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Volume 6, Number 1, January 2016 (Serial Number 56)
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US-China
Education Review
A
Volume 6, Number 1, January 2016 (Serial Number 56)
Contents
Teacher Education
The Effectiveness of Tying Teacher Evaluation Policy to Student Achievement in
South Korea
Sung Tae Jang

The Phenomenon of Discipline in Professional Attitudes of Beginning Teachers
20
Buchtov Tereza, Chud tefan, Plischke Jitka
Curriculum and Teaching

Adoption of the Constructivist Learning Approach in Secondary Schools in Kenya:
Focus on Learner Achievement in Biology by Class Category
31
Gideon M. Mwanda, Paul Odundo, Ronnie Midigo, Owino S. Mwanda

Learning From Failure in an MBA Oral Presentation Course
45
Mari Nishitani
Exploring Postgraduate Students Research Knowledge and Skills in Normality
Tests and Verifications
53
Clement Ayarebilla Ali, Peter Akayuure

Innovative Management in Distance EducationThe Importance of Monitoring
Meetings in a Postgraduate Course in the Multidisciplinary Team Perspective
63
Marize Lyra Silva Passos, Vanessa Battestin Nunes
Globalization of Education
National Trends of Internationalization of Education in Voronezh State University:
Present and Future
Dmitry Endovitsky
70
US-China Education Review A, January 2016, Vol. 6, No. 1, 1-19

doi:10.17265/2161-623X/2016.01.001
DAVID
PUBLISHING
The Effectiveness of Tying Teacher Evaluation Policy to Student

Achievement in South Korea
Sung Tae Jang
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA
Experts in the field of educational policy have identified accountability as an important educational issue. The most
critical debate related to educational accountability has examined the various standards used to evaluate teachers
accountability in the United States (U.S.), specifically in terms of whether student achievement should be included
when evaluating teacher accountability. Similar to the U.S., in South Korea, various governmental efforts have
sought to diversify and solidify standards for teacher evaluation. Debate might emerge as to whether or not student
performance should be included in teacher evaluation in South Korea in order to emphasize stronger accountability.
Thus, this paper examines how the tie between teacher evaluation and student achievement in South Korea relates
to growth rates in individual student achievement. To this end, this study conducts a micro-level analysis focusing
on the effects of individual schools teacher evaluation policy on individual students achievement. The analysis
uses 2,655 teachers in 150 middle schools as well as data on 5,677 middle school students math and reading test
scores from the Korean Educational Longitudinal Study (KELS), implemented by the Korean Educational
Development Institute (KEDI). This study provides insights into the implications of teacher evaluation policies in
South Korea by highlighting the effectiveness of tying such a policy to changes in students achievement. This
examination speaks to the timeliness of research in terms of including students achievement in the teacher evaluation
policy, which is also closely related to other policy changes, such as performance-pay systems in school organizations.
Keywords: teacher evaluation policy, teacher accountability, policy effects, longitudinal analysis
Introduction
Freedom and accountability are intertwined values in a democratic society. Based on this concept, in
recent educational reform initiatives, governments have been eager to provide more freedom to each school to
develop their own curricula that reflect the needs of school communities. For example, School Autonomy
Policy, a critical movement in educational reform in South Korea, has emerged to improve schools
organizational effectiveness by providing K-12 schools with more autonomy. At the same time, the government
has implemented an accountability policy requiring that each school and teacher demonstrate that their students
achieve observable educational outcomes. One way in which the government is carrying out its policy is by
implementing incentive systems and a nationwide test.
Between the values of freedom and accountability, the latter has been discussed as an educational issue
throughout the educational administration field. The most critical debate related to teacher accountability has
Sung Tae Jang, Ph.D. candidate, graduate teaching assistant, Department of Organizational Leadership, Policy, and
Development, University of Minnesota.
TYING TEACHER EVALUATION POLICY TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT
examined the various standards used to evaluate teachers accountability throughout the United States (U.S.),
especially in terms of whether student achievement should be included when evaluating teacher accountability.
The National Council on Teacher Quality (2012) found that 30 states include student achievement in their
teacher accountability policy while more than 40 states have sought to change their laws related to education
policy.
Similar to the U.S., in South Korea, various governmental efforts have sought to diversify and solidify
standards for teacher accountability. South Korean President Lees government announced 100 major projects,
including establishing a support system to increase students achievement and close the achievement gap by
2009. The projects also included stabilizing a national standardized evaluation system of student
accomplishment. Since 2008, this test has targeted every student in 3rd and 6th grades in primary school, 3rd
grade in middle school, and 1st grade of high school. In addition, to address the special enforcement related to
accessing information from an educational organization, each school has to disclose the test results in order to
improve accountability. Similar to teachers strikes against nationwide testing, the teachers, teachers union,
and some parents have come out against this test, and some teachers have even refused to administer the test
(Jeong, Shin, & Lee, 2009).
Although South Korea does not require schools to include student achievement in their teacher evaluation
policy, some schools are currently using student achievement as a standard for evaluating teacher performance
by providing each school more autonomy from the government. Thus, debate might emerge as to whether or
not student performance should be included in teacher evaluation policy in South Korea in order to emphasize
stronger accountability. In addition, many disagreements have emerged in terms of how to evaluate teacher
accountability as well as the validity and reliability of adopting a teacher accountability policy using student
achievement in South Korea.
Scholars are concerned about this issue because changing the teacher evaluation policy is closely related
to other policy changes, such as performance-pay systems in school organizations. In addition, the policy
might affect the degree of teacher motivation or satisfaction, which can affect educational outcomes.
Scholars have carefully examined this issue because a change in the evaluation policy can also influence
teachers collective actions, which might have negative educational impacts on school organizations (e.g.,
the loss of classes).
Although some schools use student achievement to evaluate teachers capability in South Korea, a
sufficient discussion about the effectiveness of teacher evaluation tied to student achievement is lacking in
South Korea. Some scholars might criticize that this examination is too early to conduct nowadays as tying
teacher evaluation to student achievement is not a step in South Koreas policy formulation or
implementation. However, as DiMaggio and Powells (1983) isomorphism theory implies, educational
organizations sometimes use benchmark models after a successful case of leading an organization in the
same nation as well as overseas. Thus, a test-based evaluation system might be used as a policy in South
Korea following the American evaluation policy (Jeong et al., 2009). In addition, as the Korean Educational
Longitudinal Studys (KELS) data indicate, some schools are already using student achievement in
evaluating teachers ability; therefore, thoroughly examining the effectiveness of test-based accountability is
necessary to provide further related policy insights.
The purpose of this study is to examine the effectiveness of a teacher evaluation policy tied to student
achievement in terms of student test scores in the South Korean context. This paper first briefly explores
evaluation policy-related literature in both the U.S. and South Korea from various theoretical perspectives. It
then summarizes the relevant literature focusing on teacher evaluation policy tied to student achievement. The
method section will describe the three-year longitudinal data and linear mixed-effects model (LMM). Then, the
following section will discuss the association between teacher evaluation policy tied to student achievement
and the growth patterns in students performance.
Review of the Related Literature

Teacher Evaluation Policy
Educational accountability refers to the school or teachers responsibility to achieve educational outcomes.
Although schools can have different educational outcomes, such as direct service, human capital, or
development of civic engagement (see Mitchell & Mitchell, 2003), the current teacher evaluation system in the
U.S. is based on measuring students test performance. Unlike the high-stakes evaluation policy in the U.S.,
South Koreas evaluation policy uses low-stakes testing with a less powerful rewards and sanctions system than
the U.S..
U.S.. In the U.S., the No Child Left Behind Acts (NCLB) policy requires strong accountability while
providing autonomy in each school. The policy focuses on increasing accountability, providing more freedom,
utilizing proven methods, and providing more school choices for parents (U.S. Department of Education, 2004).
In particular, the NCLB includes seven principles (U.S. Department of Education, 2006):
1. Ensure that all students are proficient by 2014 and set annual goals to ensure that the achievement gap is
closing for all groups of students;
2. Set expectations for annual achievement based on meeting grade-level proficiency, not on students
background or the schools characteristics;
3. Hold schools accountable for students achievement in reading/language arts and mathematics;
4. Ensure that all students in tested grades are included in the assessment and accountability system, hold
schools and districts accountable for the performance of each student subgroup, and include all schools and
districts;
5. Include assessments in each grade, 3rd through 8th, and in high school for both reading/language arts
and mathematics and ensure that they have been operational for more than one year and receive approval
through the NCLB peer-review process for the 2005-2006 school year; the assessment system must also
produce comparable results from grade to grade and year to year;
6. Track student progress as part of the state data system;
7. Include student participation rates and student achievement on a separate academic indicator in the state
accountability system.
Since the 1980s, standard-based reform has required more accountability among schools. Students
achievement tests have been utilized as a critical factor for evaluating educational accountability (Elmore,
Abelmann, & Fuhrman, 1996; Hanushek & Raymond, 2005). Recently, the value-added model (VAM), which
factors students improvement into educational accountability, has also been discussed in the U.S.. The VAM
seeks to isolate the contribution of individual teachers to student learning in a particular subject in a particular
year by using statistical methods. However, both supporters and detractors of this approach recognize that the
method might not be very reliable. Teachers ranked at the top in any one year might find themselves at the
bottom in the subsequent year (e.g., Loeb & Candelaria, 2013). In addition, Goldhaber and Theobald (2012)
found that the biggest difference between value-added estimates comes between models that ignore possible
school effects and models that explicitly recognize them. The importance of school contexts speaks to the value
of building capacity within an organization, not simply focusing on individual teachers as single entities. In
other words, inducements alone might not be sufficient for creating the infrastructure and capacity necessary to
improve student achievement. The VAM is still contested in the American context, and the models reliability
is continuously being examined.
South Korea. Unlike the teacher evaluation policy in the U.S., South Korean teacher evaluation policy
does not yet fully include student performance. Since the 1990s, South Korea has emphasized accountability
related to outputs and outcomes throughout society. Schools have to be diversified and have more autonomy,
and they should continually increase students and parents choice of schools while formulating educational
policy. On March 20, 2008, the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) announced School
Autonomy Policy, which aimed to improve school organizations effectiveness by providing K-12 schools with
more autonomy and simultaneously requiring more accountability (Jang, 2011). The MEST further expanded
the nationwide student standardized achievement test and reinforced the commitment to providing open
information about the test results. Thus, the South Korean government has attempted to promote increases in
school autonomy and accountability through such efforts (Jeong et al., 2009).
As a second effort to increase accountability of teachers, a teacher evaluation system to promote
professional development (TESPD) was developed in South Korea in 2010. The object of the TESPD is all
teachers who teach primary, middle, and high school, including national, public, and private schools. The
evaluation items include teaching and teachers guidance of students as well as overall school management of
principals and vice principals. The detailed items for evaluating accountability include class preparation,
teaching, evaluation and feedback, guidance of individual students both inside and outside the school, social
life guidance, school supervision, and educational planning (Lee, 2010).
To evaluate these items, students evaluation, parents evaluation, and peer evaluation are utilized.
Students and parents evaluate their degree of satisfaction with the teacher and express their opinion to give
feedback to each teacher. In terms of peer evaluations, colleges evaluate teachers through the usual
observations and classroom performance. To manage the TESPD, each school and educational district office
has a committee to implement the TESPD objectively and appropriately. Teachers submit a self-capability
development plan after receiving the results from colleges, parents, and students. Schools, districts, and the
government also establish and provide plans for supporting the TESPD. Although teacher accountability in
South Korea includes capability building components, teacher accountability is still driven by external
approaches in that the school assessment policy and teacher evaluation policy are promoted by the government
officials and standardized indicators of student achievement (Song, 2013).
Several studies have examined the impact of evaluation policy on teachers and school organizations from
different perspectives. These studies illuminate the impact (e.g., teacher motivation) and issues (e.g., power
structure and achievement gap) related to teacher evaluation policy.
Finnigan and Gross (2007) conducted an interpretivist study related to teacher evaluation policy, focusing
on whether motivation levels changed as a result of the evaluation policy and policy mechanisms. The authors
drew on expectancy and incentive theories, which define a persons belief about the likelihood that his or her
efforts will result in the desired outcome (p. 596) and the external policy mechanisms that establish a penalty
or reward for desired behavior or results (p. 596), respectively. In particular, the authors explored three types
of incentives to which teachers might respond: solidary, purposive, and material. Based on these theories, the
authors analyzed teacher motivation in low-performing schools in Chicago.
This study concluded that teachers were conflicted in their feelings toward the policy itself. Both the
quantitative and qualitative data indicated that, although the teachers understood the need for accountability and
standards, they felt that the means by which the policy was carried out did not respect the challenges they faced
in many cases. The interview data also revealed a measure of frustration as teachers expressed doubt about their
students ability to meet the schools academic goals. In addition, the analysis of teachers time spent on
instructional activities, professional development, and preparation for instructional activities highlighted that
teachers increased efforts across these areas after their schools were placed on probation. The case study
ultimately revealed that teachers in these schools responded to all three types of incentives; the fear of job loss
was an exceptionally serious concern for just over one third of teachers.
Herr and Arms (2004) examined the impact of teacher evaluation policy on a single-sex academy (SSA)
by exploring how accountability measures affected the implementation of what was widely touted as being
primarily a gender-based reform for students at one California middle school. The impact of high-stakes testing
on curriculum and the roles of teachers was addressed as well as how the multiple, simultaneously implemented
reforms derailed the possibilities inherent in the SSA.
The study revealed that teachers expressed concern with the intrusion of testing on curriculum and the
teaching of larger concepts; they felt that the emphasis had become skill-and-drill oriented in terms of the
impact of high-stakes testing. In addition, as teachers tried to implement the mandated test preparation and
packaged reading program, authentic teaching got lost along the way. Thus, the authors concluded that it was a
school on the move with the rising test scores to prove it, while the lived experience in classrooms was one of a
narrowed, reduced curriculum, less meaningful lessons and learning, and less authentic teaching (Herr &
Arms, 2004, p. 550).
Teacher Evaluation Policy Tied to Student Performance (TEPSP)
The second strand of relevant literature focuses on TEPSP. Some studies identified the positive influence
of TEPSP on average student achievement (Carnoy & Lobe, 2002; Hanushek & Raymond, 2005; Jacob, 2005).
Specifically, Carnoy and Lobe (2002) examined factors influencing a strong evaluation policy and whether
stronger statewide evaluation policy improves student outcomes. The authors analyzed each states evaluation
policy using a 0-5 index of strength based on the use of high-stakes testing to sanction and incentivize schools.
As dependent variables, the authors measured average student performance at the state level based on tests,
such as the National Association of Educational Progress (NAEP) math test scores, 9th grade retention rates,
and high school survival tests. The authors employed recursive models to examine the impact of evaluation
policy on student outcomes. Their regression models included student achievement as a dependent variable,
testing whether the percentage of 8th graders or 4th graders achieving at the basic skills level or better
increased more in states with stronger accountability policy between 1996 and 2000. In addition, the authors
included 9th grade retention rates in states and 10th-12th grade survival rates as dependent variables, running
these models to verify the number of specifications. They used data sets from the NAEP and National Center of
Educational Statistics (NCES) for math results, data from state departments of education webpages for
accountability policy details, and NCES data for retention rates and high school completion rates. To measure
the strength of accountability policies in each state, data from the Consortium for Policy Research in Education
(CPRE) were used. The results of their study indicated that a positive and significant relationship exists between
the strength accountability policy and math achievement gains. This positive relationship exists for all Black,
White, and Hispanic students. In addition, the higher the rate of minority students, the stronger the accountability
policy is. However, the data did not indicate a relationship between accountability and 9th grade retention rates
and high school completion rates. Thus, the authors provided evidence that stronger pressure on schools or
districts during high-stakes testing leads to larger gains in student performance in NAEP math scores.
Hanushek and Raymond (2005) conducted an additional study related to evaluation policy, focusing not
only on student achievement, but also on achievement gaps among Black, Hispanic, and White students. The
authors sought to isolate the effects of teacher evaluation policy on performance, such as differences in
circumstances and policies of each state and time-varying inputs (e.g., parental education and school spending).
They also categorized the state results for Black, Hispanic, and White students to identify gaps among
ethnicities. The authors measured student performance in 37 states according to the average score on NAEP. In
addition, evaluation policies in each state were classified by whether or not they both report results and attach
consequences to school performance (i.e., consequential states) or simply stop at providing a public report (i.e.,
report card states) (Hanushek & Raymond, 2005, p. 306). Similar to Carnoy and Lobes (2002) study,
Hanushek and Raymond (2005) found that the introduction of a consequential evaluation policy had a positive
impact on NAEP performance. However, the report card states evaluation policy did not have a significant
influence on performance. In addition, both Blacks and Hispanics achieved smaller gains relative to Whites.
Thus, the evaluation policy did not uniformly close the achievement gaps among ethnicities.
In summary, several studies examining the effectiveness of TEPSP have shown improvements in students
achievement scores on high-stakes tests. However, these previous studies are limited in terms of using
state-level data, which might cause aggregation bias and cannot reveal the effect of teacher accountability on
individual students achievement. In addition, this limitation might lead to methodological issues in terms of
missing values, thereby, causing unreliable results, although this was not mentioned in any of the studies. In
order to address these limitations, this study analyzes individual students data to highlight the effectiveness of
TEPSP at the student level and uses a more accurate statistical model to address the methodological issue. In
particular, this study examines the effectiveness of teacher evaluation tied to student achievement in terms of
the individual students development or change on standardized test scores.
To achieve a better understanding of the effectiveness of teacher evaluation tied to student achievement,
this paper establishes the following four research questions:
1. To what extent does variability exist in individual students achievement scores in terms of intercept
(starting point) and slope (change rate)?
2. Which student-level variables can explain the variability in the intercept and slope of individual students
achievement score?
3. Which school-level variables can explain the variability in the intercept and slope of individual students
achievement score?
4. What is the relationship between TEPSP and the changes in individual achievement scores? (i.e., To
what extent can TEPSP explain variability in the intercept and slope of individual students achievement scores?)
To examine these research questions, the next part describes the data and the model-selection procedure to
establish a base model for capturing the variability of individual scores. A covariance test is subsequently
employed to examine the variables and explain the variability in the intercept and slope of student achievement
scores, which will suggest the best model for explaining and identifying the effectiveness of teacher evaluation
tied to student achievement in the South Korean context. Finally, based on the identified best model, this paper
examines the longitudinal effect of test-based evaluation policy.
Method
Data and Research Design
This study used data from the KELS implemented by the Korean Educational Development Institute
(KEDI). KELS started in 2005 with 6,908 1st grade student samples from 150 middle schools1 in South Korea.
As an ongoing study, it has tracked these students at one-year intervals to investigate learning and educational
activities experienced in their families, schools, and social lives as well as their cognitive and non-cognitive
development.
Because the data have a hierarchical structure with students grouped in schools, this paper deals with two
levels of grouping in the data. With the addition of time, the data expand to a three-level data hierarchy:
(a) within students varying across time; (b) between students; and (c) between schools. The dependent variable,
ysij, denotes the value of Korean scores2 for i student (i = 1, , 5,677) in s school (s = 1, , 124) at time j
(j = 0, 1, 2, corresponding to values of first, second, or third year of middle school, respectively). As middle
school students in South Korea have different teachers each year, which prevents an interdependency issue, this
study uses two levels of grouping (student- and school- level). The students Korean language performance was
analyzed using a LMM with three time points. LMM for longitudinal data is a widely used method in social
sciences, biostatistics, economics, and education. Although analysis of variance (ANOVA) has also been
widely used in the education field, the strengths of LMM make it more attractive to advanced researchers when
analyzing data. In other words, LMM allows for missing data and various options for the variance-covariance
matrix of random effects (Ryoo, 2011).
This study used a random effect because individual test scores have a unique variability within themselves.
TEPSP is considered to be a static binary predictor, where 0 indicates teacher evaluation not including student
performance and 1 indicates teacher evaluation tied to student performance. As this is a non-experimental
design, this study cannot report casual effects. However, it can investigate the effectiveness of TEPSP on
students performance through model comparison (Ryoo & Hong, 2010). The reasons for using LMM will be
specifically revisited later in this paper (see Model Selection).
Furthermore, the variance components including variances-covariances of random effects that contain
potentially useful information regarding individual differences are estimated using maximum likelihood (ML).
ML is the method by which parameter estimation is tied to a particular distribution in order to find the distribution
that best matches the data. This study used ML estimation instead because the ML method provides the most
satisfactory approach for obtaining estimates. In addition, it enables us to obtain an unbiased estimation. Finally,
this study has a large enough sample; the restricted ML is used with small samples.
In this study, the model was assumed to have an independent error structure. As the measurement points of
testing are far apart (i.e., a year), students scores will change, meaning that residuals will be uncorrelated with
1
School systems in South Korea are composed of six years in primary school, three years in middle school, and three years in
high school.
2
The Korean test examines language capability, including reading, grammar, listening, speaking, and writing in South Korea,
similar to a language test in the U.S..
each other. This situation would be hard to explain using other error structures, such as auto-regressive or
compound symmetry, in the field of social sciences, such as education.
The decision to select a model within a nested model should be based on the likelihood ratio test (LRT)
between the full model that includes the random effect(s) and the reduced model excluding the random effect(s)
(Anderson, 2008). This study used a step-up approach to examine models to best capture the effect of TEPSP
among the model-building approach (e.g., step-up, top-down, subset, and inside out) as it is a common
practice that applied researchers seek for the best fitting model starting from the simplest model, such as
random-intercepts model, proceeding to more complex models until the selected model is not significantly
different from the more complex model (Ryoo, 2011, p. 28). The Linear Mixed-Effects Models using Eigen
and S4 (LME4) package (Bates, Maechler, & Bolker, 2012) in R 2.15.1 (R Core Team, 2012) was used to
conduct analyses in this study.
Sampling
The sample for KELS was gathered from 703,914 1st grade students in 2,929 middle schools throughout
South Korea with the exception of physical education focused middle schools and branch schools. The sampled
students parents constituted the sampled parents, and their teachers and schools constituted the sampled
teachers and schools. A stratified cluster random sampling method was used to acquire the sample. First, the
nation was classified with strata according to the regional scale, and sample schools as clusters were extracted
from the strata. Finally, the sampled students were extracted from those sample schools. The regional scales
include four categories: Seoul (capital city), five major metropolitan areas, urban areas, and rural areas. The
number of schools in each regional category was determined using a proportionate stratified sampling method
based on the proportion of the number of students in each category. Fifty students were sampled from each of
the middle schools. A random sampling method was used to sample the schools from each stratum and students
from each school. Table 1 shows the population and sampling size of 1st grade middle school students
according to the regional scale in 2005.
Table 1
Population and Sample Size of Schools, Students, and Teachers
Regional scale
Seoul
Metropolitan/major cities
Urban areas
Rural areas
Sum
Population
362
598
1,233
736
2,929
Schools
Sample
Percentage (%)
26
7.18
38
6.35
45
3.65
41
5.57
150
5.12
Population
130,012
197,120
330,000
46,782
574,169
1st grade middle school students

