International Journal of Hospitality Management 31 (2012) 309318

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International Journal of Hospitality Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhosman

Analyzing the evolution of Singapores World Gourmet Summit: An example of

gastronomic tourism
Stephen Chaney a , Chris Ryan b,
a
b

University of Adelaide, Australia

University of Waikato, New Zealand

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Keywords:
Gastronomic tourism
Singapore
World Gourmet Summit
Special interest tourism

a b s t r a c t
The purpose of this paper is to describe the evolution of the World Gourmet Summit (WGS) that is
promoted in Singapore, and the factors thought to have contributed to its success. The factors are integrated in a proposed framework of analysis. The World Gourmet Summit was developed by chefs, hotels
and restaurants in Singapore with the support of the Singapore Tourist Board (STB) and has become
an established part of Singapores portfolio of events and special interest tourism. The event web page
promises a constellation of stars of the culinary world at our Singapore shores. Consequently the paper
has four sections. The rst reviews and discusses concepts of gastronomic tourism. The second describes
the emergence of New Asian Cuisine and its roots in Singapore, while the third describes the role of
that cuisine within the promotion of Singapore with specic reference to the development of the World
Gourmet Summit. From the description of the event the nal section of the paper identies factors that
have helped to make the Summit a successful product. These factors include co-ordination between different stakeholders and the ability of the event to reinvent itself each year while building upon a growing
image of prestige.
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

2. The role of food in the tourism product

The purpose of this paper is to derive a model relating to gastronomic tourism based on an analysis of Singapores World Gourmet
Summit to describe the factors that have been at work and which
have contributed to the Summits success. The data are derived
from interviews, observation and participation by the rst author,
and the article is inductive in nature that is premises for possible future research emerge as a consequence of the analysis. The
structure of the paper thus initially offers a review of the literature relating to the role of food in tourism and the emergence of
the gastronomic tourist as a subset of tourist typologies. It then
describes the nature of Singaporean cuisine that gave rise to the
fusion cuisine that characterizes the World Gourmet Summit. That
Summit is then described, and from this description a model is proposed that indicates variables that can account for the success of
such ventures. Finally a discussion of the model is provided. The
antecedents of the model as described below may be found in the
work of Scarpato (2002), Okumus et al. (2007) and Kim et al. (2009),
and are based upon observation, participation and interviews.

Scholars have assessed the social signicance of food (Goody,

1982; Sokolov, 1991; Cook and Crang, 1996; Miele, 2006; HigginsDesbiolles, 2006), the role of food in tourism (Bessire, 1998; Hall
and Mitchell, 2000, 2002; Hjalager and Corigliano, 2000; Richards,
2002; Hjalager and Richards, 2002; Wolf, 2006), the semiotics and
symbolism associated with food (Barthes, 1973; Lauden, 2001) and
also related topics such as the effects of globalization on foodways
(Yoder, 1972; Bell and Valentine, 1997; Ellwood, 2004; Hall and
Mitchell, 2000) thereby conrming that food does have a role to
play other than simply a means of nourishment, and as a contributing factor to the enhancement of tourists experiences. Yet
generally food consumption is treated as little more than an extension of the daily experience and its treatment as an invisible part of
everyday tourism thus creates acceptance issues for gastronomic
tourism where its importance or relevance to tourism as a whole
is often considered a subject of little import. As Scarpato (2002, p.
135) states . . . food study in tourism social science is often ignored
. . . and is . . . considered to exist in a grey zone of cultural tourism.
The choice of travel conveys a meaning about the traveler
it contains a statement about who you are, where you are going,
who you intend to be (Ferguson and Todd, 2005). Indeed Long
(2004) suggests that all tourism involves a negotiation or explicit
manipulation of the realms of the exotic, the edible and palatable
through a renegotiation of aspects of the image or brand of the

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tmjournal.chris@gmail.com (C. Ryan).
0278-4319/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2011.04.002

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S. Chaney, C. Ryan / International Journal of Hospitality Management 31 (2012) 309318

destination to suit the needs of the market. The rise of the skilled
or knowledgeable consumer of tourism creates a niche market for
the skilled appreciation of food namely gastronomic tourism
(Theobold, 1994; Quan and Wang, 2004; Fields, 2002). But few
scholars have written of this relationship between gastronomy and
tourism although . . . most contemporary [tourism] scholars accept
that it is a complex and multi faceted subject and their [work]
reects that complexity . . . (Long, 2004, p. 6). The question of what
makes gastronomic tourism successful or why it succeeds in one
place or time but not another has not as yet been addressed in any
detail and is therefore worthy of further study and consideration
(Long, 2004; Moscardo, 2000).

3. The gastronomic tourist

Page and Dornenburg (2008, p. 33) cite Jean-Anthelme BrillatSavarin, oft noted as the father of modern gastronomy, as stating
that Gastronomy is the rational study of all related to man as he is
eating and as such gastronomy recognizes food as a key component
of tourism (Ory, 1997; Santich, 1996; Fields, 2002). Gastronomy
has the ability to convey a sense of the heritage and cultural identity of the host communities and therefore the authenticity of the
experience, and the ability to convey prestige, status and to create groups by inclusion or exclusion (Getz, 1998; Moscardo, 2000;
Beer, 2008). Richards (2002) argues that cuisine is one means of
product differentiation in a tourist market where destinations that
may be the same in terms of retail provision, buildings, climates and
other characteristics vie for the tourist expenditure. Indeed Quan
and Wang (2004) go further in suggesting that food experiences in
tourism can represent peak experiences.
While the role of food in tourism has long antecedents, as a
tourism product being deliberately generated by those responsible for marketing destinations, gastronomic tourism is a relatively
new form of tourism. In incorporating the principles of gastronomy, as a subset of culinary tourism previously based upon recipes
traditional to given locations, gastronomic tourism is a subset
of cultural tourism. This is particularly true when the dining
experience on offer is contextualized within attempts to replicate traditions of architecture, hosting and practice (for example
in modes of toasting guests and hosts). The basic ingredients of
modern gastronomic tourism are a close relationship with cultural and agricultural tourism, chefs, media and tourism providers,
catering services (service standards, quality standards), attractions
(xed, festival programmes, products and merchandising, range
and diversity, balance and coordination of all forms of tourism),
tourism services (operators, transport, accommodation, restaurants), education (trails, tourism centres, wine education) and
support), government regulations, public awareness, food image,
promotion and marketing (Wolf, 2002). Consequently Long (2004,
p. 18) describes gastronomic tourism as . . . involv[ing] the intentional, exploratory participation in the food way of an Other,
participation including the consumption or preparation and presentation for consumption of a food item, cuisine, meal system, or
eating style considered as belonging to a culinary system not ones
own.
In her turn Santich goes further in suggesting a wider application
of gastronomic tourism that, in the context of Singapores urban
cityscape, encompasses more fully its unique tourism context. The
term gastronomic tourism is preferable to culinary tourism . . .
rst it has the potential to encompass a wider range of tourism
activities . . . and therefore to appeal to a broader segment of the
tourism market. Secondly it better describes the kinds of experiences that travelers motivated by an interest in food and drink,
eating and drinking, actually seek the gastro-tourists and the
foodies. Third the term gastro tourism allows for the inclusion

