Me6016 Advanced I.C Engines - Unit - 1

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UNITI SPARKIGNITIONENGINES
UNITI SPARKIGNITIONENGINES
UNITI
Mixture requirements Fuel injection systems
Mono point, Multipoint & Direct injection

Stages of combustion Normal and Abnormal
combustion Knock Factors affecting knock
C b i chambers.
Combustion
h b
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ME6016ADVANCEDI.CENGINES
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FUELSUPPLYSYSTEMS
The fuel passes through a number of stages before reaching the combustion
chamber.
It includes the filtration and atomization of fuel into fine particles.
It is necessary to atomize the fuel before entering into the combustion
chamber so that complete combustion of fuel can take place.
FuelSupplySystemOfSIEngine
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In petrol engine the combustible mixture of fuel is prepared outside the
combustion chamber.
Proper airfuel ratio is maintained with the help of a device known as
carburetor and this mixture is inducted into the combustion chamber.
The air fuel ratio depends upon the various conditions. The engine needs a
richer mixture while starting and leaner mixture at normal running conditions.
Such conditions must be fulfilled before entering the combustion chamber.
The fuel from the tank is delivered to the float chamber attached to the
p of fuel p
pump.
p
carburetor with the help
The fuel pump maintains the constant pressure. In carburetor fuel is mixed
with air in required proportion.
After that the mixture of fuel and air is inducted into the combustion chamber.
AirfuelRequirementinSIEngines
Air
Thesparkignitionautomobileenginesrunonamixtureofgasolineandair.
g
p
p
g
j
Theamountofmixturetheenginecantakeindependsuponfollowingmajor
factors:
(i)Enginedisplacement.
(ii)Maximumrevolutionperminute(rpm)ofengine.
(iii)Carburetorairflowcapacity.
(iv)Volumetricefficiencyofengine.
There is a direct relationship between an enginessairflowandit
Thereisadirectrelationshipbetweenanengine
air flow and itssfuel
fuel
requirement.Thisrelationshipiscalledtheairfuelratio.
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AirfuelRatios
Air
The airfuel ratio is the proportions by weight of air and gasoline mixed
by the carburetor as required for combustion by the engine. This ratio is
extremely important for an engine because there are limits to how rich
(with more fuel) or how lean (with less fuel) it can be, and still remain
fully combustible for efficient firing. The mixtures with which the engine
can operate range from 8:1 to 18.5:1 i.e. from 8 kg of air/kg of fuel to
18.5 kg of air/kg of fuel. Richer or leaner airfuel ratio limit causes the
engine to misfire,
misfire or simply refuse to run at all.
all
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Stoichiometric Air
AirFuelRatio
The ideal mixture or ratio at which all the fuels blend with all of the oxygen in
the air and be completely burned is called the stoichiometric ratio, a

chemically perfect combination. In theory, an air fuel ratio of about 14.7:1 i.e.
14.7 kg of air/kg of gasoline produce this ratio, but the exact ratio at which
perfect mixture and complete combustion take place depends on the
molecular structure of gasoline, which can vary somewhat.
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EngineAirfuelRatios
EngineAir
An automobile SI engine, as indicated above, works with the airfuel mixture
ranging from 8:1 to 18.5:1. But the ideal ratio would be one that provides
both the maximum power and the best economy,
economy while producing the least
emissions. But such a ratio does not exist because the fuel requirements of an
engine vary widely depending upon temperature, load, and speed conditions.
The best fuel economy is obtained with a 15:1 to 16:1 ratio, while maximum
power output is achieved with a 12.5:1 to 13.5:1 ratio. A rich mixture in the
order of 11:1 is required for idle heavy load, and highspeed conditions. A lean
mixture is required for normal cruising and light load conditions. Figure 9.36
represents the characteristic curves showing the effect of mixture ratio on
efficiency and fuel consumption.
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Effectofair
Effectofairfuelratioonefficiencyandfuelconsumption
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Practicallyy for complete

p
combustion, through
g mixingg of the fuel in excess air ((to a limited
extent above that of the ideal condition) is needed. Lean mixtures are used to obtain best
economy through minimum fuel consumption whereas rich mixtures used to suppress
combustion knock and to obtain maximum power from the engine. However, improper
distribution of mixture to each cylinder and imperfect/incomplete vaporization of fuel in air
necessitates the use of rich mixture to obtain maximum power output. A rich mixture is also
required to overcome the effect of dilution of incoming mixture due to entrapped exhaust
gases in the cylinder and of air leakage because of the high vacuum in the manifold, under
idling or noload condition. Maximum power is desired at full load while best economy is
expected at part throttle conditions. Thus required air fuel ratios result from maximum
economy to maximum power. The carburettor must be able to vary the airfuel ratio quickly
to provide the best possible mixture for the engines requirements at a given moment.
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The best airfuel ratio for one engine

g
mayy not be the best ratio for another,, even
when the two engines are of the same size and design. To accurately determine the
best mixture, the engine should be run on a dynamometer to measure speed, load
and power requirements for all types of driving conditions.
With a slightly rich mixture, the combustion flame travels faster and conversely with
a slightly weak mixture, the flame travel becomes slower. If a very rich mixture is
used then some neat p
petrol enters cylinder,
y
, washes awayy lubricant from cylinder
y
walls and gets past piston to contaminate engine oil. A very sooty deposit occurs in
the combustion chamber. On the other hand, if an engine runs on an excessively
weak mixture, then overheating particularly of such parts as valves, pistons and
spark plugs occurs. This causes detonation and preignition together or separately.
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Theapproximateproportionsofairtopetrol(byweight)suitable
forthedifferentoperatingconditionsareindicatedbelow:
Starting9:1
Starting 9 :1
Idling12:1
Acceleration12:1
Economy16:1
Fullpower12:1
Itmakesnodifferenceifanengineiscarburetedorfuelinjected,theengine
It makes no difference if an engine is carbureted or fuel injected the engine
stillneedsthesameairfuelmixtureratios.
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MixtureRequirementsofSIEngine
The mixture corresponding to maximum

output on the curve is called best power A/F
mixture,
mi ture which
hich is richer than the
stoichiometric mixture.
The mixture corresponding to maximum

BSFC on the curve is called best economy
mixture, which is leaner than the
stoichiometric mixture.
The actual A/F ratio requirement for an

automative carburetor falls in 3 ranges:
Idling (rich)
Cruising (lean)
High Power (rich)
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MixtureRequirementsatDifferentEngineConditions
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MixtureRequirementsatDifferentEngineConditions(Contd.)
IdlingRange(12)
During idling, engine operates at no load and closed throttle.
The engine requires rich mixture for starting at idling.
Rich mixture is required to compensate for the charge dilution due to exhaust gases from the
combustion chamber.
Also, the amount of fresh charge admitted is less due to smaller throttle opening.
Exhaust gas dilution prevents efficient combustion by reducing the contact between the fuel and
air particles.
Rich mixture improves the contact of fuel and air by providing efficient combustion at idling
conditions.
As the throttle is opened further, the exhaust gas dilution reduces and the mixture requirement
shifts to the leaner side.
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CruisingRange(23)
Focus is on fuel economy.
No exhaust gas dilution.
Carburetor has to give best economy mixture i.e.. Lean mixture.
HighPowerRange(34)
As high power is required, additional fuel has to be supplied to achieve rich

mixture
i t
i this
in
thi range.
Rich mixture also prevents overheating by reducing the flame temperature and
cylinder temperature.
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An SI engine works with the Air-fuel mixture ranging from 8:1 to 18.5:1. But the
Ideal ratio would be one that provides both maximum power and best economy,
economy while
producing the least emissions.
But such a ratio does not exist because fuel requirements of an engine vary widely
depending upon temperature, load, and speed conditions .
For complete combustion , thorough mixing of fuel in excess air is needed.
Lean mixtures are needed for best economy and rich mixtures are needed to suppress
combustion
b ti knock.
k k
A rich mixture is required for High load and high speed and idling conditions.
Best economy is expected at part throttle.
A carburettor should supply the mixture ratio according to the engine requirements
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Type Of Injection System on the basis of Injector

