Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Lecture Summary
V
When a system is carried through a cyclic process its initial and final internal energies are
equal. So the total internal-energy change in any cyclic process is zero. Apply the first law for
a cyclic process:
o
E = Q + W
o
E = 0 ,
o
W '=Q.
The work done by the system in a cyclic transformation is equal to the heat absorbed by the
system.
Heat engine: Any device for transforming heat into work or mechanical energy is called heat
engine. All the heat engines absorb heat from a source at a relatively high temperature called
hot reservoir, perform some mechanical work, and discard some heat at a lower temperature
called the cold reservoir. The schematic diagram of a heat engine is shown on the figure:
Hot reservoir at
temperature TH
Heat engine
o
W
Cold reservoir at
temperature TC
o
W > 0,
o
Q > 0.
Refrigerator is a heat engine operating in reserve. It takes heat from a cold place and gives off
heat to a hot place and requires a net input of mechanical work. The schematic diagram of the
refrigerator shows, the heat leaving the system and given to the hot reservoir is greater then
taken form the cold reservoir.
B. Palsthy
Physics
Lecture Summary
Hot reservoir at
temperature TH
Refrigerator
o
W
Cold reservoir at
temperature TC
o
0 = Q+ W
o
W >0
QC
TH
3
V
The four processes are:
1. The gas expands isothermally at temperature TH absorbing heat QH ,
V
QH = nRTH ln 2 > 0 .
V1
2. It expands adiabatically until its temperature drops to TC .
3. It is compressed isothermally at TC , rejecting heat QC ,
V
QC = nRTC ln 4 < 0 .
V3
4. It is compressed adiabatically back to its initial state at temperature TH .
W'
,
e=
QH
o
where QH is the absorbing heat, and W ' is the work done by the system in a cycle. We have
already seen, that the work done by the system in a cyclic transformation is equal to the heat
absorbed by the system.
B. Palsthy
Physics
Lecture Summary
o
W '=Q,
In this situation:
o
Q = QH + QC ,
therefore:
e=
QH + QC
Q
= 1+ C .
QH
QH
V
TC ln 4
QC
V3
=
.
QH T ln V2
H
V1
so
V4 V2
=
V3 V1
and
1
V
TC ln 2
QC
V1 = TC ,
=
V
QH
TH
TH ln 2
V1
T
T T
e = 1 C = H C .
TH
TH
This surprisingly simple result says that the efficiency of a Carnot engine depends only on the
temperatures of the two heat reservoirs. The Carnot engine has the maximum efficiency
operating between the same two temperatures.
B. Palsthy
Physics
Lecture Summary
p3
3
o
W'
p5
p2
1
6
V2 = V5
V1 = V3 = V4
2
V
The work done by the system W ' is equal to the enclosed area. The work times the rate of the
cycle (cycles per second) is equal to the power produced by the engine.
Write now the equations of the different thermodynamic processes, but first denote the
different values of the temperature, volume and pressure on the p-V diagram. Consider now
the cyclic process only.
B. Palsthy
Physics
Lecture Summary
2 3 4 5 2
p
p4
p3
3
o
W'
p5
p2
1
6
V2 = V5
V1 = V3 = V4
2
V
For the adiabatic compression 2 3 we can apply the so called Possion equations.
V2
= p3 .
V
p2
3
p2V2 = p3V3 ,
We call the ratio of the volume at the beginning of compression to the volume at the end of
compression the compression ratio denoted by r, and so:
p3
= r .
p2
V2
V
T3
T
r 1 = 3 .
T2
T2
cp
cv
f +2
f
During the combustion process 3 4 the volume is held constant and heat is released. If the
heat released by unit mass during combustion of fuel denoted by L and use k for fuel/air ratio,
m is the mass of the mixture. The heat released:
Q34 = Lkm,
The change of temperature during this constant volume process:
Q34 = cv m(T4 T3 )
From the finel temperature we can calculate the final pressure:
p3
p
T
= 4 p4 = 4 p3 .
p3
p4
T3
B. Palsthy
Physics
Lecture Summary
At the same time p4 is the pressure at the beginning of the adiabatic expansion. Apply again
the Poisson equation for the adiabatic expansion 4 5
p4 V2
p
p4V3 = p5V2
= 4 = r ,
p
p
V
5
T4V3
= T5V2
V
T
4 = 2
T5 V3
T4
= r 1 .