Sample
Percentage (%)
1,237
0.95
1,939
1.03
1,851
0.77
1,881
1.34
6,908
0.98
As Table 1 shows, 150 schools were sampled: 26 schools in Seoul, 38 schools in the five major
metropolitan cities, 45 schools in urban areas, and 41 schools in rural areas. In total, 6,908 1st grade middle
school students were sampled. In addition, three years of achievement data from the 1st to the 3rd grades of
middle school were used to examine the effectiveness of TEPSP. As middle school students in South Korea go
to different high schools, each student has teachers held to different teacher evaluation policies, making it
challenging to capture the continuous effect of teacher evaluation tied to student achievement in South Korean
contexts. Thus, this study focused on analysis in the middle school context.
Variables and Descriptive Statistics

In order to identify the base model for examining the effectiveness of teacher evaluation tied to student
performance, this study used student- and school- level covariates. After identifying the base model to capture
the variability of the intercept and slope of students Korean test score, TEPSP and students Korean scores
were added to the base model, with the latter as a dependent variable. The following subsections provide
specific explanations about each covariate, focal predictor, and dependent variable.
Student-level covariate. As several educational studies have demonstrated, family socioeconomic status
(SES) has a critical effect on a students achievement (Batool, Naureen, & Kanwa, 2010; Dubow, Boxer, &
Huesmann, 2009; Sirin, 2005; White, 1982). Thus, educational research has established SES as a control
variable to examine the effect of other focal variables. There are different ways to measure SES, such as family
income and parents education levels. Although family income was available to use in the current study, it was
not included because it can lead to many missing values as parents sometimes choose not to provide such
information. In addition, mothers education level has been shown to be a critical variable for predicting
students achievement in school (Magnuson, 2007; Parveen & Alam, 2008); thus, it was used as a covariate at
the student level for the current study. A dummy-coded covariate for mothers education level was used: less
than a high school diploma was coded as 0, and served as a reference group; a bachelors degree was coded as 1;
masters and Ph.D. degrees were coded as 2.
School-level covariate. The region where a school is located is included as a school-level covariate. In the
South Korean context, severe achievement gaps exist between cities and rural areas (Shin, 2006; Woo, 2011) as
well as within the Seoul metropolitan area (Ha, 2005). Thus, a variable for indicating whether the school is
located in an urban or rural area was included as a covariate. Schools in metropolitan areas or small and
medium-sized cities were coded as 1 in the urban variable. Schools located in rural areas (except cities) were
coded as 0 and served as a reference group. Other school-level covariates were also tested in the initial analysis,
but they did not statistically affect student achievement (e.g., school size and per-pupil expenditure), and thus,
were not included in this analysis.
Key predictor. TEPSP was the key predictor used. To determine whether a school uses student
performance to evaluate teacher capability, the school questionnaire included question 16-2: Does your school
use the results of students performances to evaluate teachers capabilities? Schools that responded 1 = Yes
were dummy-coded as Including students performance in teacher accountability (INCL) (= 1); schools that
marked 2 = No were coded as Not including students performance in teacher accountability (NOINCL)
(= 0). Students attending schools that did not respond or marked 3 = We do not know were not included in
this analysis. The 110 NOINCL schools (80.3%) included 4,988 students (72.2%); the 14 INCL schools (10.2%)
included 689 students (17.8%). There were also 26 (9.5%) missing values, including schools marked as We do
not know; thus, 1,231 (10.0%) students were treated as missing values. The treatment of missing values will
be discussed later in this paper (see Missing Values). The sample sizes in terms of including student
performance in teacher evaluation are shown in Table 2. As the main purpose of this study was to examine the
effect of TEPSP, the examination included the TEPSP variable. The Korean scores of 5,677 students, excluding
those with missing values, were used to examine the effect of TEPSP.
In order to identify the initial differences between students in schools with TEPSP and without TEPSP,
this study compared the means of students performance in the previous year (i.e., 6th grade in elementary
10
school) between two groups. An independent sample t-test showed that the difference in previous student
performance between schools with TEPSP (N = 688; M = 5.83; SD = 2.31) and without TEPSP (N = 4,989;
M = 5.67; SD = 2.27) was not statistically significant (t(5,675) = -1.783; p = 0.08, two-tailed). This result indicates
that the initial conditions (i.e., students performance) between the two groups were similar, which allows for
analyses of the effectiveness of TEPSP.
Table 2
Number of INCL Schools vs. NOINCL Schools
Number
Schools
Percentage (%)
Number
Students
Percentage (%)
Schools with TEPSP

Schools without TEPSP
Missing
14
110
26
10.2
80.3
9.5
689
4,988
1,231
17.8
72.2
10.0
Sum
150
100.0
6,908
100.0
Dependent variable. Students Korean scores were the dependent variables in this study and were
obtained for 1st through 3rd grade middle school students in KELS. KELS administered standardized tests to
the sampled students. To develop common criteria and examine the relationship among the test scores in each
grade, vertical scaling was used in the KELS test instead of raw scores. In addition, KELS developed vertical
scaling using Item Response Theory (IRT), which has been shown to be more reliable and stable than classical
test theory (CTT) (KEDI, 2009). Specifically, the test scores are vertical scaling scores with a mean of 300
points in the 1st grade and a standard deviation (SD) of 50; they increase 100 points on average annually. In
terms of using vertical scaling scores in KELS, Lee, Im, Park, and Kim (2010) concluded that the factors used
would not threaten the validity of the vertical scale of KELS. These include the relatively small sample size for
applying item response models and the related instability issue of item parameter estimates, the problem of
adding manipulated growth information (e.g., 100-point growth per grade) onto the vertical scale, the impact of
the use of differentially functioning items as common items for vertical scaling, and the implementation of a
number correct-to-scale score conversion table instead of pattern scoring. Thus, the authors recommended
maintaining the level of score variation within grades studied in 2005 to support the comparison of student
achievement growth over several years after 2005.
Students grades in middle school were coded as a time variable; for example, the first time point was the
Korean score in the 1st grade of middle school. Means (with SD in parentheses) for Korean scores in 1st
through 3rd grades were 299.8 (57.6), 393.21 (65.37), and 499.69 (61.72), respectively, as shown in Table 3.
Table 3
Descriptive Statistics of Korean Scores in Each Grade
N
Mean
SD
1st grade
2nd grade
3rd grade
6,751
299.8
57.6
6,438
393.21
65.37
6,283
499.69
61.72
The mean difference in Korean scores between 1st and 2nd grades was 93.41that is, the mean increased
by about 100. In addition, the mean difference in Korean scores between 2nd and 3rd grades was 106.48that
is, the mean increased by more than 100.
11
Missing Values
Missing values are a critical issue that can decrease the sample size, meaning the sample cannot properly
represent the population. Fitzmaurice, Laird, and Ware (2004) highlighted three issues related to missing
observations in longitudinal studies. First, when the data are missing, the data set becomes unbalanced over
time. Second, a loss of information and a reduction in precision occur. Third, certain assumptions about the
reasons for any missing information, called the missing data mechanismsuch as missing completely at
random (MCAR), missing at random (MAR), and not missing at random (NMAR)are required.
The missing data in this study were categorized as MAR, indicating that responses are missing depending
on the set of observed responses, but are unrelated to the specific missing values that, in principle, should have
been obtained (Fitzmaurice et al., 2004, p. 95). In other words, the data can be considered MAR if the
missingness does not depend on the value of Xi after controlling for another variable (Howell, 2007). In this
study, the missingness of response variables was caused by transferring to another school, making it impossible
to measure the test scores and random absences on the test day (KEDI, 2009); thus, the missing data can be
categorized as MAR. As Howell (2007) indicated, the situation in which the data are at least MAR is
sometimes referred to as ignorable missingness as we can still produce unbiased parameter estimates without
needing to provide a model to explain missingness. Thus, this missingness does not affect the significantly
different results in further analysis.
Model Selection
To capture the variability among individual students 1st grade Korean scores and the individual change
in scores from 1st to 3rd grades, this study employed a base model with a fixed intercept and random
intercept. In this study, the fixed intercept indicates the mean score of the 1st grade whereas the fixed slope
indicates the change rate of mean Korean scores from the 1st to 3rd grades. In addition, the random intercept
indicates the variability of 1st grade Korean scores from the mean whereas the random slope indicates the
variability of the change rate between participants. Finally, the error means residual indicates variability
within participants.
As Figure 1 demonstrates, the 50 randomly sampled students Korean scores among 5,677 sample students
highlighted the variability in intercept scores among participants, clearly indicating the characteristics of
students Korean scores. Thus, this study first employed the base model that included fixed intercept, random
intercept, and error.
Using the base model, this study selected the best-fitting model to explain the individual score variability
by using the LRT. The LRT is the way of building models with null hypothesis significance testing (NHST).
NHST requires the statement of a null hypothesis prior to the data analysis, and is used to determine which
predictors should be included in the model. Specially, this paper uses the step-up method that begins with a
simple model and NHST is used to see if the model can be made more complex by adding predictors. Thus, the
best-fitting model was selected by using the LRT after adding the fixed slope and random slope, in order.
NHST uses the log-likelihood test because the testing models are nested across the steps in NHST rather than
using the Akaike information criterion (AIC) or Bayesian information criterion (BIC).
12
Figure 1. Fifty randomly sampled students Korean scores.
Results
Table 4 summarizes the model comparison steps and selected base model including Chi-square estimates
of the LRT. This result suggests that the final base model including school effects is Model 8, which includes
both the fixed and random slopes in both student and school level, mothers education as a student-level
covariate, schools urbanicity as a school-level covariate, and the interaction between schools urbanicity and
grade. Thus, Model 8 was selected to examine the effect of TEPSP.
Table 4
Model Comparison Using the LRT for Baseline Model in School Level
Null hypothesis
H01
H02
H03
H04
H05
H06
H07
Model comparison
Model 1 vs. Model 2
Model 2 vs. Model 3
Model 3 vs. Model 4
Model 4 vs. Model 5
Model 5 vs. Model 6
Model 6 vs. Model 7
Model 7 vs. Model 8
Notes. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.
Added predictor
Chi-square
Fixed slope effects
153.42***
Random slope effects
13.86***
Student covariate (mother education)
203.82***
School-level random intercept effect
285.91***
School-level random slope effect
178.06***
School covariate (urbanicity)
5.64*
Interaction between urbanicity and grade
9.48**
Df
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
Selected base model

Model 2
Model 3
Model 4
Model 5
Model 6
Model 7
Model 8
13
Table 5 shows the parameter estimates and variance components of base model (i.e., Model 8). The fixed
effect of estimated intercept is 168.97, illustrating the predicted mean Korean score in the 1st grade. The fixed
effect of estimated linear slope is 108.24, indicating the mean increase in Korean score for each grade. In
addition, the fixed effect of mothers education is 21.24, indicating, on average, a student who has a mother
with a bachelors or above degree achieves 21.24 higher on the Korean score than a student whose mother is
without a bachelors degree. Similary, the fixed effect of schools urbanicity (28.52) shows, on average,
students in urban areas tend to score 28.52 points higher than students in rural areas. Finally, the interaction
between schools urbanicity and grades shows the different score growth between urban schools and rural
schools. In particular, the amount by which Korean scores are expected to change per grade for urban schools is
99.65, which is less than 8.59, while score growth for rural schools is 108.24.
Table 5
Parameter Estimates and Variance Components of Model 8
Fixed effects
Variance components
Intercept
Grade
Mothers education
Schools urbanicity
Schools urbanicity Grade
Var (b0si)
Var (b1si)
Var (b0s)
Var (b1s)
Var (esij)
Parameter
0
1
2
3
4
0si
1si
0s
1s
2
Estimates
168.97
108.24
21.24
28.52
-8.59
1,472.43
2.94
488.83
68.60
1,496.33
Standard error
6.85
2.60
1.82
7.28
2.77
-
t value
24.68
41.61
11.66
3.91
-3.11
-
The estimated variance of the random student-level intercept (1,472.43) shows the estimated variability
around fixed intercept across all students. In addition, the estimated variance of random student-level slope
(2.94) is the estimated variability around fixed slope across all students. Finally, the estimated school-level
variance of random intercept (488.83) and slope (68.60) indicates the variability around fixed intercept and
slope across all schools.
Analysis of the Effectiveness of TEPSP
Effectiveness of TEPSP. To examine the effect of TEPSP on individual students Korean scores, TEPSP
was added to the baseline model (Model 8) as a covariate. Thus, Model 9 was extended from Model 8 by adding a
TEPSP covariate to hypothesize that individual variability in intercepts and slopes is caused by the TEPSP
variable. As previously indicated, the TEPSP variable is a categorical variable: 0 = NOINCL and 1 = INCL.
NOINCL was used as a reference group. Comparing Model 8 and Model 9 as well as Model 9 and Model 10, the
effect of TEPSP is statistically significant, but TEPSP and grade interaction is not significant. Table 6 shows the
results of the LRT.
Table 6
Model Comparison Using the LRT for TEPSP
Null hypothesis
H08
H09
Model comparison
Model 8 vs. Model 9
Model 9 vs. Model 10
Added predictor
TEPSP
Interaction between TEPSP and grades
Chi-square
5.19*
1.37
Df
1
1
Selected model
Model 9
Model 9
14
Model 9, including TEPSP, is selected to explain the variability in the change of Korean scores. In other
words, a significant difference exists between NOINCL and INCL Korean intercept scores, but no interaction
between TEPSP and grade.
As Table 7 shows, the slope of Grade (1) is 108.25, which indicates the amount by which Korean scores
are expected to change per unit of grade for students in rural schools. Urban schools have a different change
rate of 95.67 as the interaction (4) indicates. In addition, the estimate of mothers education (2) shows that for
a student with a mother who has a bachelors degree or above a bachelors degree, the Korean score in the first
grade of middle school is 21.26 points higher than that of a student who has a mother with an educational level
below a bachelors degree. The estimate of 5 is -8.62, which indicates the difference in Korean scores between
non-TEPSP and TEPSP in the 1st grade when other variables are held constant. However, the interaction
between TEPSP and grade is not statistically significant, which indicates that there are no differences in score
gain per grade between non-TEPSP and TEPSP. The 65.8% of variance in individual students Korean scores is
accounted for by variables in Model 9, which also enables us to assess how effective the model by R2-type
statistic is. Comparing Model 8 and Model 9, the two models differ in that TEPSP does not appear in Model 8,
and Model 8 is nested within Model 9. The log-likelihood test shows that there is a statistically significant
intercept effect of TEPSP in Model 9 by rejecting the reduced model (Model 8). Thus, Model 9 is retained as
the final model in this study. As Figure 2 shows, there is a statistically significant difference in the predicted
Korean scores of 1st grade between TEPSP and non-TEPSP, but there are no differences in the growth rates
between TEPSP and non-TEPSP.
Table 7
Parameter Estimates and Variance Components of Model 9
Fixed effects
Variance components
Intercept
Grade
Mother education
Schools urbanicity
Schools urbanicity Grade
Teacher evaluation policy
Var (b0si)
Var (b1si)
Var (b0s)
Var (b1s)
Var (esij)
Parameter
0
1
2
3
4
5
0si
1si
0s
1s
2
Estimates
169.65
108.25
21.26
29.44
-12.58
-8.62
1,472.54
2.94
458.02
68.58
1,496.33
Standard error
6.72
2.60
1.82
7.15
5.44
2.76
-
t value
25.26
41.62
11.68
4.12
-2.31
-3.12
-
Model assumption test. This subsection examines the assumptions for the mixed-effects model. In this
study, Model 9 was based on the general mixed-effects model and assumed that a multivariate normal
distribution of the random effects that indicate both random effects (e.g., random intercept, random slope, and
error) should have a normal distribution. The assumption was tested by looking at a quantile-quantile (Q-Q)
plot of the estimated individual intercepts and slopes. As the second assumption, the errors should be normally
distributed with a mean of 0. This assumption was also tested using a histogram of errors, and the normal
distribution of error was also plausible. Finally, the errors should be independent of each other, and there was
no systematical pattern in the plot residuals against predictor (time variable). Thus, the three assumptions for
random effects are plausible.
15
Figure 2. Predicted lines for Korean scores according to TEPSP.
Discussion
This study explores the effectiveness of tying teacher evaluation to student achievement at the individual
student level in South Korea. Specifically, it examines the relationship between teacher evaluation policy and
growth rates in students individual achievement scores across time in middle school. This study identified the
statistically significant difference in the 1st grade students achievement score between TEPSP and non-TEPSP,
but there is no significant effect on the growth of students achievement score in the presented model. However,
the results should be interpreted with caution, because this study does not use an experimental design and the
lack of variation (i.e., 110 schools do not include student achievement in the teacher evaluation while only 14
schools include it) could make it difficult to examine the patterns of relationships between the evaluation policy
and student achievement. With this in mind, there are several discussion points and recommendations for
further research.
The first research question related to the variability of individual scores intercept; a change was identified
from the model selection process. As previous literature illustrates (Magnuson, 2007; Parveen & Alam, 2008),
mothers education level (i.e., whether a mother has a bachelors degree or above or not) positively influences
the individual students initial score in the 1st grade, not surprisingly. However, there is no effect of mothers
16
education on the growth rate of students achievement score. That is, the effect of mothers education on the
student achievement score sustains across time in the middle school in the model. Furthermore, the
achievement gap between rural schools and urban schools exists in the initial test scores: as the data illuminate,
urban schools have 29.44 points higher scores than rural schools. However, urban schools have a different
growth rate of 95.67 points while rural schools have a growth rate of 108.25 points. This might be caused by
the differences in educational inputs, such as difference of teacher quality between urban and rural areas. In
addition, educational process based on the policy effect might cause the different student achievement growth
between rural and urban schools. For example, high schools in South Korea are grouped into equalization high
schools or non-equalization high schools. The latter one requires an entrance exam and selects students for their
school, while in the former one, the educational office randomly chooses students among applicants. Thus, the
growth rate in equalization or non-equalization high schools might vary between rural and urban areas, which
could cause overall different growth rate.
Second, there is a significant difference in the intercepts of individual Korean scores between TEPSP and
non-TEPSP. Specifically, the students in schools that do not include student achievement in the teacher
evaluation are higher than students in schools that include student achievement in the teacher evaluation in the
model. The initial difference between TEPSP and non-TEPSP might be due to other school-level factors, such
as the principals leadership and educational revenue or expenditures, which were not considered in the final
model. However, more importantly, the impact of teacher evaluation including student achievement on the
growth rates of individual scores, which is the main interest in this study, was not statistically significant, as
Figure 2 shows. This result casts a doubt on the assumption that strong accountability through including student
achievement will lead to improve student achievement in South Korea. Based on the result that evaluating
teachers based on student achievement does not necessarily increase the student growth, a merit pay system
incentivizing by the TEPSP might be misaligned.
Third, the relationship between TEPSP and other variables related to students and teachers (e.g., teacher
motivation, student satisfaction, and organizational effectiveness) should be explored from a comprehensive
standpoint, given that students educational outcomes cannot be explained using only test scores. This is
because unexpected educational outcomes can also emerge in the school organization. Specifically, TEPSP
schools might cause stress for teachers. In addition, the teachers might not conduct a study of teaching
materials as they focus only on increasing students test scores. As a result, the degree of students satisfaction
with teaching and overall educational quality might decrease despite increased scores.
Finally, several limitations of this study should be considered. This study used a quantitative method,
incorporating a longitudinal LMM. It only explored the linear relationship between TEPSP and students
Korean test scores. As a result, it could not reveal macro policy insights beyond the quantifiable relationship
illuminated by using other research methods, such as interviews and class observations. Thus, TEPSP-related
issues need to be explored from diverse perspectives, such as interpretivism and poststructuralism, for
epistemological flexibility. In addition, this study used only Korean scores as the dependent variable and only
sought to examine the effect of TEPSP within middle schools. Thus, the relationship between TEPSP and other
subjects scores, such as math scores, social studies scores, and science scores, from elementary school to
middle school as well as exclusively in middle school, should be examined. Finally, other extraneous variables
related to teacher and school effects, such as school climate and teacher professionalism, might exist. Further
research also needs to use a top-down approach to start with a fuller model that includes at least all plausible
17
blocking variables. TEPSP itself might not be judged as having succeeded or failed; thus, efforts should be
made to develop a more delicate model related to TEPSP in future research.
Conclusion
This study sought to identify the variability of individual students Korean test scores as well as examine
the relationship between TEPSP and the change in individual Korean test scores. The results of this study led to
several conclusions.
First, the results of analyzing the TEPSP model indicated variability in individual intercepts and slopes in
Korean scores. Second, the results indicated that TEPSPs influence on the growth rate in individual students
Korean scores within middle school is not statistically significant. This study also emphasized the need for
cautious interpretation of the results, as this study did not use an experimental design and TEPSP has not yet
been implemented as specific policy in South Korea.
To provide policy insights based on the results, further research should be conducted to examine whether
the test skills cause the increase in the students scores under TEPSP; such research could prevent TEPSP from
making education in South Korea more entrance exam oriented. In addition, further research should examine
the relationship between TEPSP and other variables related to students satisfaction and teacher motivation.
Scholars have made it clear that TEPSP could affect students performance, but there is no well-defined
strategy to determine on how it does so.
This study is significant in terms of cultivating TEPSP-related issues as unexplored areas in South Korea.
This study can serve as a starting point to lead to more developed models using longitudinal data and diverse
studies from different perspectives related to TEPSP in South Korea.
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doi:10.17265/2161-623X/2016.01.002
DAVID
PUBLISHING
The Phenomenon of Discipline in Professional Attitudes of

