Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Anthropology of Consciousness, Vol. 23, Issue 1, pp. 6086, ISSN 1053-4202, 2012 by the
American Anthropological Association. All rights reserved
DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-3537.2012.01057.x
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introduction
My research findings (Echenhofer 2011) concerning the experiences
reported after ingestion of the Amazonian psychoactive brew ayahuasca,
which has its origins in shamanism, agree with prior research literature. In
both my research and in prior research, ayahuasca was reported to often elicit spontaneous, intense, and meaningful imagery narratives. These narratives are often related to psychological and physical healing, problem
solving, knowledge acquisition, creativity, spiritual development, divination,
community cohesion (Shanon 2002a, 2002b), and encounters with disincarnate entities or beings (Heuser 2006). Spontaneous imagery narrativesor,
more precisely, spontaneous waking visual and kinesthetic transformative
imagery narrativeshave been widely reported in many cultures throughout
recorded history.
In this article, I will first review the literature describing the nature of ayahuasca experiences and then will describe the aims of this study, which are
to further examine the EEG and phenomenology of ayahuasca and to offer a
model suggesting how ayahuasca facilitates the benefits reported in the literature. The methods and conceptual framework for this study will then be presented, followed by the results and a concluding section.
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ayahuasca experiences
I first will briefly summarize some of the anthropological literature, relying
initially on anthropologist Michael Harners review of reports gathered
from indigenous informants. Harner reports that across indigenous Amazonian peoples the common visionary themes that emerged during ayahuasca
use were of geometric designs, ones own death, constantly changing
shapes, jaguars, snakes, birds, entity encounters, distant cities, divination,
and descriptions of the shamanic journey (1973:172173). The Chilean psychiatrist Claudio Naranjo (1973) administered ayahuasca to 35 nonindigenous volunteers from Santiago, Chile, to examine how their visions
compared to those in ayahuasca reports from the indigenous respondents.
Naranjo reports that the common visionary themes were of a geometric
grid with a central focus, a rotating vision with a central focus, eyes, a
perceiving central eye or other form, caves, prehistoric scenes, monstrous
or sardonic masks, going unconscious, being devoured, and dying. Other
themes were of serpents, large felines, and birds of prey. Themes related
to the shamanic journey to other worlds were of ascending, leaving the
body, flying, landscapes and cities, pearls, devils and angels, Jesus Christ,
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and heaven and hell. Naranjo suggests that these visions share a pervasive
mythicreligious quality of life and death, of the human drama unfolding,
and of accepting everything in existence, including evil and death, as well
as a sense that by this acceptance, evil and death were transformed (see
quotations on pages 177190). The reports of Harner and Naranjo suggest
some similarity in the thematic content of ayahuasca experiences. It further appears, however, that there is less commonality when shamanic journeys to other worlds are described; cultural variances in religious belief
may explain these differences.
Benny Shanon (2002a), a cognitive psychologist, offers a more recent and
systematic phenomenological analysis of ayahuasca experiences, which he
has described in terms of content (113140), theme (141159), and typological structure (8698). Some of his content categories include personal autobiographical material; human beings; naturalistic and nonnaturalistic
animals; plants and botanical scenes; beings that are neither human nor
animal; cities; architecture; art; vehicles of transformation; symbols and
scripts; landscapes; historical and mythological beings; and scenes of creation, evolution, and heaven. Some of Shanons thematic categories include
psychological understanding; birth and death; masculine and feminine;
health; the majesty and mystery of nature; forces in the physical world; the
life force; royalty; the divine and praising the divine; philosophy and metaphysics; and the ambience-related themes of enchantment, rapture, and
love. Shanon (2002a) has also created a typology of the structural types or
forms in which ayahuasca visions occur, and he aims at the discernment
of internal patterns and regularities as well as lawful relationships (5). His
18 typological structures, in the order in which they arise during a session,
are:
Visions without semantic content, primitive figurative elements, imagesscenes-visions of light, bursts-puffs-splashes, repetitive non-figurative
elements, patterned geometric designs, rapid figural transformations,
designs with figures, kaleidoscopic images, presentation of single objects,
serial images, snapshots, glimpses, full-fledged scenes, grand scenes,
virtual reality, geometric compositions, coloured visual space, darkness,
the spider web, and supreme light. [Shanon 2002b:24]
Shanon (2002b) also suggests that, with just a few exceptions, there is a progression over the course of the ayahuasca session toward the more figurative,
well-defined and well-formed, stable, global, content rich, encompassing
scope, powerful and real, psychologically significant, spiritually important,
integrative, interactive, narrative complexity, insightful, learned, and veridical (25).