Position
Singlepointorthrottle
body
bodyinjection
ject o
Portormultipointfuel
injection
Sequentialfuel
injection
Directinjection
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Singlepointorthrottlebodyinjection
Single
The earliest and simplest type of fuel injection, single
singlepoint
point simply replaces
the carburetor with one or two fuelinjector nozzles in the throttle body,
which is the throat of the engines air intake manifold. For some automakers,
singlepoint injection was a stepping stone to the more complex multipoint
system. Though not as precise as the systems that have followed, TBI meters
fuel better than a carburetor and is less expensive and easier to service.
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Portormulti
Portormultipoint fuelinjection
Multipoint fuel injection devotes a separate injector nozzle to each cylinder, right
outside its intake port, which is why the system is sometimes called port injection.
Shooting the fuel vapor this close to the intake port almost ensures that it will be
drawn completely into the cylinder. The main advantage is that MPFI meters fuel
more precisely than do TBI designs, better achieving the desired air/fuel ratio and
improving all related aspects. Also, it virtually eliminates the possibility that fuel
will condense or collect in the intake manifold. With TBI and carburetors, the
intake manifold must be designed to conduct the engines heat, a measure to
vaporize
i liquid
li id fuel.
f l This
Thi is
i unnecessary on engines
i
equipped
i
d with
i h MPFI,
MPFI so the
h
intake manifold can be formed from lighterweight material, even plastic.
Incremental fuel economy improvements result. Also, where conventional metal
intake manifolds must be located atop the engine to conduct heat, those used in
MPFI can be placed more creatively, granting engineers design flexibility.
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Sequentialfuelinjection
Sequentialfuelinjection,alsocalledsequentialportfuelinjection(SPFI)or
Sequential fuel injection, also called sequential port fuel injection (SPFI) or
timedinjection,isatypeofmultiportinjection.ThoughbasicMPFIemploys
multipleinjectors,theyallspraytheirfuelatthesametimeoringroups.Asa
result,thefuelmayhangaroundaportforaslongas150millisecondswhen
theengineisidling.Thismaynotseemlikemuch,butitsenoughofa
shortcomingthatengineersaddressedit:Sequentialfuelinjectiontriggers
each injector nozzle independently Timed like spark plugs they spray the fuel
eachinjectornozzleindependently.Timedlikesparkplugs,theyspraythefuel
immediatelybeforeorastheirintakevalveopens.Itseemsaminorstep,but
efficiencyandemissionsimprovementscomeinverysmalldoses.
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Directinjection
Direct injection takes the fuel injection concept about as far as it can go, injecting
fuel directly into the combustion chambers, past the valves. More common in
diesel engines,
engines direct injection is starting to pop up in gasoline engine designs,
designs
sometimes called DIG for direct injection gasoline. Again, fuel metering is even
more precise than in the other injection schemes, and the direct injection gives
engineers yet another variable to influence precisely how combustion occurs in the
cylinders. The science of engine design scrutinizes how the fuel/air mixture swirls
around in the cylinders and how the explosion travels from the ignition point.
Thi
Things
such
h as the
th shape
h
off cylinders
li d
and
d pistons;
it
portt and
d sparkk plug
l locations;
l ti
timing, duration and intensity of the spark; and number of spark plugs per cylinder
(more than one is possible) all affect how evenly and completely fuel combusts in a
gasoline engine. Direct injection is another tool in that discipline, one that can be
used in lowemissions leanburn engines.
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Single Point Fuel Injection (Throttle Body Injection - TBI)

Injector
j
located inside throttle body,
y,
sits on top of inlet manifold.

Injector sprays fuel from above
throttle valve.
ECU controls injector opening.
Air in
Fuel in
Injector
Throttle body
Throttle valve
Inlet manifold
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Throttle Body Fuel Injection (TBI)
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Throttle Body Fuel Injection (TBI)

TBI fuel injection is a type of fuel injection system where the fuel is injected
into the throttle body. The throttle body fuel injection system, or TBI as
referred to by GM or CFI by Ford, works using a single or pair of injectors. The
throttle looks like a carburetor without the fuel bowl, the metering jets or the
float.
This type of fuel injection system consists of only two major castings the fuel
b d and
body
d the
th throttle
th ttl body.
b d The
Th fuel
f l body
b d supplies
li the
th fuel
f l while
hil the
th throttle
th ttl
body has a valve that controls the flow of air. On the throttle, there are ports
that gather signals to relay to the manifold absolute pressure sensor and to
the emission control system.
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TBIFuelInjectionAdvantages
Itislessexpensivethanusingothertypesoffuelinjectionsystems.
Itiseasiertoclean,maintainandservicebecausetherearefewerparts.
Itischeapertomanufacturethanaportinjectionsystemandsimplerto
diagnose.Italsodoesnothavethesamelevelofinjectorbalanceproblems
thataportinjectionsystemmighthavewhentheinjectorsareclogged.
Itgreatlyimprovesthefuelmeteringcomparedtoacarburetor.
YoudonothavetomakeanychangestotheTBIintakemanifold.Youalsodo
nothavetochangethethrottlelinkage.Instead,usetheexistinglinkage,air
th
t h
th th ttl li k
I t d
th
i ti li k
i
cleanersandcarbs toinstallthesystem.
Itisalsocapableofloggingdataandcanbeprogrammedforignitionandfuel.
TheTBIsystemisthatitlearnsandunderstandsyourhabitswhendrivingsoit
caneasilymapoutyouractionsandtheperformanceoftheengine.
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TBIFuelInjectionDisadvantages
ItisalmostthesameasaTBIcarburetorwhereinthefuelisnotequally
distributedtoallthecylinders.Thismeansthattheair/fuelmixtureinjected
differsforeachcylinder.
differs for each cylinder
Itcancoolthemanifoldmuchfastercausingthefueltopuddleandcondense
inthemanifold.Thepossibilityofcondensationismuchhighersincethefuel
travelslongerfromthethrottlebodytothecombustionchamber.
Sincethesystemneedstobemountedontopofthecombustionchamber,
y
you'repreventedfrommodifyingthemanifolddesigntoimproveyourcar's
p
y g
g
p
y
performance.
Itisawetsystemandthemixtureoffuelisstillbasedpercylinder.
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Multipoint or port Fuel Injection

Injector located in each branch
of inlet manifold, below throttle
valve.
Injectors spray fuel directly into
each port.
ECU controls
injectors.
opening
Air in
Throttle valve
Injector
s x 4,
x6, x8
etc.
Fuel in
of
Inlet manifold
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Multiport Fuel Injection
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Multiport Fuel Injection
Multiport Fuel Injection (Contd.)

