Chapter 8 Nervous System

Somatic Nervous System

Functions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Receiving sensory input

Integrating information
Controlling muscles and glands
Maintaining homeostasis
Establishing and maintaining
activity

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

mental

2 Major Divisions:
Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of the brain and spinal

cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Consists of all the nervous tissue

outside the CNS (nerves and
ganglia)

Functions to link the CNS with

various parts of the body

Carries information about the

different tissues of the body to
the CNS and carries commands
from the CNS that alter body
activities.
Sensory division or afferent (toward) division

Conducts action potentials from sensory

receptors to the CNS.

Sensory Neurons

Conducts action potentials from the CNS

to effector organs, such as muscles and
glands.

Motor Neurons

Neurons that transmit action potentials

from the CNS toward the periphery

Transmits action potentials from the CNS

to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and
glands.
Divided
into
sympathetic
and
parasympathetic divisions

Enteric Nervous System (ENS)

Is a unique subdivision of the peripheral

nervous system
Has both sensory and motor neurons
contained wholly within the digestive tract
Can function without input from the CNS
or other parts of the PNS, although it is
normally integrated with the CNS by
sensory neurons and ANS motor neurons

CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Two types of cells that make up the nervous
system:
1.
2.

Neurons
Glial cells

Neurons

Neurons that transmit action potentials

from the periphery to the CNS

Motor division or efferent (away) division

Transmits action potentials from the CNS

to skeletal muscles

Nerve cells
Receive stimuli, conduct action potentials,
and transmit signals to other neurons or
effector organs.

Three parts:
1.
2.
3.

Cell body
Dendrites
Axons

Cell body

Contains a SINGLE nucleus

Nucleus - source of information for gene
expression
Surrounded by rough ER, Golgi apparatus
and mitochondria

Large
numbers
of
microfilaments
(intermediate filaments) and microtubules
organize the cytoplasm into distinct areas

Dendrites

Are short, often highly branching

cytoplasmic extensions that are tapered
from their bases at the neuron cell body
to their tips
Most are extensions of neuron cell body,
but dendritelike structures also project
from the peripheral ends of some sensory
axons
Usually receive information from other
neurons or from sensory receptors
Transmit the information toward the
neuron cell body

Axon

A single long cell process extending from

the neuron cell body
Conduct action potentials from one part of
the brain or spinal cord to another part
Can be surrounded by a highly specialized
insulating layer of cells called the Myelin
sheath

Axon hillock

Area where the axon leaves the neuron

cell body

Collateral axons

Formed when an axon remain unbranched

or branch

TYPES OF NEURONS
Multipolar neurons

Have many dendrites and a single axon

Most of the neurons within the CNS and
nearly all motor neurons

Bipolar neurons

Have two processes: one dendrite and one

axon

Are located in some sensory organs, such

as in the retina of the eye and in the nasal
cavity

Pseudo-unipolar neurons

Have a single process extending from the

cell body

Glial cells or Neuroglia

Are the primarily supportive cells of the

CNS and PNS, meaning these cells do not
conduct action potentials
Are far more numerous than neurons.
Most retain the ability to divide, whereas
neurons do not
5 types:
1. Astrocytes

Serve
as
the
major
supporting cells in the CNS

Can stimulate or inhibit the

signaling activity of nearby
neurons

Participate with the blood

vessel endothelium to form a
permeability barrier, called
the blood-brain
barrier,
between the blood and the
CNS

Help limit damage to neural

tissue

The repair process can form

a
scar
that
blocks
regeneration and damage of
axons
2. Ependymal cells

Line the fluid-filled cavities

(ventricles and canals) within
the CNS.

Some produce cerebrospinal

fluid and others, with cilia on
the surface help move
cerebrospinal fluid through
the CNS
3. Microglia

Act as immune cells of the

CNS

Help protect the brain by

removing bacteria and cell
debris
4. Oligodendrocytes

5.

In the CNS provide an

insulating
material
that
surrounds axon

Schwann cells

In the PNS provide an

insulating
material
that
surrounds axons

Myelin sheaths

Are specialized layers that wrap around

the axons of some neurons
Are formed by the cell processes of
oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann
cells in the PNS
Excellent insulator that prevents almost
all ion movement across the cell membrane

ELECTRICAL
PATHWAYS

Axon with these myelin sheaths

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps in the myelin sheath

Occur about every millimeter between the
oligodendrocyte segments or between
individual Schwann cells
Ion movements occurs

ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS TISSUE

Consists of group of neuron cell bodies and

their dendrites, where there is ery little
myelin.
Cortex in the CNS, gray matter on the
surface of the brain
Nuclei clusters of gray matter on the
surface located deeper within the brain
Ganglion cluster of neuron cell bodies

White matter

Consists of bundles of parallel axons with

their myelin sheaths, which are whitish in
color

AND

NEURAL

Cell membrane - when there is uneven

distribution of charge

Resting Membrane Potential

In an unstimulated (resting) cell, the

uneven charge distribution

3 main factors:
1.
2.
3.

A higher concentration of K+ immediately

inside the cell membrane
A
higher
concentration
of
Na+
immediately outside the cell membrane
Greater
permeability
of
the
cell
membrane to K+ than to Na+

2 basic types of ion channels

1.

Leak channels

Are always open

Ions can leak across the membrane

down their concentration gradient

2.

Gated channels

Are closed until opened by specific

signals
Chemically gated channels

Are opened by neurotransmitters or

other chemicals

Gray matter

SIGNALS

Polarized

Myelinated axons

Nerve tracts or conduction pathways propagate action potentials from one area
of the CNS together.
Nerves in the PNS, bundles of axons and
associated connective tissue

Voltage gated channels

Are opened by a change in membrane

potential

Sodium-potassium pump

Is required to maintain the greater

concentration of Na+ outside the cell
membrane and K+ inside

Local current

Movement of Na+, causes the inside

of the cell membrane to become
positive,
a
change
called
depolarization

Action potential

Depolarization and repolarization

Hyperpolarization

The charge on the cell membrane

briefly becomes more negative than
the resting membrane potential

Continuous conduction

Action potentials are conducted slowly

in unmyelinated axons and more
rapidly in myelinated axons. In
unmyelinated
axons,
an
action
potential is one part of a cell
membrane stimulates local currents in
adjacent parts of the cell membrane.
The local currents in the adjacent
membrane produce an action potential.
By this means, the action potential is
conducted along the entire axon cell
membrane

Saltatory conduction

In myelinated axons, an action

potential at one node of Ranvier
causes a local current to flow through
the surrounding extracellular fluid
and through the cytoplasm of the
axon to the next node, stimulating an
action potential at that node of
Ranvier. By this means, action
potentials jump from one node of
Ranvier to the next along the length
of axon.
Greatly increases the conduction
velocity because the nodes of Ranvier
make it unnecessary for action
potentials to travel along the entire
cell membrane

THE SYNAPSE
Synapse

Is a junction where the axon of one

neuron interacts with another neuron or
with cells of an effector organ, such as a
muscle or gland

Presynaptic terminal

Formed from the end of axon

Postsynaptic membrane

Membrane of the dendrite or effector

cell

Synaptic cleft

Space separating the presynaptic and

postsynaptic membranes

Neurotransmitters

Chemical substances
Stored in synaptic vesicles

Acetylcholinesterase

Breaks down acetylcholine