Mieszko I of Poland

1 Date of birth

Mieszko I ( Polish ; ca. 930 25 May 992)[1] was the

ruler of the Polans[2] from about 960 until his death. A
member of the Piast dynasty, he was a son of Siemomys,
and a grandchild of Lestek. He was the father of Bolesaw
I the Brave (the rst crowned king of Poland) and Gunhild
of Wenden with his wife Oda.[3] Most sources make
Mieszko I the father of Sigrid the Haughty, a Nordic
Queen, though one source identies her father as Skoglar
Toste, and the grandfather of Cnut the Great (Gundhilds
son), and the great-grandfather of Gunhilda of Denmark,
Canute the Great's daughter and wife of Henry III, Holy
Roman Emperor.

There is no certain information on Mieszko Is life before

he took control over his lands. Only the Lesser Poland
Chronicle gives the date of his birth as somewhere between the years 920931 (depending on the version of
the manuscript), however, modern researchers don't recognize the Chronicle as a reliable source. Several historians on the basis of their investigations postulated the date
of Mieszko Is birth to have been between 922945;[4] the
activity of the Duke in his nal years of life puts the date
of his birth closer to the latter year.[5]

The rst Christian ruler of Poland, Mieszko I is considered the de facto creator of the Polish state. He continued
the policy of both his father and grandfather, who were
rulers of the pagan tribes located in the area of presentday Greater Poland. Through both alliances and the use
of military force, Mieszko extended ongoing Polish conquests and early in his reign subjugated Kuyavia and probably Gdask Pomerania and Masovia. For most of his
reign, Mieszko I was involved in warfare for the control
of Western Pomerania, eventually conquering it up to the
vicinity of the lower Oder river. During the last years of
his life, he fought the Bohemian state, winning Silesia and
probably Lesser Poland.

2 Origin and meaning of his name

There are three major theories concerning the origin and
meaning of Mieszko Is name. The most popular theory, proposed by Jan Dugosz, explains that Mieszko is a
diminutive of Mieczysaw, a combination of two elements
or lexemes: Miecz meaning sword and Saw meaning famous. Today, this theory is rejected by the majority of
Polish historians, who consider the name Mieczysaw to
have been invented by Dugosz to explain the origin of
the name Mieszko. Today, we know that ancient Slavs
never formed their names using either animal names or
weapon names. Ancient Slavic names were abstract in
nature. The same explanation rules out another theory
about the origin of the name Mieszko, which links the
name with the Polish word mi/miko meaning bear, as no
animal names were used to form honorable Polish names
among Polish nobility.[6]

Mieszko Is marriage in 965 to the Czech Pemyslid

princess Dobrawa and his baptism in 966 put him and
his country in the cultural sphere of Western Christianity.
Apart from the great conquests accomplished during his
reign (which proved to be fundamental for the future
of Poland) Mieszko I was renowned for his internal reforms, aimed at expanding and improving the so-called
war monarchy system.

The second most popular theory about the origin and

sense of Mieszkos name can be traced to the very old
legend, rstly described by Gallus Anonymus, according
to which Mesco (the Latinized form used by the earliest
sources) was blind during his rst seven years of life. The
chronicler related this story (a typical medieval allegory)
as follows:

According to existing sources, Mieszko I was a wise

politician, a talented military leader, and a charismatic
ruler. He successfully used diplomacy, concluding alliances, rst with Bohemia, then Sweden, and the Holy
Roman Empire. In foreign policy, he placed the interests
of his country foremost, even entering into agreements
with his former enemies. On his death, he left to his sons
a country with greatly expanded territories, and a wellestablished position in Europe.

At that time (after Mieszko recovered his eyesight) Prince Siemomys

urgently asked the elderly people
of his country whether his sons
blindness conveyed some miraculous meaning. They explained that
this blindness meant that Poland
was blind back then, but from
now was going to be illuminated

Mieszko I also enigmatically appeared as Dagome in

a papal document dating to about 1085, called Dagome
iudex, which mentions a gift or dedication of Mieszkos
land to the Pope (the act took place almost a hundred
years earlier).

3 HIS REIGN
ceremony known as the "postrzyyny": During that ceremony hair cutting was performed to every boy at the age
of seven. In that symbolic rite a child became a man.
That explains that Mieszko wasn't blind in fact. He was
blind only metaphorically. Besides his sons name was
also Mieszko and it is hard to believe that he was also
blind. In addition, as we know today ancient Slavs used
only abstract names among nobility.[6]

Mieszko I graphic of Walery Eljasz-Radzikowski from the 19th

century

by Mieszko and elevated over the

neighboring nations.

The third theory links the name of Mieszko with his other
name, Dagome, as it appeared in the document called
Dagome iudex. We know this document only from a
copy prepared by an anonymous monk who was not familiar with Polish language or Polish names. It is possible that while copying the document he made a mistake
and wrote down Dagome instead of Dagomer or even
Dagomir. The name Dagomir is used to this day and
its construction is similar to other Polish names like for
example: Wadimir/Wodzimierz or Casimir/Kazimierz.
The evolution of the -mir element to -mierz is due to
two separate developments: rst, the regular change of
the vowel i to "(i)e before r, and second, the modication of the nominative case by the vocative for certain names (hence, Kazimierz replaced Kazimier based
on the vocative Kazimierze). It is debatable whether the
name Mieszko is a nickname formed from the second part
of the name *Dago-mierz, since the merger in pronunciation of sz with the devoiced rz which would appear in this position is quite recent. The word mir can
be translated as peace.[6] However, some historians believe that the word Dagome is a melding of two names:
the Roman Catholic Dago, for Dagobert (Mieszkos
hypothetical baptismal name), and the Slavic Me, for
Mieszko. The Latin word iudex (judge) would be
used in the meaning of prince. Another interpretation
is that Dagome iudex is a corruption of Ego Mesco
dux (I, Prince Mieszko).[8]

3 His Reign

This interpretation was a clear reference to the later bap3.1

tism of the Duke:
Poland was indeed blind before,
knowing nothing about the true God
or the principles of the Catholic
faith, but thanks to the enlightenment of Mieszko the country also
had become enlightened, because
when he adopted the faith, the Polish nation was saved from death
and destruction.[7]
In addition, it is known that the Slavic word "mzec" can
be interpreted as having his eyes closed or be blind.
Yet again, today it is almost certain that this legend was
used as a metaphor, in allusion to the old Slavic pagan