MPFi is a fuel injection technique used in gasoline engines. Multi port fuel injection injects fuel into
the intake ports of each cylinder's intake valve, rather than at a central point within an intake
manifold like in spark plugs. It can be sequential, in which injection is timed to coincide with each
cylinder's intake stroke.
A separate injector supplies the correct quantity of fuel to each of the engine cylinders by a fuelrail
according to the firing order or in a particular sequence. This system provides further precision by
varying the fuel quantity and injection timing by governing the each injector separately and thereby
improving the performance and controlling the emissions.
The return valve returns fuel in case the fuel is oversupplied. Also the pressure regulator regulates the
pressure of the intake fuel. Fuel filter contains small sized membranes which filters and absorbs
the undesirable matters of size 30 to 40 microns.
The fuel and air are mixed in intake manifold and each manifold is controlled by an ECU(Electronic
Control Unit). fuel pressure runs between 3 to 5 bars.
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MAINCOMPONENTSOFMPFISYSTEM
Thissystemhasfourmajorcomponentstheyare:
a) Airintakesystem
i.
ii.
Throttlebody
h
l b d
Idleaircontrolvalve
b) Fueldeliverysystem
i.
ii.
iii.
c))
Fuelpump
Pressureregulatorsystem
Injector
El t i
Electroniccontrolsystem
t l t
i.
ii.
EngineControlModule(ECM)
OnBoarddiagnosticsystem
d) Emissioncontrolsystem
AIRINTAKESYSTEM
Theair(correspondingtothethrottlevalveopening)isfilteredbytheair
cleaner,passesthroughthethrottlebody,andisdistributedbytheintake
manifoldandfinallydrawnintoeachcombustionchamber,openingand
closingofthrottlevalveiscontrolledbyECUaccordingtodemand&
necessitywithpropercalculationwithinputsystem
1. ThrottleBody Throttlevalve,whichisinterlockedwiththeaccelerator
pedalandcontrolstheamountoftheintakeair . TPsensorwhich
detects the throttle valve opening and sends a signal to ECM
detectsthethrottlevalveopeningandsendsasignaltoECM
2. IdleAirControlValve ThelAC valvecontrolsopeningofthebypassair
passage.Theairbypassesthethrottlevalvethroughbypasspassage
andisfinallydrawnintotheintakemanifold.
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FUELDELIVERYSYSTEM
FUEL
DELIVERYSYSTEM
The fuel in the fuel tank is pumped up by the fuel pump, filtered by fuel filter and fed
under pressure to each injector through the delivery 'pipe. The fuel is injected into
the
the
th intake
i t k portt off the
th cylinder
li d head
h d when
h
th injector
i j t opens according
di to
t the
th
injection signal form ECM.
1. Fuel Pump It is an electric fuel pump and its operation is controlled by ECM. The
fuel is drawn through the inlet port with high pressure, It is discharged through
the outlet port, the fuel pump also has a check valve to keep some pressure in the
fuel feed line even when the fuel pump is stopped.
2. Pressure Regulator SystemThe fuel pressure regulator is diaphragm operated
relief valve consisting of diaphragm,
diaphragm spring and valve.
valve It keeps the fuel pressure
applied to the injector 2.9Kglcm higher than intake manifold at all times
3. InjectorEach cylinder has one injector, which is installed between the intake
manifold delivery pipes. It is an electromagnetic type injection nozzle, which
injects fuel into the intake port of the cylinder head according to the signal from
ECM.
ELECTRONICCONTROLSYSTEM
Theelectroniccontrolsystemconsistofvarioussensorswhichdetectthe
stateofengineanddrivingconditions,ECMwhichcontrolsvariousdevices
f
dd
d
h h
l
d
accordingtothesignalsfromthesensorsandVariouscontrolleddevices.
Thesystemsare
FuelInjectionControlSystem
IdleSpeedControlSystem
FuelPumpControlSystem
Fuel Pump Control System
IgnitionControlSystem
RadiatorFanControlSystem
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ADVANTAGESOFMULTIPOINTFUELINJECTIONSYSTEM
Moreuniformairfuelmixturewillbesuppliedtoeachcylinder,hencethe
differenceinpowerdevelopedineachcylinderisminimum.
ThevibrationsproducedinMPFIenginesisveryless,duetothislifeofthe
enginecomponentisincreased.
Noneedtocranktheenginetwiceorthriceincaseofcoldstartingashappen
inthecarburetorsystem.
Immediateresponse,incaseofsuddenaccelerationanddeceleration.
Themileageofthevehicleisimproved.
Moreaccurateamountofairfuelmixturewillbesuppliedintheseinjection
system.Asaresultcompletecombustionwilltakeplace.Thisleadstoeffective
utilizationoffuelsuppliedandhencelowemissionlevel.
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OTHERBENEFITSOFMULTIPOINTFUELINJECTIONSYSTEM
Smoothoperationsanddrivability
Smooth operations and drivability
Reliability
Competenttoaccommodatealternativefuels
Easyenginetuning
Diagnosticcapability
Initialandmaintenancecost
Initial and maintenance cost
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DISADVANTAGESOFMULTIPOINTFUELINJECTION
SYSTEM
HeightoftheCarisHigh.
g
g
ManifoldHeatcontrolSystemORValveisRequired.
IntakeManifoldcontrolonlyairnotFuel.
TypesofMultipointfuelinjectionsystem
MPFI
system
Port
injection
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Throttle
Body
injection
D-MPFI
System
L-MPFI
System
40
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PORTFUELINJECTION
Theadvantagesofportfuel
The advantages of port fuelinjection
injectiondesignalsoarerelatedtocharacteristics
design also are related to characteristics
ofintakemanifolds:
Fueldistributionisequaltoallcylindersbecauseeachcylinderhasitsown
injector.
Thefuelisinjectedalmostdirectlyintothecombustionchamber,sothereisno
chanceforittocondenseonthewallsofacoldintakemanifold.
BecausethemanifolddoesnothavetocarryfueltoproperlypositionaTBIunit,it
B
th
if ld d
th
t
f lt
l
iti
TBI it it
canbeshapedandsizedtotunetheintakeairflowtoachievespecificengine
performancecharacteristics.
PORTFUELINJECTION
Theinjectorsreceivefuelandaresupportedbythefuelrail.
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PORTFUELINJECTION
Crosssectionofatypicalportfuelinjectionnozzleassembly.Theseinjectorsareservicedasanassemblyonly;no
partreplacementorserviceispossibleexceptforreplacementofexternalOringseals.
PORTFUELINJECTION
FIGUREPortfuelinjectorssprayatomizedfuelintotheintakemanifoldabout3inches(75mm)
fromtheintakevalve.
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PORTFUELINJECTION
Portsystemshaveaninjectorforeachcylinder,buttheydonotallfirethe
Port systems have an injector for each cylinder, but they do not all fire the
injectorsinthesameway.
Domesticsystemsuseoneofthreewaystotriggertheinjectors:
Groupeddoublefire
Simultaneousdoublefire
Sequential
PORTFUELINJECTION
FIGUREAportfuelinjectedenginethatisequippedwithlong,tunedintakemanifoldrunners.
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DIRECTFUELINJECTION
Severalvehiclemanufacturerssuchas
Mitsubishi,Toyota/Lexus,and
GeneralMotorsareusinggasoline
directinjection(GDI)systems,
whichGeneralMotorsreferstoasa
SparkIgnitionDirectInjection
(SIDI)system.
FIGUREAgasolinedirectinjection
system.
DIRECTFUELINJECTION
DirectInjectionFuelDeliverySystem
DirectInjectionFuelInjectors
FIGUREAtypicaldirectinjectionsystem
usestwopumpsonelowpressureelectric
pumpinthefueltankandtheotherahigh
pressurepumpdrivenbythecamshaft.
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DIRECTFUELINJECTION
FIGUREAtypicalcamshaftdrivenhigh
pressurepumpusedtoincreasefuel
pressureto2,000PSIorhigher.
DIRECTFUELINJECTION
FIGUREAgasolinedirectinjection(GDI)assemblyshowingthehighpressurepumpplusthefuelrailandinjectorswhich
injectfueldirectlyintothecombustionchamber.
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LMPFIGasolineInjectionSystem
LMPFI system stands for
IntelligentMulti Point
Fuel Injection System
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DMPFIGasolineInjectionSystem
DMPFIsystemstands
D MPFIsystemstands
forDirectMultiPoint
FuelInjectionSystem
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DMPFIGasolineInjectionSystem
TheD
The DMPFI
MPFIsystemisthemanifoldfuelinjectionsystem.Inthistype,the
system is the manifold fuel injection system . In this type , the
vacuumintheintakemanifoldisfirstsensed.Inadditionthevolumeofairis
sensedbyitsdensity.Asairentersintotheintakemanifold,themanifold
pressuresensordetectstheintakemanifoldvacuumandsendsthe
informationtotheECU.Thespeedsensoralsosendstheinformationabout
therpmoftheenginetotheECU.TheECUinturnsendscommandtothe
injector to regulate the amount of gasoline supply for injection When the
injectortoregulatetheamountofgasolinesupplyforinjection.Whenthe
injectorssprayfuelintheintakemanifoldthegasolinemixeswiththeairand
themixtureentersthecylinder.
ELECTRONICFUELINJECTION
The process of supplying airfuel mixture to the engine cylinder(s), whereby a
carburetor is replaced
p
byy fuel injector(s)
j
( ) and fuel is metered p
proportionally
p
y to air
flow with the help of microprocessor is called electronic fuel injection (EFI). In fuel
injection system the fuel speed at the point of delivery is greater than the air
speed. Unlike a carburetor, however, pressure, and not engine vacuum is used to
feed fuel into the engine. An EFI system functions by the rapid and accurate
assessment of data received by various sensors and by responding automatically to
the slightest pedal movement. Microprocessor (ECU) controlled fuel injector(s)
supply the engine with the optimum amount of fuel under all driving conditions.
Information concerning, manifold air pressure, engine speed, crankshaft angle,
water temperature etc. are collected by sensors and relayed to ECU. By using this
data, ECU calculates the required opening time of fuel injectors and sends the
pulse.
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AdvantagesofElectronicFuelInjection
Improved atomization (fuel is forced into intake manifold under pressure
which helps break fuel droplets into a fine mist); smoother idle (lean fuel
mixture can be used without rough idle because of better fuel distribution and
low speed atomization); improved fuel economy (high efficiency because of
more precise fuel metering, atomization and distribution; lower emissions
(more accurate and efficient airfuel mixture reduces exhaust pollution);
better fuel distribution; better cold weather drivability (injection provides
better control of mixture enrichment than a carburetor choke); increased
engine power (precise metering of fuel to each cylinder and increased air flow
can result in more power); elimination of carburetor plate icing.
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ClassificationofEFI
Withrespecttonumberofinjectionpoint
SinglePointorThrottleBodyInjection(SPIorTBI)
MultipointInjection(MPFI)
Withrespecttoplaceofinjection
DirectInjection
i
j i
IndirectInjection
Withrespecttoinjectioncontrol
ElectronicFuelInjection
HydraulicFuelInjection
MechanicalFuelInjection
WithrespecttoInjectionTiming
IntermittentInjection
TimedInjection
ContinuesInjection
InjectorOpeningRelationship
SimultaneousInjection
Sequentialinjection
GroupInjection
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CombustioninSIengines
Combustion
inSIengines
In a conventional sparkignition engine a homogeneous mixture of fuel and air is supplied. The combustion in a
gaseous fuelair mixture ignited by a spark is characterized by a rapid development of a flame that starts from
the point of ignition and spreads outwards in a continuous manner.
When
Wh the
th flame
fl
spread
d continues
ti
to
t the
th end
d off the
th combustion
b ti chamber
h b without
ith t any abrupt
b t change
h
in
i its
it speed
d
and shape, combustion is called normal.
The combustion of fuelair mixture depends on chain reactions. First only a few highly active constituents
surrounding the ignition point cause reactions. These in tum generate additional active constituents to cause
reactions. Soon a point is reached where the chain breaking reactions dominate the chain forming reactions. In
the flame front, the chain forming reactions can only reach a certain distance into a relatively cool, unburned
charge before they are broken and thus a definite flame boundary is established. However, if the unburned gases
become hot enough to sustain chain reactions, the remaining gas will suddenly autoignite.
When the unburned mixture ahead of the flame ignites and bums before the flame reaches it, the
phenomenon is called autoignition. When there is a sudden increase in the reaction rate, accompanied by a
sudden
dd pressure rise
i forming
f
i pressure waves, the
th phenomenon
h
i called
is
ll d detonation
d t
ti which
hi h causes engine
i knock.
k k
When combustion is initiated by a spark, it is called controlled combustion and when combustion is initiated by
a hot spot, it is called uncontrolled combustion. Under normal combustion conditions, the combustion is
controlled and this is a designer's objective. Uncontrolled combustion is associated with preignition and
runningon.
Autoignition and detonation come under the category of abnormal combustion. In this case the fuelair mixture
ignites spontaneously without an ignition source.
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CombustioninSIengines
Towards the end of the compression stroke the cylinder contains more or less a
homogeneous
h
mixture off vaporized fuel,
f l air and residuall gases. A single
l intense and
high temperature spark is produced between the spark plug electrodes and as it
passes from one electrode to the other it leaves a thin thread of flame.
Combustion spreads to the envelope of the mixture containing the thread at a rate
depending primarily on the temperature of the flame front and secondarily on the
temperature and density of the surrounding envelope.
Thus a small hollow nucleus of flame at first grows up gradually and as the flame
front expands with steadily increasing speed it travels across chamber until finally
the whole of the mixture is engulfed.
Depending on the degree of turbulence in the cylinder, the flame front wrinkles, thus
presenting a greater surface area from which heat is radiated; hence the flame speed
is increased enormously, and this speeds up the combustion process.
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TheoreticalCombustioninSIengines
In
Inanidealengine,compressionandexpansiontake.placeduring180
an ideal engine compression and expansion take place during 180 ofcrankrotationandcombustiontakes
of crank rotation and combustion takes
placeinstantaneouslyatTDC.Duringcombustionthevolumeremainsconstantandthereisasuddenpressure
rise.However,inanactualsparkignitionengine,combustiondoesnotoccurinstantaneously.Itisinitiatedbya
sparkproducedbeforeTDCatadefinitetimeandtheflametakesafinitetimetotravelacrossthecombustion
chamber,burningthechargeandraisingthecylinderpressureasitproceeds.
Thethermalefficiencywillbehigherifthecombustionapproachestheconstantvolumeprocess,however,the
requirementofsmoothandquietengineoperationimposestherestriction.
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StagesofCombustioninSIEngine
I Stage:IgnitionLagorpreparationstage.
II Stage:Maincombustionstage
III Stage:Afterburning
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II Stage:IgnitionLagorpreparationstage
Stage:IgnitionLagorpreparationstage..
This stage is called ignition lag or preparation phase. It corresponds to the time for the
growth
h and
d development
d l
off a selfpropagating
lf
i nucleus
l
off the
h flame.
fl
The
Th starting
i point
i off
the first stage is the point A, where the spark is produced and the end of the stage is marked
with point B, where the first measurable pressure rise against the motoring curve is
observed.
The first stage is mainly a chemical process and depends on the nature of the fuel,
temperature and pressure of the fuelair mixture, the concentration of the residual from the
previous cycle present in the cylinder and the chemical reaction rate. It is also influenced by
local turbulence .
though
th
h the
th first
fi t stage
t
off combustion
b ti is
i called
ll d the
th ignition
i iti lag,
l as it is
i analogous
l
t the
to
th delay
d l
period of CI engine. The the nucleus of combustion appears instantaneously near the spark
plug electrodes; initially the flame spreads very slowly.
The fraction of the burned mixture is very little, so there is no appreciable pressure rise
against the motoring curve.
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II Stage:Maincombustion
II
Stage:Maincombustionstage
stage
This stage is called the main stage. It corresponds to the propagation of the flame
practically at a constant speed.

