Chapter 6

BULK DEFORMATION
PROCESSES IN METAL WORKING

Overview of Metal Forming

Rolling
Performed as cold,
warm, and hot working

Forging
Bulk Deformation

Extrusion
Wire and bar
drawing

Metal Forming
Mainly cold working

Large group of mfg

processes in which
plastic deformation is
used to change the
shape of metal
workpieces

Bending
Sheet
Metalworking

Shearing
Deep and cup
drawing

Bulk Deformation

O er ie Co t d

rolling
extrusion

Wire/bar drawing
forging

Sheet Metalworking

O er ie Co t d

Deep/cup drawing

bending

shearing

Formability (workability)
Formability of the material depends on:
(1) Process variables
Desirable material properties in metal
- temperature

forming:
rate
- strain

Low yield strength and high ductility

stress
-
(2) Metallurgical changes (properties changes such as hardness)during
deformation ,formation of voids, inclusions, precipitation, .... etc.
Ductility increases and yield strength
decreases when work temperature is raised
Any deformation operation can be
accomplished with lower forces and
power at elevated temperature

Metal Forming Processes: Homologous Temp.

What is the parameter that determine working temperature???
Metal forming process temperature is measured by Homologus temperature
Homologous temperature expresses the temperature of a material as a fraction of its
melting point temperature using the Kelvin scale

T: working temperature such Stainless steels have

good strength and good resistance to corrosion and
oxidation at elevated temperatures
Tm: melting point of metal (based on absolute
temperature scale)

Process
Cold working
Warm working
Hot working

T/Tm
< 0.3
0.3 to 0.5
> 0.6

e.g. lead
Tm = 327 C
Formed at room temperature (20 C),
T/Tm = (20 +273)/(327 + 273) = 0.5 Warm working
.
Most metals strain harden at room temperature according to the
flow curve (n > 0)---- elastic + strain hardening
But if heated to sufficiently high temperature and deformed, strain
hardening does not occur
- Instead, new grains are formed that are free of strain
0
- The metal behaves as a perfectly plastic material; that is, n = .

Perfectly plastic
When the material is heated to
sufficiently high temperature,
and tension test is conducted the
material will exhibit a perfectly
plastic behavior
Perfectly plastic: once the stress
reaches yield stress, Y, it
continues to undergo
deformation at the same level.
When the load is released, the
material has undergone
permeant deformation; there is
no elastic recovery

Strain or Work Hardening

Strain hardening (work hardening) is where a material becomes
less ductile, harder and stronger with plastic deformation.
Encountered during cold working.
Percentage cold work can be expressed as:
Ao = original cross-sectional area
Ao Ad
%CW
100 A = deformed cross-sectional area
d
Ao

decreases
Du tilit ....
with cold work
Yield and tensile
increase
stre gth

Strain or Work Hardening

Yield strength (sy) increases.
Tensile strength (UTS) increases.
Ductility (%EL or %AR) decreases.

The influence of cold work on the

stressstrain behavior for a lowcarbon steel.

Dislocation density increases with CW

Motion of dislocations is hindered as their
density increases.
Stress required to cause further
deformation is increased.
Strain hardening is used commercially to
improve the yield and tensile properties.
cold-rolled low-carbon steel sheet
aluminum sheet
Strain hardening exponent n indicates the
response to cold work (i.e. larger n means
greater strain hardening for a given
amount of plastic strain).

Example: Cold Work Analysis

Copper

What is the te sile stre gth &

ductility after cold working?

%CW

ro2 rd2
ro2

x100 35 .6%

sy (MPa)
8 00

5 00

6 00

100
0

Cu
20

40

% Cold Work
sy =300MPa

Do =15.2mm

UTS (MPa)

7 00

3 00

Cold
work

60

Dd =12.2mm

ductility (%EL)

60
40
20

4 00

Cu

Cu
2 00
0

20

40

% Cold Work
TS=340MPa

60

00

20

40

60

% Cold Work
%EL=7%

Cold Working
Performed at room temperature or slightly above.
Many cold forming processes are important mass production
operations.
Minimum or no machining usually required (no oxidation).
These operations are near net shape or net shape processes.