Early reign

Mieszko I took over the tribal rule after his fathers death
ca. 950960, probably closer to the latter date.[9] Due to
the lack of sources it is not possible to determine exactly
which lands he inherited. Certainly among them were
the areas inhabited by the Polans and Goplans,[10] as well
as the Sieradz-czyca lands and Kuyavia.[11] It is possible that this state included also Masovia[12] and Gdask
Pomerania.[13] Soon the new ruler had faced the task of
integrating the relatively large, ethnically and culturally
heterogeneous territory. Although the residents of areas
controlled by Mieszko spoke mostly one language, had
similar beliefs and reached a similar level of economic
and general development, they were socially connected
primarily by tribal structures. It appears that the elders
cooperating with the Duke rst felt the need for super-

3.2

Margrave Geros war; Mieszkos homage to the Emperor

partially Gdask Pomerania was obtained.[11] Mieszkos

interests were then concentrated mainly on areas occupied by the eastern (near the Oder River) branches of the
Polabian Slavs; some of them became soon subordinated
by him. As Widukind of Corvey wrote, Mieszko ruled
over the tribe called the Licicaviki, now commonly identied with the Polabian Lubusz Land.[16] Having the control over those more western (in respect to the original
homeland of the Polans) tribes, Mieszko had entered the
German sphere of inuence.

Strongholds under Mieszkos rule

In 963 the German Margrave Gero conquered territories

occupied by the Polabian Lusatian and Supian tribes, and
as a result came into direct contact with the Polish state.
At the same time (about 960) Mieszko I began his expansion against the Velunzani and Lutici tribes. The war
was recorded by the chronicler Abraham ben Jacob. According to him, Mieszko I had fought against the Weltaba
tribe, commonly identied with the Veleti. Wichmann
the Younger, a Saxon nobleman who was then a leader of
a band of Polabian Slavs, defeated Mieszko twice, and
around 963 a brother of Mieszko, whose name is unknown, was killed in the ghting. The frontiers at the
mouth of the Oder River were also desired by the German margraves. In addition, the Veleti Bohemia, which
at that time possessed Silesia and Lesser Poland regions,
constituted a danger for the young state of the Polans.

3.2 Margrave Geros war;

homage to the Emperor

Mieszkos

Mieszko and his people were described around 966 by

Abraham ben Jacob, a Sephardi Jewish traveller, who at
that time visited the Prague court of Duke Boleslav I the
Cruel.[14] Abraham presented Mieszko I as one of the four
Slavic kings,[15] reigning over a vast northern area,
with a highly regarded and substantial military force at his
disposal. More precise contemporary records regarding
Mieszko were compiled by Widukind of Corvey, and half
a century later, by Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg.

The chronicle of Thietmar poses some problems of interpretation of the information regarding the attack of Margrave Gero on the Slavic tribes, as a result of which he
purportedly subordinated to the authority of the Emperor
Lusatia and the Selpuli (meaning the Supian tribes) and
also Mieszko with his subjects. According to the majority
of modern historians,[17] Thietmar made an error summarizing the chronicle of Widukind, placing the Gero raid
there instead of the ghting that Mieszko conducted at
that time against Wichmann the Younger. Other sources
make no mention of such conquest and of putting the
Polans state on the same footing with the Polabian Slavs.
On the other hand, the supporters of the Geros invasion
theory[18] believe that the Margrave did actually carry out
a successful invasion, as a result of which Mieszko I was
forced to pay tribute to the Emperor and also was compelled to adopt Catholicism through the German Church.
The thesis that proposes the introduction of Catholicism
as a result of this war nds no conrmation in German
sources.

By the time Mieszko I took over from his father, the

Polans' tribal federation of Greater Poland had for some
time been actively expanding. Continuing this process,
perhaps in the rst years of Mieszkos reign, if it had
not been done already by his father, Mieszko I conquered
Masovia. Likely also during that period or earlier, at least

The homage is then a separate issue, since, according to

the chronicle of Thietmar, Mieszko actually paid tribute
to the Emperor from the lands usque in Vurta uvium
(up to the Warta River).[19] In all probability Mieszko decided to pay tribute in order to avoid an invasion similar
to the one that Lusatia had suered. This homage would

Poland under Mieszkos rule (ca. 960992)

tribal unity, as expansion allowed them to broaden their

inuence.

3 HIS REIGN

take place in 965, or in 966 at the latest. Very likely the

tribute applied only to the Lubusz land, which was in the
German sphere of inuence.[20] This understanding of the
tribute issue explains why already in 967 Mieszko I was
described in the Saxon chronicles as the Emperors friend
(or ally, supporter, Latin: amicus imperatoris).

3.3

Marriage and conversion to Catholicism

19th century illustration: Mieszko, a former pagan, aided by his

Roman Catholic Czech wife Dobrawa, daughter of Boleslaus I,
becomes an evangelist of Roman Catholicism

Monumental tomb of Mieszko I. and Bolesaw I. by Christian

Daniel Rauch in the Golden Chapel of Pozna Cathedral

See also: Baptism of Poland

Probably in 964 Mieszko began negotiations with the Bohemian ruler Boleslav I the Cruel. As a result, in 965
Mieszko I married his daughter Dobrawa (also named Contemporary mural in Gniezno commemorating the baptism of
Dobrava, Doubravka or Dbrwka).[21] This political Mieszko
Polish-Bohemian alliance is likely to have been initiated
by the Polish ruler. It is probable that the marriage was
may have been blocking his eorts to establish a more
ocially arranged in February 965.[22]
centralized rule.[23]
The next step was the baptism of Mieszko. There are
dierent hypotheses concerning this event. Most often A dierent hypothesis is linked with the aboveit is assumed that it was a political decision, intended to mentioned acceptance of the veracity of Geros invasion
bring Mieszkos state closer to the Czechs and to facilitate of Poland. According to it, it was the attack of the Marhis activities in the Polabian Slavs area. At the same time, grave that forced the Catholicization, which was to be an
the Emperor, done without the
the baptism decreased the likelihood of future attacks by act of subordination to[24]
mediation
of
the
Pope.
German margraves and deprived them of the opportunity
to attempt Roman Catholicization of Mieszkos lands by Still other motives were responsible according to Gallus
force. An additional reason could be Mieszkos desire to Anonymus, who claimed that it was the Bohemian
remove from power the inuential pagan priest class, who Princess Dobrawa who convinced her husband to change