speed
The starting point of the second stage is taken as point B, where the first measurable
pressure rise against the motoring curve is observed. The end of the second stage is
marked with point C, where the maximum pressure is attained.
This stage is both a physical and a chemical process. The heat release depends on
the chemical composition and on the prevailing temperatures and pressures and the
degree of turbulence in the cylinder.
During this stage heat transfer to the cylinder wall is low, since the burning mixture
comes in contact with a small part of the cylinder wall. The rate of pressure rise is
almost proportional to the heat release because during this stage, the combustion
chamber volume does not change much.
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III Stage:After
III
Stage:Afterburning
burning
This stage is called afterburning. Although the point C indicates the completion of the flame
travel, it does not follow that the whole of the heat of the fuel has been liberated at this
point.
Even after the passage of the flame, during expansion some of the constituents reassociate
and liberate heat.
Thestartingpointofthisstageisusuallytakenattheinstantwhenmaximumpressureis
reachedontheindicatordiagram(PointC).TheendofthisstageismarkedatpointD.
Thispointcorrespondstothepointwhereequilibriumisreachedandafterwhichthe
p
p
p
q
productsofcombustionareassumedtobefrozen.
Duringthisstage,theflamespeeddecreasesandtherateofcombustionisslow.Sincethe
expansionstrokestartsbeforethisstagewiththepistonmovingawayfromTDC,therewill
bepressurefallduringthisstage.
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Flamespeedpattern
The flame travel patterndivides

the combustion processinto four
distinct phases:
1. Spark initiation.
2.Early flame development
3.Flame propagation
4 Flame termination.
4.Flame
termination
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FactorsAffectingtheFlamespeed.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Inletpressure&Tempconditions
p
g
Turbulenceprevailing
Enginespeed
Residualgascontent
Compressionratio
Sparktiming
Mixturestrength
Physicalandchemicalcharacteristicsoffuel
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Fractionofmassburned
wheremisthemassoftheburnedchargeandmu
isthemassoftheunburnedcharge.
The
mass fraction burned follows the same

pattern as the flame speed. Initially the flame
speed is low, so the 'mass fraction burned' is also
less.
As the flame speed during the second stage
increases the 'mass
increases,
mass fraction burned
burned' also
increases rapidly. The major portion of the mass
is burned during this stage.
During the last stage the flame speed reduces
again, so the remainder of the unburned charge
which is very little gets burned too.
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PressureandTemperatureVariationasaFunctionofCrankAngle
Pressure
andTemperatureVariationasaFunctionofCrankAngle
The flame reaches the cylinder wall farthest from
the spark plug about 15 after TDC. At this point

