ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Gopi Sundar, K. S. and Subramanya, S. (2010). Bird Use of Rice Fields in

the Indian Subcontinent. Waterbirds : The International Journal of
Waterbird Biology Vol. 33, pp.44-70
The journal examines the use of paddy field by birds in the Indian
subcontinent, worlds highest cropland covered per unit area and home to
nearly 1.300 species of birds. Paddy fields are known to have the highest
bird species richness of any crop in the region. Aside from their personal
observations, the data used are also collected from regional birdwatchers,
ornithologists, and published literature. Many factors of birds are
investigated on the journal such as their guild structure, temporal
changes, relation with ecology, habitat, population, breeding, and impact
on chemical pollution. From 76% of the birds that occurs to breed in the
subcontinent, only 2,7% are recorded breeding in rice fields. 64 species
(4,9% of the regions species) are increasing due to increase in rice areas
but at the same time 45 species (3,5%) are declining. Paddy field is overpresented by wetland and grassland species of birds but it is also underpresented by woodland species. Furthermore, the possibility of using
paddy field as birds habitat requires consideration and more researches.
This observation is useful for my study in learning the relationship
between paddy field with local living creatures, in this case are birds, and
especially to look at them not only as pests of rice cultivation.
2. Sukristiyonubowo, R, Wiwik, H, Sofyan, A, Benito, H.P, and De Neve, S.
(2011). Change from conventional to organic rice farming system:
biophysical and socioeconomic reasons. International Research Journal of
Agricultural Science and Soil Science (ISSN: 2251-0044) Vol. 1(5) pp. 172182
The research aims to finding out the reasons of going back to
organic system in biophysical and socioeconomic aspects. The experiment
is conducted in three villages; Gondang, Kedawung and Sambirejo in
Sragen District, Indonesia. The authors are using historical land use, Venn
diagram, field monitoring and ranking and scoring, direct interview in the
field and farmers house for this research. In 1973 the cultural practices of
rice farming in Indonesia drastically changed when government
introduced the high yielding rice varieties. The rice production became
abundant but as time went by, it required more mineral fertilising to
achieve the potential yields. More cost is spent with not much profit
obtained as selling price standard was given by the government. The
farmers now want to convert back to organic farming system. It improves

healthier and tastier rice product and has fast growing market and the
prospect of higher prices. The result of this study is interesting because it
shows that farmers long the contact with the nature. They believe that
improving soil fertility comes first then better rice yield will follow after.
Although the selling price and farmers income increase by year, they do
not put them into the most benefit gained from changing to fully organic
rice system.
3. Friedman, M. (2013). Rice Brans, Rice Bran Oils, and Rice Hulls:
Composition, Food and Industrial Uses, and Bioactivities in Humans,
Animals, and Cells. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 61.
American Chemical Society : 1062610641.
The author contends that journals about rice cultivars and its
derivations are widely scattered. This journal is an effort to integrate those
previous journals and researches. It encompasses food and industrial uses
and the relationship of composition to bioactivities in rice cultivar
products. The commodities that was discussed was the product of rice
milling, from rice bran, rice bran oil, rice hull, to rice hull liquid smoke.
The results of the cited studies show that various rice bran formulations,
rice bran oils, and rice hull liquid smoke and some of their bioactive
components, might contribute to the prevention and therapy of several
chronic human diseases, including allergy, cancer, diabetes, infections,
and cardiovascular disease. Pigmented, especially black, brans have a
more diverse content and higher amounts of bioactive compounds than
brans derived from white and brown rice cultivars. The author has been
involving a lot of researches for the journal. Since the journal conclude its
results by citing former researches, it requires further scientific study.
From the journal, I am informed that there is an emerging potential of
using rice cultivars as healthy food for human. It can be reached by
synergising the combinations of rice brans and other bioactive food
compounds and extracts. It shows that all parts of Oryza sativa are
beneficial for human, not only the most common end product, which is
rice, but also the products resulted from the process of getting the rice.
4. Pingali, P.L. (2012). Green Revolution: Impacts, limits, and the path
ahead. PNAS vol. 109 no. 31 1230212308
This paper reviews the evidence on the diffusion and impact of
Green Revolution (GR) crop genetic improvements and the limitations and
unintended environmental, social, and institutional consequences of the
GR strategy for productivity growth. The first GR takes effect on poverty
reduction with lower food price and rapid increase in agricultural output. It
produces high yield varieties with high resistance towards drought, flood,