of cities, demonstrating that gastronomic tourism is not limited

to rural and regional areas . . .. (Santich, 2008, p. 2). Assessing the
role of cuisine in another city-state, Kivela and Crotts (2006, p.
354) study of gastronomic tourism in Hong Kong suggested that . . .
gastronomy is linked to the destination and that the destinations
image . . . is a powerful tool for marketing . . . Each is an important
part of creating a memorable tourist experience. When the motivation of the tourist revolves around food, either experiencing new
tastes or in exploring the history or culture, then the experience
becomes gastronomic tourism and other activities are peripheral
and supportive (Hall and Sharples, 2003). From the supply perspective Hjalager (2002) proposed a four stage developmental
model of gastronomic tourism, which can be summarized as a rst
stage characterized by its development within a locations current
structures, networks, tourism and knowledge, second, vertical integration within a production chain, third, horizontal integration as
new links are sought and fourth, diagonal development as gastronomic clusters are formed, or which specic events as well as
locations are one form.
While there has been a signicant literature relating to concepts
of gastronomy and tourism as indicated above, empirical data on
both the demand and supply side seems in relatively short supply, except with respect to the role of wine marketing in tourism.
Mitchell and Hall (2001) and Getz and Brown (2006) are among
those who generally characterize wine tourists as being middle
aged, highly educated, in professional and managerial occupations
with above average income. Such a prole helps explain the interest
of tourism marketing bodies in seeking to develop niche gastronomic products for such a clientele. Again, from the supply side the
literature is seemingly oriented toward wine festivals (e.g. Taylor
and Shanka, 2002; Yuan et al., 2005), although examples of studies
of food festivals can be found that provide evidence of a long history of such festivals such as Holzmans (1986) study of medieval
Chinas cold food festival, while Hall et al. (2003) provide a more
general overview of more contemporary developments. More specic studies relate to personality characteristics of those attending
food festivals, and Kim et al. (2010) not only provide a series of
empirical ndings, but also tabulate past research on this topic.
Hence it is thought this study may make a contribution to the literature by providing a description of the evolution of a modern
gastronomic event specically designed to become part of a tourism
portfolio supported by state sponsored advertising.

4. The nature of the study

The nature of this paper is that of a case study. As Yin (1994, p.
9) stated, a case study is appropriate when A how or why question is being asked about a contemporary set of events over which
the investigator has little or no control. However case studies
go far beyond this. Eisenhardt (1989, pp. 548549) for example, argues that a case study is Particularly well suited to new
research areas or research areas for which existing theory seems
inadequate. This type of work is highly complementary to incremental theory building from normal science research. The former
is useful in early stages of research on a topic or when a fresh
perspective is needed, while the latter is useful in later stages of
knowledge while Rowley (2002) even feels this observation unnecessarily connes the role of the case study. She states that one
of the strengths of the case study is its strong contextualization
within real life. She is also of the view that good case studies can
meet the requirements of construct, internal and external validities, and reliability required by positivistic research through a series
of techniques that include the use of multiple sources of information, establishing chains of evidence, using informed informants,

S. Chaney, C. Ryan / International Journal of Hospitality Management 31 (2012) 309318

undertaking pattern matching, explanation building and creating a

database.
In this latter sense, case studies link with the disciplines involved
in qualitative research methodologies. Authors need to immerse
themselves in the evidence, and in the case of this paper the
rst author has direct experience over several years of the World
Gourmet Summit and is known to several of the actors. In addition, secondary sets of data have been gathered from programmes,
web sites and publicity material, and the commentaries written by
individuals and organizations like national tourism organisations
responsible for marketing and promotion. Accordingly comparison
and contrast within the views expressed lead to the development
of the chains of evidence building referred to above.
5. The development of Singaporean fusion New Asia
cuisine
Recent decades have seen the emergence of Asia as a better
known destination for tourists from Europe and North America, and
some countries such as Taiwan have responded in part by promoting destination attractiveness on food as evidenced by the Taste
of Taiwan campaign. Slowly gastronomic tourism is becoming an
intrinsic part of Asian tourism. However gastronomic tourism was
little understood outside foodie circles and it had not been recognized within the Singaporean tourism mix until the development of
the World Gourmet Summit (WGS) in 1997 (Page and Dornenburg,
2008; Cowan, 2009). Perhaps this reected an inability for the wider
Singaporean community to perceive the uniqueness of their traditional ethnic foods and Hawker fare until the WGS promoted it
alongside recognized gastronomic experiences. This perception has
changed now. Singapore is [recognized as] a haven for the professional as well as the amateur gastronome . . . (Solomon, 1997, p.
345).
As noted above, all food, especially ethnic food, is culturally
based, indeed even invented cuisines and dishes are generally
derived or inuenced by some underlying principles, avour combinations or food products from another culture and therefore still
contain some context of the place. The association of gastronomy
with ethnic or street food may seem illogical and yet there are
similarities within countries renowned for their gastronomic pleasures. The peasant food of France and the simple pasta dishes of
Italy are considered to be simple gastronomic pleasures thereby
differentiating themselves from the higher form of Haute Cuisine
experienced in ne restaurants. As Bode alludes in the following
quote, gastronomic pleasure is to be had in even the simplest of
pleasures.
A piece of bread, an apple and a piece of cheese.
As long as our attitude insists that:
The bread is good and fresh, the apple is ripe and the cheeses
mature, and we have the sense or wisdom to know they are so.
If we can add to this simple meal, a glass of wine and nd a friend
to share it with us, all the important factors of gastronomy have
been satised (Bode, 1994, p. 198).
Cuisines are thus dened by distinctive tastes, ingredients,
preparation, service methods and religious practices, such as eating
with the hands, sharing food platters or the consumption of pork,
which are considered authentic practices by locals, but some of
which may be unacceptable to tourists (Cohen and Avieli, 2004;
Scarpato, 2002). Beer (2008, p. 8) states that individuals do not
live in isolation, and any consideration of authenticity must also
examine the relationship between society. . . and the individual.
Indeed MacCannell (1976, p. 597) argues that we are like natives
[travelers] in quarantine kept at distance from the reality of the