Advantages of Cold Forming vs. Hot Working:

Better accuracy, closer tolerances.

Better surface finish.
Strain hardening increases strength and hardness.
Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable
directional properties in product.
No heating of work required (less total energy)

Cold Working
Disadvantages of Cold Forming:
Equipment of higher forces and power required to shape material.
Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free of scale and dirt (to
avoid surface defect during cold working).
Less ductility and high strain hardening limit the amount of
forming that can be done.
In some operations, metal must be annealed to allow further deformation.
ANNEALING-A heat treatment to eliminate the effects of cold working.

Purposes of annealing:
relieve stress [residual stress]
- ..
increase ductility
-
produce a specific structure
- ..

Annealing involves three steps

Annealing
Material in this condition (cold worked) is
annealed, changes will begin to take place.
These changes may be classified under three
headings:
1. Stress relief
2. Recrystallization
3. Grain growth

Effect of cold working on properties

The grain boundaries

here is the disorder
structure of high
density dislocation
which replace by the
original fragmented
grain boundaries

Annealing

Annealing

Annealing
1. Stress relief:
As the temperature of the material is raised
so the vibrational energies of the individual
atoms are increased and atomic movements
can occur. Comparatively minor atomic
movements result in the removal of the
residual stresses associated with the lockedin elastic strains .
This change, which occur at comparatively
low temperature, has a negligible effect on
the strength and hardness of the material,
and the microstructure of the metal is
unchanged in its appearance.

Annealing
2. Recrystallization
When the temperature is raised further, the process of
recrystallization begins. New unstressed crystals begin to form
and grow from nuclei until the whole of a material has a
structure of unstressed polygonal crystals.

This change in structure is accompanied by a reduction in

hardness, strength and brittleness to the original values prior
to plastic deformation.

Annealing
2. Recrystallization
The driving force for the recrystallization process is
the release of strain energy stored in the zones of
high dislocation density.[ grain bondaries]
The temperature at which recrystallization occurs is,
for pure metal, within the range from one-third to
one-half of melting temperature (k).
Recrystallization temperature is not constant for all
material. Why????

Annealing
2. Recrystallization
Recrystallization temperature is not constant for all
material as its value is affected by:
1. The a mount of plastic deformation prior to heating
(its lower for very heavily cold worked metals than
for samples of the same material which have
received small amounts of plastic deformation).
2. The composition (the presence of impurities or
alloying elements will increase the recrystallization
temperature of the material

Annealing

3. Grain growth
If the temperature is raised further, grain
growth may occur following the completion
of recrystallization, with some crystal grains
growing in the size at the expense of others
by a process of grain boundary migration or
merge between small grain and large grain

Small grains have larger GB area than

large grains, and Since the dislocations
are concentrated in these large GB area,
The driving force for grain
these large GR becomes a high energy
growth is the release of
area.
grain boundary surface
Consequently, these small grains with
energy as the amount of
(large GB area), will have high energy
total grain boundary
GB areas. The High energy GB area
surface is reduced, this will
wants to go to lower energy GB region
lead to the reduction of
(large grains).
grain boundary area

Grain Growth
Growth of new grains will continue at high
temperature.
Grain growth occurs in both metals and
ceramics at elevated temperature.
Involves the migration of grain boundaries.
Large grains grow at expense of small ones
(small grains merge).
Reduction of grain boundary area (driving
force) for grains to grow. is the release of
strain energy stored in the zones (grain
boundaries) of high dislocation density.

Reducing size

Schematic representation of grain

growth via atomic diffusion.
Why do small grains merge with large grain?
Small grains have larger GB area than large grains.

Since dislocations are concentrated in the GB area, becomes a high energy area.
So, small grains (large GB area), have high energy GB areas.
High energy GB area wants to go to lower energy GB region (large grains).