3.5

Conquest of Pomerania

his religion. Likewise chronicler Thietmar attributes

Mieszkos conversion to Dobrawas inuence. There are
no reasons to negate Dobrawas role in Mieszkos acceptance of Roman Catholicism; however crediting rulers
wives with positive inuence over their husbands actions
was a common convention at that time.
It is generally recognized that the baptism of Mieszko I
took place in 966.[25] The place is unknown; it could have
had happened in any of the cities of the Empire (possibly Regensburg), but also in one of the Polish towns
like Gniezno or Ostrw Lednicki.[26] The belief that the
baptism was accomplished through the Czechs in order
to avoid the dependence on Germany and the German
Church is incorrect,[27] because Bohemia would not have
its own church organization until 973. At the time of the
baptism of Mieszko the existing Bohemian church establishment was a part of the Regensburg diocese. Thus, if
the Polish ruler accepted the baptism through Pragues
mediation, it had to be sanctioned in Regensburg. However, the religious vocabulary (words like baptism, sermon, prayer, church, apostle, bishop or conrmation)
were adopted from the Czech language and had to come
from Dobrawas entourage and the church elements that
arrived with her. Perhaps with her also came the rst
Polish bishop, Jordan. It could be that the reason for
the Czech preference of Mieszko was the existence in
Bohemia of a mission which followed the precepts of
the Byzantine Greek brothers and later saints Cyril and
Methodius, who developed and performed the liturgy in
the Slavic rite, more readily understood by Mieszko and
his subjects. The Slavic rite church branch had survived
in Bohemia for another hundred years after Mieszkos
baptism.

3.4

5
Lednicki. The latter was a ring-fort some 500 meters in
circumference, containing the dukes residence, a stone
palace, the countrys rst monumental architecture.
The Catholicization had also led to political changes. The
emergent power structures were independent of the traditional tribal elders and limited their authority. Clergy
who arrived in the country contributed to the development of education and culture, and of the state administration and diplomacy. At the end of Mieszkos reign
(ca. 990) Poland began to pay tribute to the pope (Peters
Pence).
However, the conversion of the Polish population into
Catholicism was a long-term process and was not be completed during the reign of Mieszko I. The duke probably had to deal with rebellions led by the old pagan priest
caste. In some villages, the old Slavic beliefs and customs
were continued until the 16th century.

3.5 Conquest of Pomerania

Consequences of Catholicization

Through the adoption of Catholicism Mieszko I included

his Polish state in the European community of Western
(Latin) Rite states, i.e. Roman Catholic states. Consequently, neither Holy Roman Empire nor any other
Catholic country could invade Poland for the purpose of
Christianizing the region, and Poland could now assert its
right to be treated like other Christian states.
The baptism also started the spread of the Latin culture into Poland, with the rst literate and educated
churchmen-advisers joining Mieszkos court. The missionary bishopric started by Jordan in 968 used the
Latin liturgy and was directly subordinate to the Papacy.
Churches were being built at Gniezno, Pozna, Ostrw
Lednicki and elsewhere. The existence of the missionary
diocese emphasized the individuality and independence
of the Polish state.
At the time of the reign of Mieszko there was no single place serving as the capital, instead he built several
palatiums around his country. The most important locations were Pozna (Ostrw Tumski), Gniezno and Ostrw

Mieszko I, early 17th century illustration

After the normalization of relations with the Holy Roman Empire and Bohemia, Mieszko I returned to his
plans of conquest of the more western part of Pomerania.
On 21 September 967 the Polish-Bohemian troops prevailed in the decisive battle against the Wolinians led by
Wichmann the Younger, which gave Mieszko the control
over the mouth of the Odra River.[28] The German margraves had not opposed Mieszkos activities in Pomera-

3 HIS REIGN

nia, perhaps even supported them; the death of the rebellious Wichmann, who succumbed to his wounds soon after the battle, may have been in line with their interests. A
telling incident took place after the battle, a testimony to
Mieszkos high standing among the Empires dignitaries,
just one year after his baptism: Widukind of Corvey reported that the dying Wichmann asked Mieszko to hand
over Wichmanns weapons to Emperor Otto I, to whom
Wichmann was related. For Mieszko the victory had to
be a satisfying experience, especially in light of his past
defeats inicted by Wichmann.

At rst, the Margrave defeated Mieszkos forces; subsequently the Dukes brother Czcibor defeated the Germans
in the decisive stage, inicting great losses among their
troops. It may be that Mieszko intentionally staged the
retreat, which was followed by a surprise attack on the
ank of the German pursuing troops.[35] After this battle, Mieszko and Odo were called to the Imperial Diet in
Quedlinburg in 973 to explain and justify their conduct.
The exact judgment of the Emperor is unknown, but its
certain that the sentence wasn't carried out because he
died a few weeks after the Diet. It is commonly assumed
The exact result of Mieszkos ghting in Western Pomera- that the sentence was unfavorable to the Polish ruler. The
Annals of Altaich indicates that Mieszko was not present
nia is not known. Subsequent loss of the region by
Mieszkos son Bolesaw Chrobry suggests that the con- in Quedlinburg during the gathering; instead, he had to
send his son Bolesaw as a hostage.
quest was dicult and the hold over that territory rather
[29]
tenuous. In one version of the legend of St. Wojciech
Mieszkos conict with Odo I was a surprising event
it is written that Mieszko I had his daughter[30] married because, according to Thietmar, Mieszko respected the
to a Pomeranian prince, who previously voluntarily was Margrave highly. Thietmar wrote the following:
washed with the holy water of the baptism in Poland. The
above information, as well as the fact that Bolesaw lost
Mieszko would never wear his outWestern Pomerania, suggest that the region was not truly
door garment in a house where Odo
incorporated into the Polish state, but only became a ef.
was present, or remain seated after
This conjecture seems to be conrmed in the introduction
Odo had gotten up.
of the rst volume of the chronicles of Gallus Anonymus
concerning the Pomeranians: Although often the leaders
of the forces defeated by the Polish duke sought salvation It is believed that in practical terms the victory at Cedynia
in baptism, as soon as they regained their strength, they sealed Western Pomerania's fate as Mieszko' dependency.
repudiated the 'Christian' (that is, Roman Catholic) faith
and started the war against Christian anew.

