than stepper motors. When a stepper motor misses a step for any reason, there is no control
loop to compensate in the move. The control loop in a servo motor is constantly checking to see if the

motor is on the right path and, if it is not, it makes the necessary adjustments.
In general, servo motors run more smoothly than stepper motors except when microstepping is used.
Also, as speed increases, the torque of the servo remains constant, making it better than the stepper
at high speeds (usually above 1000 RPM).

5. Advantages of Servo Motors

Some of the advantages of servo motors over stepper motors are as follows:

High intermittent torque

High torque to inertia ratio

High speeds

Work well for velocity control

Available in all sizes

Quiet

Back to Top

6. Disadvantages of Servo Motors

Some of the disadvantages of servo motors compared with stepper motors are as follows:

More expensive than stepper motors

Cannot work open loop - feedback is required

Require tuning of control loop parameters

More maintenance due to brushes on brushed DC motors