311

local viewing both a staged and cleaned up back region. Therefore both tourist and community will dene what is authentic or
unacceptable from their own viewpoints and each tourist comes
equipped with ingrained cultural training and habitual attachments to food from within their own culture that provide markers
against which other cuisines are judged (Cohen and Avieli, 2004).
Indeed each culture values and preserves its cuisine through community associations, social intercourse and gastronomic tradition.
Gastro tourists, however, are experienced, knowledgeable and not
naive when experiencing different cultures or cuisines.
The ethnic foodways (that is, specic zones, spatial and social,
based upon a cultural tradition and its food) are one means by which
ethnic communities preserve their identities and as Long states . . .
foodways may be one of the fullest ways of perceiving the other
(Long, 2004, p. 21). Despite the diverse cultures living in close proximity, Singaporean society has remained essentially multi-cultural
yet with a shared heritage identied as Singaporean. Perankanan,
Muslim, Indian, Chinese and Malay cuisines now intermingle so
freely that they are recognized as belonging to a single group that
symbolizes Singapores food ideology (Chua, 2003). Ethnic food is
prepared with what is to hand based on the traditional techniques
and avours that typify the cuisine. This is the food eaten regularly
and originates within the ethnic communities or the home (Chua
and Rajah, 2001). In multiracial environments such as Singapore,
many cultures select their daily produce from similar sources and
often include the ingredients or techniques of the others. Adoption results from a crossover of techniques, products and dishes
through close proximity and daily interaction where the unfamiliar
becomes familiar and a part of the daily consciousness. However the
extent to what is adopted or shared has limitations based on social
preference and religious belief. Yet [H]ybridisation involves fusion
in the creation of a new form seemingly not stable or belonging to
one particular ethnic group (Chua and Rajah, 2001, p. 166).
The ethnic cuisines share many common features and have
changed others thereby permitting further ones to participate.
Traditionally Singaporean Indians eat with the right hand as
they believe cutlery which is reused is unclean (Brown and
Backenheimer, 2006). Recipes were passed down to daughters from
mothers and grandmothers and were rarely written down. Many
dishes begin with a pounded Rempah spice paste, many are hot and
spicy, fresh ingredients and markets are important and rice is the
foundation of the meal. The batu lesong (mortar and pestle), Chinese
choppers, woks, kuali (grinding stones), coconut graters, the Chatty
(an earthenware pot used for curries) are prized by all cooks. The
tactual sensual nature of these cuisines and the use of agak (estimation) in measuring identify these as cuisines of the hand (Brown
and Backenheimer, 2006). Change can be subtle or profound and
was made easier due to commonalities between cuisines.
Peranakan cuisine is the one most associated with Singapore
(Solomon, 2002; Tan, 2007; Bhumichitr, 1997). Malaysians refer
to these cuisines as Nonya, thus identifying the strong link
to Malaysian Muslim cuisine through the female (the Nonya)
while Singapore identies it as being Perankanan. Even cuisines,
such as Perankanan, Eurasian, Nationalised cuisines and Invented
cuisines, such as New-Asia Cuisine, are in some way hybridized or
altered in response to change in the environment or through interaction with other ethnic groups (Chua and Rajah, 2001). Trust and
eclectic borrowing eased the process of transfer (Voase, 1995). The
existence of pure cuisines is often assumed by the producers and
consumers but is not in fact the case as they are often hybridized.
The move to buying curry paste (a highly symbolic preparation
in Indian and Malay communities) at the wet markets exemplies a high level of trust between the cultures. English houses
employed Hainanese cook boys who introduced new dishes, subtly
altered, from their own cooking style and modied those of their
employers (Brown and Backenheimer, 2006). Cuisines altered to

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S. Chaney, C. Ryan / International Journal of Hospitality Management 31 (2012) 309318