3.7 Acquisitions in the east

3.6

War against Margrave Odo I of OstAccording to archaeological research, during the 970s the
mark

Sandomierz region and the Przemyl area inhabited by the

[36]
In 972 Poland suered the attack of Odo I, Margrave of Lendians became incorporated into the Polish state.
the Saxon Ostmark. According to the chronicles of Thiet- None of it is certain for the lack of written sources.
mar, this attack was an arbitrary action, without the con- It is possible that especially the Przemyl area, inhabited by the Lendians and the White Croats, belonged at
sent of the Emperor:
that time to Bohemia, which supposedly extended up to
the Bug River and Styr River.[37] The Primary Chronicle
Meanwhile,[31] the noble Margrave
states that in 981 Vladimir of the Rurik Dynasty went toHodo, having collected his army
wards the Lachy and took their towns: Przemyl, Czerwie
attacked Mieszko, who has been
and other strongholds (...). The exact interpretation of
faithfully paying tribute to the Emthis passage is uncertain, because the Ruthenian word
peror (for the lands) up the Warta
Lachy meant both the Poles in general and the southriver.[32]
eastern Lendians tribe.[38] Mieszkos conquest of Sandomierz could also have taken place later, together with
See also: Battle of Cedynia
the take-over of the Vistulans (western and central Lesser
Poland).[39]
There are dierent hypotheses concerning the reasons
for this invasion. Possibly Margrave Odo wanted to stop
the growing power of the Polish state. Very likely Odo
wanted to protect the Wolinian state, which he considered his zone of inuence, from the Polish take-over.[33]
Possibly the Wolinians themselves called the Margrave
and asked his help.[34] In any event, Odos forces moved
in and on 24 June 972 twice engaged Mieszkos army at
the village of Cidini, commonly identied with Cedynia.

Some historians suggest that the regions of Sandomierz,

Lublin and Czerwie (western Red Ruthenia) were indeed annexed by Mieszkos state in the 970s, as lands
valuable for trade reasons and as a starting point for a
future attack against what was to become Lesser Poland,
then in the hands of Bohemia. Sandomierz under this
scenario was the central hub of the area, with Czerwie,
Przemyl and Chem assuming the function of defensive
borderland strongholds.[40]

3.8

3.8

Involvement in German internal disputes; Second marriage

Involvement in German internal dis- pear to support the thesis of Otto IIs invasion. In the last
quarter of the 10th century there had been a radical exputes; Second marriage

pansion of the fortications at Gniezno and Ostrw Lednicki, which may be associated with the Polish-German
war, or the expectation of such.[42] The duration of the
expedition suggests that it may have reached as far east as
the vicinity of Pozna.[43]

Personications of Sclavinia/Wends, Germania, Gallia, and

Roma, bringing oerings to Otto III; from a gospel book dated
990
Otto II, Holy Roman Emperor, from Registrum Gregorii, c. 983

After the death of Emperor Otto I in 973 Mieszko, like

his brother-in-law, Duke Boleslav II of Bohemia, joined
the German opposition in support of the attempted imperial succession of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria. Mieszko
may have been motivated by revenge because of the (presumably) negative verdict of the Quedlinburg summit,
but may be more importantly he wanted more favorable
terms for his cooperation with Germany.[41] The participation of Mieszko in the conspiracy against Otto II was
documented in only one source, the chronicles of the
monastery in Altaich in its entry for the year 974. The
Duke of Bavaria was defeated, and Emperor Otto II regained full power. Shortly afterwards the young emperor
waged a retaliatory expedition against Bohemia, forcing
in 978 Duke Boleslav into submission.
In 977 Mieszkos wife, Dobrawa, died. At rst there were
no apparent repercussions, as the Polish ruler had maintained his alliance with Bohemia.
In 979 Otto II supposedly attacked Poland. Mention of
this event can be found in the Chronicle of the Bishops of
Cambrai from the 11th century. The eects of this expedition are unknown, but it is suspected that the Emperor
did not succeed. Due to bad weather, the Emperor was
back at the border of Thuringia and Saxony in December
of that year. It is uncertain whether the invasion actually
took place. The chronicle only stated that it was an expedition against the Slavs. Archaeological discoveries ap-

The Polish-German agreement was concluded in the

spring or possibly summer of 980,[44] because in November of that year Otto II left his country and went to Italy.
It appears that during this time Mieszko I married Oda,
daughter of Dietrich of Haldensleben, Margrave of the
Northern March, after abducting her from the monastery
of Kalbe.[45] Chronicler Thietmar described the event as
follows:
When Bolesaw's mother died his
father married, without permission
from the Church, a nun from the
monastery in Kalbe, daughter of
Margrave Dietrich. Oda was her
name and her guilt was great. For
she scorned her vows to God, and
gave preference to the man of war
before him (...). But because of the
concern for the well-being of the
homeland and the necessity to secure its peace, the event caused no
break of relations, instead a proper
way was found to restore concord.
For thanks to Oda the legion of
followers of Christ became augmented, many prisoners returned to
their country, the shackled had their
chains taken o, and the gates of

3 HIS REIGN
prisons were opened for the trespassers.[46]

Although Thietmar made no mention of warfare that possibly took place on this occasion, the information on the
return of the accord, acting for the good of the country
and release of prisoners indicate that a conict actually
did occur.[47]
The marriage with Oda considerably aected the position
and prestige of Mieszko, who entered the world of Saxon
aristocracy. As a son-in-law of Margrave Dietrich, he
gained an ally in one of the most inuential politicians of
the Holy Roman Empire. As the Margrave was a distant
relative of the Emperor, Mieszko became a member of
the circle connected to the imperial ruling house.