Warm Working
Performed at temperatures above room temperature
but below recrystallization temperature.
Warm working: T/Tm from 0.3 to 0.5
Advantages of Warm Working:
o Lower forces and power than in cold working.
o More intricate work geometries possible.
o Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated.

Hot Working

Deformation at temperatures above recrystallization temperature:

In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat above 0.5Tm
Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above 0.5Tm,
enhancing the advantage of hot working above this level [produce a
specific structure]

Why Hot Working?

Capability for substantial plastic deformation of the metal - far
more than possible with cold working or warm working.
Why?
Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than at room temp.
Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero (theoretically).
Ductility is significantly increased.

Advantages of Hot Working vs. Cold Working

Workpart shape can be significantly altered.

Lower forces and power required (equipment).
Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed.
Strength properties of product are generally isotropic.
No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening.

Disadvantages of Hot Working:

Lower dimensional accuracy.
Higher total energy required.
- Due to the thermal energy to heat the workpiece.

Work surfa e o idatio

Shorter
.. tool life

s ale , poor
surfa e fi ish.

Friction in Metal Forming

In most metal forming processes, friction is undesirable:
Metal flow is retarded
Forces and power are increased
Wears tooling faster

Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool-work interface in

many forming operations to reduce harmful effects of friction.
Benefits:
Reduced sticking, forces, power, tool wear
Better surface finish
Removes heat from the tooling

Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant:

Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet metal drawing, etc.)

Hot working or cold working
Work material
Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals
Ease of application
Cost

BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES IN

METAL WORKING

The bulk deformation processes are important

commercially and technologically
(1) They are capable of significant shape change
when hot working is used,
(2) They have a positive effect on part strength
when cold working is used, and
(3) Most of the processes produce little material
waste; some are net shape processes

BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES IN

METAL WORKING

1. Rolling
2. Forging
3. Extrusion
4. Wire and bar drawing

Bulk Deformation
Metal forming operations which cause significant shape
change by deforming metal parts whose initial form is
bulk rather than sheet.

Starting forms:

Cylindrical billets
Rectangular billets, slabs and similar shapes
These processes stress metal sufficiently to cause
plastic flow into the desired shape
Performed as cold, warm, and hot working operations

Importance of Bulk
Deformation
In hot working, significant shape change
can be accomplished at high temperature .
In cold working, strength is increased
during shape change.
Little or no waste - some operations are near
net shape or net shape processes
The parts require little or no subsequent
machining

Importance of Bulk
Deformation
Hot Working of Metals
Hot working is defined as the process of altering the shape or
size of a metal by plastic deformation with the temperature
above the recrystallization point.
Being above the recrystallization temperature allows the
material to complete grain growth during deformation :and to
keep the ductility high and hardness and strength low.
This is important because being above recrystallization keeps
the materials from strain hardening, which ultimately keeps
the yield strength and hardness low and ductility high.

Hot Working of Metals

TR = recrystallization
temperature

Chapter 7 - 32

Importance of Bulk
Deformation

Cold Working
Cold working is the process of altering the shape or size of a
metal by plastic deformation with the temperature below the
recrystallization point.
Hardness and tensile strength are increased with the degree of
cold work ( it becomes brittle depends to cold working
percentage) whilst ductility and impact values are lowered.
Processes include rolling, drawing, pressing, and extruding, it is
carried out below the recrystallization point usually at room
temperature.