accommodate new diners and modern manners by providing plates

(rather than banana leaves for Malay and Indian curries) and a
spoon and fork (Solomon, 2002).
Muslims do not eat pork and Hindus do not eat beef so accommodations have been made to allow Hindus and Muslims to enjoy
the cuisines of other cultures. The Islamization of Chinese food
by the substitution of pork with chicken, thus making it Halal, has
allowed Muslims to eat Chinese dishes. A signicant number of vegetarian restaurants and Halal Chinese restaurants exist. Southern
Indians, who formed the majority of the Indian population, adopted
the use of coconut milk and yoghurt instead of ghee (claried butter), and some Chinese dishes such as mee goreng (fried noodles)
and mee kuah (wet dish of fried noodles), thereby making dishes
suitable for Hindu, Muslim and non-Muslim (Chua and Rajah, 2001;
Brown and Backenheimer, 2006).
Early Singaporean cuisine was represented by hawkers markets and push carts found in parking areas and side streets, and
others who carried their small braziers and food suspended from
a bamboo yoke quickly setting up whenever a customer appeared
(Brown and Backenheimer, 2006). As part of infrastructure development and to separate the everyday consumption of food from
the tourist gaze, hawkers were licensed and moved to centralized
centres where quality and cleanliness are rigorously enforced by
government. Some such as Lau Pa Sat, a Victorian style food hall
modeled on Londons Covent Garden, are historically important due
to their architecture, their reputation for cleanliness and the quality
of cuisine. Hawker centres, like the wet markets, are a shared space
for different ethnic groups. Indeed the commensuality of both help
in preserving ethnic products and dishes. As Singaporeans become
more experienced in the consumption rather than the preparation
of food, each is becoming important in setting the standard for ethnic cuisines and in providing a place for the transfer of knowledge
and techniques between different ethnic groups. Bad examples
however denigrate ethnic cuisine through over-simplication and
a misunderstanding of avour combinations or culinary technique
(Mintz, 1996). Gastro-tourists seek out the authentic experience
in these centres as they are promoted in Singapore Tourist Board
(STB) publications as symbolic of ethnic cuisine and as the home
of iconic Singaporean dishes (Brown and Backenheimer, 2006).
Now they are a place where all cultures, local and tourist, come
to sample Singapore cuisines and share in the cuisine of others.
Local communities and restaurateurs see gastronomic tourism as
a means to preserve distinct food cultures by creating . . .renewed
interest in local culture, appreciation of local traditions from which
an improved sense of cultural worth can result (Long, 2004, p. 6).
The development of tourism, which caters to both European and
Asian markets, is therefore easier than in countries with a more
limited world view.
Even Nonya cuisine draws ingredients from the foodways of
Malay, Indian and Chinese. Malays also cook a number of Middle
Eastern dishes with Indian overtones e.g. Nasi Biryani (Brown and
Backenheimer, 2006). Hence it is no wonder that Singaporeans are
so accepting of other cuisines, such as Italian and Fusion, when their
own foodways have a tradition of sharing.

6. New Asia Cuisine

New Asia Cuisine (NAC) was unveiled at the World Gourmet
Summit Singapore (WGS) in 1997; both the WGS and NAC are
dened by the STB and Scarpato (2002) as gastronomic tourism
products (GTP). Peter Knipp, a key gure in the development of
the New-Asia Cuisine (NAC), states that NAC is the articulation of
unstructured development between the Hospitality Industry and
the STB (personal email from P. Knipp, 17th May 2009). It was developed in response to the governments New Asia Singapore (NAS)

initiative (Chang and Lim, 2004). Government initiatives guide

development of infrastructure and, in many cases, provide the
nance, but relies on the expertise of industry professionals to bring
initiatives to fruition. This demonstrates cooperation and interdependence between government and hospitality professionals in
developing gastronomic experiences for mutual benet (Chang and
Lim, 2004). Indeed, one might argue gastronomic tourism is almost
altruistic in considering the needs and desires of the gastronomic
tourist over that of the local community. Singapore has a history of
reinvention of culinary products, a cultural acceptance of borrowing and NAC also borrows products, techniques and even dishes
from other cuisines and includes them into their own. The NAC
is seen as an intersection of the other and the local where the
context of the environment fuses with the techniques and skills
of foreign cuisines. NAC and fusion cuisines are almost created
out of context so as to not offend the cultures from which it borrows and to allow those who perform to do so with few cultural
limitations.
Regional [and therefore ethnic] cuisines contribute to the
appearance of a national cuisine because ingredients, cooking
methods and dishes draw from regional cuisines and become
the repertoire of chefs whose knowledge, taste and means transcend locality (Mintz, 1996, p. 96).
There is the presumption that NAC, as a fusion of European technique and Asian avours, is a cuisine for the thinking person; a
cuisine with an inherent demand for discourse in seeking a deep
understanding of the experience. But few scholars have accepted
fusion cuisine or invented cuisines as more than a passing phase
and this reects the . . . complexities of created cuisines where
the apparent lack of a cultural source does not identify an existing market for the product (Bentley, 2004, p. 210). As Beer et al.
(2002, p. 221) state the problem is . . . [how] to innovate without
destroying the original product . . . [but] if you consider all innovation is merely theft from other traditions . . . how do we use the
concept of fusion cuisine. The development of a new cuisine is
a creative process that opens opportunities to consume and experience the food of the other in new ways (Mintz, 1996; Hall and
Mitchell, 2002). However no cuisine is ever truly independent of
the context in which it is created as all food is socially and culturally constructed. Hence even invented cuisines must have some
basis of local ethnic cuisines and are still in a sense located. In
Crossroads, a collaborative cookbook, young Singaporean chefs
illustrate dishes created by fusing Western products and cooking
techniques with those of Asia (Knipp, 2001). This illustrates the
concepts of New-Asia Cuisine, allowing each a voice to speak of
their experiences and how they have grown as chefs by applying
their knowledge of their own cuisines with learning and adapting
Western cooking techniques, food and wine. Their stories resound
in the minds of fellow Singaporeans as they speak with a common
heritage. The dishes show a growing passion for local and European foodways, the development of artistic plate presentation and
adaption of Asian techniques and dining styles to the needs of a new
dining experience where avours and ingredients are adjusted for
new palates. Dishes such as Risotto with lemon grass, Red spotted grouper soybean crumbs, Deep-fried pigeon, and Yam jelly
with edamane foam show the application of Chinese and European
techniques, and Japanese, Chinese and European ingredients. The
images exemplify the techniques of Charlie Trotter (USA), Michel
Bras (France), Ferran Adria (Spain) and Thomas Keller (USA) displaying and applying global culinary inuences. However it is the
skill of execution and the quality of the dishes which set this fusion
cuisine apart from other examples. So even if NAC could be commodied it will always draw people back to Singapore as the place
of its birth and where expertise is centralized (Knipp, 2001).