T5
Q23 = 0,
Q34 = cV m(T4 T3 ) > 0
Q45 = 0
Q52 = c V m(T2 T5 ) < 0
W '=Q
o
P = W ' cps
W ' cV m (T4 T3 + T2 T5 )
e=
=
Qin
cV m (T4 T3 )
e = 1+
T2 T5
T T2
.
= 1 5
T4 T3
T4 T3
T3
T T3 T5 T2
T
= 1 2 4
=
T4
T5
T4
T5
T5 T2 T5
1
= = 1 .
T4 T3 T4 r
B. Palsthy
Physics
Lecture Summary
e = 1
T5
1
, or e = 1 1
r
T4
During this Otto cycle the maxim temperature is T4 and the minimum is T2, the possible
Carnot cycle efficiency
ecarnot =
TH TC T4 T2
=
TH
T4
W'
p5
adiabatic compression
p2
1
V1 = V3
5
out
Q5,6
exhaust
2
6
V2 = V5 V
V4
Since the compression and power strokes of this idealized cycle are adiabatic, the efficiency
can be calculated from the constant pressure and constant volume processes. During the cycle:
B. Palsthy
Physics
Lecture Summary
(heat in)
Q23 = 0,
Q34 = c p m (T4 T3 ) > 0
(heat out)
Q45 = 0
Q56 = c V m (T2 T5 ) < 0
W '=Q
o
c (T T5 )
W ' c p m (T4 T3 ) + cV m (T2 T5 )
e=
=
= 1+ V 2
Qin
c p m(T4 T3 )
c p (T4 T3 )
It is convenient to express the efficiency in terms of the compression ratio rC =
expansion ratio rE =
c
V2
, and with the adiabatic exponent = p .
cV
V4
Apply the ideal gas state equation for the different states:
pV = nRT
1 ( p V p5V2 )
1 V ( p p5 )
= 1+ 2 2
e = 1+ 2 2
/ : V2 p3
( p3V4 p3V3 )
p3 (V4 V3 )
2 p5
p3
1 p
1 r r
e = 1+ 3
= 1 + C1 E1
V4 V3
rE rC
V2 V2
p2 V3
p
= 2 = rC ,
p3 V2
p3
V
p
p
4 = 5 5 = rE .
V2
p3
p3
The final formula for the efficiency:
B. Palsthy
V2
, and the
V3
Physics
Lecture Summary
1 r r
e = 1 E1 C1
rE rC
For an ideal diesel engine with = 1.4 , compression ratio rC = 15 and expansion ratio rE = 5,
this gives an ideal diesel efficiency of 56 %.
Rudolf Diesel patented the compression ignition cycle which bears his name in the 1890s.
The behaviour of many reciprocating engines (engine in which piston moves backwards and
forwards inside a glinder) is more adequately represented by the mixed cycle. In this cycle
part of heat addition occurs during a constant volume process and the remainder during a
constant pressure process (see p-V diagram).
p
p4
p3
5
adiabatic expansion
3
o
W'
p6
adiabatic compression
p2
1
V1 = V3 = V4
7 2
V2
V
V5
V
p
V2
, r = 5 and rp = 4
p2
V3
V4
1
rC 1
rp r 1
(rp 1) + rp (r 1)
m v2
m0 2 20kT
n ( v ) = 4 N
ve
2 kT
as
n (v) =
so
B. Palsthy
dn
,
dv
Physics
Lecture Summary
dn = n ( v ) dv
This formula gives the number dn of molecules moving with a speed between v and v + dv ,
irrespective of the direction of motion. T is the absolute temperature, k is the Boltzmann
constant, m0 is the mass of a molecule, N is the number of molecules. The molecular velocity
distribution for oxygen at two temperatures (80 K and 800 K) is shown in the figure:
n (v )
T = 80 K
T = 800 K
16 v 10 2 m / s
The peak of the curve represents the most probable speed for the corresponding temperature.
v p can be obtained from the next equation:
0
vp 8
12
dn
=0.
dv
The distribution curve is not symmetrical about the most probable speed. Without proof:
2kT
.
vp =
m
The average speed is defined as:
1
v = n ( v ) vdv ,
N0
and it is called the centre of the distribution. Due to the asymmetry it is a bit larger than the
most probable value. The shown area on the next figure is just the number of molecules,
whose speed is between v and v + dv .
n
T
dv
Without proof:
v=
8kT
.
m0
Also the integral of the quantity v 2 n ( v ) over all v must equal the average value of v 2 , and its
square root is called root-mean-square speed denoted by:
vrms = v 2 ,
1
vrms =
n ( v ) v 2 dv .