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methods
My recently published research (Echenhofer 2011) presented detailed evidence from neuroscience, psychology, anthropology, religion, the ayahuasca
research literature, and my own research regarding ayahuasca and first introduced a model suggesting how the benefits of ayahuasca might occur. In this
article, I will present further refinements of this model, utilizing ayahuasca
subjective reports and sacred imagery from a variety of traditions, to suggest
the specific kinds of spontaneous imagery narrative experiences and related
bodily processes that ayahuasca facilitates are directly related to the reported
healing, creative, and spiritual benefits.
The research design I used to examine the EEG and phenomenology of
ayahuasca was a mixed-methods design that collected both quantitative and
qualitative data. The quantitative data consisted of EEG recordings made
prior to and during ayahuasca sessions. The qualitative data consisted of selfreport data collected during ayahuasca sessions. As a conceptual framework, I
used a pragmatist approach, which is often adopted in mixed-methods designs
for solving specific problems in specific contexts. This approach has an
emphasis on creating knowledge through lines of action (which) points to
the kinds of joint actions or projects that different people or groups can
accomplish together (Morgan 2007:72). To integrate the evidence regarding
ayahuasca from many academic and spiritual traditions, it was crucial that the
conceptual research framework used explicitly required the mutual respect
between the different perspectives. Morgan suggests that the pragmatist
approach does not ignore the relevance of epistemology but it does reject
the top-down privileging of ontological assumptions (Morgan 2007:68).
As will become apparent later in this article, the ayahuasca experience
is complex, richly layered, and profound in content, defying adequate
description and logical understanding. Pragmatism is well suited as a research
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f i g u r e 1 . c r e a t i v e c y c l e p r o c e s s e s ( c c p ) mo d e l a n d em b l e m a t i c
i m a g e r y of s p o n ta n e o u s i m a ge r y na rr a t i v e s : t h r e e m a i n s ta g e s o f
FORM DISMANTLING AND HEALING PROCESSES, FORM CREATION PROCESSES,
AND FORM EXPRESSION PROCESSES A ND ASSOCIATED SUBSTAGES LISTED
BELOW IN TABLE
1.
table 1. the three main stages of the ccp model with each of the three
substages
Form dismantling and
healing processes
Form creation
processes
Form expression
processes
Figure 1a.
Enhanced
conflicting energy
Figure 1d.
Enhanced
inner attunement
Figure 1g
Enhanced
field complexity
Figure 1b.
Tolerating
overwhelming experiences
Figure 1e.
Enhanced
form fluidity
Figure 1h.
Enhanced
vertical attunement
Figure 1c.
Dismantling
of self-schema
Figure 1f.
Enhanced
compressed complexity
Figure 1i.
Enhanced
horizontal attunement
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cycling through these three main stages and that this cycle repeats itself both
in dreaming and ayahuasca experiences. Each cycle reflects a movement
toward greater narrative coherence and wholeness.
In the first main stage, forms of imagery spontaneously arise that reflect
the healing of difficult unresolved memories. Once those memories have
been relatively resolved, the second stage of form creation processes can
begin, in which the imagery reflects emergent creative processes of form
exploration. If those processes are sufficiently complex, the third stage of form
expression processes builds upon that complexity to generate more coherent
and meaningful ways of experiencing and expressing the self in the world.
The model is at best a template depicting general process stages, but every
individual will be different as they undergo their unique change experiences.
Variables such as culture, gender, genetics, and recent experiences all shape
the content of change experiences. Worldview often plays an important role
in whether the expressive experiences are reported as spiritual or aesthetic,
with the underlying dynamic structure of these experiences remaining similar. Emotional maturity tends to determine the length of time spent in any
of the three main stages, with more mature individuals spending most of
their session time in the second and third main stages.
The three main stages and the nine substages of the CCP model will now
be presented, integrating ayahuasca and other experiential data, neuroscience
data, where relevant, sacred art iconography, and other evidence relevant
from a variety of academic and spiritual traditions.
Form Dismantling and Healing Processes
After reviewing hundreds of transcripts of ayahuasca reports involving psychological healing, it became clear that many people described the beginning of
their ayahuasca experiences as having some level of anxiety or vague inner
disquiet or concern, often then shifting to an intensification of negative
affect, and finally a dramatic shift to some kind of existential crisis and sense
of losing ones identity. I identify these three substages of form dismantling
and healing as enhanced conflicting energy, tolerating overwhelming experiences, and dismantling of self-schemas.