the maximum pressure Pmax is reached, but as
the combustion is not completed; it continues
around parts of the chamber periphery for
another few degrees of crank angle, so the
maximum temperature Tmax is obtained about
10 after the maximum pressure is reached.
Both
B th pressure and
d temperature
t
t
d
decrease
as the
th
cylinder volume continues to increase during the
remainder of the expansion stroke.
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EffectofSparkTimingonIndicatorDiagram
Effect
ofSparkTimingonIndicatorDiagram
If the spark timing is over advanced, the
combustion process starts while the piston moving
towards TDC, so the compression work (negative
work) increases.
If the spark timing is too much retarded, the
combustion process is progressively delayed, the
peak cylinder pressure occurs later in the
expansion stroke and its magnitude is reduced. The
expansion work (positive work) is also reduced.
The optimum spark timing is the timing for which
the maximum brake torque is obtained. It is called
the MBT timing.
The spark timing which is advanced or retarded
from MBT timing gives less torque. The MBT timing
depends on the rate of flame development,
propagation and termination. It also depends on
the distance of the flame travel path across the
combustion chamber.
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MBTTiming
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EffectofFuel/AirRatioonIndicatorDiagram
The fuel air ratio of the charge influences the
rate of combustion and the amount of heat
evolved.
The maximum flame speed occurs when the
mixture strength for hydrocarbon fuels is
about 10% rich.
When the mixture is made leaner or is further
enriched, the flame speed deceases.
Lean mixtures release less thermal energy,
resulting in lower flame temperature and
hence lower flame speed.
Very
rich mixtures suffer incomplete
combustion, hence release less thermal
energy resulting in low flame speed.
Indicator diagrams for rich, stoichiometric and
weak mixtures correspond to equivalence
ratio 1.1, 1.0, and 0.9 respectively is shown.
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Factorsaffectingignitionlag
NatureofFuelandAir/FuelRatio
Nature of Fuel and Air/Fuel Ratio Minlagforslightlyrichermixture
Min lag for slightly richer mixture
InitialTemperatureandPressure IncreasedPressure&tempreducesthelag
CompressionRatio higherCRreducesthelag
SparkTiming Retardingreducesthelag(temphighatthetimeofignition)
andAdvancingincreases.
TurbulenceandEngineSpeed
Turbulence and Engine Speed Notmuchaffectedbyturbulenceandengine
Not much affected by turbulence and engine
speed.
ElectrodeGapofSparkPlug suitablecustommadegapisrequiredforeach
engine.
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Effectofmixturestrengthonignitionlag
Ignitionlagdependsonthenatureof
g
g p
thefuel.Iftheselfignition
temperatureofthefuelishigher,itis
difficulttoburnthefuelandtherefore
theignitionlagwillbelonger.I
thasbeenfoundthattheignitionlag
g y
istheshortestforamixtureslightly
richerthanthestoichiometricas
showninFigure.
Theignitionlagbecomeslongerasthe
mixturebecomesleanorveryrich.
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Effectofsparkplugelectrodegaponignitionlag
A suitable spark plug electrode gap is necessary to
establish the flame nucleus.
nucleus If the gap is too small,
small
quenching of the flame nucleus may result and if the
gap is too large, the spark intensity is reduced. In
both the cases the range of the fuel/air ratio is
reduced for the development of the flame nucleus.
Figure shows the range of equivalence ratios, which
could be used for different electrode gaps and for
different compression ratios of the engine.
As the compression ratio is increased, the range of
the equivalence ratio also increases for a given
electrode gap.
gap A higher electrode gap is required for
an engine with lower compression ratio.
For an engine having compression ratio 9.0, the
spark plug electrode gap ranging from 0.8 mm to 0.9
mm is quite satisfactory.
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Factorsaffectingcombustioninspark
Factorsaffectingcombustioninsparkignitionengines
CompositionoftheMixture
Composition of the Mixture
Load
CompressionRatio
Speed
TurbulenceandShapeofCombustionChamber
SparkPlugPosition
Spark Plug Position
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Composition of the Mixture
For a rich mixture with the equivalence ratio between 1.1 and 1.2, the duration of
the
h first
f
stage off combustion,
b
the
h ignition lag
l and
d the
h duration
d
off the
h main phase
h
are
all minimum, resulting in the maximum rate of pressure rise (dp/d).
The flame speed, the heat liberation and consequently the power developed by the
engine are the maximum. When the equivalence ratio is less than 1.1, the energy
content is reduced, hence the duration of the first phase of combustion increases.
The duration of the main phase of combustion in the second stage changes slightly,
resulting in reduction in maximum pressure and also reduction in the rate of
pressure rise (dp/d).
(dp/d) These could be improved by slightly advancing the spark
timing.
For a lean mixture with the equivalence ratio between 0.85 and 0.9, the power
output is reduced but this range of equivalence ratio corresponds to the minimum
brake specific fuel consumption and represents the most economical range.
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Load
When the load is reduced, the power of an engine is reduced by throttling. The initial pressure and
pressure at the p
point of ignition
g
decrease and the residual ggases in the mixture increase.
the p
The first phase of combustion prolongs and the combustion process loses its stability and frequently
cannot be resumed in some cycles, causing cyclic variations. To overcome this difficulty to some
extent, a rich mixture is used which may ensure proper combustion, but the combustion process may
continue during a substantial portion of the expansion stroke.
This is because of interrupted ignition at large advance angles when the compression pressures are
still very low.
At part load, the combustion of fuel in the sparkignition engine is poor, causing a large amount of
products of incomplete combustion in the exhaust including carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen
and hydrocarbons which are responsible for air pollution.
pollution
Part load combustion is improved by using a rich mixture but it causes wastage of fuel. These are the
main shortcomings of sparkignition engines.
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Compression Ratio
A higher compression ratio increases the pressure and temperature of
the mixture at the point of ignition and decreases the amount of
residual gas in the mixture.
These are favourable conditions for the ignition of the mixture. The
duration of ignition lag in the first phase decreases and the rate of
pressure rise in the main phase increases.
A high compression ratio increases the surface tovolume ratio of the
combustion chamber, thus increasing the relative amount of mixture
near the walls. This part of the mixture afterburns in the third phase.
All this retards the MBT timing at higher compression ratios. The
combustion duration up to the point of maximum pressure also
d
decreases.
Th maximum
The
i
pressure approaches
h TDC.
TDC Heat
H t liberated
lib t d up
to the point of maximum pressure is reduced and the importance of
the afterburning process in the third phase increases.
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Speed
When the speed increases, the time in terms of milli

seconds required for the development of the flame in
the first phase of combustion is not affected much and
the turbulence of the charge increases.
The flame speed in the main phase of combustion
increases with the increase in speed, while the duration
of the main phase expressed in degrees of crank angle
(II) remains practically the same. The duration of the
first phase of combustion (I) in degrees of crank angle
increases with the increase in speed.
If the engine speed is increased without changing the
angle of ignition Ig the duration of the development of
flame in the first phase increases as shown in Figure (a).
If the angle of ignition Ig is advanced at higher speeds,
th pressure rise
the
i in
i the
th main
i phase
h
off combustion
b ti can
be practically" made to coincide at different speeds as
shown in Figure (b).
The duration of the afterburning phase increases with
the speed.
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TurbulenceandShapeofCombustionChamber
Turbulenceofthechargestartsasitentersintothecylinderthroughnarrowsectionsofinletpipes
andintakevalve.
Turbulencecanbeintensifiedbyusingaproperlyshapedcombustionchamberandrecessesinthe
formofgapsbetweenthelowersurfaceofthecylinderheadandthepistoncrown.
Theserecessesaresoarrangedastocreateanadditionalswirlingmotioninthosepartsofthecharge
whichburnduringtheafterburningphaseandthuscauserapidafterburning.
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SparkPlugPosition
Whenthesparkplugismountedatthecentre
When the spark plug is mounted at the centre ofthecylinderhead,thedistancetravelledbytheflamefrontto
of the cylinder head the distance travelled by the flame front to
themostdistantpartistheshortest.Thecentralpositionofthesparkplugalsoensuresthemaximumflame
frontsurface.
Asaresult,therateofheatevolutionandtherateofpressurerisearehigherthanthosewithasidemounted
sparkplug.
Theflamespeedisincreasedifthesparkplugislocatedmoretowardsthehotterexhaustvalvethaninthe
directionofthecoolerinletvalve.Asthesparkplugismovedawayfromthecentralposition,thecombustion
periodisincreasedandtheignitionrequirestobeadvancedaccordingly,inordertoobtainthebestresultsfor
thenewpluglocation.
Thetwosparkplugssuitablylocatedreducetheflametravelpathsandgiveahigherrateofpressurerise.This
requiresthatignitionadvancebereduced.
Theuseoftwosparkplugswithsynchronizedsparksisstandardonaircraftengines.Itprovidesreliabilityand
improvedperformance.Thethermalefficiencyisincreasedandthespecificfuelconsumptionisreduced.
Withlargediametercylinderstheuseoftwoplugsgivesbetterperformanceresults,whereasinsmallcylindersa
singleplugwillgivesatisfactoryresults,owingtothereducedflametravelpath.
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Cyclicvariations
One of the prominent characteristics of the sparkignition engine