The cold rolling and cold drawing of steel significantly improves

surface finish. (no oxides on the surface after operation)

Hot Work vs. Cold Work

Hot Work

Recrystallization takes
place

> 0.5 * Tm
Requires less force
Less residual stresses
Greater deformation
possible
Dimensional Variation
[Lower dimensional
accuracy]
Poor Surface Finish
Oxidation of Surfaces
Expensive costs for
process and equipment

Cold Work

NO Recrystallization
Less than <0.3 Tm
Requires more force
Residual Stresses
Strain Hardened
Better Surface Finish
No oxides on the surface
after operation
lower costs for process
and equipment

Four Basic Bulk Deformation

Processes
1. Rolling : slab or plate is squeezed between
opposing rolls
2. Forging : work is squeezed and shaped between
opposing dies

3. Extrusion work is squeezed through a die

opening{has fixed profile}, thereby taking the shape of
the opening
4. Wire and bar drawing diameter of wire or bar is
reduced by pulling it through a die opening

Rolling

Rolling
Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness or
changing the cross section of a long workpiece by
compressive forces applied through a set of rolls, thus the
process is similar to rolling dough with a rolling pin to
reduce its thickness.
Rolling, which accounts for about 90% of all metals
produced by metalworking processes, was first developed
in the late of 1500s.
The basic rolling operation is called flat rolling, or simple
rolling, where rolled products are flat plate and flat sheet

Rolling
Plates: are generally regarded as having a thickness
greater than 6mm, and are used for structural
applications such as boilers, bridges, machine
structure, girders, and ship hulls.
Plates can be as much as 0.3 m thick for large boilers,
and 100-125 mm thick for warships and tank armor.
Sheets :are generally less than 6mm thick. They are
used for automobile bodies, aircraft fuselages, office
furniture and kitchen equipment's.

Rolling
Traditionally, the initial form of material for rolling is an
ingot; An ingot is a material, usually metal, that
is cast into a shape suitable for further processing
[materials prepared in bulk form]
Rolling is first carried out at elevated temperature (hot
rolling), wherein the coarse-grained, brittle, and
porous cast structure of the ingot metal is broken
down into a wrought structure, with finer grain size
and improve properties

Grain Structure During Hot

Rolling

Figure 13.6 Changes in the grain structure of cast or of large-grain wrought metals during hot rolling. Hot
rolling is an effective way to reduce grain size in metals, for improved strength and ductility. Cast
structures of ingots or continuous casting are converted to a wrought structure by hot working.

Rolling
Deformation process in which work piece (slab or plate) thickness is
reduced by compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls.
The rotating rolls perform
two main functions:
Pull the work into the gap
between them by friction
between workpart and rolls.
Simultaneously squeeze the
work to reduce cross section.

The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling)

Rolling
One of the first primary processes to convert raw
material into a finished product.
Deformation process in which work thickness is
reduced by compressive forces exerted by two
opposing rolls (shown below is flat rolling)

Rolling
Starting material (blooms, billets, or slabs) are rolled
into structural shape, rails, plate, sheet, strips, bars
and rods by feeding material through successive
pairs of rolls.
Bloom - square or rectangular cross section with a
thickness greater than 6 and a width no greater
than 2xs the thickness
Billets - square or circular cross section - smaller
than a bloom
Slabs - rectangular in shape (width is greater than
2xs the thickness), slabs are rolled into plate,
sheet, and strips.

Rolled Products Made of Steel

Rolled Products Made of Steel

Rolling
Rotating rolls perform two main
functions:
Pull the work into the gap between them
by friction between work part and rolls
Simultaneously squeeze the work to
reduce its cross section

Types of Rolling
By geometry of work:

Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular

cross-section
Shape rolling - a square cross-section is formed into a
shape such as an I- ea , stru tural shape, rails.

By temperature of work:

Hot Rolling most common due to the large amount of

deformation required (petroleum and natural gas
pipeline, For common structure of construction,
bridges, ships and automobiles wheels).
Cold rolling produces finished sheet and plate.

Diagram of Flat Rolling

Side view of flat rolling,
indicating before and
after thicknesses, work
velocities, angle of
contact with rolls, and
other features.