Enhanced Conflicting Energy. Many ayahuasca reports from the beginning
half of sessions, in particular in individuals having only a few sessions, can
be related to unresolved memories of difficult childhood experiences. Ayahuasca acts to excavate these memories and shape them in new narratives
that are reported as healing and enhanced meaning making. The excerpt
below, reported in John Heusers research, is from an early session of a Western-educated mans ayahuasca experience in which psychological healing is
prominent:
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[I] . . . began to feel even more intense grief . . . for my mothers sadness
and my inability to connect with her and help her when she was alive . . .
for the lack of mothering I received from her . . . Much more weeping
and sobbing . . . More nausea . . . Every time I would get distracted
from my emotions . . . the nausea would surge up to unbearable levels
. . . As soon as I could get back to the feelings, it would subside . . .
Eventually [vomited] . . . [found] myself lying on the floor . . . with
racking sobs. After . . . [an] hour . . . start[ed] to settle down. Still very
sad. Saw [image of] my mother . . . She could see me and spoke but no
sound . . . could not read her lips. She looked about same age as when
she died but not sick . . . I could tell she was very sad about what had
happened in the past and extremely happy about what I was doing now
and felt freed and released by it. [Heuser 2006:70]
In writing about his own form dismantling and healing experiences, the Swiss
psychoanalyst Carl Jung (1989:170) used the words uncertainty, disorientation,
inner pressure, and disturbance, all of which are congruent with the first substage, where enhanced conflicting energy is creating a difficult inner situation
as depicted in Figure 2. It appears that a transformation requires an increase
of conflicting energy. Marie-Louise Von Franz, perhaps Jungs only peer in
regard to her understanding of alchemy, suggests that a necessarily difficult
beginning stage of the alchemical transformation is the nigredo state.
Figure 2 is an engraving from the German alchemist J. D. Myliuss 1622
alchemical work Philosophia reformata, which von Franz suggests is the psy-
f i g u r e 2 . a l c h e m i s t i n t h e n i g r e d o s ta t e : e n h a nc e d c o n f l i c t i n g
en ergy.
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chological equivalent to the nigredo state: a situation of psychological conflict and depression (von Franz 1980:223).
Tolerating Overwhelming Experiences. The second ayahuasca substage,
which I have called tolerating overwhelming experiences, is often experienced
as fear of the unknown in oneself or in the world. Mythological narratives
can be seen as maps of transformation processes that explain why difficult
truths must be facedsuch as why our sense of self, if it is too rigid, must
sometimes be dismantled. Joseph Campbell (1974) related the mythic story of
Kirtimukha (p. 118), the fierce Face of Glory that appears over many doorways leading into many Hindu and Buddhist temples. Figure 3 is a photograph of the 13th-century Hindu temple of Candi Kidal.
In this story, King Jalandhara was foolhardy enough to send the giant Rahu
to try to steal Shiva's bride. Shiva became so enraged that from his brow a
terrifying monster with insatiable hunger emerged to devour Rahu, whereupon Rahu begged for mercy and Shiva relented. The monster screamed
that he was ravenous and asked what he was to do, and Shiva, looking at
him for a moment, said that he could devour himself. So the monster ate all
of himself but his head, and Shiva exclaimed, This is my most magnificent
creation ever! Henceforth it shall be known as Kirtimukha, the Face of
Glory, and must always remain at the entrance of my door. From now on,
nobody comes before me unless they first bow to Kirtimukha (Campbell
f i g u r e 3 . fac e o f g l o r y : t o l e r a t i n g o v e r w h e l m i n g
e x p er i e n c e s .
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1974:118). There are many interpretations of this myth, but in this context the
relevant interpretation is that for us to be transformed and truly alive and creative, we must allow our negative feelings without protest.
Empirical psychotherapy process research regarding the crucial importance
of this same psychophysical process has been identified by Gendlin (1997)
and Greenberg and Safran (1987). Greenberg labeled this stance toward
experience allowing and accepting and found that psychotherapy clients
who could allow and accept their experience in the moment noticed that a
dynamism arose within them that allowed them to feel more alive and experience more fully.
Dismantling of Self-Schemas. In the account by the Western-educated man
reported above in Heusers research, the third substage of dismantling of
self-schemas also appears, in which unbearable nausea, vomiting, and sobbing
is experienced.