S. Chaney, C. Ryan / International Journal of Hospitality Management 31 (2012) 309318

7. Developing Singapores World Gourmet Summit

8. Partnerships in the World Gourmet Summit

The creation of the WGS is a logical step in developing

Singapore as a gastronomic tourism destination for both regional
and international gastronomes. The WGS provides an intersection of the other (imported cuisines) and the local (ethnic
cuisines) and is a renegotiation of aspects of the image and
brand of Singapore as it diversies its tourism experiences. The
WGS also acts as a ag to the gastronomic world signaling that
Singapore has taken food-based tourism to a new level. From a
wider marketing perspective the introduction of an event such
as the WGS is consistent with the marketing campaign Uniquely
Singapore.
The World Gourmet Summit (WGS) began in 1997 after a chance
meeting between Peter Knipp, head of Peter Knipp Holdings Pte
Ltd. (PKH), and Dr Tan Chin Nam the then Chief Executive of the
Singapore Tourism Board (STB). Showcasing Singapores culinary
diversity was but one reason Peter Knipp launched the World
Gourmet Summit. It started as an accident, he relates. In 1996
I was at a gourmet festival in San Moritz representing the Rafes Hotel, when I met Dr Tan Chin Nam . . . We talked for an
hour and a half and WGS was born. [Together] they planned
a tourism oriented programme that would not only showcase
Singapores food, wine and service to the world, but it would
bring the worlds gastronomy to Singapore. (Cowan, 2009, p.
4)
The WGS is considered to be very successful for Singapore and
one of the best examples of what can be achieved when there is a
synergy between state policy and private enterprise. It is described
in the WGS 2009 Event Fact Sheet as:

8.1. Co-promoters

A lifestyle event that celebrates the nest cuisines, best of

wines and the most unique dining experiences (World Gourmet
Summit Website, 2008).
It is a focused experience specically targeting gastro-tourists
and predominately Asian gastro-tourists. But the experience is perishable. It is limited to one occasion per year and changes each time
so it creates a value that cannot be recaptured or experienced at a
later date; the next event is a different experience unique in its
own way. The WGS can be sampled in parts (unbundling) to attract
increased patronage by other tourists groups for whom only parts of
the experience (e.g. wine) may be of interest. It also offers opportunities to include other tourism experiences (bundling) such as
cooking classes, local dining, or follow-on tours outside of the WGS.
This provides a very exible product appealing to a wider tourist
market.
The development of Gastronomic Tourism Products (GTP) such
as the WGS, as a means to a differentiation strategy, moves products from competing primarily on price to competing on non-price
factors (Raymore, 2006). The objective of product differentiation is
to develop a position that potential customers see as unique and
creates a sense of value (Shoemaker et al., 2007). In the case of
gastronomic products those factors include quality, uniqueness,
authenticity and a strong experiential experience. Local Singaporean gastronomes have these needs and one of the roles of the
WGS becomes that of education of not only visitors but also local
chefs and restaurateurs. Thus WGS has become the premier ne
dining event that is recognized for its quality around the world. It
has inuenced the way Singaporeans understand and experience
not just ne dining and exotic cuisines but all aspects of food, drink
and hospitality. Singaporeans . . . want to know what proper etiquette is; they want to know about pairing wines to food . . . and
more about fusing different and contrasting cuisines. When you
delve into the ner points of gastronomy you learn about the culture it came from, you learn about the people and their history
(Cowan, 2009, p. 4).

313

The WGS is co-promoted by the Singapore Tourism Board (STB)

and Peter Knipp Holdings Pte Ltd. and reects the joint commitment, made in 1996 between Peter Knipp and Dr. Tan Chin Nam
to develop quality food based tourism in Singapore. The STB, as
the economic development agency for Singapore tourism, assists
in promotion through tourism websites and media and provides
government support and endorsement. Peter Knipp Holdings Pte
Ltd. (PKH), owned by Peter Knipp, specializes in providing needed
expertise to the food, beverage and hospitality industry. Peter
Knipps experience and expertise bridges the gap between the practitioners of cuisine and the instruments of government; respected
by both he is able to translate the vision of the WGS into a vibrant
yearly event which meets the objectives of both government and
industry.
8.2. Chefs
zChefs are important to successfully communicating status
through eating . . . and for the success of gastronomic events
(Fields, 2002, p. 140). The WGS invites chefs from around the world,
who are recognized as experts in a form of cuisine or patisserie
to participate. These chefs are listed as either Iconic (a personality holding 3 Michelin Star or equivalent) or as Masterchefs. Iconic
chefs are the top gourmet draw cards. Each conducts a culinary
masterclass as well as a dedicated dinner event where his signature cuisine is presented. Past iconic chefs had included Alain
Passard in 2005, Anne-Sophie Pic in 2008, the rst female chef
in 50 years to hold 3 stars, and Heinz Beck in 2009. Masterchefs
demonstrate, run workshops and do promotions where attendees
are presented with the opportunity to learn from an expert. They
create a special WGS menu termed, Epicurean Delights, for diners
together with the hosting establishments restaurants. Past masterchefs have included Charlie Trotter in 2000, Andre Jaeger in 1998
and Raymond Blanc in 1997.
8.3. The Winemakers
Most gastronomic tourism destinations use a combination of
both wine and food as critical attractions for the gastronomic tourist
(Poitras and Getz, 2006). Although Singapore has no wine production of its own it imports the wine and expertise to ensure
that food-based tourist experiences do not lack this important
ingredient. Singaporean wine collectors prefer ne Burgundy and
Bordeaux vintages. Each year, internationally renowned Masters of
Wine (MW) and winemakers from various wine producing regions
such as Bordeaux, Burgundy, Spain and Australia are welcomed to
Singapore where some of their nest vintages are showcased to
the local community. They run workshops and guide tasting and
this contributes to the growth in wine tourism. Fine wines are an
integral part of the WGS and often pair with Masterchefs in the creation of their Epicurean Delights menus and these always sell out in
advance. Past Masters of Wine (MW) had included Serena Sutcliffe
in 2007 and 2008 and David Peppercorn in 2008.