Flat Rolling

Hot olli g of a sla

i to a plate or sheet

Flat Rolling Terminology

Draft = amount of thickness reduction

Reduction = draft expressed as a fraction of

starting stock thickness:
d
r
to

where d = draft; (ho or to) = starting thickness;

(hf or tf )=final to of thickness, and r = reduction

Shape Rolling
Work is deformed into a contoured cross section
rather than flat (rectangular)
Accomplished by passing work through rolls that
have the reverse of desired shape
Products

Construction shapes such as I-beams,

L-beams, and U-channels
Rails for railroad tracks
Round and square bars and rods

Shape Rolling

Shape Rolling products

L- beam
U- beam

I- beam

Flat Rolling

Shape Rolling

Sheet steel that

undergoes
acid pickling will oxidize
(rust) when exposed to
atmospheric conditions
of moderately high
humidity
For this reason, a thin
film of oil or similar
waterproof coating is
applied to create a
barrier to moisture in
the air

Rolling equipment's
A variety of rolling equipment is available having several
roll arrangements.
Small-diameter rolls are preferable because the smaller
the roll radius, the lower will be the roll force.
On the other hand, small rolls deflect under roll forces
and have to be supported by other rolls to maintain
dimensional control

Rolling equipment's
Equipment is massive and expensive
Rolling mill configurations:
1. Two-high two opposing rolls
2. Three-high work passes through rolls in both
directions
3. Four-high backing rolls support smaller rolls
4. Cluster mill multiple backing rolls on smaller
rolls
5. Tandem rolling mill sequence of two-high
mills

Rolling Mill Configurations

( a) Two-high, (b) three-high, (c) four-high

Rolling Mill Configurations

(d) Cluster mill, (e) tandem rolling mill

Rolling Mill Configurations

Two-high
Rolling mills are typically used for
initial breakdown passes on the
workpiece, with roll diameter
ranging up to 1400 mm
In two high non reversing mills as
two rolls which revolve
continuously in opposite
direction therefore smaller and
less costly motive power can be
used.

Rolling Mill Configurations

Three-high
Rolling mills are typically used for initial
breakdown passes on the workpiece, with
roll diameter ranging up to 1400 mm
It consists of a roll stand with three parallel
rolls one above the other. Adjacent rolls
rotates in opposite direction. So that the
material is passed between the top and the
middle roll in one direction and the bottom
and middle rolls in opposite one so that
thickness is reduced at each pass.
The rolls of a three high rolling mills may be
either plain or grooved to produce plate or
sections respectively.

Rolling Mill Configurations

Four-high
It has a roll stand with four
parallel rolls one above the other.
The top and the bottom rolls
rotate in opposite direction as do
the two middle rolls. The two
middle are smaller in size than
the top and bottom rolls which
are called backup rolls for
providing the necessary rigidity
to the smaller rolls.
A four high rolling mill is used for
the hot rolling of armor and
other plates as well as cold
rolling of plates, sheets and
strips.

Rolling Mill Configurations

Cluster mill
It is a special type of four high rolling mill
in which each of the two working rolls is
backup by two or more of the larger
backup rolls
Is suitable for cold rolling thin strips of
high- strength metals
the rolled product obtained in cluster mill
can be as wide as 5000mm (50 m) and as
thin as 0.0025 mm.
The diameter of the smallest roll can be as
small as 6 mm and is usually made of
tungsten carbide for rigidity, strength and
wear resistance
For rolling hard materials.

Rolling Mill Configurations

Tandem rolling mill
It is a set of three rolls in parallel alignment so
that a continuous pass may be made (thickness
reduction) through each one successively.
Advantages
Reduced roll consumption
Tight tolerances for strip thickness.
The required strip thickness and flatness can be
achieved more by tandem rolling mill

Thread Rolling
A deformation process used to form threads
on cylindrical parts by rolling them between
two dies.
Important process Used for mass producing
bolts and screws.
Performed by cold working in thread rolling
machines.
Advantages over thread cutting
(machining):
Higher production rates.
Stronger threads due to work
hardening.
Better fatigue resistance due to
compressive stresses introduced by
rolling.