3.9

Cooperation with Sweden and the war

against Denmark

Probably in the early 980s Mieszko allied his country with

Sweden against Denmark. The alliance was sealed with
the marriage of Mieszkos daughter witosawa with the
Swedish king Erik. The content of the treaty is known
from the not entirely reliable, but originating directly
from the Danish court tradition account given by Adam
of Bremen. In this text, probably as a result of confusion,
he gives instead of Mieszkos name the name of his son
Bolesaw:
The King of the Swedes, Erik,
entered into an alliance with the
very powerful King of the Polans,
Bolesaw. Bolesaw gave Erik his
daughter or sister. Because of this
cooperation the Danes were routed
by the Slavs and the Swedes.
Mieszko decided on the alliance with Sweden probably in
order to help protect his possessions in Pomerania from
the Danish King Harald Bluetooth and his son Sweyn.
They may have acted in cooperation with the Wolinian
autonomous entity. The Danish were defeated ca. 991
and their ruler was expelled. The dynastic alliance with
Sweden had probably aected the equipment and composition of Mieszkos troops. Perhaps at that time the
Varangian warriors were recruited; their presence is indicated by archaeological excavations in the vicinity of
Pozna.[48]

3.10 Participation in German civil war

In 982 Emperor Otto II suered a disastrous defeat
against the Emirate of Sicily. The resulting weakness of
the imperial power was exploited by the Lutici, who initiated a great uprising of the Polabian Slavs in 983. The

Mieszko I, 19th century image of Aleksander Lesser

German authority in the area ceased to exist and the Polabian tribes began to threaten the Empire. The death of
Otto II at the end of that year contributed further to the
unrest. Ultimately the Lutici and the Obotrites were able
to liberate themselves from the German rule for the next
two centuries.
The Emperor left a minor successor, Otto III. The right
to care for him and the regency powers were claimed by
Henry II of Bavaria. Like in 973, Mieszko and the Czech
duke Boleslav II took the side of the Bavarian duke. This
fact is conrmed in the chronicle of Thietmar:
There arrived (at the Diet of
Quedlinburg) also, among many
other princes: Mieszko, Mciwoj
and Boleslav and promised to support him under oath as the king and
ruler.[49]
In 984 the Czechs took over Meissen, but in the same year
Henry II gave up his pretension to the German throne.
The role played by Mieszko I in the subsequent struggles
is unclear because the contemporary sources are scarce
and not in agreement. Probably in 985 the Polish ruler
ended his support for the Bavarian duke and moved to
the side of the Emperor. It is believed that Mieszkos
motivation was the threat posed to his interests by the
Polabian Slavs uprising. The upheaval was a problem for
both Poland and Germany, but not for Bohemia. In the
Chronicle of Hildesheim, in the entry for the year 985 it is
noted that Mieszko came to help the Saxons in their ght
against some Slavic forces, presumably the Polabians.[50]

3.12

Dagome iudex

One year later, the Polish ruler had a personal meeting the indirect control of Krakw and perhaps a few other
with the Emperor, an event mentioned in the Annals of important centers. This theory is based on the lack of
Hersfeld:
archaeological discoveries, which would indicate major
building investments undertaken by the Bohemian state.
Otto the boy-king ravaged Bohemia,
Lesser Poland supposedly after its incorporation had bebut received Mieszko who arrived
come the partition of the country assigned to Mieszkos
with gifts.
oldest son, Bolesaw, which is indirectly indicated in the
chronicle of Thietmar.[60]
According to Thietmar and other contemporary chronSome historians, on the basis of the chronicle of Cosmas
icles the gift given by Mieszko to the Emperor was a
of Prague, believe that the conquest of the lands around
camel. The meeting consolidated the Polish-German althe lower Vistula River took place after Mieszkos death,
liance, with Mieszko joining Ottos expedition against a
specically in 999.[61] There is also a theory accordSlavic land, which together they wholly devastated (...)
ing to which during this transition period Lesser Poland
with re and tremendous depopulation. It is not clear
was governed by Bolesaw Chrobry, whose authority was
which Slavic territory was invaded. Perhaps another raid
granted to him by the Bohemian duke.[62]
against the Polabians took place. But there are indications
that it was an expedition against the Czechs, Mieszkos
rst against his southern neighbors.[51] Possibly on this
3.12 Dagome iudex
occasion the Duke of the Polans accomplished the most
signicant expansion of his state, the take-over of Lesser
Main article: Dagome iudex
Poland.[52]
Thietmars narrative, however, raises doubts as to
whether the joined military operation actually happened.
The chronicler claims that a settlement was then concluded between the Emperor and the Bohemian ruler
Boleslav II the Pious, which is not mentioned in any other
source and is contrary to the realities of the political situation at that time.

At the end of his life (ca. 991-92), Mieszko I, together

with his wife Oda and their sons, issued a document called
Dagome iudex, where the Polish ruler placed his lands under the protection of the Pope and described their borders. Only a later imprecise summary of the document
has been preserved.

There are two main theories concerning reasons behind

Another debatable point is Thietmars claim that Mieszko
the issuing of Dagome iudex:
[53]
subordinated himself to the King.
Most historians believe that it was only a matter of recognition of Ottos
According to the rst theory the document was an
royal authority.[54] Some suggest that a fealty relationship
eort to transform the existing missionary bishopric
could in fact be involved.[55]
into a regular organization of the Catholic Church,
that would cover all of Mieszkos state. This un3.11 War against Bohemia; incorporation
derstanding implies that the arrangement led to payof Silesia and Lesser Poland
ment by Poland of Peters Pence.[63]
The second theory assumes that the document was
Whether or not the German-Polish invasion of Bohemia
created in order to protect the interests of Mieszkos
actually happened, the friendly relations between the
second wife Oda and their sons (who were named
Czechs and the Poles came to an end. Bohemia rein the document) after Mieszkos death. Bolesaw,
sumed its earlier alliance with the Lutici, which caused
Mieszkos eldest son, whose mother was Dobrawa,
in 990 a war with Mieszko, who was supported by Emwas not named in the document.[64] However, one
press Theophanu. Duke Boleslav II was probably the rst
[56]
of Mieszkos and Odas sons, witopek, also was
As a result of the conict Silesia was
one to attack.
not mentioned.
taken over by Poland. However, the annexation of Silesia possibly took place around 985, because during this
year the major Piast strongholds in Wrocaw, Opole and Dagome iudex is of capital importance for Polish history
Gogw were already being built.[57]
because it gives a general description of the Polish states
The issue of the incorporation of Lesser Poland is also geographical location at the end of Mieszkos reign.
not completely resolved. Possibly Mieszko took the region before 990, which is indicated by the vague remark
of Thietmar, who wrote of a country taken by Mieszko 3.13 Late reign, death and succession
from Boleslav.[58] In light of this theory, the conquest of
Lesser Poland could be a reason for the war, or its rst During his last years of life Mieszko remained loyal to the
stage. Many historians[59] suggested that the Czech rule alliance with the Holy Roman Empire. In 991 he arrived
over Lesser Poland was only nominal and likely limited to at a gathering in Quedlinburg, where he participated in

