Transpiration

What is transpiration?
Transpiration is the process by which moisture is
carried through plants from roots to small pores on the
underside of leaves , where it changes to vapor and is
released to the atmosphere. Basically transpiration is
evaporation of water from plant leaves. Transpiration
also includes a process called guttation ( the loss of
water in liquid from the uninjured leaf or stem of the
plant )

What instrument to measuring the quantity of

transpiration?
Potometer ( Transpirometer )

How this instrument work?

Preparation phase:

1.

Cut a leafy shoot from a plant and plunge its base into water. This prevents
the xylem from taking up any air. Wetting the leaves themselves will alter the
rate of transpiration.

2.

Immerse the whole of the potometer into the sink. Move it about until all the
air bubbles come out.

3.

Recut the shoot's stem underwater. Put it into the bung; grease the bung
with plenty of petroleum jelly (Vaseline) if it doesn't stay and then put the bung
into the potometer.

4.

Make sure the tap is closed, then lift the whole assembly out of the water.

5.

Leave the end of the capillary tube out of the water until an air bubble forms
then put the end into a beaker of water
Measuring phase:

1.

Set up the conditions of the experiment. Alterations to lighting (placing the

plant in bright light or shadow), wind (directing a fan at the plant), and humidity
(placing the plant in a humid chamber) are typical.

2.

Let the bubble reach a "zero" point in the tube.

3.

Measure the movement of the bubble at regular intervals and record the
results.

Caution

1.

When a twig is cut from a plant, it should be immediately put under water (only
the cut portion). Then, a small part is cut under water. This prevents entry of air into the
xylem vessels.

2.

The conditions of the potometer, other than the alteration that is being tested,
should not be changed during a test, as outside conditions (for example, temperature)
determine water uptake.

Limitation

1.

The Potometer does not measure the rate of transpiration accurately because not
all of the water that is taken by the plant is used for transpiration (water taken might be
used for photosynthesis or by the cells to maintain turgidity). The potometer measures
the rate of uptake of water.

2.

A twig may not be active for a long time.

Evapotranspiration
What is evapotranspiration?
Evapotranspiration (ET) is the loss of water to the atmosphere by the combined
processes of evaporation (from soil and plant surfaces) and transpiration (from plant
tissues). It is an indicator of how much water your crops, lawn, garden, and trees need for
healthy growth and productivity.

What instrument to measuring the Evapotranspiration?

(1) Lysimeters
evaporation

How this instrument work?

(2) Pan

Lysimeter
The measurement of potential evapotranspiration
includes that moisture evaporated to the
atmosphere from plants and soil. If the soil is kept
moist (at or near field capacity so that water is not
limiting) by the addition of water, and well covered
by
vegetation
(a
grass
sward
is
ideal)
evapotranspiration is controlled by the weather and
is largely independent of the amount (biomass) of
the vegetation.
If the soil and vegetation is confined within a small
tank (the lysimeter) and measurements are made
of the waterinput (Rainfall R and Additional water A) and output (Percolated
water P) collected in the receiver , then potential evapotranspiration can be
estimated from the equation:
PE = R + A - P

o
o
o
o
o
o

Pan evaporation
The principle of the evaporation pan is the following:
The pan is installed in the field
The pan is filled with a known quantity of water (the surface area of the pan is
known and the water depth is measured)
The water is allowed to evaporate during a certain period of time (usually 24
hours). For example, each morning at 7 oclock a measurement is taken. The
rainfall, if any, is measured simultaneously
After 24 hours, the remaining quantity of water (i.e. water depth) is measured
The amount of evaporation per time unit (the difference between the two
measured water depths) is calculated ,this is the pan evaporation: E pan (in
mm/24 hours)
The E pan is multiplied by a pan coefficient, K pan, to obtain the ETo.
Formula: ETo = K pan E pan
with:
ETo : reference crop evapotranspiration
K pan : pan coefficient
E pan : pan evaporation
If the water depth in the pan drops too much (due to lack of rain), water is added
and the water depth is measured before and after the water is added. If the
water level rises too much (due to rain) water is taken out of the pan and the
water depths before and after are measured.

Infiltration
What is infiltration?
Infiltration is The penetration of water through the ground surface into subsurface soil or the penetration of water from the soil into sewer or other pipes
through defective joints, connections, or manhole walls

What instrument to measuring the Infiltration?

(1) Double ring infiltrometer

infiltrometer

How this instruments work?

(2) Tension

Double ring infiltrometer

Installation

1. Place the inner ring with the cutting edge facing down on the ground.
Remove small obstacles such as stones or twigs. When measuring below
the ground surface, a profiled pit should be made.
2. Put the driving plate on top of the inner ring. Depending on its diameter
the ring will fit over, between or within the pins located on the bottom side
of the driving plate.
3.