and pest attack. But like any system, GR has some flaws, which are called
by the author as unintended consequences, such as excess use of water,
soil degradation, and chemical runoff. GR also cause marginal production
environments because the original purpose of it is to intensify where
returns would be high, with a focus on irrigated or high rainfall areas and
where population densities are high with good infrastructure. GR 2.0 is
already beginning to take place. To meet the increasing need, it must
continue to focus on shifting the yield frontier for the major staples. The
author also suggests the use of digital revolution, which will provide new
opportunities for smarter use of agricultural resources. This paper shows a
different way of evaluating the GR movement. Aside from many of its
negative impacts, GR is proven effective in avoiding the conversion of
thousands of hectares of land into agricultural cultivation, a known source
of greenhouse gas emissions and driver of climate change. It can be
concluded that the author is a supporter of the GR since most of the paper
underlines the benefits of the movement and almost not admitting any
negative impacts caused by it. He reckons that the bad implications in the
environment is caused by the environment policy that promotes
injudicious and overuse of inputs and expansion of cultivation into areas
that could not sustain high levels of intensification, not because of the GR
technology per se.
5. Omiunu, O.G. (2014) Investigating the Challenges Faced by Women Rice
Farmers in Nigeria. Open Access Library Journal, 1: e503.
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1100503
The study investigates the major constraints faced by women rice
farmers in Nigeria. Located in the South-Western part of Nigeria, Ekiti
State remains one of the least developed economically and about 87% of
the state population are farmers. 100 women rice farmers are randomly
selected and given questionnaire. The results are then analysed by t-test
and regression. Rice is a major staple food and the fastest growing
commodity in Nigerias. Nigerian women have made considerable
contribution to agricultural production. However, they are facing
enormous pressures as the nation integrates more into the world
economy. From the study, it can be implied that the major challenge is the
lack of finance. Credit availability and accessibility, lack of technological
equipment, poor access to good quality seeds and input and poor
government prices are also mentioned in the questionnaire. The study
also proves that age, educational level, off farm income, time on farm,
land availability, marital status and household size has no significant
effects on women rice farmers productivity. Though it may be true that
low literacy rate hinders womens access to available resources. The

author cites many previous researches and use them as a comparison for
the results of the study. Some differences are found which triggers further
study to be conducted. It is good that the author also conducts a
background study on the women farmers given the questionnaire. Some
good recommendations for the government are stated inside but it will be
more valuable if she also provides alternatives way which women farmers
can apply independently.
6. Samharinto, A, Abadi, L, Rahardjo, B.T, and Halim, H. (2012). The
Increase of Arthropods Biodiversity in Paddy Field Ecosystem Managed by
Using Integrated Pest Management at South Borneo. The Journal of
Tropical Life Science vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 72 76
The study compares the arthropods biodiversity in two different
paddy field ecosystems, that is, paddy field ecosystem using Integrated
Pest Management (IPM) system and non-IPM paddy field ecosystem. IPM
has four integrated pest control principles, namely, health plant
cultivation, keeping and utilizing natural enemies, periodic ecosystem
monitoring, and farmers as the IPM expert. The study was conducted from
April November 2011 in Pasar Kamis village, Sungai Rangas village in
Banjar regency, and Guntung Payung village in Banjarbaru city, South
Borneo Province, Indonesia. The authors uses insect nets, yellow sticky
traps, light trap and pitfall trap to catch the arthropods on 1,5 months
until the harvest time ( 6 months after the planting) within a week
period. The arthropods are then classified into pest (herbivore), natural
enemy (parasitoid and predator), and others. Using Shannon-Wiener Index
(H), Evenness (e), Species Richness (R), and Species Similarity Index (IS),
they analyse the anthropods caught. The R value shows the sum of the
species and the e value shows the abundance of the same species in the
species found. The results shows that the sum of arthropods which have
the characteristic of pest and parasitoid were higher in the IPM paddy
fields than in the non-IPM paddy fields, and the sum of other arthropods
were the same. IPM paddy fields which has minimal use of chemicals such
as fertilizer and pesticide, also have more species of arthropods. The
study strongly shows that the use of chemical substances decrease the
biodiversity in a paddy field. The pesticides, which is used to control pest
will not only reduce the pest abundance but also cause the dead of the
natural enemies such as parasitoid and predator.
7. Kiang, Y.T, Antonovics, J, and Wu, L. (1979). The Extinction of Wild Rice
(Oryza Perennis Formosana) in Taiwan. Journal of Asian Ecology 1:1-9