Beginning Teachers*
Buchtov Tereza, Chud tefan, Plischke Jitka
Palacky University, Olomouc, the Czech Republic
The study outlines basic phenomena of discipline as the basic concepts of professional attitudes of beginning
teachers. The contemporary theories of discipline, basic teachers attitudes, and initial stage of the research of
preconceptions focused on dealing with management of discipline of young students in the process of education are
introduced here. This paper aims to describe and analyze the concept of discipline among beginning teachers,
interpret the contemporary theories of discipline, and describe the ways and means a beginning teacher may handle
a lack of discipline among young students. Furthermore, it aims to check the inclusion of discipline in the training
of primary school teachers. Content analysis is used as the methodology. In the context of content analysis, texts of
study programs with an emphasis on the occurrence of selected features/concepts are investigated. The concepts are
formed by the words, phrases, or assertions relating to the area of discipline and its position in the educational
training of future teachers.
Keywords: discipline, discipline theory, concept of discipline, content analysis
Introduction
The notion of discipline carries several meanings. Each person perceives discipline in a different way,
some as obedience only, some as a code of conduct, and others as habits acquired within personal upbringing.
These opinions are to a larger, but also to a lesser extent close to the truth (Makarenko, 1957, p. 31). The word
discipline, as a complex phenomenon, affects peoples lives every day in all areas. People encounter this
concept either consciously or unconsciously, such as at work, where they adhere to a certain code, or in the
family, where they must act as heroes, but they should behave themselves in their spare time too.
However, young students of primary schools encounter this term most often. According to Bendl (2004),
discipline can be defined as conscious adherence to specified standards of conduct (p. 23). That means the
conscious subjecting of oneself to specified standards and conscious respect for the rules, regulations, or
provisions. For that reason, the word conscious is included in the definition, because it is important that a
person is aware of the standards and knows what kind of behavior is required.
From other definitions, we can mention Rotterov (1973), who stated that discipline in the old school is
*
Acknowledgments: IGA_PdF_2015_008The phenomena of discipline and its changes in the process of constituting the
professional beliefs of future teachers.
Internal grant of PDF UP: From subjective implicit theories of education to teaching knowledge. The process of constitution of a
cognitive framework sciences education in the national and international context.
Buchtov Tereza, Ph.D. candidate, Faculty of Education, Palacky University.
Chud tefan, Ph.D., supervisor, Faculty of Education, Palacky University.
Plischke Jitka, Ph.D., lecturer, Faculty of Education, Palacky University.
DISCIPLINE IN PROFESSIONAL ATTITUDES OF BEGINNING TEACHERS
21
usually defined by efforts to suppress and break the young students will, it commands the individual, limits
and punishes him/her (p. 47). This definition talks about unconscious discipline, which is forced. There are
many definitions of discipline.
One of the older definitions of discipline comes from Makarenko (1957), who defined discipline as:
Discipline is not to be understood as a means of education only. Discipline is the result of educational process,
primarily the result of all the efforts of the very collective of inmates, manifested in all spheres of life: industry, personal,
academic, cultural. (p. 30)
Least but not last, it is necessary to mention the definition of discipline made by Uher (1924), who also
dealt with problems related to discipline and defined it as follows: Discipline is either voluntary or forced
submission of either an individual or specific society to certain authority, order, either selected upon free will or
imposed from the outside (p. 23). According to Uher, this definition of discipline is reflected in the behavior in
a classroom, a gang, as well as in the case of a moral person and also in pedagogical discipline.
Theoretical Background
The following text discusses the theories (models) of discipline, which must be defined in the context of
this paper.
Skinners Model of Discipline
Skinners keynotes are mentioned here as the first theory of discipline. This model includes a new
application of Skinners basic ideas. Skinner himself never proposed a model of school discipline. Other
authors took over his ideas and adapted them to control behavior of young students at schools. The following
ideas clarify the meaning of Skinners model:
1. Human behavior is formed upon consequences that follow in the case of each individual immediately
after he/she behaves in a certain way;
2. Good behavior of a young student can be systematically reinforced through appropriate guidance;
3. Behavior diminishes if it is not reinforced;
4. Behavior is also weakened by punishment;
5. In the early stages of learning, its constant strengthening leads to the most efficient outcome;
6. Once the desired level is reached by learning, it is maintained the best by occasional reinforcement
performed from time to time only;
7. Changes in behavior are implemented in two ways:
(a) The teacher monitors the young students uncontrollable behavior, when the teacher rewards him/her
for his/her behavior, then the young student seems more likely to repeat such behavior.
(b) The teacher monitors the young students involuntary behavior, when the teacher either ignores or
punishes a young student and then he/she rewards a young student who behaves correctly, the misbehaving
young student is less likely to repeat his/her behavior.
8. Change in behavior successfully applies different kinds of stimuli. They include social stimuli, such as
verbal comments, facial expressions, gestures, graphic stimuli (for example, grades and stars), leisure activities,
cooperation with friends, and tangible rewards (such as prizes and diplomas).
Skinners model can be a powerful model for class teachers, the one that can be easily adjusted and
applied to young students of various age and from different environment.
22
Glasers Model of Rational Choice

One of the other theories of discipline is Glasers model of rational choice. Glasers work in the area of
school discipline focuses on two spheres. The first area focuses on the provision of such class environment and
curricula that motivate young students and reduce inappropriate behavior upon meeting the basic needs of the
young students, such as ownership, power, fun, and freedom. The second area helps young students learn
appropriate behavior patterns that lead to achieving personal success.
Glassers keynotes (before the year 1985):
1. Young students are rational beings. They can control their behavior. They choose the way they behave.
2. Good choice leads to good behavior. Bad choice leads to bad behavior.
3. Teachers always have to strive to help young students find the good choice.
4. Teachers who are truly interested in their young students will not accept any excuse for bad behavior.
5. Whether the young students behavior is good or bad, the appropriate disciplinary measures should
always follow.
6. The class rules are obvious and should be observed.
7. Class meetings are an effective means to deal with matters related to the class rules, behavior, and
discipline.
Canters Assertive Discipline
Another model is the model of Canters assertive discipline. Assertiveness and firmness are the focal point of
Canters model. If the desired behavior is first invoked in the young students with their help, then they enter the
game of well-organized working activities. This model provides a very powerful system of corrective discipline.
Canters keynotes (Keynotes forming the core of assertive discipline are presented below. These ideas
provide a summary of the assertive discipline model):
1. Teachers should insist on appropriate, decent, responsible behavior of young students. Young students
need such behavior, their parents want it, the society expects it, and the education process is ineffective without it.
2. With regard to all practical purposes, teachers failure is identical to the failure in supporting adequate
discipline in the class.
3. Many teachers work under the influence of false assumptions about discipline, believing that strict
control is inhumane and putting young students under too much pressure. Conversely, proper and firm control
is humane and liberating.
4. Teachers have basic educational rights in the class, including:
(a) The right to determine the optimal environment for learning;
(b) The right to request and expect appropriate behavior;
(c) The right to receive assistance from the administrative staff and parents, if necessary.
5. Young students have basic rights in the class as well, including:
(a) The right to have teachers who help reduce inappropriate, self-destructive behavior;
(b) The right to choose the kind of behavior with full awareness of the consequences automatically
arising from their choice.
6. Needs, rights, and conditions outlined above can be fulfilled the best by using assertive discipline.
Teachers clearly communicate their expectations to young students and follow with relevant consistent acts that
do not in any way violate the best interests of young students.
23
7. Assertive discipline involves the use of the following behavior patterns. They have to be practiced
consistently to be effective:
(a) To express ones expectations clearly;
(b) To be willing to say I like this or I do not like this;
(c) To be consistent when setting expectations and feelings;
(d) To speak by a firm voice;
(e) To maintain eye contact;
(f) To use nonverbal gestures to encourage verbal expression;
(g) To use help, questions and to present and lead by example rather than make claims and requests
related to appropriate behavior;
(h) To be assertive when confronting young students, including statements of expectations, warning of
possible consequences and stigmatization, and a statement explaining why the act is necessary.
8. Teachers should behave as follows to become more assertive when using discipline:
(a) To practice an assertive way of responding;
(b) To set clear limits and consequences;
(c) To use consistent follow-up procedures;
(d) To construct specific plans of assertive discipline and repeat them mentally;
(e) To write down things not relying solely on memory;
(f) To use the method of broken turntable to strengthen expectations;
(g) To ask head teachers and parents to support the efforts to help young students.
The above-mentioned models can be seen as certain theories of discipline that may support and help future
teachers, who will have to face discipline, respectively a lack of discipline every day. If future teachers accept
these theories, it can be stated that they will be able to maintain discipline in the class.
In relation to the above-mentioned theories, it is worth mentioning some other ways future teachers may
handle the disruptive behavior of young students in the class. Ondrek (2001) in his publication mentioned
reactions of a teacher to a striking, respectively, disruptive behavior. If a young student behaves in a disruptive
manner, it is good for the teacher to know how to respond to such disruptive behavior. If a young student:
1. Demands attentionIf the young student behaves disruptively at the lesson and the teacher begins to
notice such disruptive behavior and begins to respond to it, the young student understands that he/she has
compelled the attention of the teacher and he/she will continue in the disruptive behavior. That is why it is good
that the teacher draws attention to the behavior of the young student, for example, by giving the young student
homework. This assignment confirms to the young student that the teacher knows about the behavior of the
other students, but that he/she does not intend to let this disturbing behavior thwart the lesson. It is good if the
teacher pays no notice to other potential disruptive behavior of the young student or communicates with
him/her even before the young student begins to behave in such manner.
2. Struggles for powerIf the teacher begins to instruct the young student who behaves disruptively how
to behave and what he/she should or should not do, the teacher confirms for the young student exactly what the
young student wanted, namely, that he/she is fighting for power with the teacher. It is good for the teacher to
recognize this behavior based on the struggle for power and make the young student aware of the fact that this
struggle for power will not be accepted by the teacher and that the young student has to learn to cope with
reality, which may be unpleasant for him/her, and that this teaching situation is one of them. The teacher should
24
learn to ignore young students disruptive behavior based on the struggle for power and should not let the
young student provoke him/her.
3. Wants to take revengeWhen, in spite of the teacher ignoring it, the young student continues to
struggle for power and his/her disruptive behavior escalates, if the young student wants to take revenge, it is
good for the teacher to resign to the struggle for power. The teacher should remain calm, not take the attacks of
the young student personally, continue with the lesson, despite the fact that the young student tries to take
revenge by disruptive behavior. Furthermore, the teacher should try to improve the mutual relationship between
the young student that acts disruptively and him/herself. This reaction is difficult, but it can be learned.
The above-mentioned ways in which the teacher can maintain discipline in the class are of importance.
Future teachers should realize that they will face a lack of discipline every day, and therefore, it is important
that they know about the ways to avoid disruptive behavior of young students and study them from a theoretical
point of view. Having acquired the knowledge, they can apply these methods in practice.
One way to maintain discipline among young students is the teachers authority. The authority of the
teacher is also dealt with by Podlahov. A prerequisite for the success of not only pedagogical work, but also
for maintaining discipline, is the very authority of the teacher. Podlahov (2004, p. 89) indicated that authority
is divided into:
(a) Personal: Primary or even natural;
(b) Functional: Professional;
(c) Positional: Secondary;
(d) Formal: Results from the position in the organizational scheme,
(e) Informal: Results of abilities, talent, and education.
Podlahov (2004) also stated that it is necessary to apply these kinds of authority the teachers already
know, for example, from their studies, in practice. Types of the authority work together, sometimes one
replaces the other. Furthermore, Podlahov (2004, p. 90) wrote that it would be ideal if the teacher had informal
authority following from good knowledge of the subject, from the level of pedagogical competencies, and also
from a good relationship with young students. But it is not so simple, for example, in the case of beginning
teachers, because pedagogical competence to maintain discipline (the teacher has the authority) is very
complicated, and the teacher has to work on it. Podlahov (2004, p. 90) showed how a teacher can build
authority. This building depends on:
1. Expressing the statusThe teacher has the right to make decisions and control;
2. Competency of teachingThe teacher must show young students his/her good knowledge of the subject
and that he/she can teach it well.
3. TeacherThe teachers lesson should be well arranged, with a brisk start, and the lesson should have
certain momentum directing the young students to activities. Principally, the rules of behavior of young
students at the lesson should be defined.
4. Effective and fair solution of the situation, when the teacher has to deal with undesirable behavior of
young students.
5. Consistency of actions and wordsThe teacher should lead by example and be a role model for young
students.
This listing helps teachers develop authority. If a teacher really creates authority in relation to young
students and maintains it, it is less likely that the young students will not observe discipline. Young students
25
inappropriate behavior is affected by various influences and the authority of the teacher is also one of them.
Kyriacou (1996) mentioned a similar way the teacher can build authority. He wrote that the construction of
teachers authority depends on four main factors. Kyriacou (1996, p. 99) listed these four factors as follows:
1. The teacher must reflect his/her status;
2. Teaching must be competent;
3. The teacher must do the job as a manager;
4. The teacher must establish an effective approach to young students behavior that is undesirable.
Kyriacou (1996) said that these four ways to enable the teacher to create authority and maintain it are
closely aligned with the list defining how to create authority, stated by Podlahov above. However, teachers
should not automatically assume discipline among students. Podlahov (2004, p. 94) stated that a teacher
should first lay the foundation of discipline in such form as solid and logical rules. Furthermore, according to
Podlahov (2004, p. 94), these rules are as follows:
1. The teacher has such authority that prevents young students even from the mere idea of indiscipline;
2. The teacher should constantly monitor young students visually, as well as supervise young students
activities. Young students must be aware of the fact that they are being observed by the teacher;
3. The teacher should be a role model for the young students so that the young students want to follow the
teacher;
4. The teacher should encourage healthy competition among classmates;
5. The teacher should examine young students not only when announced in advance, but also when it is
unexpected;
6. If young students make mistakes, the teacher should correct them immediately;
7. When a young student fails to comply with discipline, the teacher should rebuke him/her and present
him/her to other young students as a negative example.
It should be noted here that the world has certainly changed a lot since the times of Comenius,1 including
discipline among young students. The above-mentioned list of rules for teachers stated by Podlahov (2004) still
serves to every teacher to know how to prevent indiscipline and how to maintain authority as one of the major
influences acting on the young students behavior. Podlahov (2004) wrote:
Each young student should know what is expected of him/her and what he/she can expect from the teacher. Then
he/she does not try to determine the rules of behavior in the class himself/herself, does not perform his/her activity in
activities not included in the lesson plan, he/she does not interrupt the work, simply, he/she does not misbehave. (p. 96)
In the case of absence of fixed rules, he/she does not know what to do, he/she is bored or trying to
determine own rules. The teacher has to determine the rules. The young students are really important for a
peaceful atmosphere in the lesson, for better work of young students and their behavior. If young students do
not have rules, there is no reason for them to keep discipline.
The above text defined models of discipline together with authority for several reasons. These models of
discipline are an enrichment of the theory focused on discipline. The models also provide a description of the
approaches to the definition of the notion of discipline. The above-mentioned models or theories of discipline
suggest a methodical processing in terms of approaches, in the form of recommendations, guidelines, and
1
Comenius J. A. (1592-1670), Bishop of Jednota bratrsk (Unitas Fratrum), teacher, school reformer, the founder of modern
pedagogy.
26
philosophical-methodological aspects, towards the methodology of educational activities in specific (concrete)

environments. Models are basic bearing constructs used in the conceptual elaboration of educational activities
and educational counseling, within the framework of system K-6 and K-12, these documents are identical as
curriculum and framework education program.
It is good to note that the latest research, involving trainee teachers and their view of the discipline, was
processed in 1995 by imonk. Bendl also conducted the research. Since then, the subject of a beginning
teacher and the discipline has not been developed further.
Methodology
The second part will deal with content analysis selected as a method for detection and analysis of
anchoring of the concept of discipline of beginning teachers and detection of anchoring of discipline in the
training of primary school teachers.
Within the content analysis, or text analysis, the research problem was defined: How is discipline
anchored in the study programs in the framework of preparation of future primary school teachers? The aim
was to determine the anchoring of discipline in the training of future primary school teachers at the secondary
school level, tertiary technical school level, and university level. In the context of content analysis, texts of
study programs with an emphasis on the occurrence of selected characters/concepts were examined. Concepts
were formed by words, phrases, and statements relating to the area of discipline and its position in the
educational preparation of future teachers (Krippendorff, 1995).
The basic set of content analysis were the texts and materials related to discipline and its inclusion into the
curricula of secondary schools, tertiary technical schools, and universities of the Czech Republic, graduates of
which can work at primary schools. The semantic unit was therefore discipline in secondary school, tertiary
technical school, and university training of teachers of universities. The characters/concepts examined in the
context of content analysis include:
1. Definition of the concept of discipline:
(a) The basic concepts of discipline of future teachers;
(b) Shaping human behavior;
(c) Place, where discipline is anchored;
(d) What does discipline means for teachers.
2. Working with discipline:
(a) Content of work with discipline;
(b) Methods;
(c) Principles for teachers;
(d) Reward/punishment.
3. Desirable/undesirable behavior:
(a) Rules;
(b) Practice;
(c) Defining disciplinary problems;
(d) How to determine a disciplinary problem;
(e) When it is suitable to begin to solve it;
(f) Content of class rules.
27
4. Philosophical-methodological concept of discipline:

(a) To look at discipline in terms of power;
(b) The authority of the teacher;
(c) Power;
(d) Assertiveness.
The above features/concepts are important for our research in terms of meaning units, which was specified
using the foregoing features/concepts.
The research sample for this research consisted of teachers of public primary schools. Primary school was
their first job and practice of these beginning teachers was less than five years.
Questionnaires and interviews were used as data collection methods. The data were subsequently analyzed
on the basis of these questionnaires and semi-structured interviews using open coding.2 The next step in
content analysis, which followed the open coding was finding theoretical relationships among the concepts
using the so-called axial coding3 (Strauss & Corbinov, 1999). After axial coding, i.e., finding and specifying
relationships among the concepts, another step followed, i.e., the selection of a central concept and formulation
of the theory, which is the result of content analysis. Selecting the central concept and formulation of the theory
was carried out using selective coding.4
The observed data answer the basic research questions: Do elementary school teachers have awareness of
discipline that matches the current conception of the curriculum? Does the length of experience have an impact
on the awareness of teachers in the area of discipline?
Results
The data detected by the means of questionnaires with semi-structured interviews and then processed with
the help of open coding, axial coding, and selection of the central concept are mentioned in Table 1.
Table 1
Concept: Definition of Discipline
Strengthening behavior using instructions
Shaping behavior through consequences
Use of rewards and punishments
The young student chooses how to behave
Teachers help towards the young students
Rules are commonplace
Assertive behavior
The teacher must not fail
The educational rights of young students
and teachers
2
Shaping behavior through rewards and

punishments
Teachers help to the young students to

show them how to behave using rules
The teacher is assertive helping the young

students to shape behavior using rewards
and punishments
Assertiveness of the teacher and

educational rights of the young students
and teachers
Using open coding created concepts that capture the specific event or events. These concepts are inductively embedded in the
data, but on their own are abstract in nature, because they contain ideas, principle, or experience that are applicable across various
events or situations.
3
Using axial coding has been established for the relationship among the concepts and subsequently this relationship was
specified in detail. In the case of axial coding, it can not only be said whether concepts have a relationship or cause among
themselves, it is necessary to specify them in detail. After this step, the data have changed.
4
Selective coding is the final phase of coding, which aims to specify, identify, and find the basic, crucial, central categories and
conceptualize relations.
28
The central concept of Table 1 is the sentence that the teacher is assertive, he/she helps the young students
shape behavior using rewards and punishments. We can deduct from Table 1 that young students expect from
the teacher a particular kind or type of behavior arising from the profession (teaching profession), the teacher is
a role model (formal authority) and young students expect his/her leading role in the class.
Table 2 shows another concept that was selected in the above-mentioned text and it is working with
discipline.
Table 2
Concept: Working With Discipline
Punishments
Observation of behavior, gestures
Punishments and comments
Verbal comments
Interest in the young students
Disciplinary measures
Punishments and meetings
Class meetings
Firm control of the young students
Control of the young students, the teacher