(1) start of cycle

(2) end of cycle

Miscellaneous rolling operations

Thread Rolling
Performed by cold working in thread rolling machines
Bulk deformation process used to form threads on
cylindrical parts by rolling them between two dies
with greater strength, because of the cold working
involved.
Important process for mass producing bolts and
screws
Advantages over thread cutting (machining):

Higher production rates

Stronger threads and better fatigue resistance
Better fatigue resistance due to compressive
stresses introduced by rolling

Thread Rolling
(1) Start of cycle, and (2) end of cycle

Ring Rolling
In this process, a small-diameter, thick ring is expanded
into a large diameter, thinner ring by placing the ring
between two rolls.
Because of volume constancy, the reduction in thickness is
accomplished for by an increase in the diameter of the
ring.
This process can be carried out at room temperature ( cold
working) or at elevated temperature (hot working),
depending on the size and strength of the product.
Hot working process for large rings and cold working
process for smaller rings.

Ring Rolling
The advantages of ring rolling, compared with other
processes for making the same part are :
1. Shorter production runs
2. Material saving
3. Close dimensional tolerances
4. Strengthening through cold working.
Products: : typical parts made by ring rolling
include large rings for rockets and turbines, steel
tires for railroad, and rings for pipes

Ring Rolling
(1) start, and (2) completion of process

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Piercing Roll
An important hot working process, this process is used to
make long, thick-walled seamless tubing.
Production of Seamless (not welded) thick-wall tubes.
This process is based on the principle that when a round bar is
subjected to a radial compressive forces
Is carried out by an arrangement of rotating rolls. The axes of
the rolls are skewed in order to pull the round bar through the
rolls by longitudinal force of their rotary action.
A mandrel assists the operation by expanding the hole and
sizing the inside diameter of the tube.
Because of the sever deformation that the metal undergoes in
this process, it is important that the stock be of high quality
and defect free.

Piercing Roll

Defects in Rolled parts

Successful rolling practice requires balancing many factors:
1. Material properties
2. Process variables
3. Lubrications
Material Parameters
ductility
coefficient of friction
strength, modulus
Process Parameters
roller speed
power

Defects in Rolled parts

There may be defects on the surfaces of the rolled plates and
sheets, or there may be structural defects within the material.
A. Structural defects are those that
distort or affect the integrity of the
rolled product.
Some typical defects are
1. Wavy edges are caused by bending of
the rolls, whereby the edges of the
strip become thinner than at the
center, because the edges elongate
more than the center [Due to the
deflection of the rolls at the center]

Defects in Rolled parts

2. Ziper cracks in the center of the strip and edge cracks: are
usually caused by low material ductility and barreling
edges.

Defects in Rolled parts

3. Alligatoring: is a complex phenomena that results from
inhomogeneous deformation of the material during
rolling ( disturbing equilibrium of the residual stresses)

Defects in Rolled parts

B. Surface defect may result from rust, dirty, impurities,
and other causes related to prior treatment and working
of the material.
In hot rolling of bloom, billets, and slabs, the surface is
usually preconditioned by various means, such as by
scarfing (using a torch).

Defects in Rolled parts

Wavy edge: are caused by bending of
the rolls, whereby the edge of the strip
become thinner than at center.

Zipper crack in the center of strip

Edge cracks

Alligatoring: results from

inhomogeneous deformation
(residual stresses)

Other Characteristics
Residual Stresses can develop in rolled sheets and plates
because of inhomogeneous plastic deformation of the
material in the roll gap
The deformation behavior of inclusion imbedded in the
material matrix is one of the basic problem in the
mechanics of inhomogeneous deformation
Small-diameter rolls or small thickness reductions per pass tend
to deform the metal plastically more at its surfaces than in the
bulk ,this type of deformation generates compressive residual
stresses on the surface and tensile stresses in the bulk.
Large-diameter rolls or high reductions per pass tend to deform
the bulk more than the surfaces, because of frictional constraint
at the surface along the arc of contact. This situation generates
residual stresses that are opposite to those of the previous case

Residual Stresses in Rolling

Figure 13.9 (a) Residual stresses developed in rolling with small rolls or at
small reductions in thickness per pass. (b) Residual stresses developed in
rolling with large rolls or at high reductions per pass. Note the reversal of the
residual stress patterns.