Figure 4 is an illustration from Atalanta fugiens, by the German physician
Michael Maier (15681622). For both von Franz and Jung, this alchemical
illustration depicts the symbolic death of the hero king in the foreground,
and can be seen as the kind of imagery that spontaneously arises as part of
the dismantling of self-schemas substage. Such experiences can rarely be consciously approached and allowed and accepted, but they can be endured if
they occur spontaneously. This may be why ayahuasca is so effective in the
healing of seemingly unbearable, unresolved childhood memories: it brings
about an unfolding of spontaneous visual and kinesthetic waking transformative imagery narrative that otherwise is very difficult to allow. From his
alchemical studies, Jung gained confidence that the purpose of the descent .
. . is to show that only in the region of danger can one find the treasure hard
to attain (Jung 1953:335). While the experience of losing ones old sense of
identity can be frightening, it also creates an experiential situation of openness and a readiness to experience a sense of self conditioned not by past
suffering but by creative processes outside conscious awareness that manifest
themselves during the next substages.
Form Creation Processes
In the model, the three substages of the form creation processes are
enhanced inner attunement, enhanced form fluidity, and enhanced compressed
complexity. It is suggested not that these three processes are most primary to
creativity in general, only that they were observed to be most prominent in
the reports of our ayahuasca research participants and have been used to
develop this stage of the CCP model.
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Enhanced Form Fluidity. At this substage, one can consciously explore the
dazzling displays of novel forms that ayahuasca famously helps to facilitate.
Research participants have described these novel form displays as playful,
dynamic, morphing, extremely novel, experimenting with possibilities, improvisation around a theme, intricate, and intelligent. I believe that form fluidity,
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and in fact all of the processes described herein, are multimodal. This fluidity is also reported to occur in spontaneous gestures and is similarly
described, but with the additional descriptors of embodied, channeled movements, attuned tactile communications with some kind of kinesthetic force or
presence, delicate, tender, and exquisitely nuanced. Spontaneous vocalizations
have also been reported to have the same properties.
While it is very hard to communicate in words the kinds of visual and kinesthetic ayahuasca facilitated imagery that may be experienced during the
stage of enhanced form fluidity, the iconographic forms seen in the tunics of
the Huari pre-Columbian Peruvian culture (7501000 C.E.) come very close
to depicting the essential features of enhanced form fluidity, Sawyer (1963)
has illustrated in his drawings in Figure 6bd a progression of Huari tunic
designs that all could be seen as improvisation around a theme, that theme
being shown in Figure 6a of a kneeling half human and half bird attendant
to the staff God carved on the Gateway to the Sun, a stone monumental gate
of the Tiahuanaco culture near Lake Titicaca straddling the border of southern Peru and Western Bolivia. These morphing and dynamic tunic designs
may well be a very similar to ayahuasca experiences because like ayahuasca,
snuffs containing DMT and were in widespread use in the Tiahuanaco and
Huari cultures. Evidence for sacred use of these snuffs being directly linked
to these Huari tuni designs is that the most common sacred icongraphic
theme decorating snuff trays is also the same staff God whose attendant the
tunics depict (Torres 1995).
Neuroscience Correlates of Ayahuasca and Enhanced Form Fluidity. In collaboration with the Colombian anthropologist Luis Eduardo Luna, I traveled
with my dissertation student David Stuckey (2004) to an Amazonian retreat
center near Manaus, Brazil, in 2000. We examined the EEG effects of ayahuasca on two experienced research participants. We found that ayahuasca
decreased the amplitude of the EEG across frequencies, as had been widely
reported in previous research. What was novel and unexpected was that ayahuasca enhanced EEG coherence at the beta and gamma frequencies from
many cortical regions (Stuckey 2004:iv). We knew that this could be an
important finding, but because the study had only two participants with little
artifact-free data, it needed replication.
In Brazil in 2005, I obtained EEG recordings and subjective reports from
research participants before and during ayahuasca sessions. The twelve participants ranged in age from 27 to 60 and consisted of 11 men and 1
woman from various countries including the Netherlands, South Africa,
Colombia, Cyprus, and the United States. All participants had consumed
ayahuasca prior to the study; their experience with the substance ranged
from a minimum of four to over a thousand ayahuasca journeys. Experi-
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f i g u r e 6 . ( a ) G A T E WAY O F T H E S U N , A T T E N D A N T D E I T Y ; T I A H U A N A C O
( B ) A T T E N D A N T D E I T Y I N V E R S I O N 1; ( C ) A T T E N D A N T D E I T Y I N
V E R S I O N 2 ; ( D ) A T T E N D A N T D E I T Y I N V E R S I O N 3.