The rights and obligations, consequences uses gestures and deduces consequences if
the young students do not follow
Speak in a firm voice
discipline
Nonverbal gestures
The teacher gives punishments for

indiscipline behavior, he/she solves the
problem behavior with parents at class
meetings, and draws consequences for the
young students indiscipline
Table 2 clearly shows that the central concept is the teacher who gives punishments for disobedient
behavior, solves behavior problems with the parents at parents meetings, and draws certain consequences from
the young students indiscipline that are currently affecting the young students disobedient behavior.
Formation of teaching style is based on a complex activity that is closely connected with the communication
with: (a) young students; (b) parents of the young students; and (c) school management.
The teacher regulates his/her activities (educational work with discipline) on the basis of options allowed
by the relevant legislation (school rules/laws).
Table 3 shows the concept mentioned above and defines disciplinary problems.
Table 3
Concept: Defining Disciplinary Problems
Early learning phase
To monitor impulsive behavior of
the young students
Disciplinary rules
The early phase of defining and disciplinary rules
Class rules
To monitor the young students
The class rules and class meetings
Solution at class meetings

To express their expectations
To prompt and use gestures
To control young students with
undesirable behavior
If the young student violates the

disciplinary rules, the teacher
communicates with him/her timely,
monitors his/her following behavior,
and communicates with parents
Communication with young students and expressing

expectations of behavior of the young students
The central concept is disruptive behavior of the young students, which is revealed in time, the teacher
communicates with the young students, monitors their behavior, and often communicates with their parents.
29
In these concepts, we lack a clear specification of specific disciplinary problems (lack of definition).
Philosophical and methodological concept of discipline was established as the last concept stated in Table 4.
Table 4
Concept: Philosophical and Methodological Concept of Discipline
The authority of the teacher
The teacher ignores behavior
Authority
Cooperation
Selection of the young students behavior
Control of behavior
Control of behavior
Help of teachers to the young students to
find the right way to behave
Assertiveness
Authority
Strengthening behavior
The teacher should be assertive, should

control his/her behavior and maintain
authority in the class
Authority and assertiveness
Limits
The central concept is that teachers should be assertive, should be able to control himself/herself, and
should keep authority in the class.
Authority and assertiveness of the teacher make up mutual and complementary perspectives of a
theoretical nature. The authority of the teacher takes new shapes and forms. The link from education process to
philosophical questions undoubtedly influences considerations of authority as well. Authority as a guarantee of
positive values also significantly influences the development of human potential.
Conclusion
The paper described the concept of discipline from several perspectives. Each author takes a different
point of view of discipline. The paper listed and described the models of discipline from which the concepts of
discipline were established.
The above-mentioned concepts highlight the personality model and communication, and it is based on
personality psychology and cognitive psychology. Models emphasize the specification in terms of education.
The categories, such as behavior, control of behavior, formal authority (of the teacher), and the legislative
framework of rewards and punishments (class rules, disciplinary rules, and school rules), are defined in detail.
These models (theories) help define informal teachers authority and specify the concept of discipline as a
psychologically given category.
Using content analysis, the questions listed above have been answered in the following manner. Primary
school teachers are aware of the area of discipline. The length of teachers practice affects the awareness of
discipline, because it is one of the conceptsdisciplinary problems were not properly defined.
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doi:10.17265/2161-623X/2016.01.003
DAVID
PUBLISHING
Adoption of the Constructivist Learning Approach in

Secondary Schools in Kenya: Focus on Learner
Achievement in Biology by Class Category
Gideon M. Mwanda, Paul Odundo, Ronnie Midigo, Owino S. Mwanda
University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
Learner achievement is influenced by the instructional methods adopted during the learning process. Different class
categories and individual levels present varied learning contexts determining the application of a mixture of
appropriate instructional methods, which can enhance knowledge retention and application. Available studies in
Kenya have focused on the general achievement of students. This study examined the linkage between instructional
methods and learning achievement in different class categories. The study design was quasi-experimental
non-equivalent groups with a pre-test and a post-test. Primary data were obtained from four boys, four girls, and
four mixed schools with a total of 477 students. Data were analyzed descriptively using mean and standard
deviation values while t-tests and analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests were used to test for significance in
difference between group means at = 0.05 level. The study found out that learner achievement in the control
group was characterized by poor mean gain (Boys classes = 7.51; Girls classes = 7.69; and Mixed classes = 7.07)
as compared to the experimental group (Boys classes = 9.30; Girls classes = 40.13; and Mixed classes = 23.30),
implying that the constructivist instructional approach positively improves learner achievement. Comparison of the
mean gain revealed that girls classes improved by 40.13, mixed sex classes by 23.30, and boys classes by 9.30.
This implies that learner achievement in girls classes improves when the constructivist instructional approach is
used. All the learners instructed through the constructivist approach registered marked improvement in achievement.
We recommend that biology teachers, especially those in girls secondary schools, should consider using the
constructivist instructional methods for enhanced learner achievement. Further, investigations into constructivist
learning using some other assessment strategies other than the 5Es (i.e., engagement, exploration, explanation,
elaboration, and evaluation) instructional model as well as effects of constructivist instructional approaches in
different study locations should be explored in other studies. Finally, we recommend that the Ministry of Education,
Science and Technology in Kenya through the Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD) come up with
policies to guide the application of appropriate learning approaches for different classroom categories as applicable.
Keywords: constructivist approach, class categories, constructivist learning, learner achievement, knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation
Gideon M. Mwanda, M.Ed., Department of Educational Communication and Technology, School of Education, University of
Nairobi.
Paul Odundo, Ph.D., associate professor, Department of Educational Communication and Technology, University of Nairobi.
Ronnie Midigo, Master in Public Health, Department of Educational Communication and Technology, University of Nairobi.
Owino S. Mwanda, Ph.D., lecturer, Department of Educational Communication and Technology, University of Nairobi.
32
ADOPTION OF THE CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING APPROACH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Introduction
Science education has in the past four decades attracted great expectations from educators and the general
public who continuously advocate for increased performance in scientific inventions and ability to apply and
communicate scientific understandings (Mintzes & Wandersee, 1998). In America, the desire to improve
science education was anchored in the report, A Nation at Risk, by the National Commission of Excellence in
Education (Mintzes & Wandersee, 1998), which detailed falling standards in Americas science education due
to teachers using ineffective methods of teaching that do not promote higher-order thinking and creativity in
youth. In Australia, weak performance in mathematics and science education led to the establishment of a
centre for science and mathematics education to promote improvement in teaching of mathematics and science
(Fraser & Walberg, 1995). Similar sentiments on the need to improve performance in mathematics and science
have been raised in the United Kingdom by Talbot-Smith, Abell, Appleton, and Hanuscin (2013) in the
Handbook of Research in Education. Some of the factors identified as indicators for poor performance in
science education include use of ineffective instructional methods, gender imbalance in science education,
negative attitude of students towards learning of science and science-related careers, and lastly unavailability of
facilities for learning sciences in secondary schools (Trowbridge, Bybee, & Powell, 2004).
In Kenya, conventional methods of instruction marked by teacher lecturing dominate classroom practices
(Amollo, 2005). Conventional methods of teaching, though popular, have generated a lot of negative and
positive thoughts. For instance, Perkins (1993) warned that conventional teaching often gives pseudo
impression that proper learning has occurred when students confirm comprehension of rote memorized material
but hold many misconceptions about the same materials when tested at application levels of learning. Similarly,
Zakaria (2009), as well as Wingate, Andon, and Cogo (2011), argued that the conventional method of
instruction as applied in Australia encourages passive learning. Amollo (2005) also found conventional
methods, particularly lecturing strategy to be characterized with lack of planning, poor time management,
unstructured presentation and content overload, and less innovative and inconsistency in delivery resulting into
students getting bored, confused, and less motivated, and so only few concepts are learned in a lesson.
Based on the increasing negative effects of conventional teaching methods on quality of education and
learner performance in science-based subjects, it is necessary that constructivist approaches be explored so as to
find ways through which learner acquisition of knowledge and skills can be enhanced. In this period of time,
Brown (2005) suggested that the constructivist approach is accepted as the most relevant view of learning and
that education policies, education models, and education practices should focus on constructivist learning.
Similarly, Duit and Treagust (2003) considered the constructivist approach as the most powerful framework for
improving learning and teaching of sciences. Spector, Ifenthaler, Isaias, Kinshuk, and Sampson (2010) defined
the constructivist approach of learning as a learning process based on the understanding that knowledge is
constructed by the knower based on his/her internal mental process. The learning theory focuses on strategies
that promote interaction between individual and the environment, thus making learning a reflective and
meaningful process (Huang, 2002; Ally, 2004).
Enrolment and achievement of female students in science-based subjects has also been another challenge
facing Kenyan education sector. According to the Kenya Education Sector Support Programme (2005-2010),
few numbers of females compared to males enroll and pursue further studies in science subjects and
science-related courses. The report further details that female students perform relatively dismally compared to
ADOPTION OF THE CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING APPROACH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 33

males in science subjects. For example, in year 2008 Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE)
examination, analysis of the biology results revealed that boys had a percentage mean score of 32.01 while girls
had a mean score of 29.08. Similarly in year 2009, the biology performance nationally in KCSE by gender
revealed that boys had a percentage mean score of 28.49 while girls had a mean score of 25.15.
This disparity in performance could only be explained as a result of poor instructional methods. Some
factors which have been identified as responsible for low performance of girls in science education include
culture, religion, attitudes of the girls, and the instructional methods used in science classrooms (Glover & Law,
2002). Dewey in 1972 had espoused that learning results from cognitive dissonance rather than reinforcement
of behaviour as proponents of behaviourist learning suggest. When students encounter new learning tasks they
have not met before, they are forced to adjust their understanding to accommodate the new experiences and are
therefore involved in cognitive rather than behavioural response. It is therefore imperative that the instructional
methods will determine the quality of instruction offered. When doing a project work, students get the
opportunity to reflect on what they have learned earlier there by helping them to solve new learning tasks they
encounter in the project. The students always involve in both individual and group reflection exercise. Use of
interactive methods of instruction eliminates disparities in achievement between boys and girls while use of
lecture methods can promote disparity in learning achievement between boys and girls (Miheso-OConnor,
2002). Students attitude towards sciences or methods of instruction in science classrooms can be a contributing
factor on performance of sciences in secondary schools. For instance, Lin (1998) found attitude of high school
students towards learning biology to be characterized by less motivation when teacher-centered methods of
teaching were used compared to when interactive methods were used. The constructivist method of instruction,
as Brown (2005) suggested, is an example of interactive method of learning.
Due to the challenges facing the students as highlighted above, to improve learner achievement, students
should be enabled to learn and use higher-order thinking skills in order to be relevant in a fast technologically
changing world. To achieve this, teachers should use instructional methods that provide the opportunity for
learners to construct knowledge by themselves. Also, teachers should encourage formulation of instructional
objectives and assessment procedures that reflect learning at higher-order thinking skills. The present study
therefore decided to investigate the effect of constructivist instruction on learning in different classroom
categories and at different cognitive skill levels.
The Constructivist Approach and Learner Achievement

Studies comparing learner achievement in constructivist classrooms and conventional classrooms have
indicated better results in favour of the constructivist learning. In a study conducted by Becker and Maunsaiyat
(2004), constructivist-instructed students had higher scores on the post-test and the delayed post-test, compared
to those of the traditionally instructed students. This finding showed that the mode of instruction could greatly
influence learner achievement. In another study conducted by Akar (2003), there were no statistically significant
differences in learner achievement in short structured questions between the constructivist-instructed students
and the conventionally instructed students. However, the study found a statistically significant difference in the
learner achievements knowledge retention and essay type questions between the constructivist and conventional
groups. In the study, the constructivist-instructed students best retained knowledge in achievement test as
compared to those instructed through the conventional methods. The constructivist-instructed students equally
performed better in essay type questions. This finding is in line with the preposition made by Dalolu, Baturay,
34
and Yildirim (2009) that constructivist learning is effective in the retention of knowledge. Similarly, in a study
conducted by Bimbola and Daniel (2010), the results indicated that there was improvement in academic
performance of students in the constructivist group on pre-test and delayed post-test. Their scores in topic
specific topics considered, at the post-test level, were higher than their scores at the pre-test levels and that this
was different from score obtained by colleagues in the conventional lecture group. When the same groups of
students were subjected to a delayed post-test stage, students in the constructivist group were able to retain
about 80% of the concepts taught compared to their colleagues in conventional lecture group, who could only
retain about 10% of the concepts taught.
The findings in the above studies therefore indicate that constructivist instructional methods consistently
produced better learner achievement. This study compared the effects of constructivist and conventional
instructional methods on learner achievement in different class categories among secondary school students in
Homa Bay County.
Blooms Taxonomy of Cognitive Levels

Blooms taxonomy of cognitive levels was designed by a committee of educators under the leadership of
Benjamin Bloom in the 1940s and 1950s (Felder & Brent, 2004). Since then, the taxonomy has been used in the
education sector and especially for learner evaluation. The taxonomy outlines various levels of learning and
application of retained knowledge in six major taxonomies (Biggs & Collis, 2014). When learners develop the
capacity to apply understanding, use knowledge in new situation, and construct own knowledge, they are considered
to have developed sufficient skills implied in effective learning. The six levels of cognition according to
Blooms taxonomy are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. According
to Biggs and Collis (2014), Blooms taxonomy of cognitive levels can be used to evaluate the quality of learning.
The following explanations of the taxonomy is based on Guskeys (2012) review of Blooms taxonomy.
Knowledge
Knowledge involves recalling memorized information as presented or self-acquired. This may involve
recalling a wide range of materials which may include specific facts as well as complete theories. This
cognitive level requires that the learner is able to bring to the mind appropriate information prior acquired. This
represents the lowest level of learning outcomes in the cognitive domain. Learning objectives at this level
require that learners get acquainted with common terms, specific facts, methods and procedures, and basic
concepts and principles. In assessing learner achievement at this level, learners are asked to define, list, state,
identify, label, and name.
Comprehension
This comprehension level requires learners to develop the ability to grasp the meaning of material.
Learners should be able to translate materials from one form to another, interpret material appropriately, and to
be able to predict future trends, effects, and consequences. At this stage, learners are expected to go one step
beyond the simple remembering of material. Learning objectives at this level require the learners to be able to
understand facts and principles, interpret and translate verbal materials in their domain, interpret charts and
graphs, estimate the future consequences implied in facts presented, and rationalize methods and procedures.
Learner evaluation at this level is achieved by asking questions, such as explain, clarify, predict, interpret, infer,
summarize, review, convert, translate, give example, account for, deduce, etc..

Application
The application stage implies the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situations. It involves
the development of the ability to apply rules, methods, concepts, principles, laws, as well as theories. Learners
at this level are required to apply concepts and principles to new situations, apply laws and theories to practical
situations, solve scientific problems, construct graphs and charts, and demonstrate the correct usage of a
method or procedure. Learner assessment is constructed on questions such as how would you show, make use
of, modify, demonstrate, or solve.
Analysis
At this stage, learners are supposed to demonstrate their ability to break down material into its component
parts. Learning outcomes here require an understanding of both the content and the structural form of the
material. Learning objectives at this level require the learners to recognize unstated assumptions and
propositions, distinguish logical misconceptions in reasoning, distinguish between facts and insinuations, and
evaluate the relevancy of data. Learners are asked questions requiring them to differentiate, compare, and
contrast.
Synthesis
Synthesis refers to the ability to put parts together to form a new whole. It involves the production of a
unique communication, plan of operations, or a set of abstract relations. Learning outcomes in this area stress
learners creative behaviours and emphasize on the formulation of new patterns or structure. At this level,
learners should be able to write a well-organized paper, give a well-organized speech, propose a plan for an
experiment, integrate learning from different areas into a plan for solving a problem, and formulate a new
scheme for classifying objects. Learner evaluation at this level requires demonstration of the ability to design,
construct, develop, formulate, imagine, create, change, and label the elements.
Evaluation
For the learning process to be complete, learners should develop the ability to judge the value of material
for a given purpose. The judgments should be based on definite criteria, which may be internal (organization)
or external (relevance to the purpose). Students may determine the criteria or be given them. Learning
outcomes in this area are highest in the cognitive hierarchy because they contain elements of all the other
categories, plus conscious value judgments based on clearly defined criteria. Learning objectives at this level
require the learners to demonstrate their ability to judge the logical consistency of written material, judge the
adequacy with which conclusions are supported by data, judge the value of a work by the use of internal criteria,
and judge the value of a work by the use of external standards of excellence.
Problem Statement
Teaching and learning of biology in many secondary schools in Kenya has generally taken a pattern where
teachers mostly use conventional methods of instruction characterized by lectures and few demonstrations
(Kenya National Examination Council [KNEC], 2005; 2010). With the use of the conventional methods of
instruction, students are exposed to minimal practical activities and group discussions, and are hardly taken on
educational trips. Consequently, overall performance of biology in KCSE examination has been poor. This has
been characterized by low mean score and high standard deviations. In Homa Bay County, in the year 2010, a
total of 196 secondary schools in Homa Bay County presented candidates for KCSE examinations and only 26
36
schools managed to obtain a mean score of 6.4 and above in biology. The majority of the schools (113) did not
even obtain a mean score of 4.5 (mean grade D+) in biology. This implies that in the year 2010, the biology
mean grade for most schools in the county was D+ and below. This result was not any different in the year
2013. According to the county education office, the average mean score for biology in all the schools in the
county in the year 2013 was 5.707625.
This dismal performance is further segregated along gender with most female students appearing at the
lower end. Studies reveal that girls and boys have different approaches to learning (Geist & King, 2008; Eliot,
2013). In the same way, it would be expected that different classroom categories present different challenges for
learners. The poor performance calls for reconsideration of instructional methods used in secondary schools for
teaching biology and specifically the topic of ecology. While there are several instructional methods, the most
common one is the conventional, lecture method. This method, however, is teacher-centered and has been
shown to produce poor results. Alternative to the conventional method is the constructivist instructional method
which is student-centered.
Purpose and Objectives

The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of the constructivist instructional approach on learner
achievement in different class categories. Understanding the effects of the constructivist instructional approach
is expected to extend the horizons of constructivist theory of learning by outlining the effect of constructivist
theory on learning biology amongst students in different classroom categories as boys, girls, and mixed
classrooms. Biology teachers can make use of the revealed differences in learning achievement of learners in
different classroom categories in relation to constructivist instruction to organize effective and appropriate
learning strategies. The Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD) should recommend for its use,
based on the results of the study, in teaching and learning entire secondary biology course or for teaching
specified topics in the biology curriculum for secondary schools. Textbook publishers and media developers
can take advantage of the findings to incorporate constructivist language and activities in the content of biology
materials to facilitate teachers and students use of constructivist learning methods. Application of
constructivist instruction might improve performance in biology by eliminating large performance gaps that
exist in biology results in KCSE examination. The study was specifically conducted to determine the
differences in learner achievement in the pre-test at post-test evaluation exams among students of different
class categories instructed through the conventional methods, to evaluate the differences in learner achievement
in the pre-test and post-test evaluation exams among students of different class categories instructed through
the constructivist approach and to compare the differences in mean gain between learners in different class
categories instructed through the conventional and the constructivist approaches.
Theoretical Context
Learning is a guided process of acquiring knowledge, which requires appropriate methods aimed at
increasing knowledge retention and application (Laurillard, 2013). Since instructors have a mandate of driving
the learning process, they often adopt a method that they deem appropriate. The present study is based on the
concepts of individual constructivist theory of Piaget (1991) and social constructivist theory of Vygotsky
(1978). Individual constructivist theory of Piaget (1967) provides a two pronged approach to knowledge
construction. First, Piagets cognitive structures (schema) responsible for adaptation processes of assimilation,

accommodation, and equilibrium are similar to use of prior-learning experiences in aiding new knowledge
constructions. Second, learning occurs when an individual passes through four stages of cognitive
developments as sensory-motor, pre-operational, concrete, and formal operational stages. Concrete and formal
operational stages are implied in constructivist learning. At the concrete stage, learning is by manipulation of
objects, ideas, and events, which later transforms to formal reasoning. In constructivist learning, repeated
manipulation of objects and ideas enables learners to construct meaningful concepts that can be transferred to
logical abstract reasoning in a formalized manner.
The social constructivist learning theory propounded by Vygotsky (1978) considers learning as socially
mediated exercise where a person constructs knowledge based on interactions with social and cultural
environment. Knowledge formed by a learner is influenced by environment (context) and prior knowledge held
by the learner (Borich, 2011). Therefore, in social constructivist learning, teachers should provide learners with
an opportunity to negotiate meaning and to collaborate with peers and adults including teachers in knowledge
construction (Straits & Wilke, 2007). The 5Es (i.e., engagement, exploration, explanation, elaboration, and
evaluation) constructivist model adopted in the study is a social constructivist approach to learning and
provides learners with an opportunity to construct knowledge at individual and at social levels during group
discussions.
Conceptual Framework
This study has been conceptualized with constructivist and conventional instruction methods as the main
independent variables while learner achievement at different cognitive levels forms the dependent variables.
Figure 1 illustrates how the independent variables interact with the intervening variables resulting into different
dependent variables.
Independent variables
Intervening variables
Dependent variables
Conventional
Study skills
Transmitted knowledge
Learning activities
Learner motivation
Low-order skills
Lecture
Time spent on work
Poor performance on
Demonstrations
Nature of materials studied
Drilling students using past
Teacher characteristics
achievement test
paper exams
Own knowledge
Constructivist
Learning activities
constructed
Engagement
Higher-order knowledge
Exploration
Good performance in
Explanation
achievement test
Elaboration
Evaluation
Figure 1. Conceptual framework.
38
Methodology
The study adopted quasi-experimental non-equivalent group design with a pre-test and a post-test
(Fraenkel & Wallen, 2006). Participants in the study were divided into two groups: experimental and control
groups. The experimental group participated in the constructivist method of instruction while the control group
participated in the conventional method of instruction. Activities of the experimental group formed the main
focus of the study. Participants in the experimental group used the constructivist instructional manual prepared
by the researcher to guide in delivery of the lessons. Lesson activities planned in the constructivist manual were
designed on the format of the 5Es constructivist instruction model developed by Bybee (Trowbridge et al.,
2004). Each lesson or double lessons progressed through five stages of activities. The stages are engagement,
exploration, explanation, elaboration, and evaluation. Here follows a brief explanation of the activities that took
place in the various stages during the lesson(s).
The control group mostly adopted direct instruction procedures like lecture, demonstrations, direct use of
textbooks in class, and use of other supplemental reading assignments. The instruments used for collection of
data in the study included a constructivist instruction manual and a pre-test and a post-test achievement exam.
The study used descriptive statistics and statistical tests of significance to analyze and compare data from
different treatment groups.
Findings and Discussion