9. The hotels and restaurants

Hotels and restaurants, known as the Hosting Establishments,
work closely with the Masterchefs in coordinating the menus and
supporting the chef in the different events like the culinary classes.
The WGS website states:

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The World Gourmet Summit has successfully branded

Singapore as the choice gourmet destination of the region where
diners can be assured of premium, quality offerings in the local
food and beverage industry. With the leading hotel establishments and independent restaurants participating on the same
platform as the international stars, the Summit proves that
home-grown/local talents are every bit as capable as their overseas counterparts (World Gourmet Summit Website, 2008).
Partner Restaurants showcase some of the nest restaurants in
Singapore. These restaurants, which are mostly independent, take
part in a week-long promotion where the resident chef creates a
special WGS Menu to commemorate the Summit and hosts a one
day special activity. This activity can range from a cooking demonstration to a gourmet breakfast to a themed dinner.
10. The success of the WGS and reasons for that success
Success is determined from the viewpoint of the individual,
organization or nation in meeting the objectives each has planned.
Objectives differ dependent on wants and needs and may be difcult to quantify. The [WGS] Mission statement (WGS 2009 Event
Fact Sheet) stated its objectives as:
Branding Singapore as the choice gourmet destination of the
region
Showcasing the ne-dining offerings available in Singapore from
the hotel establishment to the independent restaurant establishments
Promoting the local food and beverage talents and help them
spring-board into the international arena (Knipp, 2009a,b).
Total attendance for the 2008 WGS was 17,952, an increase
of 34.6% over 2007 and up from 7528 in 2003, and comprised
attendances at WGS Events (6257), Partner Restaurants (3524) and
Epicurean Delights (8171). Foreign attendance was up 0.740.1%
of attendees at key events (WGS 2009 Event Fact Sheet). The WGS
2008 was notable for its 3-star Michelin lady chef (Sophie Pic) and
3-chefs hat lady chef (Chui Lee Luk), the rst in WGS history. Chefs
with a combined total of 15 Michelin stars and 5 Chef Hats produced menus and demonstrations. Partner restaurants increased
from 14 to 23 (+64.2%) and Hosting Establishments increased from
10 to 14 (+40%). Attendees ranged from Food Enthusiasts, Wine
Connoisseurs, Business Travelers, Corporate Executives, Social Elite
and Hospitality Professionals from around the region and the world.
They ranged in age from mid-20s to late 40s with an average income
of S$60,000 per annum and participated in events ranged from $S48
to $S1200. Many foreign attendees attended Food and Hotel Asia
2008 at the same time (Knipp, 2009a). The WGS 2009 Event Fact
Sheet states:
There is a slight change on the pattern for key markets of
WGS 2008s overseas attendees. Figures show a growing number of overseas attendees coming from North Asia region Hong
Kong, Korea, Taiwan and China (PRC) [emphasis in original
text), apart from the usual key markets that comprise Malaysia,
Thailand, Philippines, Vietnam and Indonesia. Together, they
make up 42.23% of the foreign visitors. New entrants include
Russia, China (PRC), Taiwan and Kenya. Growing markets
include Middle East (mainly Dubai and Abu Dhabi), Russia,
Taiwan, China (PRC), Korea and Hong Kong. (Knipp, 2009a).
The 2009 WGS was the 13th consecutive year the summit had
run. The development of high yield experiences spearheads the
development of creative culture which includes the culinary arts.
This in turn creates a cultural magnet to foreign expertise and
both niche tourism and mass markets. Rising attendance levels,

an increasing number of food-based experiences, the expansion

of new and afuent customer markets, the ability to attract and
expand on participation by top chefs and wine experts, local restaurants and hotels, government and an expansion of the market of
elite food and wine consumers demonstrates that the WGS and is
meeting its objectives and vision by providing a quality promotional event that showcases Singapore as a successful gastronomic
destination (Chang and Lim, 2004).
The product WGS, therefore provides opportunities for the
development of relationships between gastro tourists and local and
international Masterchefs and Michelin Star Chefs, wine experts
and celebrity personalities It also creates associations with other
countries recognized as having well established traditional gastronomic traditions, such as France and Italy, through the use of quality
overseas wines, cuisines, food products and expertise and with recognized gastronomic associations such as the Chaine de Rotisseurs.
In creating these links, the WGS still remains to its origins and
the development of fusion cuisine as described above. Showcasing Singapores ne dining is undertaken on several fronts by the
Tourism, Shopping and Dining Unit of the STB, especially during the
WGS, and supported by several means of advertising. During the
WGS itself celebrity chefs make available various demonstrations
and recipes, and of these several relate to the fusion of Asian and
European cuisine noted above. Thus, for 2011 these included Alex
Chows Scallops with Goji berries and black beans and char-grilled
spring onion that includes Japanese Togarashi and Sichuan Sauces
as well as Goji berries. For his part Lai Yau Tim offered King Prawn
rolls and Birds Nest soup recipes while Greg Doyle and Grant King
provided master classes that involve lobster but cooked with Thai
peppercorns and oyster sauce.
Building on these interactions, and as a fundamental marketing strategy, WGS uses endorsements or relationships with quality
branded products and producers to get consumers to view experiences favorably. Consequently the media coverage of the WGS
reinforces the branding and image building of the STB, of Singapore
as a home for food and wine lovers, and promotes the WGS as a gastronomic event of signicance as evidenced by its high prole chefs
etc. The proles of its successful Singapore based staff involved in
foods and wines are found on the web pages of the WGS and include
Sam Leong, multiple times award winner of Asian Chef of the year,
and Aby Tan as a three times winner of Sommelier of the Year.
Equally successful are local restaurants such as Les Amis, and The
Rafes Grill awards won in the face of international competition
and which further improve the standing of Singapores gastronomic
reputation. Among other local chefs who have won recognition are
Chung Yiu Ming, based at the Sheraton, Singapore, Chung Lap Fai
at the Orchard Hotel and chefs born overseas but now based in
Singapore such as Frdric Colin at St Regis Singapore and Roger
Marti of the Sentosa Resort. The WGS thus provides competition
to improve standards and recognizes those who achieve in their
respective elds.
In a further attempt to provide WGS with credibility as being
more than just an event for tourists (but yet at the same time
increasing its ability to attract national and international visitation),
there are a number of awards given at the Summit. These awards
given to members of the hospitality industry recognize success but
also the contribution each has played in developing Singapores
tourism. Awards such as the Le Cordon Bleu restaurant Manager
of the Year and the S. Pellegrino Rising Chef of the Year associate
this success with quality organizations and products in both Italy
and France. Additionally the WGS recognizes the need to develop
talent by awarding scholarships donated by quality food producers or organizations. Consequently the WGS]Awards of Excellence
Scholarships were launched in 2002 to provide deserving young
talent who possess the ability to grow in the elds of ptisserie, culinary arts and wine, by providing an opportunity to gain overseas