N 0
This root-mean-square speed as we have already seen:
B. Palsthy
10
Physics
Lecture Summary
3kT
.
m0
Remark: We find the total number of molecules by integrating the distribution function form
zero to infinity with respect to the speed:
vrms = v 2 =
N = n ( v )dv .
0
[ ] =
1
1
= o
K
C
1
.
K
The relation above is approximately correct for sufficiently small temperature changes.
When the characteristics of a body do not depend on the direction, then the body is called
isotropic.
In case of isotropic bodies A the change in area is proportional to the change in temperature
T . If A0 = ab , then:
A = A0 + A = a (1 + T ) b (1 + T ) ,
A0 + A = ab (1 + 2T + 2 T 2 ) ,
A0 + A = A0 + A0 ( 2T + 2 T 2 ) ,
A = A0 ( 2T + 2 T 2 ) .
Because T
1 , so 2 T 2
In case of isotopic solids the experiments show that if the temperature change T is not too
great, the increase in volume V is approximately proportional to the temperature change.
The proportionality constant , which characterizes the volume expansion properties of a
particular material, is called the temperature coefficient of volume expansion.
V = V0 T ,
V = V0 + V = V0 (1 + T )
B. Palsthy
11
Physics
Lecture Summary
The volume expansion coefficient for a solid material is related to the linear expansion
coefficient. To obtain the relation, consider a solid block with dimensions of a, b and c. The
original volume is:
V0 = a b c
V0 + V = a (1 + T ) b (1 + T ) c (1 + T ) ,
V0 + V = abc (1 + 3T + 3 2 T 2 + 3T 3 ) ,
V = V0 ( 3T + 3 2 T 2 + 3T 3 ) .
3T and
Because the shape of a liquid is not definite, only the change in volume with temperature is
significant. For liquids is about ten times greater than that of solids.
x1 x2
T2
T1
Consider only one dimension. Suppose that x represents the distance between two nearest
neighbour atoms in lattice. The figure shows the potential energy function U ( x) associated
with the inter-atomic force. At temperature T1 the particle can oscillate between two limits
whose mid point is x1 . This is just the average lattice spacing at temperature T1 . Because of
the asymmetry of the potential energy curve at a higher T2 temperature the amplitude of the
oscillation being greater and the mid point is shifted to a greater distance. Thus we see that
when the temperature is increased the average distance between atoms increases, which leads
to an expansion of the whole solid body.
B. Palsthy
12
Physics
Lecture Summary
3.11.1 Conduction
The transfer of energy arising from the temperature difference between adjacent parts of a
body is called heat conduction. If we place one end of a metal rod in a flame and hold the
other end, this end gets hotter and hotter, even though it is not in direct contact with the flame.
Consider a slab of material of cross-sectional area A and thickness x , whose faces are kept
at different temperatures. Measure the heat Q that flows perpendicular to the faces in time
t . Experiments show that the rate of flow of heat through the slab is proportional to the area
A, proportional to the temperature difference T and inversely proportional to x . That is:
Q
T
A
.
t
x
In the limit of a slab of infinitesimal thickness dx across which there is a temperature
difference dT we obtain the fundamental law of heat conduction in which the heat flow rate H
is given by:
dQ
dT
= H = kA
.
dt
dx
dT
is called temperature
H is the time rate of heat transfer across the area A. The quantity
dx
gradient. k is the thermal conductivity, its numerical value depends on the material of the slab.
Taking a unit cross-sectional area:
h = k T
Here h is the heat flow rate through unit cross sectional area (heat current density). The heat
current density is proportional to the temperature gradient.
This linear connection is not true strictly, because the value of k slightly depends on the
temperature, but can be taken to be practically constant if the temperature difference between
two parts of the slab is not too great.
Let us apply this law to a rod of length L and constant cross-sectional area A in which a steady
state has been reached. In a steady state the temperature at each point is constant in time.
L
Hot fixed
Cold fixed
temperature
temperature
Heat flow
TH
TC
Insulator
TH > TC
dT
,
dx
dT
is the same at all cross sections.
but for a constant A and k the temperature gradient
dx
Hence, T decreases linearly along the rod so that:
H = kA
B. Palsthy
13
Physics
Lecture Summary
T T
dT TH TC
, and H = kA H C .
=
dx
L
L
For thermal insulation in buildings, engineers use the concept of thermal resistance denoted
by R. The thermal resistance R of a slab of material with thickness L is defined to be:
L
R= ,
k
using this concept, the heat flow rate:
A (TH TC )
H=
,
R
or expressed with the heat current density:
T T
h= H C .