combustion process is a wide ( variation from cycle to cycle of the pressure
crank angle diagram. This variation increases greatly as the mixture
g approaches
pp
g
strength
either the weak end or the rich end of the range.
When the mixture is made leaner above certain limits ( < 0.9) depending
upon the design features of the engine, its load and compression ratio, the
rate of combustion is different inconsecutive cycles.
The reasons for cyclic variation are due to incomplete mixing of fuel, air
and residual gas, and the variation of mixture velocity that exists within the
cylinder near the spark plug. Since a large amount of random turbulent
motion exists inside the cylinder, it is evident that in presence of
incomplete mixing, the spark may occur in mixtures of varying fuel/air
ratios, resulting in different rates of flame development.
There is a possibility of misfiring as well, in some cycles where the flame
p at all. The cyclic
y
variation is ggreater when the residual
mayy not develop
exhaust gas in the mixture is more. The residual gas will tend to influence
the inlet flame temperature and therefore will affect the flame speed.
It is observed that the cyclic variation is more at lower compression ratios
and at reduced loads for which the residual gas in the mixture is more.
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Rateofpressurerise
The rate of pressure rise during the combustion process influences the
peak pressure, the power produced and the smoothness with which the
forces are transmitted from the gas to the piston.
The rate of pressure rise depends on the mass rate of combustion of the
mixture in the cylinder. It is observed from the figure that the low rate of
combustion requires more ignition advance because of the longer time
required to complete combustion.
A higher rate of combustion increases the rate of pressure rise and
generally produces peak pressures at a point closer to TDC.
A higher peak pressure closer to TDC is generally desirable because it
produces a greater force on the piston acting through a larger portion of
the power stroke, and hence increases the power output.
There is a practical limit on the rate of pressure rise. The higher rate of
pressure rise may result in rough running of the engine because of
vibrations
ib ti
and
d jerks.
j k If the
th rate
t off pressure rise
i is
i excessively
i l high,
hi h it may
result in abnormal combustion called detonation.
A compromise between these two opposing factors is necessary. This can
be achieved by designing and operating the engine in such a way that
approximately onehalf of the pressure rise takes place as the piston
reaches the TDC, thus ensuring peak pressure to be reasonably close to
the beginning of the power stroke, while maintaining smooth engine
operation.
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AbnormalCombustion
AbnormalCombustion AutoignitionandDetonation
In normal combustion, as shown in Figure (a), after the
flame is initiated by the spark, the flame front travels

with a fairly uniform speed across the combustion
chamber compressing the unburned gas ahead of it. The
gas ahead of the flame front is called the endgas.
end gas This is
the last part of the charge to bum.
The endgas receives heat due to compression by
expanding the burned gases and by radiation from the
advancing flame front. If the temperature and pressure
are below certain critical values, the flame front moves
across the combustion chamber through the unburned
charge to the farthest point of the chamber in the
normal manner, thus burning the mixture completely.
The pressurecrank angle diagram is a smooth curve as
shown in Figure (b).
If the temperature and pressure of the endgas are high
enough it will ignite spontaneously before the flame
enough,
front reaches it. Under this abnormal condition, the
earlier stages of combustion are normal, but towards the
end of combustion, namely at about the last 25 % of the
flame travel distance, sudden inflammation of the
remaining portion of the endgas occurs. The endgas is
said to be autoignited.
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AbnormalCombustion
AbnormalCombustion AutoignitionandDetonation
In autoignition the rate of reaction is very high
and. the burning is almost instantaneous which