TAPESTRY
ence with ayahuasca ranged from 1 to 34 years across participants. Participants reported the ayahuasca effects from 15 to 40 minutes after ingestion.
On the basis of hundreds of ayahuasca session reports, it is fairly certain
that most individuals encounter the form dismantling and healing processes
stage about 2040 minutes after feeling the initial ayahuasca effects. On
average, the form creation processes stage lasts for the next 4060 minutes,
with the form expression stage lasting for the next 4060 minutes after that.
The total range of time from ingestion until cessation of effects ranges from
approximately two to four hours for most individuals. Because the process
of recording EEG requires individuals to remain still in order to reduce
muscle artifacts, it is possible to acquire reliable data before effects are felt
and before the form dismantling and healing processes begin but usually
not during this main stage because its intensity makes it all but impossible
for participants to maintain muscle relaxation. Because the first substage of
the form creation process is also quite prone to artifacts, our most reliable
EEG research data has been collected from 80 to 110 minutes after ingestion. During ayahuasca sessions, the self-report data were collected just subsequent to five minute periods of recording the EEG. On the basis of the
phenomenology of ayahuasca reports and of my model, our EEG recordings were acquired from our participants during the substage of enhanced
form fluidity and do not reflect the many other kinds of experiences that
can occur during an ayahuasca session.
We recorded EEG from our 12 participants during an eyes-closed baseline
condition just prior to the ingestion of ayahuasca, using discrete gold sensors
attached to the scalp. Nineteen EEG tracings were obtained in this way,
using the standard international 1020 system to establish the precise scalp
locations. After 80110 minutes, we recorded the EEG again from the same
participants, who, still with eyes closed, were by this time fully experiencing
the effects of ayahuasca. Although EEG can be analyzed in many ways, the
finding that discriminated most robustly between the two conditions was
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f i g u r e 7 . ( a ) s tan d a r d ee g l o c a t io n s f o r s c a l p re c o r d in g . (b )
aya h uas c a a n d b a s e l i n e e e g be ta ( 2 5 3 0 c p s ) c o h e r e n c e
differences.
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f i g u r e 8 . t ib e tan d a k in i f i g u r e .
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79
f i g u r e 9 . t e l l o o b e l i s k ( a ) d r awi n g of ma l e c ay m a n ( l e f t ) ; ( b )
dr awi n g of f em al e c ay ma n (r i ght ) .
the palace. Surrounding and supporting the mandala are many attendant
beings and the area outside of the palace is beautifully ornamented.
Although the mandala is often represented in only two dimensions, when
visualized it also has the vertical dimension of the palace walls; the palace
building itself rises many stories and has a central high axis. This general
plan of a palace in which the deity resides at the central axis is a very widespread narrative that Eliade referred to as the symbolism of the center
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f i g u r e 1 1 . r a i m o n d i s t e l a , c h av i n : en h a n c ed v e rt i c a l at t u n em e n t.
&
f i g u r e 1 2 . t i b e ta n b o d h i s a t t va
ho riz ontal attune me nt.
83
ta r a
( s i t a t a p a tr a ):
en han c ed
84
f i g u r e 1 3 . me v l e v i d e r v i s h da n c i n g .
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notes
1. Figure 9 is an adaptation of a drawing made by Peter G. Roe, professor of anthropology at the University of
Delaware. The original drawing is of a male and a female cayman on the Tello Obelisk found at Chavn de
Huntar in Peru. This image was downloaded and adapted, with Dr. Roes permission, from his website at
http://copland.udel.edu/~roe/chavin.html#tello.
2. The examination of a series of stone head sculptures at the Old Temple at Chavin de Huantar suggests the stages
of a priest transforming from human to a jaguar-like being that could serve as an intermediary between the human
and supernatural realms. Possibly mucus can be seen flowing from the nose of some of these stone heads, and this
has been interpreted as evidence for the use of hallucinogenic snuffs, because these potent substances irritate the
mucous membranes of the nose, causing discharges and visionary altered states of consciousness. The San Pedro
Cactus is also prominently depicted in the iconography at Chavin, suggesting that hallucinogenic snuffs containing
compounds similar to DMT and mescaline from San Pedro probably facilitated the spontaneous visionary experiences at Chavin and contributed to the development of religious beliefs and practices and styles of sacred art (see
Burger 1995:157).
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