S. Chaney, C. Ryan / International Journal of Hospitality Management 31 (2012) 309318

experiences. The scholarships are provided at At-Sunrice Global

Chef Academy, the Johnson & Wales University Culinary Scholarship, the Bodegas Torres Wine Scholarship, the Pierre Herm Paris
[ptisserie] Scholarship, and the Paul Jaboulet Ain & Chteau La
Lagune [Wine] Scholarship (Cowan, 2009).
By using specic food and wine products (quality) there is
association with European designators of unique place- such as
AOC (Appellation Controle), DOP (Denomination di Origine Protetta) and PDO (Protected Denomination of Origin). Countries
whose products are regularly included are France (charcuterie,
cheese, trufes and wine), Norway (Snorre foods salmon and
lobster), Italy (wine, small goods and cheese), Scotland (whiskey),
Japan (Kobe beef) and Malaysia (durian). These awards further the
development of associations with European quality products and
culinary traditions in the next generation of hospitality professionals.
International events and afliations also create avenues for
expressing prestige, status and inuence that extend beyond the
local to the global (Mintz, 1996; Gillespie, 2001). The WGS is an
extension of the search for authenticity and identity in a highly
visible forum where status and prestige are gained by inclusion
or acceptance and a policy of recognizing the best and therefore
knowing what is the best. It is also a form of elitism created by
the organizers and attendees through the use of semiotic carriers (e.g. language of the menus, and wine tasting) associated with
the event and the expense of the quality assets of gastronomic
tourism (Gillespie, 2001). Attendance at gastronomic events reinforces and provides a means of expressing ones own identity, value
system and aspirations by inclusion into a select group of individuals who reects those qualities that the individual desires to achieve
(Gillespie, 2001). Ryan (2002, p. 31) states that self-seeking hedonism will ultimately disappoint but in Singapore the very act of
indulgence is celebrated and the achievement of status/prestige is
recognized by inclusion and reward. Additionally the uniqueness
associated with each annual occasion adds to the sense of WGS
being a special occasion.
Adoption of European gastronomic practices and membership
in gastronomic associations, many of which are social and ceremonial in nature, construct a form of social order for gastronomes that
develops a network of like-minded individuals bound by a common
interest. Identity or ranking is attached to the experience through
the price, depth of specialist knowledge (beverage tastings), and
familiarity with the context and with socio-economic position of
attendees. Although afuence is not accepted as a necessity to be
included into gastronomic circles it is certainly a means of exclusion in certain social circles or from some gastronomic events. For
example a black tie dinner confers recognition, belonging, prestige and status due to the occasion, by exclusion or inclusion and
the interests, ability, knowledge and status of the company but not
all can afford to attend. Photographs or images in magazines and
other forms of media celebrate both the event and the associations
formed between attendees.

11. Discussion
According to Morrison (2002), Santich (2004) and Fields (2002)
the context within which gastronomic tourism may be located is
shown in Fig. 1. Basically this states that for gastronomic tourism
to be successful, a number of contributing factors must be present
that support, enhance development and promote the image of the
destination. These factors combine into a cycle of action and evaluation that continually assess and reassess the environment and
the market. This ensures that initiatives are meeting their objectives and that the message that they communicate to the market is
that which results in more gastro-tourists choosing Singapore as a

315

destination. In the case of the World Gourmet Summit the vision

was enunciated by key actors such as Peter Knipp with strong
promotional and organisational support from the national tourism
board aided by major hotels and restaurants. The ability to attract
well known chefs in succeeding years permitted the Summit to
offer something new each year to its clientele, while a symbiotic
relationship was built up whereby the evolving prestige of the event
mean that such chefs gave priority to the event. This permitted the
left hand side of Fig. 1 to be developed.
It may be argued that mass tourism and niche market tourism
are layered, diversied, differentiated and interwoven to ensure
that each enhances and supports the other (Hui et al., 2007; Beer,
2008). Focused development supports the brand identity and is
part of the underlying reasons for the creation of physical resources
and the reduction of barriers (language, knowledge, etc.) so tourists
are beginning to feel included and so penetrating the backstage
(Jones and Jenkins, 2002; Kim et al., 2009). Tourists personal safety
bubbles, for example, are extended with changes to the food safety,
security and facilities and with the access to European cuisines
(Urry, 1990; Larsen et al., 2007). This strong infrastructure and
centralized decision making ensures a strong vision for the future,
provides a base for cooperative development and provides a longterm developmental focus which allows the time necessary to bring
large projects to fruition. This process leads to the creation of a
framework for gastronomic tourism development that illustrates
the functional relationships of factors in the development process
in greater detail. The proposed framework illustrated in Figure Two
divides the motivations of the gastronomic tourist and the destinations development but arraigns them side by side to illustrate the
harmony of this close relationship. The gastro-tourist motivations
are placed under the push factors but relate to pull factors of the
destination through the use of media inuence. Media is the conduit for communicating the attributes of the destination and as the
main means of providing information and feedback to both groups.
In the case of Singapore, as already noted, the proactive participation of the national tourism board and key gures in the local hotel
industry quickly led to development of brand identity and dening
a consumer experience as illustrated in the mid-right of Fig. 2. The
same actors also ensured the process of monitoring and evaluation
in that the same actors were aware from the outset that the initiative, if it were to work, had to be planned as a continuing event
over a period of years and not simply as a one-off.
The destinations development is also grouped under the pull
factors illustrating the focus of the development on attracting the
gastro-tourist and meeting and surpassing their needs. Finally the
evaluation of success results closes the loop by re-evaluating the
vision against change in the market and the context of the environment and services. It is suggested that this framework, which
arises from the data collected as described in the previous chapters,
represents a model upon which future research might be based.
One of the main factors in Singapores overall success is the
completeness of the evaluation and development process enabling
the ability to plan and make changes or renements quickly in
a constantly evolving global market. This process results in the
framework described in Fig. 2 which illustrates the key factors contributing to Singapores success as a gastronomic destination. These
include:

A strong base of differentiated yet coexisting cuisines as described

above when discussing fusion cuisines emerging from different
local cuisines. This has been reinforced by the WGS and its promotion of fusion cuisines as noted from the examples given. A
successful symbiotic relationship has emerged strengthened by
a specialist unit in STB that reinforces the promotion of dining to
tourists.