results in an extremely rapid release of energy
causingg p
pressure fluctuations as shown in Figure
g
(d), and causing pressure of the endgas to
increase almost 3 to 4 times from about 50 bar to
150200 bar.
The pressure rise for most of the charge is around
50 bar but because of autoignition the pressure
of the last part of the charge goes to 150200 bar.
This large pressure difference gives rise to severe
pressure waves which strike the cylinder wall and
set it to vibrate, giving rise to a characteristic high
pitched metallic ringing sound. This phenomenon
is therefore known as knocking or detonation.
The flame speed during detonation is of the order
of 300 to 1000 m/s.
Intensive detonation causes loud knocks with a
higher frequency that arises in each cycle, the
power of the engine drops and black smoke
appears intermittently in the exhaust gases. It
causes mechanical damage to the engine.
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Detrimentaleffectsofdetonation
Noiseandvibration
Noise and vibration
Increaseinheattransfer
Mechanicaldamage
Preignition
Powerandefficiency
Carbonintheexhaust
Carbon in the exhaust
Thermalstress
Increasedfriction
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Theoriesofdetonation
Autoignitiontheory
Accordingtothistheorywhenthefuel
According to this theory when the fuelair
airmixtureintheend
mixture in the endgas
gasregioniscompressedto
region is compressed to
sufficientlyhighpressuresandabovetheselfignitiontemperaturesofthefuelbeforethe
flamefrontreachesit,thepreflamereactionstakeplaceinthepartsoralloftheendgas.
Duringthepreflamereactions,extensivedecompositionofthemixturetakesplace
producingaldehydes,nitrogenperoxide,hydrogenperoxideandfreeradicals.Theenergy
releasedbythesereactionsandthepresenceofactivechemicalspeciesandfreeradicals
greatlyacceleratethechemicalreaction,producingaveryhighpressurelocallyintheend
gasregionandleadingtoautoignition.
Strongpressurewavespropagateacrossthecombustionchamber,andalsoknockingsound
duetotheacousticvibrationofthegasesattheappropriateresonantfrequencyis
transmittedthroughtheenginestructure.
Inautoignitiontheoryitisassumedthattheflamefrontpropagateswithanormalspeed
beforethestartofautoignition.
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Theoriesofdetonation
Detonation theory
According to this theory, under the knocking conditions, the advancing flame front,
called
ll d detonating
d
i waves, accelerates
l
to sonic
i velocity,
l i and
d consumes the
h endgas
d
at a
rate much faster than would occur with normal flame speeds. Here also, there is a
rapid release of chemical energy in the endgas which creates a high pressure in the
endgas region, propagates strong pressure waves and produces knocking.
There is much less evidence to support the detonation theory compared to the
evidence to support the autoignition theory as the knock initiating process.
Most recent evidence indicates that the knock originates with the autoignition of
one or more local regions within the endgas.
end gas The rest of the regions then ignite
until the endgas is completely reacted.
This sequence of operations occurs extremely rapidly. Thus, the autoignition theory
is most widely accepted. Therefore, the more general term 'knock' is preferred to
detonation to describe this phenomenon.
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Effectofenginevariablesonknock
Temperature,PressureandDensityFactors
TimeFactors
Time Factors
CompositionFactors
EffectofDesign
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Temperature, Pressure and Density Factors
Asthetemperatureofthechargeisincreased,theflamespeedincreasesand
thepossibilityoftheendgastoreachitscriticaltemperatureforauto
ignitionalsoincreases.Thisincreasesthetendencytoknock.
Anincreaseinpressurereducesthedelayperiodofthelastpartofthecharge
asthispartofthechargeissubjectedtoahighpressure.
Increaseindensityofthechargetendstoincreasethepossibilityofknocking
byincreasingthepreflamereactionsintheendgas,thusreleasinghigher
energy.
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The compression ratio an increase in compression ratio increases the knocking tendency. For a given engine setting and a fuel, there is a
critical compression ratio above which knock would occur.
occur This compression ratio is called the highest useful compression ratio (HUCR).
(HUCR)
Themassofinductedcharge BysuperchargingorWOT,knocktendencyincreaseandreachamaximumatfullthrottleposition.
Theinlettemperatureofthemixture increasewillshortenthedelayperiodandgreatlyincreasingthetendencytoknock.
Thetemperatureofthecombustionchamberwalls anincreaseinthetemperatureofthecombustionchamberwallsincreasesthe
tendencytoknock.
Spark timing An increase in spark advance from the optimized timing increases the peak pressure of the cycle and therefore increases the
pressure and temperature to which the last part of the charge is subjected.
Thecoolanttemperature Anincreaseinthecoolanttemperatureincreasesthetemperatureoftheendgas.
Poweroutput Anincreaseinthepoweroutputoftheengineincreasesthetemperaturesofthecylinderandcombustionchamberwalls
andalsoincreasesthetemperatureandpressureoftheendgas,thus,reducingthedelayperiod.
Exhaustbackpressure Increasingtheexhaustbackpressure,increasesthecompressiontemperature,increasestheresidualfractionand
lowersthemaximumpressure.Thefirsteffecttendstoincreasetheknocking,whiletheotherstendtoreduceit.
Cycletocyclevariation Duetocyclicvariation,thecycleswithlowerpeakpressuremaynotknock,whilethecycleswithhigherpeak
pressurewillknock.
Carbon deposits due to the relatively poor thermal conductivity of deposits, the heat is transferred back to the fresh charge which is
relatively cool. Thus the temperature of the fresh charge is increased and the tendency to knock increases. Apart from this, the reduced
clearance volume, the compression ratio is increased, causing an increase in the knocking tendency.
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TimeFactors
Ingeneral,anyactionwhichtendstodecreasethenormalflamespeedorshortenstheignitiondelayperiod,willtendtoincreaseknocking.
Suchanactionwillautoignitetheendgasbeforetheflamefrontreachesit.
Turbulence: Turbulence depends on the engine speed and the design of the combustion chamber. Decreasing turbulence decreases
p
and increases the time available for the endgas
g to attain autoignition
g
conditions easily.
y Thus, knockingg increases with
the flame speed
the decrease in turbulence.
Engine speed: A decrease in engine speed decreases the turbulence within the cylinder and therefore decreases the flame speed and
increases the time available for preflame reactions. The length of the delay period is not greatly affected by engine speed. Therefore,
the knocking increases with the decrease in engine speed.
Flame travel distance: The flame travel distance can be increased by increasing the size of the engine and the combustion chamber. It
can also be increased by locating the spark plug away from the centre. This gives more time for the endgas to autoignite and,
therefore, knocking increases.
Combustion chamber shape: In a compactcombustion chamber, the normal flame can be made to reach the last part of the charge
more quickly, so the combustion time will be shorter. Thus a compact combustion chamber reduces knocking.
Engine size: Large engines operate at low rpm, while the small engines operate at high rpm. Thus the piston speed, turbulence and the
flame speed are almost the same in similar engines, regardless of the size. Therefore, the time required for the flame to travel across
the combustion space would be longer in the larger engines.
engines The delay period is not much affected by size.
size The larger cylinders will
therefore be more likely to knock.
Location of spark plug: A spark plug which is centrally located in the head of the combustion chamber has the minimum tendency to
knock, since the flame travel distance is minimum. The flame travel distance can further be reduced by using two or more spark plugs.
Location of exhaust valve: The exhaust valve should be located close to the spark plug. The flame starts from the spark plug, therefore
the endgas is far away from it. Locating the exhaust valve near the spark plug means that the exhaust valve is also not situated near
the endgas region.
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Composition Factors
Once the compression ratio and the engine dimensions are selected, the fuel/air ratio and the properties of the fuel play an important role
in controlling the engine knock.
Octane rating of the fuel: A lower selfignition
self ignition temperature of the fuel and a high preflame
pre flame reactivity would increase the tendency of
knocking. The octane number is the measure of resistance to knock.
Fuel/air ratio: For a slightly rich fuelair mixture for which the best power is obtained, the flame temperature is maximum resulting in
maximum flame speed and minimum delay period.
Humidity of air: Increasing the' humidity of the entering air tends to reduce knocking by reducing the reaction time the time between
the end of the compression stroke and the end of the appreciable pressure rise due to reaction.
Stratifying the mixture: The probability pf knock is decreased by stratifying the mixture, which makes the endgas less reactive.
Maldistribution: The unequal distribution of air and fuel between the various cylinders in a multicylinder engine is called mal
distribution, which may result in different knocking tendencies in different cylinders because of change in the air/fuel ratio locally.
Dilution of the charge: The dilution of the charge with the inert gases increases the reaction time and reduces the flame speed.
Therefore, by introducing cooled exhaust gas with the inlet air, the tendency to knock can be reduced.
Water or wateralcohol
water alcohol injection: Injection of water or wateralcohol
water alcohol mixtures into the inlet system of the engine reduces knocking by
reducing the reaction time and increasing the flame speed.
Fuel additives: Several substances have been found which have a pronounced antiknock effect and increase. the octane ratings when
added to petrol in a very small proportion, called dope. Typical examples of these include benzole, ethanol, methanol, acetone,
nitrobenzene and tetra ethyl lead, etc. In recent years, the use of leaded fuel has been restricted, since it pollutes the atmosphere and
destroys the effectiveness of the noble metal catalysts of catalytic converters. The other drawbacks, associated with the prolonged use
of leaded fuels, are the deposition of lead salts upon the spark plugs, exhaust valves and combustion chambers.
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EffectofDesign
Effect of shrouded inlet valve: The use of a shrouded inlet valve provides the flow
of charge in a definite direction, so that the combustion time is reduced. This will
reduce
the
to
the
d
th tendency
t d
t knock.
k k The
Th shrouded
h d d valve
l also
l tends
t d to
t reduce
d
th cycle
l
tocycle variation, especially when oriented so as to give tangential flow into the
cylinder.
Effect of piston shape: In squish piston, the charge is squeezed radially inwards,
near the top dead centre and the tendency to knock is less. The thin space above
the piston in the combustion chamber is called the quench space. The quench
space is cooled which reduces the possibility of autoignition and hence the
knocking. Because of The reduced space above the squish piston, the combustion
chamber becomes effectively more compact and the possibility of turbulence
increases. Both of these factors tend to decrease the knocking tendency.
Effect of cylinder bore: When engines of similar design but of increased bore
run
u aat thee sa
samee p
piston
s o speed aand
d with thee sa
samee inlet
e co
conditions,
d o s, fuel/air
ue /a ratio
a o
and exhaust back pressure, the combustion time increases and the temperature of
the inner surface of the cylinder also in creases. Both of these factors tend to
increase the knocking tendency. The octane requirement of the fuel increases with
the increase in bore even though the compression ratio and the engine rpm
remain the same.
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Detectionofknocking
Knocking sound can be heard in engines fitted with the silencer in the exhaust pipe. Under loud exhaust or
propeller noise, it is often impossible to detect knocking.
The temperature measurement of a sparkplug gasket by a thermocouple embedded in it can indicate the
knocking. A sudden or abnormal temperature rise under steady operating conditions shows the presence of
possible knock. Steady operating conditions are necessary since the spark plug gasket temperature may also be
affected by changing the air/fuel ratio, the engine speed, the manifold pressure, and the rate of cooling, etc.
Knock intensity can be detected by a pressure transducer which is flush mounted in the combustion chamber. It
is a pressure sensitive unit in which the diaphragm is exposed to the gases in the cylinder and the pressure
signals are converted to electrical signals. This electrical signal is amplified and recorded on a knock meter. With
increasing amplitude of the signal, the scale reading of the knock meter increases and a relative measure of
knock intensity is obtained. This unit can be used to apply knocking control measures automatically.
It is often possible to detect knocking by the presence of intermittent puffs of gray smoke in the exhaust, which
appear bright yellow flashes when the test is carried out in dark.
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Uncontrolledcombustion
Surfaceignition(Runon,Runaway,wildping&Rumble)
Preignition
Postignition
Under certain conditions, the fuelair mixture is ignited by a hot spot in the cylinder. Initiation of a
flame front by a hot surface other than the spark is called surface ignition. It comes under the
category of uncontrolled combustion.
The hot surface might be the spark plug insulator or electrode. the exhaust valve head, the carbon
deposits on the combustion chamber surfaces, etc.
Surface ignition occurring before the spark is called preignition and that occurring after the spark
is called post ignition. Runon, runaway, wild ping and rumble are caused by surface ignition,
which are harmful.
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Pre
Preignition
Under severe operating conditions, the cylinder wall temperature may be hot enough to ignite (nearly
11000C)) to ignite
g
the charge
g before the spark
p
p
plugg does so.
This is equivalent to advancing the ignition, but since the hot spot surface is larger than
Knock and preignition are different phenomena. Knock is due to the rapid combustion of the last
part of the mixture following the initiation of flame by the spark, whereas preignition is the ignition
of the charge by a hot body before the spark occurs.
Preignition causes higher temperature and pressure in the end gas than those caused leads to auto
ignition and hence knock, and autoignition encourages preignition.
The results of preignition are to increase the work of the compression stroke,
stroke decrease the net work
of the cycle, increase the engine pressures, increase the heat loss from the engine and decrease the
efficiency. Preignition if not checked gets progressively worse, culminating in severe engine damage.
Preignition can be detected by switching off the ignition when irregular firing might occur for a few
strokes before the engine speed drops. The sudden loss of power with no evidence of mechanical
malfunctioning may also indicate preignition.
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Run
Runon Surface ignition
When the ignition
g
is switched off and the throttle is closed ((fuelair mixture is
supplied through the idling jet), the condition in which the engine continues to fire is
called runon. It might be due to a hot surface in the cylinder, but the major cause is
spontaneous ignition of the fuelair mixture.
The physical factors influencing spontaneous ignition are (a) an elevated
temperature of the inlet mixture, (b) poor cooling of the combustion chamber
surface, (c) duration of the valve overlap,
p and
(d) a high
g compression
p
ratio.
The inlet temperature is elevated at the low speed condition by the
low rate of
air flow through the induction system, often in close proximity to the hot exhaust.
At idling speed, the combustion chamber surface is not properly cooled due to poor
coolant circulation.
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Run
RunawaySurfaceIgnition
Inseverecasesofsurfaceignition,therunawaysurfaceignitiondevelops.
In severe cases of surface ignition the runaway surface ignition develops
Surfaceignitioninonecycleheatsthesurfaceignitionsourcetostillhigher
temperaturesinconsecutivecyclesandaseriesofearlierpreignitionsisset
up.
Therunawaysurfaceignitioniscausedbyanoverheatedsparkplug,exhaust
valveorpistonhead.
Therunawaysurfaceignitionresultsinconsiderabledamagetopistonsand
otherengineparts.Enginemaycatchfireasthepreignitionadvancestothe
timewhentheintakevalveisopenandfuelairmixtureisentering.
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Wild ping & Rumble Surface Ignition
Wild Ping
g
Wild ping is one or several irregular, but very sharp, combustion knocks caused by early surface ignition from
deposit particles after the inlet valve is closed. Knock occurs in an erratic way.
A probable reason for wild ping is a glowing carbon particle loosely attached combustion chamber surface break
free, and then floating erratically through the chamber ignite the charge until they are finally carried away past
the exhaust valve.
Rumble
Rumble is the name assigned to intermittent roughness caused by combustion chamber deposits which create
secondary flame fronts.
fronts It is a low pitched noise distinctly different from spark knock.
knock
It follows that the rate of pressure rise and the maximum. pressure become very high. Rumble develops early
and at multiple points. Rumble is avoided or minimized by eliminating deposits usually by fuel additives.
The type of lubricating oil and gasoline without tetra ethyl lead can also reduce deposits and therefore rumble.
Rumble causes vibrations of the crank shaft arising from a high rate of pressure rise with consequent deflection
of mechanical parts.
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Combustionchambersforspark
Combustionchambersforsparkignitionengines
A proper design of the combustion chamber for the sparkignition engine is
important as it affects the engine performance, its knocking tendencies and exhaust
pollutants.
ll
The design involves the shape of the cylinder head and piston crown, the location of
the spark plug, and location, size and number of inlet and exhaust valves.
The design of the intake port also influences the turbulence and flow pattern of the
charge in the combustion chamber. The optimum design of a combustion chamber is
a subject of research and development.
During the days of development of the engine, the compression ratio used was only
4 and now it is possible to raise the compression ratio to above 10 without knock.
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BasicRequirementsofaGoodCombustionChamber
Thebasicrequirementsofagoodcombustionchamberaretoprovide:
1.Highpoweroutput
1 Hi h
t t
2.Highthermalefficiencyandlowspecificfuelconsumption
3.Smoothengineoperation
4.Reducedexhaustpollutants.
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Highpower
High
poweroutput
output
Forproducingahighpoweroutput,acombustionchamberrequiresthefollowing:
For producing a high power output a combustion chamber requires the following:
(a) Ahighcompressionratio
(b) Alittlerichmixture
(c) Goodturbulence
(d) Largeinletvalvetoobtainahighervolumetricefficiency
(e) Streamlineflowinordertoreducethepressuredropandtoincreasefurthervolumetric
efficiency.
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Highthermalefficiencyandlowspecificfuelconsumption
Highthermalefficiencyandlowspecificfuel
consumption
Inordertoachievehighthermalefficiencyandlowspecificfuelconsumption,the
In order to achieve high thermal efficiency and low specific fuel consumption the
followingaretherequirements:
(a) Ahighcompressionratio
(b) Asmallheatlossduringcombustion,whichmeansasmallsurfacetovolume
ratioandacompactshape.
(c) Fasterfuelburningprocess
(d) Alittleleanmixture.
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Smoothengineoperation
Smoothengine
operation
Smoothengineoperation,withtheselectionofthehighestcompressionratiotouse
Smooth engine operation with the selection of the highest compression ratio to use
forafuelofgivenoctanerating,requiresthefollowing:
(a) Amoderaterateofpressureriseduringcombustion.
(b) Absenceofknock,whichintummeans:
(i)Acompactcombustionchambertoreducetheflametraveldistance.
( )
(ii)Properlocationofsparkplugandexhaustvalve,andtheircooling.
p
p
p g
g
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Reducedexhaustpollutants
Reduced
exhaustpollutants..
Exhaust pollutants can be reduced by designing a combustion chamber that produces a faster
burning rate of fuel.
A faster burning chamber with its shorter burning time permits operation with substantially
higher amounts of Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR), which reduces the oxides of nitrogen (NOx) in
the exhaust gas without substantial in crease in the hydrocarbon emissions.
It can also burn very lean mixtures within the normal constraints of engine smoothness and
response. A faster burning chamber exhibits much less cyclic variations, permitting the normal
combustion at part load to have greater dilution of the charge.
Methodsofusinga'fastburn'combustionchamberincludethefollowing:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Locatingthesparkplugtoamorecentralpositionwithinacompactcombustionchamber.
Usingtwosparkplugs.
Increasingtheincylindergasmotionbycreatingswirlduringtheinductionprocessorduring
thelatterstagesofcompression.
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Combustionchamberdesignprinciples
1.
High volumetric efficiency
Effective valve open area, which depends on valve diameter and lift, directly affects the
volumetric efficiency.
2.
Minimumpathofflametravel determinedbythelocationofthesparkplugandbythecompactshapeofthe
combustionchamber.SIenginescylinderborearelimitedupto100mmforshortflametraveldistance.
combustion chamber SI engines cylinder bore are limited up to 100 mm for short flame travel distance
3.
Provisionofminimumheatlosszonearoundthesparkplug Thesparkplugisplacedneartheexhaustvalveto
preventheatlossinthefirstphaseofcombustion.Thesurfacetovolumeratioshouldbeminimum.
4.
Reducedrateofpressurerise Thesecondphaseofthecombustionzoneorshockzoneshouldbedesignedtogivea
5.
6.
Provisionofasuitablequenchregion pro-vided at the farthest distance of the flame travel.