Defects in Rolled parts

1. In hot rolling, if the temperature of the workpiece is not
uniform the flow of the material will occur more in the
warmer parts and less in the cooler. If the temperature
difference is great enough cracking and tearing can occur.
2. Fins may be formed on the rolled bars if the metal forces
itself into the clearance between the rolls
3. When the metal is hot rolled, its surface will be not smooth.
4. Cracks may form during cold rolling if the metal becomes too
much work-hardened during the process.

Roll Flat Terminology

ho = initial thickness of the strip, hf= final thickness, Vr= roll surfcae speed,
Vf= the final speed of the strip (increses as the strip moves through the roll
gap), L = contact length with the roll

Roll Flat Terminology

The basic flat rolling is shown in the
figure.
A strip of a thickness ho enters the
roll gap and is reduced to a
thickness of hf by the powered
rotating rolls at a surface speed Vr of
the roll.
To keep the volume rate of metal
flow constant, the velocity of the
strip must increase as it moves
Constant material volume:
through the roll gap.
ho wo Lo = hf wf Lf
At the exit of the roll gap, the
ho wo vo = hf wf vf (flow rate)
velocity of the strip is Vf.

Roll Flat Terminology

Since Vr is constant along the roll gap, but
the strip velocity increases as it passes
through the roll gap, sliding occurs between
the roll and the strip.
At one point along the arc of contact, the
two velocity are the same, this point is
called neutral point or No-slip point.
To the left of this point, the roll moves faster
than the workpiece, and to the right, the
workpiece moves faster than the roll.
Because in rolling, the frictional force on the
left of the neutral point is greater than the
frictional force on the right
This difference results in a net frictional
force to the right, making the rolling
operation possible by pulling the strip into
the roll gap

Flat Rolling --- Friction

Forces
The rolling process is governed by the
frictional force between the rollers and the
workpiece. The frictional force at the entrance
side is higher than that at the exit side. This
allows the roller to pull the workpiece towards
the exit end.

Friction
The figure illustrate the pressure
distribution in the roll gap.
The neutral point shifts toward the
exist as the friction force decreases.
The reason is that when friction
approaches zero, which means that
there is no friction between the roll
and strip, so the rolls begin to slip ( no
need to pressure to overcome the
frictional forces) and the relative
velocity between the roll and the strip
is all in one direction

Flat Rolling Terminology

Friction at the entrance controls the maximum possible draft.

d max R
2

dmax = Maximum draft (mm)

Coefficient of friction
R = Roll radius (mm)

However, depends on lubrication, work-piece and roller

materials and temperature.

0.1 for coldworking

0.2 for warmworking
0.3 for hotworking
When sticking occurs, can be as high as 0.7

Rolling Analysis
vr
q R
p

vo

ho

vf
L

Assumptions:
Infinite sheet

vr

hf

R = roller radius
p = roll pressure
L = contact length
q = contact angle
vr = roll speed

ho = initial plate thickness

hf = final plate thickness
vo = plate entry speed
Vf = plate exit speed

Uniform, perfectly rigid rollers

Constant material volume:
ho wo Lo = hf wf Lf

where,
Lo = initial plate length
ho wo vo = hf wf vf (flow rate)
Lf = final plate length
w = plate width
The rolls contact the workpiece along an arc defined by

A change in speed between the roller and workpiece occur along this arc

Friction
vo<vl<vf

Maximum draft, which is

the thickness reduction, is
given as 2R.
Coefficient of friction
typically:
cold working 0.1
warm working 0.2
hot working 0.4

Flat Rolling --- Friction

Forces
Increasing friction increasing forces and
power requirements
Max. draft is defined as the difference between
the initial and final strip thickness or (h0-hf ) . It
is a function of the coefficient of friction () and
the roll radius (R)

(h0 hf ) R
2

The higher the friction and the larger the roll

radius, the higher the amount of draft.