Presented in this section are the findings from the students from the control and the experimental group.
Data were collected from a total of 477 students (245 boys and 232 girls). The majority of the girls were aged
14 while the majority of the boys were aged 15. Figure 2 below represents the ages of the students.
Figure 2. Age of the participants.
Learner Achievement of the Control Group

The control group comprised of a total of 246 students from boys school (74), girls schools (91), and
mixed schools (81). Learner achievement was assessed both at the pre-test and post-test levels. Table 1 below
represents the pre-test and the post-test achievement results.
Table 1
Pre-test and Post-test Results of the Control Group
Class category
Boys (n = 83)
Girls (n = 84)
Mixed (n = 79)
M1
40.20
27.31
30.97
Pre-test
SD
19.97
21.97
13.20
M2
47.71
35.00
38.04
Post-test
SD
13.40
10.62
14.46
Post-test/Pre-test
M 2 M1
7.51
7.69
7.07
As shown in Table 1, the analyzed pre-test results of participants in the control group show that boys
(M = 40.20; SD = 19.97) performed better than participants in the mixed sex classes (M = 30.97; SD = 11.90
and girls classes (M = 27.31; SD = 21.97). The pre-test exam was taken before the participants received the
instructional information and all the items in the pre-test were testing understanding at the six cognitive levels
of knowledge as per Blooms classification of cognitive knowledge (Bloom, Engelhart, Frost, Hill, &
Krathwohl, 1956). The pre-test results therefore seem to suggest that before instruction, participants in boys
classes had more knowledge of facts and concepts of the topic ecology than participants in mixed sex classes
and girls classes.
This disparity could be explained by the fact that boys, girls, and mixed class categories present different
learning challenges and that it is also possible that participants in boys classes were somehow motivated to
read a head for an impending test. All participants in the study were informed of the pre-test examination in
40
advance. And since all the participants had not received any instruction on the topic at the time pre-test was
taken, the better performance of boys can only be explained on the basis of a more organized revision boys
made for the announced test. This finding is consistent with a study conducted by Obiekwe (2008) on the
effects of constructivist instructional approach on students achievement in basic ecological concepts in biology,
which revealed a significant difference in the pre-test exams scores for girls and that of boys.
Table 1 indicates that in the post-test achievement test, boys classes attained the highest mean score and
standard deviation (M = 47.71; SD = 13.40), followed by participants in the mixed sex classes (M = 38.04; SD
= 14.46) and lastly participants in girls classes (M = 35.00; SD = 10.62). All the participants took the post-test
after receiving instructional information for a period of five weeks. The results suggest that the amount of
learning achievement registered by participants in the three categories of classes was not the same. Post-test
analysis of variance (ANOVA) results also reveal a significant difference in the mean score values between the
participants in the three class categories (F(3,660) = 22.01; p = 0.001 at p = 0.05 level of significance). The
pre-test to post-test mean gains (M2 M1) indicate that girls in girls single sex schools had the largest mean
gain of 28.16% followed by participants in the mixed classes with mean gain of 22.63% and lastly boys classes
with a mean gain of 17.78%. Girls registered the highest pre-test to post-test mean gain compared to
participants in mixed sex classes or boys. It can be reasoned from the results that learners in girls school had
less prior knowledge of concepts under instruction as compared to those in the mixed and boys classes. It can
be argued that the poor achievement of girls in pre-test may have motivated them to focus more on objectives
of the instruction. This line of reasoning is supported by Glover and Law (2002) who stated that girls have
higher self-expectation and work harder to compensate for what they believe are personal inadequacies (p.
133).
Learner Achievement of the Experimental Group
The pre-test and post-test results of the experimental group were analyzed and presented by use of
descriptive statistics of mean and standard deviation values. T-test was also used to find out significance in
mean difference in performance between different class categories. The analyzed pre-test and post-test results
for the three categories of participants in the constructivist group are presented in Table 2. In the table, post-test
and pre-test mean differences for the three categories of participants are also presented.
Table 2
Pre-test and Post-test Results of the Experimental Group
Class category
Boys (n = 71)
Girls (n = 78)
Mixed (n = 82)
M1
29.15
14.14
20.93
Pre-test
SD
13.53
11.32
11.90
M2
38.45
54.27
44.23
Post-test
SD
11.96
14.69
14.60
Post-test/Pre-test
M 2 M1
9.30
40.13
23.30
As shown in Table 2, the analyzed pre-test results of participants in the experimental group indicate that
boys (M = 29.15; SD = 13.53) performed better than participants in the mixed sex classes (M = 20.93; SD =
11.90) and girls classes (M = 14.14; SD = 11.32). The pre-test was taken before the participants received the
instructional information and most items in the pre-test were testing understanding at the level of knowledge as
per Blooms classification of cognitive knowledge (Bloom et al., 1956). The pre-test results therefore seem to
suggest that before instruction, participants in boys classes had more knowledge of facts and concepts of the

topic ecology than participants in mixed sex classes and girls classes.
To explain the disparity, it is possible to reason that participants in boys classes were somehow motivated
to read a head for an impending test. All participants in the study were informed of the pre-test examination
in advance. And since all the participants had not received any instruction on the topic at the time pre-test was
taken, the better performance of boys can only be explained on the basis of a more organized revision boys
made for the announced test. Otherwise, the study expected all the three groups of participants to have similar
results.
Data in Table 2 indicate that in the post-test, performance of the participants in the constructivist group
took a different pattern. Participants in girls classes attained the highest mean score and standard deviation
(M = 54.27; SD = 14.69), followed by participants in the mixed sex classes (M = 44.23; SD = 14.60) and lastly
participants in boys classes (M = 38.45; SD = 11.96). All the participants took the post-test after receiving
instructional information for a period of five weeks. The same piece of information was given to all the
participants. However, the results suggest that the amount of learning achievement registered by participants in
the three categories of classes was not the same. This implies that improved learning outcomes occurred
differently in different class categories. Post-test ANOVA results also reveal a significant difference in the
mean score values between the participants in the three class categories (F(2,228) = 25.0393; p = 0.001 at
p = 0.05 level of significance). The null hypothesis was rejected and the conclusion made was that the
constructivist method of instruction produces different learning effects in different class categories. Students in
girls single sex schools learn significantly better than boys or students in mixed sex classes when teachers use
the constructivist method of instruction. The pre-test to post-test mean gains (M2 M1) indicate that girls in
girls single sex schools had the largest mean gain of 40.13%, followed by participants in mixed sex classes
with mean gain of 23.30%, and lastly boys with a mean gain of 9.3%. Participants in girls classes registered
the highest mean score in the post-test, and at the same time, the highest pre-test to post-test mean gain
compared to participants in mixed sex classes or boys. It can be reasoned from the results that girls readily
customized the constructivist method of instruction, and therefore, gained from it more than participants in
mixed sex class or boys. Miheso-OConnor (2002) found girls to be more positive and to readily customize
interactive methods of instruction. Newby, Stepich, Lehman, Russell, and Ottenbreit-Leftwich (2010) argued
that a pre-test focuses learners on important aspects of instruction and may be girls took advantage of the
pre-test and used it better than boys or participants in mixed sex classes to recognize and remember some
concepts during the instruction process. Also, the poor performance of girls in pre-test may have motivated
them to focus more on objectives of the instruction. This line of reasoning is supported by Glover and Law
(2002), who stated that girls have higher self-expectation and work harder to compensate for what they believe
are personal inadequacies.
Mean Gain Between the Control and the Experimental Groups
The mean gain in achievement results for both the control and the experimental groups were computed and
compared. Figure 3 below represents the mean gain in learner achievement between the experimental and the
control groups.
42
Figure 3. Mean gain in learner achievement between the control and the experimental groups.
From Figure 3 above, the study revealed that girls schools had the highest mean gain of 32.44, followed
by the mixed secondary schools (23.3), while boys schools had the least mean gain (1.79). This finding leads
to an understanding that the experimental group registered better mean gain as compared to the control group. It
is possible that the learners in the experimental group experienced better knowledge retention as compared to
their counterparts in the control group. Similar findings have been highlighted by Dalolu et al. (2009). This
finding concurs with a study conducted by Becker and Maunsaiyat (2004), which found out that the
constructivist-instructed students (the experimental group) had higher scores on the post-test and the delayed
post-test, compared to those of the traditionally instructed students (the control group).
Conclusion and Recommendations

The results revealed that girls attained higher mean scores followed by participants in mixed sex class and
lastly boys. When pre-test and post-test mean gains were compared, girls had the highest mean gain followed
by participants in mixed sex class and lastly boys with the lowest mean gain. ANOVA test runs on the mean
difference revealed a significant difference in favour of girls. The study therefore concludes that when
instructed through the constructivist approach, learners in different class categories register better achievement
as compared to those instructed through the conventional methods. The differences in mean gain for different
class categories also lead to the conclusion that learners in girls class category register better learner
achievement when instructed through the constructivist approach.
The following recommendations are therefore made based on the findings of the study:
1. Biology teachers should consider using the constructivist instructional methods in order to improve
learner achievement in different class categories.
2. Further investigations should be conducted into constructivist learning using some other assessment
strategies other than the 5Es instructional model. Similar studies should be conducted in schools located in

urban areas to compare attitude of students in rural and urban schools since this study was conducted in a rural
setting.
3. The government of Kenya through the KICD should develop a framework through which appropriate
instructional methods be employed in bridging the disparities in learner achievement in science-based
disciplines and across the different class categories.
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doi:10.17265/2161-623X/2016.01.004
DAVID
PUBLISHING
Learning From Failure in an MBA Oral Presentation Course

Mari Nishitani
Hitotsubashi University, Tokyo, Japan
The primary aim of this study was to examine the hypothesis that integrating teaching about learning from failure
into a course would lead to positive changes in perceptions of failure and use of strategies for learning from failure,
while the secondary aim was to clarify learners opinions regarding the use of corporate studies as material for oral
presentations. The study suggests that perceptions of failure become more positive through teaching about learning
from failure. Post-course surveys of the experimental group clearly show that perceptions of anxiety had become
significantly more positive. Furthermore, the open-ended responses suggest that students had acquired strategies for
learning from failure. Accordingly, it seems that teaching about learning from failure was effective. Regarding the
secondary aim, as far as selecting corporate studies as materials for presentations was concerned, results showed
that this raised student interest, and that levels of satisfaction were high, suggesting that effectiveness extended
beyond simply practicing oral presentations.
Keywords: Master of Business Administration (MBA) courses, oral presentations, failure, anxiety, corporate studies
Introduction
A Master of Business Administration (MBA) course has been established in Hitotsubashi University
Graduate School of Commerce and Management. The university Website states:
We proactively engage with the globalization of business. From the 2012 academic year, a program for international
students was established, admitting outstanding students from other countries, while actively promoting opportunities for
Japanese students and international students to interact. After a special selection process, international students spend the
first semester of their first year taking intensive courses in Japanese and topics related to Japanese industry and culture,
before joining regular students from the second semester of their first year and progressing to full-scale MBA study. Over
the two-year period, they acquire a high level of Japanese proficiency and management skills appropriate to work at the
front line of business. (Hitotsubashi University, n.d.)
The focus of this paper is on the foreign students admitted to this international student program, which
began in the 2012 academic year. During each week of the first semester of the first year, students in the
international student program take eight 90-minute advanced, specialized Japanese language classes. The
content of classes is listed below, and the author teaches oral presentation:
(a) Listening comprehension: Television listening;
(b) Reading comprehension: Extensive reading;
(c) Sentence patterns/expressions: Basic expressions;
(d) Oral presentation: Presentations using corporate studies as materials;
(e) Written expressions: Guidance on report writing;
Mari Nishitani, Ph.D., professor, Department of Center for Global Education, Hitotsubashi University.
46
LEARNING FROM FAILURE IN AN MBA ORAL PRESENTATION COURSE

(f) Text reading 1: Post-war Japanese economic history;
(g) Text reading 2: Corporate finance;
(h) Text reading 3: Competitive strategy theory and organizational design.
Teaching to Learn From Failure

The author has previously engaged in research on anxiety and failure among learners of the Japanese
language (Nishitani & Matsuda, 2011). This research showed that learners with high intrinsic motivation
perceive failure positively, understand the usefulness of failure, are able to use a wide range of learning
strategies, and in particular, tend to use the strategy of learning from failure by learning what is right from
other peoples mistakes and correcting mistakes and trying not to make the same mistake again (see
Figure 1). The key to teaching learning strategies is promoting the strategy with the highest correlation between
being able to recognize the benefits of failure and being able to learn from failure.
Figure 1. A model showing how strategy use leads to the improvement of language performance.
Ikeda and Mizawa (2012) showed that learners beliefs about failure determined their casual attributions
for negative events and their subsequent coping behavior, and they have emphasized the necessity of
minimizing the negative effects possessed by the failure.
The author also conducted a workshop for Japanese teachers of the Japanese language in Vietnam, the
purpose of which was to teach strategies for learning from failure by discussing changes in awareness of failure
(Nishitani, 2014). While there were no statistically significant differences in understanding of the usefulness of
failure before and after the workshop, responses to open questions in the post-workshop survey revealed
opinions regarding raised consciousness of failure and making use of this, not being afraid of failure, and
sharing failure with colleagues.
For this study, the perspective of learning from failure was integrated into plans for a course teaching oral
expressions to advanced learners of Japanese in an MBA course. By developing more positive perceptions of
failure using strategies for learning from failure, the author believes that students will gain the capability to
develop autonomously, not only in oral presentations, but also in terms of the aim of the special international
student program, which is to acquire a high level of Japanese proficiency and management skills appropriate
to work at the front line of business.
47
This paper examines the hypothesis that integrating teaching about learning from failure into a course
will enable students to positively modify their perceptions of failure, and use strategies to learn from failure.
The study also clarifies learners awareness regarding the use of corporate studies as material for oral
presentation.
Overview of Students
A total of 20 students entered the international student program in the 2015 academic year. These students
were split into two classes for the course. Groups were divided so that there was no bias in terms of students
nationalities, sex, work experience, or field of undergraduate study. Before the course began, the students took
a reading test of frequently occurring four-character kanji (Chinese characters) words in the field of economics
and commerce, worth 100 points, as well as a 10-minute interview for pronunciation, fluency, and accuracy
(scored by two faculty members on a scale of 40 points, total 80 point), and a 5-point scale pre-course survey
related to presentation anxiety, perceptions of anxiety, and intrinsic motivation (see Appendix).
As is clear from Table 1, the majority of students came from countries where kanji are used, and only
three students from Vietnam and Mongolia came from countries where kanji are not used. Another feature is
that females constituted 80% of the group. Over half of the students graduated from Japanese language
undergraduate programs. Overall, presentation anxiety was moderate, while intrinsic motivation was high, and
many students perceived failure positively.
Table 1
Overview of Students
Chinese
Taiwanese
Korean
Nationality
Vietnamese
Mongolian
Female
Sex
Male
Yes
Career
No
Japanese
Management
Undergraduate
Others
Kanji test (Total score = 100)
Conversation test (Total score = 80)
Total score
Presentation anxiety
Perceptions of failure
Intrinsic motivation factors
Group 1
Group 2
7
1
1
1
8
2
6
4
5
3
2
7
1
1
1
8
2
6
4
6
2
2
87.00 (SD = 12.24)

58.00 (SD = 12.86)
145.0 (SD = 22.93)
3.15 (SD = 0.73)
4.20 (SD = 0.63)
4.75 (SD = 0.27)
91.60 (SD = 6.15)

60.80 (SD = 12.48)
152.4 (SD = 16.22)
2.78 (SD = 1.06)
3.90 (SD = 1.08)
4.80 (SD = 0.25)
In the pre-course test and pre-course survey conducted before the beginning of the intensive Japanese
language class, there were no significant differences between the two groups on the t-test. In other words, the
two groups were almost equal in terms of Japanese language ability, anxiety about presentations, perceptions of
anxiety, and intrinsic motivation. In order to examine the effectiveness of teaching how to learn from failure,
48
Group 1 was the experimental group, which received teaching about learning from failure, while Group 2 was
the control group, which did not receive teaching about learning from failure. However, in order to avoid unfair
treatment, materials related to failure distributed to Group 1 (the experimental group) were distributed to Group
2 after the post-course survey in the last class.
Overview of the Course

Almost all international students in the MBA course aimed to work in Japan after graduation. In parallel
with the intensive Japanese language class, they also took seminars to learn about issues, such as Japanese
corporate culture and specialist subjects in management. For these reasons, to maximize the knowledge
obtained in specialist subjects and as useful resources for future job-hunting activities, oral presentation content
focused on corporate studies.
In the first class, a lecture on techniques for oral presentation was given to both groups. This included
issues, such as paying attention to conceptual stages, how to create PowerPoint slides, and copyright
precautions. Procedures for presentations required the students to send an outline of their presentation by
e-mail to the author by three days before the presentation. Content and structure were then discussed by the
student and author together, and the student prepared PowerPoint presentation materials by the day of the
presentation. The other students listened to each presentation and then evaluated the students way of speaking,
content, structure, and comprehensibility of the slides and handouts on a 4-point scale. The final stage of the
procedure was for students evaluation and the authors feedback to be given to the presenting student.
Corporate studies were done in three parts. Part 1 was a 15-minute presentation with reference to a
Japanese corporation selected by the author from 2014 economics magazines. Same corporation was used for
Group 1 and Group 2. Part 2 was a 20-minute presentation about a corporation in the students home country,
selected by the student. Finally, Part 3 was a 25-minute presentation on a company in the students home
country, Japan or another country, selected by the student.
Teaching About Learning From Failure

Lectures on oral presentation techniques and common Japanese errors were provided to both Group 1
and Group 2 in the first class of the course, and at the end of Part 1 and Part 2. In addition to this, lectures on
how to perceive failure were given to Group 1 (the experimental group) and in feedback from the teacher
after oral presentations for this group, students were made aware of their mistakes and received written
encouragement.
In the first class with Group 1 (the experimental group), students were told about what can be learned from
their own mistakes, what can be learned from others mistakes, and sharing blunders, as well as the fact that
there are good failures and bad failures. After the oral presentations in Part 1, a lecture on the theme of no
development without failure and effective methods for learning from failure was given, based on Hatamuras
(2014) Knowledge of Failure. After finishing Part 2, in the same way, a lecture and discussion on the theme of
ways of recovering from failure was conducted, also based on Hatamuras (2014) Knowledge of Failure.
Effectiveness of Teaching About Learning From Failure