The journal documents the near extinction of Taiwan wild rice and
suggests the possible causes of it. Wild rice is a valuable genetic resource
for rice crop improvement. Unlike cultivated rice, it is capable of a
considerable degree of outcrossing. Many of now rice seeds are hybridized
with wild rice to achieve flood and drought resistant variety. In 1920-1930,
wild rice grew abundantly in irrigation ponds around Sinchu and Taoyuan
areas in northwestern Taiwan. Revisited in 1957, only three populations
were found with less than one thousand plants each. In 1976, scientists
only found around 70 plants on the edge of the mud pond from dredging
operations. Then it disappeared completely in 1977. To see whether there
were still wild rice seeds in stream beds, in 1978 40 samples of mud were
taken in Patu village. After two weeks of examination, one seedling of WR
was observed. The study proposes three possible causes of wild rice
extinction namely; hibridization with cultivated rice, changes in water
management, and water pollution. Wild rice habitats are marshy, low lying
areas characterised by fluctuating water levels. The seeds will then
remain dormant if it is submerged in the water. With the invention of
irrigation system, stable water almost exists in every paddy field. The
polluted water also causes wild rice to cease. This study provides another
way of looking at wild rice as a plant species which should be protected
because it is facing the danger of extinction. It is a useful material for
people to consider their action towards it because since wild rice is
considered as weed, it often gets wiped by people.
8. Gordon, B.C. (2010). The Rise of Chinese Civilization Based On Paddy
Rice Agriculture. managed by the Canadian Museum of Civilization.
http://httpserver.carleton.ca/~bgordon/Rice/papers/ChineseRiceOrigins_BCGordon20
10.pdf
The study is aiming to inform the Western World about the rise of
Chinese civilization based on paddy rice agriculture. It is conducted by
citing previous researches. China is an old agricultural country. Chinese
civilization began with the growth of agriculturally-based permanent
villages some 8000-12,000 years ago along the Yellow River in north China
and the Yangtze River in south China. The history of irrigation and
drainage is traceable over 5000 years ago. Complex irrigation systems in
the Guangzhong area which was built in in 111 B.C became a model for
later emperors in successive dynasties. As social growth followed better
irrigation, society changed from slave to feudal in the 5th century B.C.
Irrigation and canal construction played a role in political struggles,
ultimately leading to the unification of the country. Before the Tang
Dynasty, large irrigation works were done by the state because it owned

the countryside, but under the Song Dynasty more than 90% of the land
was owned by individuals, leaving small project construction to farm
crews. The importance of developing and protecting irrigation facilities to
increase crops became an administrative and political issue, with states
fighting for control of water resources. Laws were made in order to govern
matters of irrigation, navigation and flood control. Despite massive
constructions, Chinese irrigation involved little theory, quantitative
analysis or experiments. It was not until the Republic was created in 1949
that unprecedented irrigation and drainage construction demanded formal
engineering theory and rules. After that year, feudal land ownership was
replaced by agrarian reform. Over the past half century, rice production
increased in a socialist system of collective ownership involving farm
machinery, fertilizers and pesticides. Chinas mainland population grew to
1.3 billion in 1999, with 66% living in rural areas. It is now the largest rice
producer and consumer in the world. The study helps us to illustrate that
agriculture can shape, trigger, or even define human civilization. Paddy
rice agriculture affects many aspects of life from social, economy, cultural,
environment, and many more.
9. Yamamoto, T. and Nomoto, K. (2014). Factors affecting paddy landscape
from the perspective of landscape structure. IJERD International Journal
of Environmental and Rural Development 5-1.
The authors aim to investigate landscape elements and factors found
during landscape changes. They believe that landscape is the physical
form of interaction between visible phenomena on the land surface and
the land-use pattern which exhibits a material circulation and human
interaction in the place its taking. The region chosen for this research is
Shinotsu region in the Ishikari River Basin, Hokkaido. The authors conduct
this research by using data from soil maps, topographic maps, and town
history. They divide the landscape changes into some time period. Before
the 1870s, the region is comprised by pristine landscape untouched by
human. But then agricultural landscape formed by settlement is observed
from 1870 to 1900. From 1946 to 1965 paddy field stars emerging with
the invention of river embankments. After that most of the island changes
into paddy field and is supported with irrigation system. The authors
conclude that the landscape changes are interactively affected by human
plans, peatland characteristics and agricultural water-use system. The
study shows how human heavily shapes the landscape by continuously
changing it into their preferential environment state in order to fulfil their
growing need. At first, the development is limited, only to appear in a
relatively convenient location. But when the irrigation system is invented,