R
That is the heat current density is equal to the temperature drops divided by thermal
resistance. This simple expression makes the calculation of isolation very easy in case of
several layers.
i =1
i =1
Ti = hRi ,
n
T = h R .
i
i =1
i =1
h=
i =1
n
R
i =1
In addition to conduction, convection and radiation are important processes by which heat is
transferred.
3.11.2 Convection
Convection is when the heat flow is associated with mass flow. In the example the warm fluid
rises due to buoyant force and its place is taken by cooler fluid. On the figure there is
convection between objects at different temperatures.
B. Palsthy
14
Physics
Lecture Summary
Low
temperature
TC
Warm fluid
Cool fluid
High
temperature
TH
3.11.3 Radiation
Radiation is when the heat is transferred by electromagnetic radiation. All object radiate
electromagnetic radiation. The amount and character of the radiation is determined by the
temperature and surface of the object. In general, the rate of energy emission increases with
the fourth power of the absolute temperature.
Low
temperature
High
temperature
TC
TH
In the above case there is a net effect due to radiation, and energy is transferred from the
warmer object to the cooler object. Since electromagnetic radiation travels through empty
space, the radiation does not require physical contact for the transfer of energy.
B. Palsthy
15
Physics
Lecture Summary
processes takes place at a finite rate and not infinitely slowly. All real processes in nature are
irreversible.
Reversible Cycle:
A cyclic process is a sequence of processes such that the system returns to its original
equilibrium state. If the processes involved are all reversible, we call it a reversible cycle. An
important reversible cycle is the Carnot cycle discussed earlier.
We defined the efficiency e of a heat engine as the ration of the net work done by the engine
during one cycle to the heat taken form the high temperature reservoir.
o
W'
e=
QH
In case of Carnot cycle we have got the next result:
Q
T
e = 1 + C , or e = 1 C .
QH
TH
It means that:
Q
T
1+ C = 1 C ,
QH
TH
QC QH
+
= 0.
TC TH
Q
for a Carnot cycle is zero.
This equation states that the algebraic sum of quantities
T
As a next step, we state that any reversible cycle is equivalent to as close an approximation
as we wish, - to an arbitrary reversible cycle superimposed on a family of isotherms.
p
B
A
V
We can approximate the actual cycle by connecting the isotherms by suitably chosen adiabatic
lines, thus forming an assembly of Carnot cycles. The adjacent Carnot cycles have a common
isotherm and the two travels; in opposite directions cancel each other in the region of overlap
as far as heat transfer and work done are concerned. We can write then, for the isothermaladiabatic sequence of lines as:
Q
T = 0,
or in the limit of infinitesimal temperature differences between the isotherms:
dQ
T = 0.
indicates that the integral is evaluated for a complete traversal of the cycle, starting and
ending at any arbitrary point of the cycle. If the integral of a quantity around any closed path
is zero, the quantity is called state variable, that is, it has a value that is characteristic only of
B. Palsthy
16
Physics
Lecture Summary
the state of the system, regardless of how the state was arrived at. We call the variable in this
case the entropy S.
Q
dS =
, and dS = 0 .
T
As we have already seen in conservative fields:
B
dS = dS + dS = 0
A
( g1 )
( g2 )
dS
dS = 0 ,
A
( g1 )
( g2 )
so
B
dS .
dS =
( g1 )
( g2 )
This equation tells us that the change of the entropy between any two equilibrium states is
independent of the path connecting those states. The change in entropy between A and B
where the integral is evaluated over any reversible path connecting there two states:
B
B
Q
S B S A = dS =
(reversible process)
T
A
A
B. Palsthy
17
Physics
Lecture Summary
e = 1+
that is
QC
T
1 C ,
QH
TH
QC QH
+
0,
TC TH
A
reversible process
Q
T
irrev
0.
rev
rev
Q
T
irrev
rev
The change of the entropy in case of an irreversible process is always greater than the integral
Q
. If the process is reversible then the change of the entropy equals to the integral.
of
T
irrev. process
rev . process
0,
or
S B S A = 0 , reversible adiabatic process
and S B S A > 0 , irreversible adiabatic process
Thus, when an irreversible process occurs in an isolated system, the entropy grows. The
entropy of a system in its equilibrium state is maximum. This statement is just one form of the
Second Law of thermodynamics.
B. Palsthy
18