As one student from the experimental group of 10 withdrew from all intensive Japanese language classes,
the post-course survey was administered to 19 students. The post-course survey comprised the same items as
49
the pre-course survey, covering presentation anxiety and perceptions of anxiety, together with the following
open-ended questions: What have you learned from the failures and successes of your classmates and
yourself? and What do you think about using corporate studies as material for presentation content?
Mean scores for presentation anxiety and perceptions of anxiety in the pre-course and post-course survey
are shown in Table 2. In Table 2, differences in figures for the pre-course survey for Group 1 are due to
recalculations after removing the data of the student who withdrew from the post-course survey.
In the post-course survey, Group 1 (the experimental group) and Group 2 (the control group) showed the
same scores for presentation anxiety, but while presentation anxiety scores for Group 1 (the experimental group)
fell, there were no changes in scores for Group 2 (the control group). Group 1, which had been taught about
learning from failure, showed higher scores for perceptions of anxiety than Group 2, which did not receiving
teaching about learning from failure, and were more positive in their perceptions of anxiety, but the t-test
showed no significant differences. In addition, no significant differences were observed between the two groups
in any item of presentation anxiety or perception of anxiety.
Table 2
Changes in Anxiety and Perceptions of Failure (Mean Scores)
Group 1 (The experimental group)
Presentation anxiety
Perceptions of failure
Group 2 (The control group)
SD
SD
Before
3.19
0.76
2.78
1.06
After
2.78
0.82
2.78
0.90
Before
3.94
0.65
3.90
0.80
After
4.36
0.53
4.06
0.72
On the other hand, on the paired t-test, Group 1 (the experimental group) mean score for perceptions of
anxiety rose from 3.94 to 4.36 (t = 2.42; p = 0.042). That is to say, perceptions of anxiety became significantly
positive. Significant changes in each item of presentation anxiety and perceptions of anxiety for Group 1 (the
experimental group) are shown in Table 3. Changes in scores for I think that other peoples failures are useful
for me, and my failures are useful for other people were large. For Group 2 (the control group), there were no
significant changes in any item of presentation anxiety or perceptions of anxiety.
Table 3
Changes in Anxiety and Perceptions of Failure in Group 1 (the Experimental Group)
M
I am anxious about presenting my own opinions
3.44
in front of other people.
I think that failing in ordinary situations leads to
3.88
not failing in important situations.
I think that other peoples failures are useful for
4.11
me, and my failures are useful for other people.
Before
SD
After
SD
1.01
2.56
1.23
2.10
0.069
0.99
4.33
1.12
-2.38
0.049
0.60
4.78
0.44
-4.00
0.004
Oral presentation grades were decided by the authors evaluation (75 points) and student peer evaluations
(25 points). The mean score for Group 1 (the experimental group) was 84.4 points, which was slightly higher
than the mean score for Group 2 (the control group), which was 82.3 points, but there were no significant
differences in scores between the two groups. Overall correlation coefficients for grades and presentation
50
anxiety and perceptions of anxiety were calculated, but no significant positive or negative correlation was
apparent for any item.
In reply to the question, What have you learned from the failures and successes of your classmates and
yourself? There were responses from Group 1 (the experimental group), on learning from their own failures.
Several examples are shown below:
I was too nervous for the first presentation and so it was a failure, but after practicing many times, the stress went
away. I learned to get rid of the nervousness by practicing again and again.
I thought there was no problem myself, but I learned that other people thought there was a problem.
In contrast, responses from Group 2 (the control group) focused on learning technical aspects of
presentations, such as how to use PowerPoint, looking at listeners when speaking, and tips for communicating
information, and there were no responses on learning from failure. This suggests that students from Group 1
(the experimental group) acquired strategies for learning from failure, unlike students from Group 2 (the control
group).
Significance of Using Corporate Studies for Oral Presentations

All learners responded that using corporate studies as materials for oral presentations was an appropriate
and useful theme for MBA students. Several responses are shown below:
I was satisfied as we could find out about various interesting companies. That will be useful when it comes to job
hunting.
I have managed to get an image of companies I was not interested in before now. I understand what I need to find out
about companies.
I have started to understand a little about companies in the home countries of my classmates.
This has been a good introduction to what we will be studying after this, as well as honing our presentation skills.
Reasons for seeing corporate studies as appropriate and useful material can be summarized into the
following two points:
1. Students could find out about companies that they had not previously been interested in, and various
companies in Japan and abroad;
2. The material, including specialist knowledge, would be useful for future studies and job-hunting
activities.
Conclusion and Future Issues

The primary aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that integrating teaching about learning from
failure into a course would lead to positive changes in perceptions of failure and use of strategies for learning
from failure, while the secondary aim was to clarify learners opinions regarding the use of corporate studies as
material for oral presentations.
Regarding the primary aim, the study suggests that perceptions of failure become more positive through
teaching about learning from failure. While there were no significant differences in mean scores when
comparing Group 1 (the experimental group) with Group 2 (the control group) comparison of the pre-course
and post-course surveys of Group 1 (the experimental group) clearly shows that perceptions of anxiety had
become significantly more positive. Furthermore, the open-ended responses suggest that students had acquired
strategies for learning from failure. Accordingly, it seems that teaching about learning from failure was
51
effective. There were no significant differences between the two groups in oral presentation grades, but given
that this course aimed to integrate the perspective of learning from failure, perceiving failure positively, and
using strategies to learn from failure, to autonomously develop a high level of Japanese proficiency and
management skills appropriate to work at the front line of business, it can be said that results were obtained to
a certain extent.
Regarding the secondary aim, as far as selecting corporate studies as materials for presentations was
concerned, results showed that this raised student interest, and that levels of satisfaction were high, suggesting
that effectiveness extended beyond simply practicing oral presentations. On the other hand, there was also the
opinion from students that The scope of selection of companies was too wide. It would be better to narrow the
scope to some extent to certain industry types or the latest topics of debate. How to use this to maximum
benefit in future course design is an issue for further investigation.
References
Hatamura, Y. (2014). Knowledge of failure. Kadokawa Chukei Press. (In Japanese)
Hitotsubashi University. (n.d.). Retrieved July 2, 2015, from http://www.mba.cm.hit-u.ac.jp/about/philosophy/
Ikeda, H., & Mizawa, R. (2012). Conceptualization and measurement of beliefs about failure. The Japanese Journal of
Educational Psychology, 60(4), 367-379
Nishitani, M. (2014). Practice of workshop to learn from failure (Research Report of Jest Conference, JEST12-5, pp. 179-184).
(In Japanese)
Nishitani, M., & Matsuda, T. (2011). The relationship between language anxiety, interpretation of anxiety, intrinsic motivation
and the use of learning strategies. US-China Education Review B, 8(9), 438-446.
52

Appendix: Pre- and Post- Course Survey Items
Presentation Anxiety
1. I am anxious about presenting my own opinions in front of other people.
2. I think other people can speak more fluently than I can.
3. I often get confused in my ideas when I am speaking in front of others.
4. I am anxious that other people might misjudge me or have a bad impression of me, because I cannot express what I want
to say properly.
Perceptions of Failure
5. I think that failing in ordinary situations leads to not failing in important situations.
6. Failing stays in my memory, and so I do not fail the next time.
7. If someone points out my mistakes, I can understand things that were vague before more clearly.
8. Nobody is perfect from the very beginning, so I think it is normal to fail at first.
9. I think that other peoples failures are useful for me, and my failures are useful for other people.
Intrinsic Motivation Factors
10. It is fun gaining new knowledge from studying.
11. I wish to develop myself into a more complete person by learning new things.
12. I want to do my best even when studying a difficult subject.
13. I always do my best in any field of study that I undertake.
14. I put in effort studying or working, because I enjoy it.
15. When studying, I always have a goal in mind.

doi:10.17265/2161-623X/2016.01.005
DAVID
PUBLISHING
Exploring Postgraduate Students Research Knowledge and

Skills in Normality Tests and Verifications
Clement Ayarebilla Ali, Peter Akayuure
University of Education, Winneba, Ghana
The study explored research knowledge and skills of postgraduate students in testing and verifying normality of
data in order to boost their confidence and credibility of educational research findings. This exploratory survey
randomly sampled 66 postgraduate students, out of about 150 postgraduate students in five faculties of the
University of Education, Winneba, Ghana. The results of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version
16 revealed that the postgraduate students require these innovative skills in order to test and verify their
educational research data. We therefore recommended continuous inter-faculty collaborations and regular
research conferences participations by teaching staff and postgraduate students to beef up their knowledge and
skills in research analyses.
Keywords: descriptive statistics, normality tests and verifications, parametric tests, research knowledge and skills
Introduction
Russell (2006) described the two main types of analysis as descriptive and inferential. The descriptive
analysis involves graphical displays, central tendencies, and dispersions while the inferential analysis involves
hypothesis testing and verifications. And in exploring research knowledge and skills in statistics, Russell (2006)
added that physical, educational, intellectual, and occupational characteristics must be taken of and included in
both statistics. Particularly, Joreskog and Sorbom (2004) suggested that the four important characteristics of
postgraduate students research knowledge and skills are demographic, descriptive, normality, and verifications
of tests.
Apart from the demographic, studies of Myoung (2008), Elnabris (2011), and Avioli (2012) show that the
descriptive, normality, and verification tests can be assessed with the normal distribution. The normal
distribution is a bell-shaped curve, in which the mean, median, and mode are equal, and are located at the
centre. Also, it is symmetric about the mean, continuous, asymptotic to the horizontal, and has a total area of
1.00 or 100% (50% lies to the left and the other 50% to the right of the mean).
Narrowing down the context to inferential tests, the two main forms are parametric and nonparametric.
Parametric tests require assumptions while nonparametric do not. However, nonparametric require even
stronger evidence to reject the null hypothesis (Spector, 2004; GraphPad, 2007; Harmon, 2011; Ali, Amihere,
Adzifome, & Ngman-Wara, 2014). If these tests are non-normality, then the data either have outliers, multiple
modes, incorrect measuring tools, incorrect distributions, zero/infinite limits, or scanty collections.
Clement Ayarebilla Ali, M.Sc., M.Ed., lecturer, Department of Basic Education, University of Education, Winneba.
Peter Akayuure, M.Phil., lecturer, Department of Mathematics Education, University of Education, Winneba.
54
EXPLORING POSTGRADUATE STUDENTS RESEARCH KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS
Normality Tests
Assumptions and technicality for the application of statistical tools and suitability of the tests are important in
research work and normality is one of the most important aspects for statistical analysis (Singh & Masuku, 2014).
Normality and verification tests are divided into three categoriesgraphical, numerical, and verifications. The
commonest graphical methods are histogram, box plot, and quintile plots (probability-probability [P-P] or
quantile-quantile [Q-Q]). For small or moderate sized data sets, the box plot is more suitable, and for large data
sets, the histogram or polygon is more appropriate. The quintile plots can be used for any sample side of data
(Spector, 2004; Russell, 2006; GraphPad, 2007; Ghasemi & Zahadiasi, 2012). Myoung (2008), Horst (2010),
Elnabris (2011), and Motulsky (2013) contended that normality of the data is determined by the shape of the
histogram, the outliers in the box plot, and overlapping of straight lines in the Q-Q plot.
Russell (2006) and Elnabris (2011) named the numerical ones as measures of central tendency (mean,
median, and mode), dispersions (inter-quartile range, range, and standard deviation), and positions (skewness and
kurtosis). In the normal data, the values of the mean, median, and mode are the same; the inter-quartile range is
approximately 1.33 standard deviations, the range is approximately 6 of the standard deviations, and the number
of observations within 1, 2, and 3 standard deviations falls in the empirical rule of 68%, 95%, and 99.7% or errors
of 1.64, 1.96, and 2.58 respectively. Russell (2006), Myoung (2008), Horst (2010), and Elnabris (2011) explained
that a perfectly normal distribution has zero skewness (negative is left skewed and positive is right), and that of
perfectly normal distribution has zero statistic (flat top is platykurtic and thin is leptokurtic).
Myoung (2008), Horst (2010), Arthur (2011), Elnabris (2011), Ghasemi and Zahadiasi (2012), and Shafer
and Zhang (2012) agreed that the most appropriate verification tests are Kolmogorov-Smirnov, Shapiro-Wilk,
and Anderson-Darling tests verifications of normality. Even though Anderson-Darling is the best, it is mostly
unavailable in Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software that most postgraduate students use.
And, while Kolmogorov-Smirnov is best for exploring independence, Shapiro-Wilk is most preferred for both
independence and identically distributed small samples.
Statement of the Problem

Normality tests and verifications should be taken seriously, for when these are not clarified, it may result into
inaccurate and unreliable conclusions about the reality (Oztuna, Elhan, & Tuccar, 2006). Ali et al. (2014)
observed that in exploring normality tests and verifications to research data, errors and mistakes are often detected
in the presentation, interpretation, labelling, computation, and discussion of results. It is not uncommon to observe
the pie charts being compared with each other, when bar charts and percentages are suitable for such comparisons.
The researchers observed that postgraduate students have difficulties in exploring and reporting normality tests
and verifications to their research data. The commonest tools often applied by postgraduate students were bar
charts, pie charts, and percentage frequency tables. Again, even though some postgraduate students clearly stated
mixed research methodologies, the analyses depicted otherwise. The research topics, statements, research
questions, and tools of analysis never matched the research protocol for mixed methodologies. And where some
students tested their research questions and hypotheses well, they failed to test and verify normality, due to
possible constraints in the testing and verification processes.
Worse still, some postgraduate students concluded the statistical significances of their results but never
made any efforts to justify such decisions. It must be stressed that rejecting or accepting the null hypotheses
55
have never been any issues in modern educational research designs. The most importance issues now centre on
the justifications for rejecting or failing to reject the hypotheses.
Just like other universities and research institutions, the University of Education, Winneba, has revised the
Postgraduate Research Methods and Theses Reporting with a clear demand for normality tests and verifications
of research data and theses reporting. Thus, the continuous disregard and violations of this research demand
could hinder strong focus, inference, trust, and policy direction. The need to explore various techniques
postgraduate students could employ in testing and verifying normality of research data is warranted.
Purpose of Study
The purpose of this study was to explore the techniques of testing and verifying for normality of research
data. Data were drawn from the postgraduate students for the purpose of illustrating various techniques of
normality testing and verification.
Research Question
In order to show various techniques of normality testing and verification, the following research question
was formulated: How do gender, highest academic levels, and type of programme influence postgraduate
students research knowledge and skills in normality tests and verifications?
Tests of Hypothesis
Null hypothesis (Ho); Postgraduate students research knowledge and skills in normality tests and
verifications are the same.
Alternative hypothesis (Ha): Postgraduate students have different research knowledge and skills in normality.
Level of significance (): 5%.
Rejection criteria: Reject Ho when p-values are less than .
Methodology
The exploratory survey design was used to assess and explore postgraduate students knowledge and skills
in normality tests and verifications of their research results. The postgraduate students population across five
faculties of the University of Education, Winneba, was estimated at 150. The simple random sampling
procedure was employed to select 66 postgraduate students, on the assumptions of large population,
homogeneity, and identically distributed in that academic year. Three demographic variables were gender,
highest academic levels, and faculty of study programme. The study variables were graduate students
knowledge of types of statistics, measurement scales, data forms, and instruments of data collection. The others
were their understanding in confidence levels, numerical, theoretical, and graphical tests. The rest were their
challenges in presentation, interpretation, labelling, computation, and discussion of research results.
A simple coded questionnaire was designed with 13 items to avoid verbose, monotonous, and repeated
responses from the students. The items were made simple and straight to the points to ensure that the relevant
information as well as the quality of the responses was explicitly and adequately understood and responded to.
It further ensured that the required information was obtained within the period, under the same conditions of all
the groups of students. Permission was sought from the Office of Graduate School and individual students.
Additionally, the researchers collected the data from graduate students who were enrolled in the 2013-2014
academic year and had started writing their theses. The traditional true-score theory and item-response test theory
56
provided us appropriate frameworks for assessing reliability and internal validity of the instruments (Ghasemi &
Zahadiasl, 2012). The various coefficients of associations were used to assess external validity of 70%. Out of the
200 questionnaire distributed, about 66 were recovered due to high attrition in the forms of non-compliance and
persistent absenteeism. However, these attritions may not affect the generalizability of our findings.
The compositions of the samples were from the Faculties of Science (18), Education (18), Social Science
(9), Languages (9), Creative Arts (9), and Institute for Educational Development and Extension (3). These
sample sizes might have affected the hypotheses and compelled the two-tailed level of significance. On gender,
the researchers recovered 64 male and 36 female students. On highest academic achievement of the graduate
students, the data comprised 85% four-year and 15% two-year undergraduate certificates. The other types of
certificates anticipated never featured. The main tools of data analyses were histogram, Q-Q, P-P, box plot, and
central tendencies. The others were dispersions, positions, Kolmogorov-Smirnov, and Shapiro-Wilk tests (Best
& Kahn, 2014; Ghasemi & Zahadiasl, 2012; Russell, 2006).
Results
Figure 1 shows the histogram of graduate students and their academic faculties in the university. We
observed that the histogram was symmetric, despite slightly skewed to the right. However, the histogram only
counts number of categories, compares shape, and assesses similarity of bar widths and centres, but does not
depict large differences in precise normality of data.
Figure 1. Histogram of students faculties.
Figure 2 shows the normal Q-Q plot of the students faculties. We observed that most plotted points fell
approximately along a straight line (a 45 degree line). However, some points trailed off from a straight-line
pack in a curve at the top end to suggest a slightly or approximately normal distribution.
57
Figure 2. Normal Q-Q plot of students faculties.
Figure 3 shows the normal P-P plot of students faculties. Like the Q-Q plot, we equally observed that
most plotted points fell approximately along a straight line at 45 degree line, but some points trailed off from
the straight-line pack at the top end.
Figure 3. Normal P-P plot of students faculties.
58
Figure 4 shows the box plot of students faculties. We observed that, apart from the ratio scale, the median
lines did not evenly divide the boxes. Also, apart from the interval and the ratio scales, the upper tails of the
boxes were consistently longer than the lower tails. These indicate that the population distribution of graduate
students in the faculties from which the data were sampled was slightly skewed to the right.
Figure 4. Box plot of students faculties.
Table 1 shows the measures of central tendencies of students knowledge in basic data concepts. We
discovered that the mode, the median, and the mean were approximately the same. This indicates that the three
measures of central tendencies came from a nearly normal distribution. However, the mean was slightly pulled
to the right of the median to confirm the direction of the histogram in Figure 1.
Table 1
Central Tendency Statistics of Students Knowledge in Basic Concepts
Statistics
Mean
Median
Mode
Statistics types
1.17
1.00
1
Scales types
3.30
3.00
3
Data types
2.48
3.00
3
Collection types
3.79
4.00
5
Table 2 shows the spread statistics of students knowledge in basic hypothesis testing concepts. We
discovered that the inter-quartile range was approximately 1.33 standard deviations, the range was
approximately 6 standard deviations, and the number of observations within 1, 2, and 3 standard deviations felt
within the empirical rule of 68%, 95%, and 99.7% respectively.
59
Table 2
Spread Statistics of Students Knowledge in Basic Hypothesis Testing Concepts
Statistics
Confidence levels
Numerical confidence
Theoretical confidence
Graphical confidence
Range
2
4
3
5
Minimum
2
1
1
1
Maximum
4
5
4
6
Mean
2.88
1.98
2.06
2.06
Std. deviation
0.621
1.398
0.802
1.311
Variance
0.385
1.954
0.642
1.719
Table 3 describes the position statistics of students challenges in research report writing. Perfectly normal
distributions have skewness and kurtosis statistics of zero. We discovered that the coefficient of skewness was
positive (0.282) to suggest right skewness. Also, the kurtosis statistic of -1.667 indicates that our distribution
was relatively flatter (platykurtic) than the normal distribution.
Table 3
Position Statistics of Students Challenges in Basic Hypothesis Testing
Challenge
Statistic
Challenges
Statistic
3.21
Mean
Std. error
0.156
Statistic
0.282
Skewness
Std. error
0.295
Statistic
-1.667
Kurtosis
Std. error
0.582
Table 4 shows the tests of the demographic information of postgraduate students. We have observed that
both Shapiro-Wilk and Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistics were statistically significant at 5%. We concluded that
gender, academic levels, and students faculties were not normally distributed.
Table 4
Tests of Normality Demographic Information and Descriptives
Variable
Gender
Highest academic levels
Students faculties
Statistics types
Descriptive diagrams
Descriptive numbers
Descriptive numbers
Kolmogorov-Smirnov
Statistic
Df
Sig.
0.400
55
0.000
0.448
11
0.000
0.506
55
0.000
0.528
11
0.000
0.235
55
0.000
Statistic
0.616
0.572
0.446
0.345
0.897
Shapiro-Wilk
Df
Sig.
55
0.000
11
0.000
55
0.000
11
0.000
55
0.000
Table 5 shows the tests of the demographic information of postgraduate students and the types of scales
they use for research data. We have observed that even though both Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk
fail to reject students faculties, Shapiro-Wilk did quite better. We concluded while gender and highest
academic levels were normally distributed, the students faculties were not.
Table 6 shows the tests of the demographic information of postgraduate students and the types of
confidence levels they use for research data. We have observed that the Shapiro-Wilk statistic estimated the
sample better than the Kolmogorov-Smirnov, but both rejected the null hypothesis of normality. We concluded
that the research knowledge and skills in confidence levels of students gender, academic levels, and students
faculties were not normally distributed.
Table 7 shows the tests of the demographic information of postgraduate students and the types of
theoretical confidence levels they use for research data. We have observed that the Shapiro-Wilk statistic
estimated the sample better than the Kolmogorov-Smirnov, but both rejected the null hypothesis of normality.
60
We concluded that the research knowledge and skills in theoretical confidence levels of students gender,
academic levels, and students faculties were not normally distributed.
Table 5
Tests of Normality of Demographic Information and Scale Types
Variable
Gender
Students faculties
Scales types
Nominal
Interval
Ratio
Combinations
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Combinations
Kolmogorov-Smirnov
Statistic
Df
Sig.
0.407
6
0.002
0.469
29
0.000
0.414
9
0.000
0.419
15
0.000
0.504
7
0.000
0.539
29
0.000
0.471
9
0.000
0.251
6
0.200
0.191
7
0.200
0.180
29
0.018
0.301
15
0.001
Statistic
0.640
0.533
0.617
0.603
0.453
0.184
0.536
0.927
0.955
0.924
0.835
Shapiro-Wilk
Df
Sig.
6
0.001
29
0.000
9
0.000
15
0.000
7
0.000
29
0.000
9
0.000
6
0.557
7
0.772
29
0.039
15
0.011
Statistic
0.385
0.636
0.390
0.632
0.147
0.536
0.871
0.915
Shapiro-Wilk
Df
Sig.
17
0.000
40
0.000
9
0.000
17
0.000
40
0.000
9
0.000
17
0.022
40
0.005
Statistic
0.592
0.595
0.628
0.142
0.496
0.878
0.919
0.914
0.927
Shapiro-Wilk
Df
Sig.
13
0.000
42
0.000
13
0.000
42
0.000
6
0.000
13
0.067
42
0.006
5
0.490
6
0.557
Table 6
Tests of Normality of Demographic Information and Confidence Levels
Variable
Gender
Students faculties
Confidence levels
Ninety
Ninety-five
Ninety-nine
Ninety
Ninety-five
Ninety-nine
Ninety
Ninety-five
Kolmogorov-Smirnov
Statistic
Df
Sig.
0.521
17
0.000
0.351
40
0.000
0.519
9
0.000
0.380
17
0.000
0.538
40
0.000
0.471
9
0.000
0.276
17
0.001
0.198
40
0.000
Table 7
Tests of Normality of Demographic Information and Theoretical Confidence
Variable
Gender
Students faculties
Theoretical confidence
Critical values
P-values
Critical values
P-values
Residual plots
Critical values
P-values
Normal plots
Residual plots
Kolmogorov-Smirnov
Statistic Df
Sig.
0.431
13
0.000
0.424
42
0.000
0.392
13
0.000
0.538
42
0.000
0.492
6
0.000
0.317
13
0.001
0.183
42
0.001
0.287
5
0.200*
0.251
6
0.200*
Table 8 shows the tests of the demographic information of postgraduate students and the challenges
students encounter in the analysis of results. We observed that the Shapiro-Wilk statistic estimated higher
61
statistics than the Kolmogorov-Smirnov, but both rejected the null hypothesis of normality. We therefore
concluded that students challenges in gender, academic levels, and students faculties were not normally
distributed.
Table 8
Tests of Normality and Challenges in Analysis of Results
Variable
Gender
Students faculties
Analysis challenges
Interpretation
Labelling
Computation
Discussion
Interpretation
Computation
Interpretation
Computation
Discussion
Kolmogorov-Smirnov
Statistic Df
Sig.
0.354
32
0.000
0.385
3
0.000
0.462
16
0.000
0.453
15
0.000
0.465
32
0.000
0.518
16
0.000
0.247
32
0.000
0.319
16
0.000
0.305
15
0.001
Statistic
0.637
0.750
0.546
0.561
0.540
0.398
0.869
0.837
0.766
Shapiro-Wilk
Df
Sig.
32
0.000
3
0.000
16
0.000
15
0.000
32
0.000
16
0.000
32
0.001
16
0.009
15
0.001
Conclusion and Recommendations