10

5 ACCOMPLISHMENTS
weaker neighboring tribes and conquer their lands. A
key factor promoting cohesion of the growing state was
fear of the invaders impressed by them among local populations. The rst Piasts reinforced their rule by burning local strongholds and replacing them with new larger
fortresses, located in strategic positions. Archaeological
studies show that this practice was abandoned only at the
end of Mieszkos reign, when his position was already
well-established.
The largest social group in Mieszkos state were free
peasants (kmiecie), who cultivated their own land. They
had to support the state by levies collected from them and
by supporting the duke and his attendants as he traveled
around the country. There were also service villages, specializing in production of certain types of items.
Many trade routes went through the Polish lands, which
facilitated the development of trade. Amber, fur and salt
(extracted in Kuyavia and around Koobrzeg) were exported to other countries, while cloth, crafts, tools and
ornaments were imported.

5 Accomplishments
The Neo-Gothic cenotaph of Mieszko I at the Pozna Cathedral

the customary exchange of gifts with Otto III and Empress Theophanu. In the same year he took part in a joint
expedition with the young king to Brandenburg.
Mieszko died on 25 May 992.[65] Sources give no reasons
to believe that his death occurred from causes other than
natural. According to Thietmar the Polish ruler died in
an old age, overcame with fever. Probably he was buried
in the Pozna Cathedral. The remains of the rst historical ruler of Poland have never been found and the place Mieszkos denar (either Mieszko I or his grandson Mieszko II)
of his burial is not known with certainty.[66] In 1836
1837 a cenotaph was built for Mieszko I and his successor
Unication of Polish lands. Mieszkos state was the
Bolesaw I the Brave in the Golden Chapel (Polish: Zota
rst state that could be called Poland. He is ofKaplica) at the Pozna Cathedral, where the damaged reten considered the founder, the principal creator and
mains found in the 14th century tomb of Bolesaw were
builder of the Polish state.[68]
placed.
Acceptance of Roman Catholicism and therefore inAccording to Thietmar Mieszko I divided his state before
clusion of his country in the mainstream civilization
his death among a number of princes. They were probaand political structures of Roman Catholic Europe.
bly his sons: Bolesaw I the Brave, Mieszko and Lambert.
In 1999 the archeologist Hanna Kka-Krenz located
whats left of Mieszkos palace-chapel complex in
Pozna.[67]

Organization of the Polish state

The basic structure of the early Polish state was Mieszkos

military force. The ruler managed to create an army
composed of about 3,000 mounted warriors. This increasingly powerful force allowed the Polans to attack

Erection of churches. The Gniezno Cathedral was

constructed during Mieszkos rule. Very likely the
Duke also founded the church at Ostrw Tumski and
the Pozna Cathedral.[69]
Possibly during Mieszko Is reign Poland began
minting its own coin, the denarius.[70]
At the end of his rule, Mieszko I left to his sons a
territory at least twice as large as what he inherited
from his father. The most signicant were the additions of Silesia, Western Pomerania, and probably
Lesser Poland including Krakw.

11
The rst ruler conducted ecient foreign policy,
which included agreements with Germany, Bohemia
and Sweden, and prudently used his military resources.

Marriages and issue

According to one hypothesis there was another daughter

of Mieszko, married to a Pomeranian Slavic Prince; she
could be a daughter of Dobrawa or of one of the previous
pagan wives.[73] Also, a theory exists (apparently based
on Thietmar and supported by Oswald Balzer in 1895)
that Vladivoj, who ruled as Duke of Bohemia in 1002
1003, was a son of Mieszko and Dobrawa.[74] Although
most modern historians reject this claim, Bohemian historiography supported the Piast parentage of Vladivoj.[75]
In 978/79, Mieszko married Oda of Haldensleben (b.
955/60 d. 1023), daughter of Dietrich of Haldensleben,
Margrave of the Northern March. She was abducted by
her future husband from the monastery of Kalbe. They
had three sons:
1. Mieszko (b. ca. 979 d. aft. 992/95).
2. witopek (b. ca. 980 d. bef. 991?).
3. Lambert (b. ca. 981 d. aft. 992/95).

Mieszko Is burial site, believed to be found in 1952 at the

Pozna Cathedral, was desecrated, possibly by Bretislaus I, Duke
of Bohemia, in 1039. According to a new theory, Bishop
Jordan was buried here, while Mieszkos grave location is probably the Chapel of the Virgin Mary at Ostrw Tumski palatium
complex.[71]

According to Gallus Anonymus, before becoming a Roman Catholic Mieszko had seven pagan wives, whom he
was required to relinquish, leaving Dobrawa as his only
spouse. Nothing is known of the fates of any possible children from these relationships.[72] In 965, before
his baptism, Mieszko married Dobrawa (b. 940/45 d.
977), daughter of Boleslav I the Cruel, Duke of Bohemia.
They had two children:
1. Bolesaw I the Brave (Chrobry) (b. 967 d. 17 June
1025).
2. witosawa (Sigrid) (b. 968/72 d. ca. 1016),
married rst to Eric the Victorious, King of Sweden
and later to Sweyn Forkbeard, King of Denmark.
From her second marriage, she probably was the
mother of Cnut the Great, King of Denmark,
Norway and England. Some researchers,[3] comparing Scandinavian, Polish and German sources state
it was Gunhild who was the daughter of Mieszko I
and Oda (not Dobrawa) and who became wife of
Sweyn Forkbeard, king of Denmark, England, and
parts of Norway, mother of Cnut the Great, king
of Denmark, England, Norway and parts of Sweden
(the Anglo-Scandinavian or North Sea Empire), as
well as Harald and witosawa. She was also the
grandmother of Gunhild, the wife of Henry III, Holy
Roman Emperor.