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S. Chaney, C. Ryan / International Journal of Hospitality Management 31 (2012) 309318

Evaluation of global and regional

competition and tourism market trends.
Evaluation of the gastrotourism markets level of
satisfaction

Define the needs of

Closing the loop taking Singapore

home (gifts, food, photos) to
encourage repeat business

The process of
developing a
Gastronomic
Destination

Defining a Vision of what can be.

Develop brand and identity as

Gastronomic Destination and develop this
perception in gastro-tourism market.

Over deliver on quality and intensity

of experience thus creating memories
Developing appropriate
communication means.
Focused development of
infrastructure, capability and
attractions and experiences.
Fig. 1. Process of strategic gastronomic tourism development.

Pull factors

Push factors

Vision
Evaluation of the Gastronomic Tourism market and destination environment what is and
what needs changing, preservation and conservation.

Developing a Gastronomic Destination

The Gastronomic Tourist
Environmental development
Food safety standards
Themed districts
Quality hotels and restaurants
Transport systems international & national
Public safety
Signage and information

Motivations for Gastronomic

tourists

Physiological
Food neophilia
Food neophobia

Demographic
Gender
Age
Education
Social position

Differentiation / multifaceted
Exciting experience surprise /
uniqueness / wonder.
Togetherness / belonging
Authentic experiences
Tactual / sensory content /
appeal
Pleasures of eating and
drinking.
Exotic / out of the ordinary
Novelty and change
Surmounts safety / health
concerns
Inclusion / facing the other
Self actualization / status and
prestige
Experiential
Learning / gaining
knowledge
Physical environment

Communication

Developing Experiences
Events calendar, WGS, SFF
Attractions
Develop brand / identity
Arts and culture etc
Gastronomic Destination

Developing Communication
media / streams
Official
Unofficial
Developing Capability (social)
Hospitality/Events/Tourism education
Common language and signage
Service culture

Re-evaluation of the market and the destination

Fig. 2. Framework for gastronomic tourism development.

S. Chaney, C. Ryan / International Journal of Hospitality Management 31 (2012) 309318

The preservation and development of cultural/heritage foodways

based on the built heritage of the city with, for example, its Indian
quarter.
A continuing focus on the development of quality through, for
example, the invitations to key gures in gastronomy in the eld
of wine and food as described above. Again the WGS plays a, if
not the, leading role in this process, and the fact that the WGS has
been promoted for about 15 years is a testament to its success.
Development of specialized promotional avenues (media, SFF
and WGS, etc.) with support from the national tourism organisation and major hotel groups, hence creating product that
could be sold by tour operators supported by web pages such
as www.worldgourmetsummit.com. It is of interest that in 2010
and 2011 the WGS has gained new sponsors such as Citibank and
Leica.
Strong infrastructure and centralized decision making based on
a shared vision.
Strong brand, image and identity development through the techniques described above.
Education and training initiatives that alleviate manpower issues
and develop expertise. It was noted above that the WGS was also
a response to a government approved New Asia Singapore initiative that had its antecedents in campaigns commencing in 1996.
This theme of New Asia has extended into a wider ASEAN initiative that covers many issues including skill upgrading of the
member nations workforce as a contributor to the growth of
trade (ASEAN Labour Ministers, 2006).
Initiatives which developed standards, amenities and infrastructure, of which the WGS has been an important part.
Taking a wide and long-term viewpoint that allows the development of the environment over a long period as noted in the above
text.
Singapore is successful in developing gastronomic tourism. This
is evidenced by the increasing prole and attendance at both the
SFF and WGS, the development of gastronomic associations, new
food experiences, signicant growth in quality and deluxe hotels
and new projects and initiatives such the Resorts World at Sentosa
that comprises six hotels and includes new experiences such as the
Quest Marine Life Park, and the Art Science museum. Singapore
deals in providing experiences and memories that last not in the
brief gratication of needs but in the generation of peoples memories that prompt them to either return or to recommend an event
to others. Media provides the attraction that draws one there in the
rst place and that leads to development of Singapores identity as
a gastronomic destination (gastro-identity). However it is often the
intensity of those experience(s) which creates memories that draw
gastro-tourists back.
12. Conclusion
The World Gourmet Summit has demonstrated that tourism
products based upon food and set within a portfolio of a locations
uniqueness cannot only be successful but both contribute to and
derive a prestigious image from a structured campaign that emphasises the quality of a place and its hospitality industry. Located
within the hotels of Singapore the festival can reach out to the very
sources that initially provided its inspiration namely the heritage
of the cuisine derived from the different ethnic groups of Singapore
and the local market places within which they operated. By borrowing from each others ingredients and modes of food preparation
and packaged within the classical traditions of careful food preparation derived from the European traditions of great chefs, the World
Gourmet Summit provides a case study of how attention to detail,
an adherence to traditions with a location and the development of

317

a product consistent with the wider image of the destination can

evolve into a success that attracts both the devoted gastronomic
tourist and the more general tourist seeking and able to afford the
best food that is available.
Acknowledgements
The rst author would wish to specially thank Peter Knipp
of Knipp Holdings Pte Ltd. (PKH), and Chew Chien Way, of the
Singapore Tourism Board (STB) for their time and information made
available to him The second author would wish to thank The School
of Hotel and Tourism Management, Hong Kong Polytechnic University for their support in helping to prepare this paper. As ever, the
interpretation offered within the paper is that of the authors alone.
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