The results of SPSS Version 16 revealed that the postgraduate students require innovative skills in order to
test and verify their research data. This would inspire stakeholder confidence, and give reliable inferences and
trustworthy interpretations for policy-making. We therefore recommended continuous inter-faculty
collaborations and university research conferences to beef up their knowledge and skills in educational research
analyses.
The three stages of conducting normality explored include visualizing shape, detection of centrality, and
verifying normality of distribution of research data. All the graphs passed the normal tests. Therefore, we
recommended these graphs should be the first step of testing for normality in any educational research.
Also, the central tendencies, the dispersions, and positions of the descriptive statistics were approximately
the equal. These statistics supported the graphical results of normality. We suggest that the central tendencies
should always be employed as supports, and not as separate entities in any educational research at the
postgraduate level.
Again, we discovered that the theoretical underpinnings of the inter-quartile range, the standard deviation,
the range, and empirical rule were in tandems with our empirical research. Therefore, universities and other
research institutions must not leave out measures of dispersions in normality testing in any scientific
educational research.
Furthermore, the coefficients of skewness and kurtosis simply justified the relative locations of the mean,
the median, and the mode. This revelation is necessary for teaching and analyzing normality of postgraduate
research in education.
Finally, both Shapiro-Wilk and Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistics were statistically significant at 5% in most
of the responses. However, the Shapiro-Wilk verifications exceedingly verified the normality than that of the
Kolmogorov-Smirnov. Therefore, even though our results of gender, academic levels, and students faculties
were statistically significant, these two verification tools must be explored to assess the direction of the
normality. But where significance differences exist, the statistics of Shapiro-Wilk should be more preferred.
62
References
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assessment and statistics for diploma and degree students. Winneba: Payless Ltd..
Arthur, J. (2011). Anderson Darling A2: P-value and critical values. Denver: KnowWare International, Inc.. Retrieved from
http://www.qimacros.com/qiwizard/data-normality-test.html
Avioli, J. J. (2012). Chapter 6: The normal distribution. Virginia: Christopher Newport University.
Best, J. W., & Kahn, J. V. (2014). Research in education (8th ed.). New York, N.Y.: Allyn and Bacon. Retrieved from
http://ww2.odu.edu/~jritz/attachments/reined.pdf
Elnabris, K. J. A. (2011). BIOL 4243: Assessing normality. New York, N.Y.: Mayfield Publishing Company.
Ghasemi, A., & Zahadiasl, S. (2012). Normality test for statistical analysis: A guide for non-statisticians. International Journal of
Endocrinology & Metabolism, 10(2), 486-489.
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Horst, H. (2010). Is my data normally distributed? Making a decision based on visualizing data, finding skewness and kurtosis,
and performing formal tests for normality. Bren: Bren School of Environmental Science & Management, UCSB.
Joreskog, K. G., & Sorbom, D. (2004). LESREL 8.7 for Window, the diagnosis and treatment of non-normality. Lincoldwood:
Scientific Software International, Inc..
Motulsky, H. J. (2013). Analyzing data with GraphPad Prism. San Diego, C.A.: GraphPad Software Inc.. Retrieved from
http://www.graphpad.com
Myoung, P. H. (2008). Univariate analysis and normality test using SAS, Stata, and SPSS. Bloomington: University Information
Technology Services, Center for Statistical and Mathematical Computing, Indiana University.
Oztuna, D., Elhan, A. H., & Tuccar, E. (2006). Investigation of four different normality tests in terms of type 1 error rate and
power under different distributions. Turkish Journal of Medical Sciences, 36(3), 171-176.
Russell, B. H. (2006). Research methods in anthropology: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (4th ed.) Oxford: AltaMira
Press/Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.. Retrieved from http://www.altamirapress.com
Shafer, D. S., & Zhang, Z. (2012). Beginning statistics V.1.0. New York, N.Y.: Environmental Protection Agency.
Singh, S. A., & Masuku, B. M. (2014). Assumption and testing of normality for statistical analysis. American Journal of
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Spector, P. (2004). An introduction to R. Berkeley, C.A.: Statistical Computing Facility, University of California.

doi:10.17265/2161-623X/2016.01.006
DAVID
PUBLISHING
Innovative Management in Distance EducationThe

Importance of Monitoring Meetings in a Postgraduate
Course in the Multidisciplinary Team Perspective
Marize Lyra Silva Passos, Vanessa Battestin Nunes
Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Esprito Santo, Vitria, Brazil
The focus of this study was to analyze, in the view of the multidisciplinary team, the importance given to meetings
to support the implementation of the subjects in a postgraduate course offered at a distance. As a technical
procedure, this study used the survey research method, and data collection of the opinion of the multidisciplinary
team was performed using a questionnaire. The research had a quantitative approach with a qualitative bias that
sought to transform reality into data to allow its interpretation. After analyzing the data, it became clear that the
multidisciplinary team considers the meetings as efficient and effective to improve the performance of these
disciplines and generate an improvement of the interaction of the multidisciplinary team.
Keywords: management in distance education, innovation, interaction
Introduction
Distance learning has emerged as the main phenomenon of changes in education in the early 21st century.
It brings changes in the learning process and also in the way teachers manage these new types of courses, since
the method implemented in the various levels of education presents innovative character, as pointed out in
several studies (Rumble, 2003; Nunes, 2009; Souza & Faria, 2013).
Nunes (2009) stated that, in recent decades, the implementation of a new generation of courses offered at a
distance [...] began to open possibilities to promote educational opportunities for large populations (p. 3).
This new generation of courses no longer only focuses on quantitative criteria, but mainly on the basis of
quality, flexibility, freedom, and criticism notions. These in turn have their own characteristics and
complexities that [...] now requires new education system management processes (Bernardi, Daudt, & Behar,
2013, p. 135).
Peters (2004) pointed out that offering courses in the distance education mode involves the application of
industrial processes in conveying instruction, among these we can highlight systematic planning; specialization
of the work team; production of own materials; and automation, standardization, quality control, and use of
modern communication technologies. From this perspective, the Federal Institute of Education, Science and
Technology of Esprito Santo (IFES) offers distance learning courses for over nine years, seeking with his
Marize Lyra Silva Passos, D.Sc., professor, Reference Center for Teacher Education and Distance Education, Federal Institute
of Education, Science and Technology of Esprito Santo.
Vanessa Battestin Nunes, D.Sc., professor, Reference Center for Teacher Education and Distance Education, Federal Institute of
Education, Science and Technology of Esprito Santo.
64
INNOVATIVE MANAGEMENT IN DISTANCE EDUCATION
research body to test the use of new processes to support teaching and management of distance education.
The course focus of this study was the postgraduate course in computers in education (PCE), which is
managed by a multidisciplinary team consisting of course coordinator, tutoring coordinator, instructional designer,
pedagogue, teachers, and tutors (Nobre, Nunes, Gava, & Albernaz, 2011). To ensure that the courses offering
process occurs effectively and efficiently, and ensure the integration of process players, the ongoing staff proposed
the establishment of three control meetings for each subject: the initial, intermediate, and final. Thus, this
research aimed to analyze, in the view of the multidisciplinary team, the importance attached to these meetings.
Management in Distance Education

With the growth in the offer of distance education, educational institutions began to live with new ways to
view and organize education, and therefore, seek to identify and develop academic processes geared to this new
reality in the educational and administrative point of view. According to Bernardi et al. (2013):
[...] The management of distance education is linked to the paradigm of the network society. In this it is required of
the institutions to adopt policies and flows that enable and qualify the relationships inside. From these actions, we propose
a new concept of educational organization that requires decentralized, participatory, integrated and interdependent
functions. (pp. 135-136)
Management is a process comprising the planning, organization, coordination, and control of

decision-making actions aiming to develop activities in an efficient and effective way (Sartori & Roesler, 2005;
Rumble, 2003; Lacombe & Heilborn, 2003).
On the other hand, educational management is a specific action that aims to organize and mobilize the human
and material conditions, available and necessary to the success of the educational process that needs to be
characterized as democratic and participatory. It is assumed responsibility and active participation of all
stakeholders seeking to increasingly significant educational outcomes as a collective commitment (Bernardi
et al., 2013).
Education management, specifically the management of distance education, seeks guidance for strengthening
relations within a new concept of educational organization based on physical distance between students, faculty,
and institution, which demand management of decentralized, participatory, interdependent, but also integrated
functions.
In this context, it is noted [...] the need for an adequate and differentiated management, mainly related to
the design aspects, teaching, planning and communication strategies [...] (Bernardi et al., 2013, p. 137).
Management Innovation in Distance Education

The significant growth of organizations offering distance education courses has caused teachers and
administrators to become aware of the need to reflect on how to organize and manage these systems, although it
is not a simple task, as it involves a large number of players: students, teachers, tutors, managers, technical staff,
infrastructure, the institution itself, among others, which requires managers careful attention to the
decision-making (Souza & Faria, 2013; Rumble, 2003).
As seen previously:
[...] Distance education management requires an understanding of the variables that make up the whole of your
system. Knowledge about your coverage can facilitate the search for innovative, creative and economically viable
solutions. On the other hand, poses challenges for managers. (Bernardi et al., 2013, p. 138)
65
Due to the characteristics and complexity of distance education, the innovation process in its management
is natural and expected, and permeates various degrees of novelty and complexity inherent in this type of
education. [...] So that it often requires the development and adaptation of solutions and models to the specific
organizational context considered, reflecting the need for the innovation process to be investigated in this
context (Souza & Faria, 2013, pp. 314-315).
All previous arguments support the idea that research on innovation in the context of distance education is
important, since the dynamics of innovation can raise reflections upon improvement initiatives in the
management of these systems. In order to achieve this purpose, this article presents and discusses innovative
management experience that was due to the implementation of meetingsinitial, intermediate, and
finalwhich are designed to monitor and assist in the correction of management of the course subjects offered.
The Initial, Intermediate, and Final Meetings

In IFES, the postgraduate courses have a managing body, the course collegiate, who are responsible for
deciding on matters related to teaching and research developed in the respective course, but do not perform a
thorough monitoring of each discipline. In PCE, it is worth highlighting the implementation of the initial,
intermediate, and final meetings promoted by the coordination team to facilitate the achievement of efficiency
and effectiveness in the disciplines offering process.
These meetings can be in person or online and occur between teacher and distance tutors, with the support
of a member of the coordination team. For each meeting, the teacher, with the support of the classroom and
distance tutors, is responsible for the completion of a minutes that is available to be consulted by the
coordination team, which facilitates the assimilation of the topics discussed (Nunes, Nobre, & Passos, 2013).
In the case of PCE, subjects are offered in pairs. So, there is a whole interdisciplinary planning and
meetings of concomitant subjects occur together, so there is a better understanding of the interdisciplinary
approach and its implementation by tutors in the process of teaching and learning. Meetings are attended by
teachers and tutors from both disciplines, resulting in the completion of two minutes, one for each discipline.
The initial meeting aims to present the discipline, its methodology and evaluation activities, and the
correction criteria. This should occur at least two weeks before the start of the course. The pedagogue
participates in the meeting in addition to the teachers and tutors (Passos, Nobre, & Nunes, 2014).
The intermediate meeting aims to adjust the implementation of the discipline, especially with respect to
tutoring activity. In addition to teachers and tutors, the tutoring coordinator also participates. It should take
place in half the time expected for the discipline duration, enabling some intervention before completion of the
course (Nunes et al., 2013).
The final meeting is aimed at the closing of the grades and the evaluation of the implementation of the
discipline, with notes on how to work best the following disciplines and also in future editions of these same
disciplines. In addition, it is done the survey of good practice and the setting of dates for the closing of pending
issues. In addition to teachers and tutors, the course coordinator also participates. It must occur at the end of the
course (Nunes et al., 2013).
Method
This was an applied and exploratory study that sought to analyze and increase knowledge about the
effectiveness of initial, intermediate, and final meetings from the point of views of the multidisciplinary team.
66
As for the approach, it was a quantitative research with a qualitative bias that sought to transform reality
into data allowing its interpretation. Since its qualitative bias aimed at giving voice to the survey panel as
their views on the subject, and with respect to the technical procedure used to evaluate the opinion of the
panel, the study used the survey research method, which seeks to obtain data or information about
characteristics, actions, or opinions of a certain group of people. To obtain data, it was applied to the
multidisciplinary team a questionnaire on the effectiveness of meetings. The target audience of this research
was the 23 members of the multidisciplinary team, of which 15 agreed to participate, which is equivalent to
65% of the group studied.
To assess the importance attached to PCE meetings, we used a questionnaire composed of 26 questions
divided into two parts: participant identification and data about meetings. The second part was divided into
three constructs to facilitate statistical analysisreview of the initial meeting, review of the intermediate
assembly, and review of the final meetingeach of which has five statements about the meetings contribution
to the successful implementation of the course, and they were evaluated on a score ranging from 1 to 5, with 1
being little and 5 being great contribution. In addition to the five statements, each construct has an open
question where the participants can opine freely about the meeting.
The questionnaire was evaluated by three experts in the field and then its consistency was measured using
Cronbachs . The results were better than expected ( 0.55), which indicates a good internal consistency of
the constructs (see Table 1).
Table 1
Analysis of the Consistency of the Questionnaire Constructs
Construct
1. Review of the initial meeting
2. Review of the intermediate meeting
3. Review of the final meeting
Number of items
6
6
6
Cronbachs a
0.950
0.936
0.737
Note. Source: Analysis performed in Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 22.
The questionnaire was built using Google Forms and sent by email to the participants. They had the option
after reading the free and informed consent term to respond to the questionnaire or not.
Results and Discussion

Of the members of the multidisciplinary team that participated in the study, 12 are women and 3 are men;
they are aged more than 31 years, and 78% aged more than 41 years; they have more than three years of
experience on the course and 71% of them have some academic background in education. After analyzing the
socio-demographic data, an analysis of the constructs was carried out, and therefore, we calculated the averages,
medians, and standard deviations.
The analysis of Construct 1 (see Table 2), which refers to the initial meeting, shows that the average of the
determinants is high, all above 4, and the variability was low. The item guidance on how to act in the discipline
was the most valued, followed by understanding the dynamic of the discipline. As these are directly linked to
the actions expected of educational management, they have the function of organizing and mobilizing human
and material conditions to achieve success in the educational process (Sartori & Roesler, 2005; Rumble, 2003;
Lacombe & Heilborn, 2003).
67
Table 2
Median Concerning the General Perception of the Construct Initial Meeting
Initial meeting (N = 15)
Minimum
Maximum
Understand the dynamics of the discipline

Understand the tasks to be performed in the discipline
Facilitates the team integration
Guidance on how to act during the discipline
Team suggestions are heeded
2.0
2.0
2.0
3.0
2.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
Mean Standard
deviation
4.533 0.8338
4.333 0.8165
4.467 0.9904
4.733 0.5936
4.467 0.8338
Coefficient of
variation
0.695
0.667
0.981
0.352
0.695
Median
5.00
4.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
Note. Source: Analysis performed in SPSS Version 22.
These results confirm that the survey participants mostly agree that the initial meeting is important. But
these did not have the participation of all the guests, which creates any dissatisfaction, as is clear in the quotes
of some participants:
Sadly, we did not got a good quorum at meetings causing important information to be lost by tutors, which makes
colleagues to have different procedures or do not understand the proposed task. (Teacher 5)
The meeting is very important for sure. But not all attend. The absence of a member is very noticeable. And, it
depends on the conscience of each individual, because participation is encouraged. (Teacher 15)
In Construct 2 analyses (see Table 3), with respect to the intermediate meeting, it is noted that the average
of the determinants was slightly lower than those obtained in Construct 1, but was still greater than or equal to
4 and with smaller variances.
Table 3
Median Regarding the Perception of the Construct Intermediate Meeting
Intermediate meeting (N = 15)
Minimum
Maximum
To check discipline progress

Learn more about the class
Development and problems of the class
Interdisciplinary occurrence
Correction in the implementation of the discipline
2.0
2.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
Mean Standard
deviation
4.2 0.9411
4.067 0.9612
4.267 0.5936
4.067 0.7988
4.467 0.7432
Coefficient of
Median
variation
0.886
4.00
0.924
4.00
0.352
4.00
0.638
4.00
0.552
5.00
The most valued item in the intermediate meeting was the opportunity to correct the course of the
discipline, which is quoted by Nunes et al. (2013) as the main purpose of the meeting. For the subjects, the
absence of some participants at the meeting has impaired the effectiveness of it. Yet, they consider it equally
important and think it could be done online.
It is important because the problems are raised and the issues fixed. (Teacher 3)
In fact, I do not see much point to that meeting, I think the adjustments in the course and monitoring are needed yes,
but that we can do via e-mail. Or, not an in-person meeting, but a scheduled meeting via Skype to exchange ideas on the
progress of the class and activities, this way we can communicate and check situations that can be solved. (Tutor 7)
In Construct 3 (see Table 4), which refers to the final meeting, it appears that the determinants average
was very close to those obtained in Construct 1 and also had small variances. The items with higher average
were to solve academic pending issues and to support the next openings of the discipline with information,
these actions related to management of distance education.
68
Table 4
Medians Concerning the General Perception of the Construct Final Meeting
Final meeting (N = 15)
Minimum
Maximum
Solve administrative pending issues