After a struggle for power between Bolesaw I and Oda

with her minor sons (Bolesaws half-brothers), the eldest
son of Mieszko I took control over all of his fathers state
and expelled his stepmother and her sons from Poland.

7 Bibliography
Jasiski K., Rodowd pierwszych
Warszawa-Wrocaw (1992), p. 5470.

Piastw,

Labuda G., Mieszko I, (in) Polski Sownik Biograczny, vol. 21, 1976.
Labuda G., Mieszko I, Wyd. Ossolineum, Wrocaw
2002, ISBN 83-04-04619-9
Labuda G., Pierwsze pastwo polskie, Krajowa
Agencja Wydawnicza, Krakw 1989, ISBN 83-0302969-X
Philip Earl Steele Nawrcenie i Chrzest Mieszka I
2005, ISBN 83-922344-8-0
Szczur S., Historia Polski redniowiecze, chap. 2.2.1
Pastwo gnienieskie Mieszka I (p. 4757) i 2.4.1
Druyna ksica (p. 8384), Wydawnictwo Literackie 2002, ISBN 83-08-03272-9

8 See also
Prehistory and protohistory of Poland
Poland in the Early Middle Ages
History of Poland (9661385)
List of Poles

12

References

[1] Historical dictionary of Poland. Greenwood Publishing

Group. 1996. ISBN 978-0-313-26007-0.
[2] Witold Chrzanowski: Kronika Sowian: Polanie. 2006.
s. 238; Fragments of the history of Western Slavs. t.1
3; Gerard Labuda. Poznaskie Towarzystwo Przyjaci
Nauk. 2003
[3] http://www.academia.edu/1045395/%C5%9Awi%C4%
99tos%C5%82awa_Sygryda_Gunhilda._To%C5%
BCsamo%C5%9B%C4%87_c%C3%B3rki_Mieszka_
I_i_jej_skandynawskie_zwi%C4%85zki_%C5%
9Awi%C4%99tos%C5%82awa_Sygryda_Gunhilda.
_The_identity_of_Mieszko_Is_daughter_and_her_
Scandinavian_relationships
[4] ca. 922 (O. Balzer), between 930932 (A.F. Grabski), ca.
935 (K. Jasiski), between 940945 (S. Ktrzyski).

REFERENCES

[21] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, pp. 4345.

[22] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, p. 92
[23] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, chap. IV.3.
[24] H. owmiaski, Pocztki Polski, p. 342-345.
[25] Between 965967 according to the Monumenta Poloniae
Historica ed. by A. Bielowski, vol. II, Lww 1872; in 966
according to Tadeusz Wojciechowski.
[26] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, pp. 9297.
[27] Historii Polski by Anna Paner and Jan Iluk
[28] Probably not the main stronghold of the region Wolin.
G. Labuda, Mieszko I, cap. V.3.
[29] Legend of the 12th century, starting with the words Tempore illo.

[5] Jerzy Strzelczyk "Mieszko pierwszy", vol. IV

[30] Other sources indicated that she could be Mieszko Is sister.

[6] Wodzimierz K. Krzyanowski, Arystokracja rodowa w

Polsce, Warszawa, 2007

[31] At that time, Emperor Otto I was in Italy.

[7] Gallus Anonymus, Kronika polska, vol. I, chap. 4

[8] Gregory Cattaneo, The Scandinavians in Poland: a reevaluation of perceptions of the Vikings, Brathair 9 (2),
2009: 0214. ISSN 1519-9053
[9] K. Jasiski, Siemomys, Polski Sownik Biograczny, vol.
37, 1996, pp. 5859.
[10] Gerard Labuda, Mieszko I, pp. 1822
[11] Pocztki Polski w nowym wietle (The beginnings of
Poland in new perspective) by Tomasz Jasiski, p. 17.
The Polish Academy of Sciences, Portal Wiedzy www.
portalwiedzy.pan.pl Nauka, April 2007
[12] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, p. 85; S. Szczur, Historia Polski
redniowiecze, pp. 3435

[32] Thietmari chronicon, vol. II p. 29

[33] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, p. 122.
[34] J.P. Sobolewski, Niemcy, Polska a Pomorze Zachodnie
w latach 971972, Kwartalnik Historyczny, Vol. 95,
1988, No. 1. The same argument was also given by S.
Szczur, Historia Polski redniowiecze, p. 51.
[35] According to the reconstruction of the battle by W. Filipiowak.
[36] Historia Polski redniowiecze, p. 35.
[37] The limits were described in the document issued by the
bishop of Prague to Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor.
This document is preserved in the Chronicles of Cosmas
of Prague and is considered a reliable copy; from G.
Labuda Mieszko I pp. 148151.

[13] S. Szczur, Historia Polski redniowiecze, p. 34; Henryk

owmiaski, Pocztki Polski, vol. V, p. 502; G. Labuda,
Mieszko I, pp. 121122

[38] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, p. 160, 174.

[14] Jerzy Wyrozumski Dzieje Polski piastowskiej (VIII w.

1370) (History of Piast Poland (8th century 1370)),
Krakw 1999, p. 76

[40] A. Buko, Maopolska czeska i Maopolska polaska pp.

153158.

[39] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, cap. VII.4.

[41] S. Szczur, Historia Polski redniowiecze, p. 52.

[15] Jerzy Wyrozumski Dzieje Polski piastowskiej (VIII w.

1370) (History of Piast Poland (8th century 1370)),
Krakw 1999, p. 77

[42] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, chap. VI.4.

[16] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, cap. III.2.; S. Szczur, Historia Polski redniowiecze, p. 26

[44] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, p. 153.

[17] see for example G. Labuda, Mieszko I, chap. III.2.

[45] It is understood that the marriage took place around 979

980 (S, Szczur, Historia Polski redniowiecze, p. 53).

[18] see for example Henryk owmianski, Pocztki Polski,

Warsaw, 1973.

[46] Thietmari chronicon, vol. IV cap. 57

[19] Thietmari chronicon, vol. II chap. 29

[20] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, chap. III.2.; A.F. Grabski, Bolesaw
Chrobry, p. 25

[43] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, p. 158.

[47] G. Labuda, Bolesaw Chrobry p. 44.