the paddy field spread to most of the areas and thus changing the
regions landscape.
10. Noorhosseini-Niyaki, S.A. and Bagherzadeh-Lakani, F. (2013).
Ecological and Biological Effects of Fish Farming in Rice Fields. Persian Gulf
Crop Protection Vol. 2 Issue 2 Pages 1-7
The journal studies the ecological and biological benefits of fish
farming in rice field. It is conducted by citing the previous researches on
the same focus. It has been known that integrated rice-fish farming
provides great economic, social and environmental benefits. Study results
indicate that absorption of important nutrients such as phosphorous,
potassium, and nitrogen by rice plant has improved significantly
compared to single culture system of rice. By feeding on the deposit
materials in field bed, fish disturbs the soil bed and makes those elements
re-enter the water cycle. Fish farming also affects rice plants content of
chlorophyll, expands its leaf area and raises its roots network activity. The
excretions of fish acts as a nutritious fertilizer for the rice. Fish also act as
a biological control of pests. However, fish species that feeds on large
weeds such as silver barb may damage rice plants because they also feed
on the leafy parts of the plants. Furthermore, fish farming system
generally increases the greenhouse gas, particularly methane. Methane is
trapped in the soil but it gets scattered since fish breaks the soil bed. The
study is thoughtful because it is not merely mentioning the benefits of
fish-rice farming, but also implying that this kind of farming requires a
thorough planning. Farmers should choose the suitable fish species which
supports their rice field. Another good thing about the system is that it
indirectly makes farmers to reduce the consumption of pesticides because
it is toxic for fish.
11. Bambaradeniya, C.N.B. and Amerasinghe, F.P. (2003). Biodiversity
Associated with the Rice Field Agroecosystem in Asian countries: a brief
review. Working paper 63. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water
Management Institute
This review brings together the published information on the
biodiversity associated with the rice field agroecosystem in countries
extending across Asia. Rice fields, with their contiguous aquatic habitats
and dry land comprise a mosaic of rapidly changing ecotones that harbour
rich biological diversity. Biodiversity, as it relates to agriculture (commonly
referred to as agribiodiversity), includes the diversity of domesticated
plants and livestock species and their wild relatives; the diversity of wild
species that affect, or are affected by agriculture; and the diversity of
ecosystems formed by populations of species related to different types of
land use (ranging from intensively farmed agricultural lands and seminatural agricultural habitats, to uncultivated natural habitats). The fauna

is dominated by invertebrates especially arthropods inhabiting the

vegetation, water and soil of the rice fields. Aquatic invertebrate animals
inhabiting rice fields water are broadly divided into neuston, zooplankton,
nekton, and benthos. Fish and amphibians enter the rice fields via
irrigation channels and ditches. Many species of amphibians, reptiles,
birds, rodents, and mammals from surrounding areas visit the rice fields
for feeding. The flora found are mainly grasses, sedges and broad-leaved
plants which are generally referred as weeds. Species of algae and fungi
are also discovered in the rice fields. Since rice field is proven as an
important place for many species, there is a growing interest in the
concepts of ecoagriculture whereby an agricultural system is managed as
both food production and biodiversity conservation system. This study
enables us to better appreciate the environmental services and
opportunities for biodiversity conservation offered by rice fields. It is also
implying that organisms who colonize and survive in rice fields due to
their ability to tolerate drastic changes and chemical inputs could be
interpreted as biota with high resilience stability.
12. Abdullah, M, Ghazanfar, S, Rehman, A, Ghazanfar, B, and Saud, S.
(2013). Problems Faced by Rice Growing Farmers and Their Behavior to
the Government Policies: A Case from Pakistan. Journal of Biology,
Agriculture and Healthcare Vol.3, No.16
This study was conducted in 2013 in two tehsils; namely Daska and
Pasroor of Sialkot in district of Punjab, Pakistan. Punjab is the biggest
province of Pakistan with respect to population and area under cultivation.
The main purpose was to inquire the problems faced by rice farmers from
the rice crop production stage until the marketing stage. 120 male
farmers from several villages in the area were interviewed for this study.
From the survey, it is known that 77.5% farmers feel dissatisfied with the
government with only 9,16% feels satisfied. During the rice crop
production stage, farmers mention high price of fertilizer and agricultural
input, shortage of canal water, high rent charges of agricultural
machinery, lack of consultancy facilities and lack of credit or finance as
the major problems. In terms of rice crop protection related problems,
costly pesticides and ineffective fungicide were identified by the farmers
and in terms of marketing related problems of rice crop, cheap price set
by government, poor transportation, storage issues, and lack of
knowledge about market prices were noticed. In order to understand this
study within a context, socio-economic characteristics of selected farmers
becomes important. Most of them happened to lack of education, which
may be the reason why they were having trouble in learning modern
agricultural techniques. The other things is more than half of them had

small land holdings. The problems in acquiring agricultural machinery and

loans made much more sense now since such opportunities will happen
mostly to farmers with large land. In conclusion, the study is very
subjective towards the farmers opinion so it requires more research on
various aspects and point of view in order for government to conceive the
best policies and actions to increase farmers welfare.