Solve academic pending issues
Reflections on the achieved results
Feedback for the next disciplines
Subsidies for next course offerings
3.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
4.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
Mean Standard
deviation
4.333 0.6172
4.6 0.6325
4.4 0.9103
4.333 1.1127
4.733 0.4577
Coefficient of
variation
0.381
0.400
0.829
1.238
0.210
Median
4.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
One can see that for the research participants, the final meeting is as important as the others. It is also clear
that the absence of some participants affects the expected results and several participants think that the same
could be done in online form, as seen in the following statements:
In my opinion, it is the most important of all, for in it, we learn and solve issues for subsequent classes/courses.
(Professor 3)
That is truly an essential meeting so that tutors can expose problems among students and which may yet be addressed
in time, how to avoid failures and other pending situations. One way of integrating all to evaluate the discipline, even
enabling an analysis to be used by the next editions. (Tutor 6)
We still have difficulties to finish the discipline in that meeting. I think a more direct work with tutors and teachers in
order to reach the final evaluation with all results concluded the final meeting gets more productive. (Tutor 8)
Some team members highlight the initial meeting, other intermediate, but it is evident the importance
given to these three moments for reflection, exchange of experiences, and the search for solutions together,
which according to Bernardi et al. (2013) should be a concern of managers of distance learning courses, and
aimed at boosting the relations within a new concept of educational organization seeking to achieve
participation and integration between those involved in the educational process.
In the case of the PCE course, the subjects are planned and executed in an interdisciplinary way, such
meetings positively impact the teaching and learning process, ensuring greater integration of the team.
Conclusion
The realization of support meetings is an innovative practice for the management of distance education,
since often this practice is not common given this mode characteristics.
This practice has been tested and evaluated by the team of PCE for four years and, as seen, for the
multidisciplinary team, its realization is effective in improving the performance of subjects and facilitating
interaction among staff, allowing with their feedbacks improvements in the course subjects execution, as well
as a better understanding of the classes for planning future disciplines, improving the interaction of the
multidisciplinary team and the interdisciplinary.
It is worth mentioning here that most think these meetings are impaired when there is the absence of some
of the team members and also that some of them could be carried out online, which could guarantee greater
participation.
The research subjects point out that those moments are also important to promote reflection on the
pedagogical practice of teachers, tutors, and the team as a whole.
69
References
Bernardi, M., Daudt, S. D., & Behar, P. A. (2013). Domnio da gesto em educao a distncia (Management domain in distance
education). In P. A. Behar (Ed.), Competncias em educao a distncia (Expertise in distance education) (pp. 135-149).
Porto Alegre: Penso.
Lacombe, F. J. M., & Heilborn, G. L. J. (2003). Administrao: Princpios e tendncias (Administration: Principles and trends).
So Paulo: Saraiva.
Mill, D., Brito, N. D., Silva, A. R., & Almeida, L. F. (2010). Gesto da educao a distncia (EaD): Noes sobre planejamento,
organizao, direo e controle da EaD (Management of distance education: Principles of management, organization,
direction, and control). Revista Vertentes, 35.
Nobre, I. A., Nunes, V. B., Gava, T. B. S., & Albernaz, J. M. (2011). Desafios e conquistas no planejamento de um curso multi,
inter e transdisciplinar a distncia (Challenges and achievements in planning a multi course, inter- and transdisciplinary
distance). Paper presented at The 10 Encontro de Pesquisa em Educao da Regio Sudeste.
Nunes, I. B. (2009). A histria da EaD no mundo (The history of distance education in the world). In F. M. Litto, & M. M. M.
Formiga (Eds.), EaD: O estado da arte (Distance education: The state of the art) (pp. 3-8). So Paulo: Pearson Education do
Brasil.
Nunes, V. B., Nobre, I. A., & Passos, M. L. S. (2013). Um modelo de gesto participativaProcessos de interao e comunicao
da equipe multidisciplinar com Foco na melhoria do ensino-aprendizado (A participatory management model of interaction
and communication with the multidisciplinary team focus on improving teaching and learning processes). Paper presented at
The 19 Congresso Internacional ABED de Educao a Distncia, Salvador.
Passos, M. L. S., Nobre, I. A. M., & Nunes, V. B. (2014). Regulao em um processo de avaliao formativa em um curso de
ps-graduao ofertado a distncia (Regulation in a formative evaluation process in a graduate course offered distance).
Paper presented at The XI Congresso Brasileiro de Ensino Superior a Distncia, Florianopolis.
Peters, O. (2004). A educao a distncia em transio: Tendncias e desafios (Distance education in transition: Trends and
Challenges). So Leopoldo: Unisinos.
Rumble, G. (2003). A gesto dos sistemas de ensino a distncia (The management of education systems at distance). Braslia:
Editora UnB.
Sartori, A., & Roesler, J. (2005). Educao superior a distncia: Gesto da aprendizagem e da produo de materiais didticos
impresso e online (Higher education distance: Learning management and production of printed and online teaching
materials). Tubaro: Unisul.
Souza, J. C., & Faria, M. F. B. (2013). Gesto de sistemas de educao a distncia na perspectiva da inovao (Management of
distance education systems in the context of innovation). In D. Mil, & C. Maciel (Eds.), Educao a distncia: Elementos
para pensar o ensino aprendizagem contemporneo (Distance education: Elements to think the contemporary teaching
learning) (pp. 311-339). Cuiab: EdUFMT.

doi:10.17265/2161-623X/2016.01.007
DAVID
PUBLISHING
National Trends of Internationalization of Education in

Voronezh State University: Present and Future
Dmitry Endovitsky
Voronezh State University, Voronezh, Russia
Globalization of the education market is a definite consequence of economic and information globalization. Only
global companies and organizations can be serious players in these areas, and accordingly, in education, only those
universities that aim to meet international standards can become successful. Currently, all areas of university life
are based on the principles of internationalization. A major role in this process is the creation of curricula and
programmes that meet international standards. In todays world, university graduates must obtain the competencies
required for them to work successfully not only at home but also in other countries. The key importance in this
sense is the linguistic training of students. In addition to obtaining language knowledge and skills, students at
Voronezh State University (VSU) serve a probationary period in foreign companiesour partners. These
internships take place in the training centres of these companies, as well as directly in the enterprises themselves.
An example of such cooperation has taken place with leading information technology (IT) companies: Atos,
T-systems, NetCracker, SAP, and Data Art. As experience shows, additional language training is an important
means of improving the professional preparation of students and their competitiveness in the international labour
market.
Keywords: internationalization, education, universities, language training, internships, cooperation
Introduction
With the rise of globalization, especially in the 21st century, and the resulting boost in international
communication, the Russian higher education system is facing new challenges. Whilst previously universities
focused on producing qualified specialists for domestic needs, today they need to become more international in
order to operate effectively in the global education market and enable university graduates to compete for jobs
internationally.
This requires a new approach in the strategic plans of Russian universities, namely, the internationalization
of the education system. Over the past years, there have been a lot of discussions on the subject in the literature
with different authors (e.g., Welgh & Luostarinen, 1988; De Wit, 2010; 2013) trying to revisit its substance.
Examining the forces that drive the internationalization process in the sphere of higher education, they
reveal the so called internationalization paradox. By this, they mean that many of the initiatives fail to deliver
what they first promise. Analyzing this phenomenon, experts come to the conclusion that it is unlikely that
higher education institutions will be able to transform themselves into truly global units because of historical
and organizational barriers. Besides, there is a risk that they may be diverted from their main missionto
Dmitry Endovitsky, Dr. habil. in Economics, professor, rector, Voronezh State University.
NATIONAL TRENDS OF INTERNATIONALIZATION OF EDUCATION IN VORONEZH
71
educate their home based students and help them become global citizens. According to the analysts, these
institutions should instead focus on the development and implementation of an import-export model of
internationalization.
Internationalization of Education
The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) defines internationalization of
education as a process when the purposes, functions, and structure of the education become multidimensional
(Hnard, Diamond, & Roseveare, 2012). It is a dynamic process, which is continuously shaped and reshaped by
the international context it occurs in. According to the International Association of Universities (IAU), these
changes in context involve changes in the goals, concepts and strategies of internationalization (IAU, 2012).
It is agreed that it involves the integration of various international aspects not only into the administration
process, but above all, into academic activities and research undertaken by universities. Thus, Voronezh State
University (VSU) targets: (a) the internationalization of the curriculum; (b) the internationalization of the
teaching and learning processes through partnerships with institutions abroad; and (c) the internationalization of
relationships with potential foreign employers.
The first two points are the most significant. Numerous researchers put emphasis on the centrality of the
curriculum considering the internationalization of the curriculum and teaching and learning processes as
critical elements of internationalization (Bond, 2003; Bond, Qian, & Huang, 2003; Green & Olson, 2003;
Knight, 1994; 1997; 2000; Lemasson, 2002; Paige, 2003; Tonkin & Edwards, 1981). Indeed, the curriculum is
qualified as the backbone of the internationalization process (Knight, 1994, p. 6). So, why is it important to
internationalize the curriculum in higher education? Because it seems to be an effective means of providing an
academic environment that supports the diverse cultural learning needs of students in the international context.
Russian students must be able to fit their culturally based learning expectations within the traditions of Western
or Eastern curricular perspectives and pedagogical strategies. Obviously, education and the curriculum play a
key role in shaping students values as well as being typically reflective of the values, attitudes, and beliefs of a
particular culture and their home institution. That is why it requires thorough consideration.
VSUs Internationalization Strategies

Foreign Language Training of Specialists and Students
Bearing this in mind, VSU puts a particular emphasis on foreign language training of specialists who are
ready to compete in the global market. The main player here is the Faculty of Romance and Germanic
Philology of VSU. It produces specialists in teaching, translation, and cross-cultural communication. The list of
foreign languages studied by the students includes English, German, French, Spanish, and Italian. Besides, the
integral part of the learning process at the faculty is studying the cultural and social aspects of the respective
countries. Thus, the faculty curricula include such disciplines as the geography and history of the respective
countries, culture studies, culture-oriented linguistics, translation and interpreting, etc.. Also, the students of the
faculty have an opportunity for internships in a variety of partner universities. Their stay can last from two
weeks to 10 months depending on the purpose, tasks, and activities they are involved in.
In the context of increasing globalization, significant changes in the world demand for languages can be
observed. Taking into consideration the increasing role of Asia and Africa in the world economy, The Faculty
of Romance and Germanic Philology has introduced some changes into its curriculum. Now, students have an
72
opportunity to study the Chinese, Japanese, and Arabic languages. It has also helped to promote the universitys
international cooperation as, for example, our students can go to China for internships. Similarly, it has
enhanced cooperation with some Arabic countries. As a result, VSU has signed agreements on cooperation and
academic exchange with five universities in Iraq.
In addition, the administration of VSU puts great emphasis on the language education of students in
science departments because, as we see it, it is absolutely necessary in the context of the internationalization of
the curriculum and learning process. The system of extended, or supplementary, education involves training in
translation for specific, professional purposes. Every year, about 200 students enrol in this programme with a
view to developing their cross-cultural communication skills, which, in their opinion, can prove really helpful,
especially when young specialists apply for positions in foreign companies and organizations.
Academic Exchange Programmes
Internationalization of education implies developing academic exchange programmes, which help Russian
students acquire new professional and cultural competences and skills and raise their personal competitiveness.
VSU has cooperation agreements with over 150 universities from all over the world, including the largest
universities of China, Germany, the United States (U.S.), and other countries.
Students participate in exchange programmes on a wide range of majors. Thus, those who specialize in
physics, chemistry, and information technology (IT) usually study in the U.S. and Germany. The students of the
Faculty of Economics have internships in management, commerce, regional economy, and marketing in the
U.S., France, Spain, and Austria. The students of Philology and History Faculties study in Germany, Italy,
Spain, and Ireland acquiring communication competences in business. Every year, a large group of students go
to study Chinese in different universities of China. On the whole, in 2014, for example, 262 Russian students
went abroad to study or participate in conferences and workshops. In order to ensure the high level of academic
activity that would conform to international standards and to keep in line with the principles of the Bologna
process, in 2014, VSU continued its activities aimed at involving the teachers from international partner
universities in the academic process. In 2014, their total number at the university reached 28.
International Projects
Since 2014, VSU has been implementing 11 international projects, including six Tempus projects, three
projects of the Seventh Framework Programme of the European Union (EU), one Erasmus Mundus project, and
a programme of scientific cooperation between Eastern Europe and Switzerland. In the current year, the
International Project and Programme Centre of VSUs International Cooperation Department, in collaboration
with the university departments, prepared 20 projects within major educational and scientific programmes, such
as Tempus, Erasmus, and the Seventh Framework Programme of the EU.
Working within the framework of international projects and programmes requires special skills and
abilities. At VSU, there is an annual professional development course in international scientific and
educational projects aimed at improving the quality of education (72 hours), whose graduates receive a
certificate of completing a short-term advanced training programme from the Ministry of Education and
Science of the Russian Federation.
An information session European Programmes in the Field of Education and Science: Opportunities for
Russia was held in 2014. Among the participants, there were the acting head of the EU-Russian Cooperation
Programme, delegate of the European Commission to the Russian Federation Nicola Scaramuzzo (who
73
presented new European education and academic mobility programmes), the deputy director of National Office
Erasmus+ in the Russian Federation Anna Muravieva, and the head of the German Academic Exchange Service
(DAAD) in Moscow Gregor Berghorn.
Since 2013, at the Faculty of Romance and Germanic Philology, there has been an Academic English
project aimed at teaching English to the academic and teaching staff of the university. The main purpose of the
project is to improve the English language skills and competencies for academic and scientific activity in
English.
Teaching Foreign Students
Another priority of VSU connected with internationalization is teaching foreign students. The university
became the educational centre for students from the former Socialist countries of Eastern Europe and the
developing countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America during the time of the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR). At that time, there were over 2,000 students and interns from East Germany in VSU, which
explains the numerous alumni associated with Germany now.
In 2014, VSU hosted 1,026 foreign students from 83 countries, which is 4.5% of the total number of
students, including 79 graduate students and 59 postgraduates.
The largest group includes Chinese students and postgraduates. Over 150 students come from Arabic
countries, such as Iraq, Syria, and Jordan. VSU also had some students from Japan together with highly
professional guest lecturers from Japanese universities.
The work on enrolling foreign residents in study programmes on a free basis (funded from the budget of
the Russian Federation) was done in collaboration with Rossotrudnichestvo and the Ministry of Education and
Science of the Russian Federation, using the information system of the allocation of quotas for international
student admissions russia-edu.ru of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation.
Following the results of a competitive selection, VSU was third in the country by the number of
international students allowed to be admitted on a free basis, with only the Peoples Friendship University of
Russia and Saint Petersburg State Polytechnic University (engineering fields and programmes) ahead.
Foreign students study at all 17 faculties of the university, but the most important are the pre-university
studies attended by 265 students. Teachers at this faculty not only teach students Russian, but also help them
adapt to Russian culture. The learning process is based on manuals and textbooks produced by the faculty.
While taking the pre-university course, the students take an active part in the social and cultural life of the
university. For example, they participate in the annual festival of the Russian language and culture. They meet
with Russian students and young representatives of different organizations.
In collaboration with the Department of Culture of the Voronezh Municipal Government, the Institute of
International Education of VSU organizes the Annual International Song and Dance Festival. This year, over
700 participants took part in the three-day marathon, staging over 200 performances. At the closing concert of
the festival, there were over 2,000 people.
On the initiative of the VSU rectorate, supported by the partner Minzu University of China (Beijing), the
Institute of International Education of VSU organized the very First Festival of the Chinese Language,
Literature, and Culture. Both Russian and Chinese students, as well as teachers and a large delegation from the
Minzu University of China, took part in the festival. The colourful and creative programme evoked a wide
response from the Russian and Chinese mass media.
74
VSU offers a wide range of programmes to foreign students, such as a pre-university course, bachelors
and masters programmes, postgraduate studies, short-term internships for researchers and students, language
courses, and summer schools. The most popular faculties among foreign students are the Faculties of
Economics, Romance and Germanic Philology, Computer Sciences, International Relations, and
Pharmaceutics.
The academic process at the university embraces both the students and the teaching staff. The latter must
be incorporated in the course of internationalization of education as well. With regard to this, VSU has been
actively developing contacts with foreign partners. Highly appreciating the historical background and the
academic expertise of top-ranking European and American universities, VSU has been engaged in sharing their
successful experience. Undoubtedly, it can provide institutional guidance and examples of good practice in
internationalization. For example, back in 1996-1999, VSU delivered a large-scale project within the EU
programme, called University Management in International Affairs. As a result, over 100 members of the
teaching staff had an opportunity to stay in such famous universities as University of Leuven (Belgium),
University of Granada (Spain), Galway University (Ireland), etc.. Needless to say professors and academics in
VSU benefited greatly from the programme.
Academic Mobility Programmes
Academic mobility programmes for students and teachers of VSU have resulted in new forms of
cooperation. While there are some traditional departments like the Department of Exchange Programmes, new
centres have been established specializing in the language and culture of a particular country. For example,
there is a Centre of French Language and Culture, which has a good library and a collection of audio files and
has close ties with the French embassy. This centre organizes French language courses and they are taught by
native speakers. There are also other centres in VSU, such as centres of Spanish, Irish, Italian, Chinese, and
other languages. Each centre is unique. However, together, they are aimed at strengthening the international ties
of VSU.
As mentioned above, VSU is concerned not only with the internationalization of education as such, but
also with enabling students to successfully meet requirements when applying for positions with international
companies. To bridge this gap between the theory and real practice at work, VSU is trying to establish
relationships with potential employers, including those abroad. As an example, it has a number of
university-based vocational training centres of some leading IT companies, such as Siemens, Atos IT Solutions
and Services, T-systems, CISCO Certified Internetwork Expert, and NetCracker. Such programmes of Wizart
Animation School as Animation Expert, Autodesk 3DS Max Expert, Autodesk Maya Expert, and
Pixologic Zbrush Expert are much sought after. Here, they also study foreign languages, such as English and
German for career purposes.
Conclusion
Such changes and extension of curricula, in addition to language learning, increases the competitive
advantage of students. It promotes cooperation between universities as well as student mobility, for example,
within joint masters programmes aimed at obtaining the second degree. Promoting information availability as
well as responsibility of staff members and students, VSU is extensively using the Internet to monitor the
defence of masters theses. It has a joint cooperation programme with the University of Marne-la-Vallee (Paris),
75
where VSU students have a defence of their degree projects on tourism management. VSU has also been
cooperating with such universities as Lille University (France), Martin Luther University (Germany),
University of Leon (Spain), and University of Perugia (Italy). Taking into consideration the strong links
between Russia and these countries, VSU focuses on training specialists for joint industrial and commercial
cooperation programmes involving big companies. In addition to this, it has been collaborating with some
American universities, such as University of North Dakota (Dickinson), Concordia University (Chicago), and
University of Wisconsin-Madison. Here, the most popular sphere of collaboration is specialist training in IT.
The knowledge of foreign languages allows staff members and students to attend international scientific
conferences and seminars. VSU, taken alone, holds about 40-50 international conferences. International
academic awareness of professors and students enables them to increase the number of specialist publications
in journals presented in database of Web of Science and Scopus. In 2014, for example, VSU reported on
publication of 210 articles.
Finally, VSUs successful and productive collaboration with foreign partners enables it to be listed in
international rankings. For example, its position in QS University Rankings BRICS is 111-120 and in QS
World University Rankings is 700+. Its position in National University Rankings of classical universities and
science centres is 22.
All in all, the achievements described above seem to contribute greatly to VSUs international cooperation
record, and hopefully, will enhance the universitys future capacity for top-quality research and innovation.
References
Bond, S. (2003). Engaging educators: Bringing the world into the classroom: Guidelines for practice. Ottawa, O.N.: Canadian
Bureau for International Education.
Bond, S., Qian, J., & Huang, J. (2003). The role of faculty in internationalizing the undergraduate curriculum and classroom
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US-China

David Publishing Company

Aims and Scope:

Editorial Board Members:

Associate Prof. Rosalinda Hernandez

Prof. Aaron W. Hughey

Universe Digital Library Sdn Bhd

David Publishing Company

Volume 6, Number 1, January 2016 (Serial Number 56)

Sung Tae Jang

Buchtov Tereza, Chud tefan, Plischke Jitka

Curriculum and Teaching

Gideon M. Mwanda, Paul Odundo, Ronnie Midigo, Owino S. Mwanda

Clement Ayarebilla Ali, Peter Akayuure

Marize Lyra Silva Passos, Vanessa Battestin Nunes

US-China Education Review A, January 2016, Vol. 6, No. 1, 1-19

The Effectiveness of Tying Teacher Evaluation Policy to Student

TYING TEACHER EVALUATION POLICY TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

TYING TEACHER EVALUATION POLICY TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

Review of the Related Literature

TYING TEACHER EVALUATION POLICY TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

TYING TEACHER EVALUATION POLICY TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

TYING TEACHER EVALUATION POLICY TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

TYING TEACHER EVALUATION POLICY TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

TYING TEACHER EVALUATION POLICY TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

1st grade middle school students

TYING TEACHER EVALUATION POLICY TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

Variables and Descriptive Statistics

TYING TEACHER EVALUATION POLICY TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

Schools with TEPSP

TYING TEACHER EVALUATION POLICY TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

TYING TEACHER EVALUATION POLICY TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

Figure 1. Fifty randomly sampled students Korean scores.

Notes. *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

Selected base model

TYING TEACHER EVALUATION POLICY TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

TYING TEACHER EVALUATION POLICY TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

TYING TEACHER EVALUATION POLICY TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

Figure 2. Predicted lines for Korean scores according to TEPSP.

TYING TEACHER EVALUATION POLICY TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

TYING TEACHER EVALUATION POLICY TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

TYING TEACHER EVALUATION POLICY TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

TYING TEACHER EVALUATION POLICY TO STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

US-China Education Review A, January 2016, Vol. 6, No. 1, 20-30

The Phenomenon of Discipline in Professional Attitudes of

DISCIPLINE IN PROFESSIONAL ATTITUDES OF BEGINNING TEACHERS

DISCIPLINE IN PROFESSIONAL ATTITUDES OF BEGINNING TEACHERS

Glasers Model of Rational Choice

DISCIPLINE IN PROFESSIONAL ATTITUDES OF BEGINNING TEACHERS

DISCIPLINE IN PROFESSIONAL ATTITUDES OF BEGINNING TEACHERS

DISCIPLINE IN PROFESSIONAL ATTITUDES OF BEGINNING TEACHERS

DISCIPLINE IN PROFESSIONAL ATTITUDES OF BEGINNING TEACHERS

philosophical-methodological aspects, towards the methodology of educational activities in specific (concrete)

DISCIPLINE IN PROFESSIONAL ATTITUDES OF BEGINNING TEACHERS

4. Philosophical-methodological concept of discipline:

Shaping behavior through rewards and

Teachers help to the young students to

The teacher is assertive helping the young

Assertiveness of the teacher and

DISCIPLINE IN PROFESSIONAL ATTITUDES OF BEGINNING TEACHERS

Punishments and comments

Punishments and meetings

Control of the young students, the teacher

The teacher gives punishments for

Notes. p < 0.05; p < 0.01; p < 0.001.