[48] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, p. 134.
[49] Thietmari chronicon, vol. IV chap. 2

13

[50] S. Szczur, Historia Polski redniowiecze, p. 54-55.

9; Chronicles of

too young. This argument is refuted by Jan Widajewicz (Czy Bolesaw Chrobry by w modoci zakadnikiem
u Niemcw?, Roczniki Historyczne, vol. XVI, 1947, pp.
243250). Modern historians have no doubts that the Polish prince who was placed as the imperial hostage was
Bolesaw I.

[54] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, pp. 180185; Marian Jedlicki, Stosunek prawny Polski, Pozna, 1939, p. 33.

[73] According to one theory, this unnamed daughter of

Mieszko I and her Pomeranian husband were the parents
of Zemuzil, Duke of Pomerania.

[51] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, p. 168.

[52] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, p. 174.
[53] Thietmari chronicon, vol IV, chap.
Hildesheim, p. 986.

[55] Henryk owmiaski, Pocztki Polski, vol. V, p. 563.

[74] Cawley, Charles, BOHEMIA, Medieval Lands database,

Foundation for Medieval Genealogy,

[56] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, p. 171.

[57] Andrzej Buko, "Archeologia
niowiecznej", 2007, Ed. Trio.

Polski

wczesnored-

[58] Thietmari chronicon, vol. I p. 33; argument presented by

G. Labuda, Mieszko I, p. 171.
[59] Henryk owmiaski, Pocztki Polski, vol. V; A. Buko,
Maopolska czeska i Maopolska polaska
[60] Thietmari chronicon, vol. IV chap. 58; this theory is presented by G. Labuda, Mieszko I, p. 176.
[61] In favor: G. Labuda, Mieszko I, pp. 172173.
[62] Henryk owmiaski, Pocztki Polski, vol. V
[63] This theory has been presented in various forms by historians, including Robert Holtzmann, Stanisaw Zakrzewski
(Najdawniejsza bulla, pp. 2123) and Henryk owmiaski (Pocztki Polski, vol. V, pp. 602603).
[64] S. Zakrzewski, Najdawniejsza bulla, pp.
Labuda, Mieszko I, pp. 193195.

1112; G.

[65] Thietmari chronicon, vol. IV chap. 58

[66] In 1951 the historian Helena Zoll-Adamikowa examined
the alleged resting place of Mieszko, but found no signs of
burial. Its not certain that the Cathedral had already been
built before Mieszkos death, and the rst mention of this
as his burial place comes only from the chronicles of Jan
Dugosz.
[67] The Warsaw Voice In brief (30 October 2008)
[68] G. Labuda, Studia nad pocztkami pastwa polskiego, p.
324
[69] G. Labuda, Mieszko I, p. 201.
[70] According to S. Suchodolski, the monetary system was installed by Mieszko Is grandson and namesake, Mieszko II
Lambert.
[71] To nie Mieszko (Its not Mieszko) by Przemysaw Urbaczyk, Gazeta Wyborcza, www.gazeta.pl portal, 201012-28
[72] Oswald Balzer (Genealogy of the Piasts, Krakw 1895)
stated that Mieszko I had at least one son born from a
pagan wife. The theory was based on the allegation that
Mieszkos son, who was to be placed by order of Otto I
in 973 as a hostage after the Imperial Diet of Quedlinburg, couldn't be Bolesaw I the Brave because he was

[75] J. emlika, echy v dob kniec, Prague 1997, pp. 72

73.

14

10

10
10.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Mieszko I of Poland Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mieszko_I_of_Poland?oldid=752344126 Contributors: Kpjas, JHK, WojPob,

David Parker, Brion VIBBER, H.J., Szopen, Taw, Danny, Rgamble, Rmhermen, William Avery, Space Cadet, Ktsquare, Dan Koehl, Anders Feder, Suisui, Jimregan, Genie, Wik, Itai, Lord Emsworth, Joy, Caius2ga, Dimadick, Halibutt, Radomil, JackofOz, Cautious, Jor,
SoLando, Lysy, Poszwa~enwiki, Ausir, Curps, Varlaam, Matthead, Gzornenplatz, Rsloch, Kjetil r, Piotrus, Emax, Mschlindwein, Klemen
Kocjancic, Rich Farmbrough, Shenme, Cmdrjameson, Logologist, UAM, Adrian.benko, Japanese Searobin, Angr, FeanorStar7, PatGallacher, Graham87, Grammarbot, Enzo Aquarius, Pmj, Athrash, Lockley, Olessi, FlaBot, Witkacy, Valentinian, Volunteer Marek, YurikBot,
NTBot~enwiki, Tupungato, Ruhrsch, Molobo, Appleseed, Victor falk, SmackBot, Srnec, Feens, Chris the speller, Norum, Hibernian, Kelner~enwiki, Laslovarga, Chlewbot, OrphanBot, Orczar, Alykkr, Mathiasrex, The Man in Question, Remigiu, Korovio, Joseph Solis in
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Idioma-bot, Hugo999, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Paelius, Johnello, William Auden~enwiki, Konarski, AlleborgoBot, Brandon97, Lancelot,
SieBot, N2thai, Nihil novi, Fidelia, Vanished user ewsn2348tui2f8n2o2utjfeoi210r39jf, Kajzderski, ClueBot, Kotniski, Skpperd,
Niceguyedc, Sir Mmt, Pernambuko, Alexbot, PixelBot, Baseballbaker23, Iohannes Animosus, David Sher, Alden Jones, SchreiberBike,
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Ajh1492, Roltz, Againme, Rubinbot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, H. Jonat~enwiki, SandhedTiesa, Kimphill, HRoestBot,
Skyerise, Chumchum7, RedBot, Kibi78704, Sqwe, Rzuwig, Woodlot, Risk34, Spacejam2, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, PBS-AWB,
Smcarth, Zoupan, Liuthar, ClueBot NG, Olgerus, Kmicic, Piast93, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Marcocapelle, Zoe.me94, Waterfan839,
Dexbot, Makecat-bot, Wipur, Vycl1994, Oliszydlowski, Archlinux, Christinagleason, QEVeritas, Dr. Grampinator, Jackson Massie son,
CHE, Mnm, Qzd, Rokopika, FilipSpych and Anonymous: 87

10.2

Images

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