Roll Force and Torque

Roll force a force perpendicular to the arc of
contact
The roll force in flat rolling:

F LwYavg

T Fa

a= L/2
L = roll-strip contact length = .
w = the width of the strip (initial width)
Yavg = the average true stress of the strip in the roll
gap

Rolling Analysis
t
ln o
tf

True strain

Apply average flow stress

Strain rate

Vr ho
ln
L hf

K n
Yf
1 n

Approximate roll force:

Fr

F w pdL Y f wL

where

L Rho h f

Torque estimated by T/roller = ~ 0.5 F L

=
= 0.5 2 =

Power = P = Tw = 2 N F L (for two rollers)

R (hohf)/2

Power Requirement
Power per roll (in S.I. units): _____in KW

2FLN
Power
60,000kW
F = roll force (N), L in meters
Power per roll (in English units)__________ in hp:

2FLN
Power
33,000hp

F = roll force (lb.)

L = the roll-strip contact length (ft.)
N = the rpm of the roll

True strain and average flow

stress
True strain :

1 = Ln(h1/ho)

The average flow stress:

( K . 1n )/ (n + 1)
1

The last equation can be used in both cases, i.e. when friction is
significant or not.

Where 1 : true strain in the roll gab, n: strain hardening exponent

Roll Force

Influenced by:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Roll radius
Strip width
Draft
Coefficient of friction
The strength of the material

Example --- Calculation of Roll Force and

Power
An annealed copper strip, 9 in. wide and 1.00 in.
thick, is rolled to a thickness of 0.80 in. in one
pass. The roll radius is 12 in., and the rolls rotate
at 100 rpm. Calculate the roll force and the
power required in this operation.

Example --- Calculation of Roll Force and

Power
Force F LwYavg
The roll strip contact length (L):

L R(h0 h f ) 12(1.00 0.80) 1.55in.

Determination of average true stress (Yavg)
The absolute value of the true strain:

l
1.00

ln ln
0.223
0.80
l0

True Stress (psi X 1033 )

True Stress-True Strain Curves

Figure 2.6 True stress-true
strain curves in tension at
room temperature for
various metals. The
curves start at a finite level
of stress: The elastic
regions have too steep a
slope to be shown in this
figure, and so each curve
starts at the yield stress, Y,
of the material.

Example --- Calculation of Roll Force

and Power
The value of the true strain:
l
1.00

ln ln
0.223
0.80
l0

At a true strain of 0.223, the true stress is 40,000 psi

Thus, the average true stress (Yavg) is about 26,000
psi

Example --- Calculation of Roll Force and

Power
The roll force is:

F LwYavg (1.55)(9)(26,000) 363,000lb

The power for the two rolls is:

2FLN
2 (363,000)(1.55 / 12)(100)
Power

898hp
33,000hp
33,000

Example --- Calculation of Roll Force and

Power

A (22.86 cm) -wide 6061-O aluminum

strip is rolled from a thickness of (2.54
cm) to (2.032 cm). for a roll radius of
(30.48 cm) and roll rpm of 100, estimate
the total power required for this operation?

Typical Values for K and n at

Room Temperature
TABLE 2.3
Aluminum
1100O
2024T4
6061O
6061T6
7075O
Brass
7030, annealed
8515, cold-rolled
Cobalt-base alloy, heat-treated
Copper, annealed
Steel
Low-C annealed
4135 annealed
4135 cold-rolled
4340 annealed
304 stainless, annealed
410 stainless, annealed

K (MPa)

180
690
205
410
400

0.20
0.16
0.20
0.05
0.17

900
580
2070
315

0.49
0.34
0.50
0.54

530
1015
1100
640
1275
960

0.26
0.17
0.14
0.15
0.45
0.10

102