Use the impact-absorbing

hammer to insert the
infiltration ring about 5
cm vertically into the soil.
Make sure to disturb the

soil as little as possible. In stiff soils have

someone stand on the driving plate while
another person drives it in. Remove the
driving plate from the inserted infiltration
ring. Keep the depth of placement as limited
as possible so as not to disturb the top layer.
Insert the rings in any case to below a
particular top layer, such as a disturbed or crusted top layer or layer with
macro-pores. In the case you should encounter any play between the ring
and the ground, push the ring back in its place. A disturbed crust can be
healed using bentonite or other soil material.
4. Place the outer ring with the cutting edge facing down around the inner
ring and put the driving plate on top of it.
5. Repeat step 3.The shape of the driving plate will ensure a depth identical
to that of the inner ring.
6. The standard double ring infiltrometer set allows simultaneous measuring
in threefold. Place the rings 2 - 10 m apart, depending on the field
situation, and repeat steps 1 to 5.
7. Place all rings at a similar depth to allow comparison of the results.
Differing ring diameters are not supposed to produce differing results.
8. Place the measuring bridge with measuring rod and float on the inner ring.
Remove, without disturbing the soil structure, any vegetation that may
hamper free movement of the float or affect the measuring.
9. Fill the outer ring with water, then the inner ring, to approximately 5 - 10
cm. Start measuring immediately to determine Make sure to have
sufficient water at hand. Filling one set of rings requires approx. 25 litre.
Some remarks:

To measure only the infiltration capacity of saturated soil it will suffice to saturate the soil (by
pouring water in the
rings) without measuring.
To obtain optimal results in determining the infiltration capacity, use water of a similar quality
and temperature to

that of the real system you are examining.

Measuring
1. Start the measuring by noting the time and the water level in the inner
ring (reference level) as indicated on the measuring rod. When carrying
out synchronic measuring, use several field lists. Always use copies of the
field list; use the original only for reproduction.
2. Determine the drop in the water level in the inner ring during acertain
interval. Note the time and the water level in column A and B on the field
list. Start with short intervals (for instance 1-2min) and conclude
measuring with a longer interval (20 - 30 min,depending on the type of
soil). Make sure the infiltration rings do not godry during measuring. Add
water whenonly a few centimetres of water are left inthe rings. Write the
new levels in column B of the list. Keep the water in the inner and outer
ring at a similar level. A higher water level in the outer ring will lead to a
decreasing infiltration rate in the inner ring. A lowerwater level in the inner
ring will causethe buffering against lateral spreading todecrease.
3. Stop measuring only if the infiltration rate has reached a constant value. A
change of < 10% in a certain phase is often considered as constant.
Depending on the type of soil this may occur within 1 or 2 hours, in
exceptional cases only after a day.
4. Remove the rings using the pull-out hooks.
5. Rinse the rings, make sure no earth sticks and sets to the rings. Proper
maintenance will prevent nnecessary disturbanceof the soil upon
installation.
Guelph Tension Infiltrometer
Sites that have rapid infiltration can be measured with the outer reservoir (reservoir
valve notch in the 12:00 oclock position). On slow infiltration sites, the inner reservoir
(notch in the 6:00 oclock position) should be used for better resolution. When you make
measurements of very slow infiltration rate (<10-6 cm/s) it can be difficult to obtain
steady state values. This is due in part to:

1. The length of time necessary to obtain steady state

(many hours in the worst cases)
2. The dynamic physics of the ambient environment
3. The physics of the instrument construction:
If the infiltration rate is approximately 1.0 cm/min or less,
the TI is in a warming environment (i.e., air temperature
increases in the bright sun), and an air gap exists above
the water level in the reservoir, a pressure increase in the
GP Reservoir can be expected in the GP Reservoir. Under
these conditions, gases above the Reservoir water level
expand (causing pressure) at a rate that exceeds the rate
of infiltration into the soil.
In such cases, there is no steady state condition, and
measurements are meaningless.
To avoid this problem, use the following methods:
1. Maintain as much water in the Reservoir as possible to
minimize the air space.
2. Shield the Upper Reservoir from direct sun light.
Calculations
1. Transient flow (early time) measurements
2. Steady flow techniques.
Using Steady Flow Techniques, values can be obtained
using single head or multiple head Approaches.
In the multiple head approach, two or more water
potentials are sequentially applied. Appropriate hydraulic
conductivity (Kt) and flux potential (Ot) are solved by
using either simultaneous equations (2 heads applied
sequentially), or least squares regression (2 or more heads
applied sequentially). For a complete discussion of
appropriate techniques and calculations, review pertinent
literature by D. E. Elrick and/or W. E. Reynolds and others.
A short list of review articles is included in References
section. When making multiple head measurements, it is
important to apply successively larger(more positive)
heads rather than decreasing heads. Decreasing soil
moisture tension is less trouble then increasing soil
moisture tension.

Reff.

http://www.teachmefinance.com/Scientific_Terms/Infiltration.html
http://www.llansadwrn-wx.co.uk/evap/lysim.html
http://www.usyd.edu.au/agric/ACSS/sphysic/infiltration.html
http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/cdo/images/about/evap_pan.jpg
http://www.dri.edu/images/stories/research/programs/sephas/gee_l
ysimeter_gr.jpg

http://www.eoearth.org/article/Evapotranspiration
http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/content/os-28/1/109.full.pdf
http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycletranspiration.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Potetometer.svg
http://wwwcimis.water.ca.gov/cimis/infoEtoOverview.jsp
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0022169471901971
www.soilmoisture.com/pdf/0898-2825k1-opinst.pdf