Maximum thermal efficiency using HUCR
Short combustion time or fast burn results from properly creating turbulence, improves the 'lean burn'
Exhaust valve location placed near to spark plug, exhaust valve head diameter is kept small and
reducedrateofpressurerisetoavoidknockingandtoavoidexcessiveshocksonthecrankshaft.
7.
8.
to avoid flow
restrictions, a high lift is employed.
9.
Maximum output two inlet and two exhaust valves are used per cylinder. Domed shape reduces llength of flame travel
and the combustion rate is high.
10. Scavenging of the exhaust gas good scavenging of the exhaust gas is required.
11. Materials for cylinder head materials of high heat conductivity conduct heat away from the hot spots. Al alloys, Cu.
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COMBUSTIONCHAMBEROPTIMIZATIONPROCEDURE
COMBUSTION
CHAMBEROPTIMIZATIONPROCEDURE
Thesequenceofstepsdescribedinthefollowingsubsectionsconstitutesthe
The sequence of steps described in the following subsections constitutes the
processofdevelopmentofagoodcombustionchamber.
GeometricConsiderations
ConsiderationsforCyclicVariations
ConsiderationforProperTurbulence
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COMBUSTION
Geometric Considerations
These involve the considerations of the shape of cylinder head and piston crown, the
spark plug location, and the inlet and exhaust valves location and size.
Open chambers, such as the hemi spherical with almost central spark plug location,
give close to the maximum flame front surface area ensuring faster burn and provide
the lowest chamber surface area in contact with the burned gases ensuring the
lowest heat transfer.
More compact combustion chamber shapes other than the open chambers,
chambers such as
the bowlinpiston, do produce a somewhat faster bum but suffer from lower
volumetric efficiency and higher heat losses.
With almost central positioning of the spark plug and providing some squish area the
bum rate is improved.
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COMBUSTION
ConsiderationsforCyclicVariations
Improvingtheuniformityoftheflowofair,fuelandresidualgasesmixtureduring
theintakeprocess.
Deliveryofequalamountsofconstituentstoeachcylindertoavoidmal distribution.
Provisionforgoodmixingbetweenconstituentsintheintakemanifold.
Accuratecontrolofmixturecompositionduringenginetransients.
Achievingnearlysimilarflowpatternswithineachenginecylindertoobtainequal
burn rates in all cylinders
burnratesinallcylinders.
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COMBUSTION
ConsiderationforProperTurbulence
Consideration for Proper Turbulence
Thehigherturbulencelevelsduringcombustionarerequired
whichcanusuallybebestdonebycreatingswirlduringthe
inductionprocess.
Higherthannecessarygasvelocitieswithinthecylinderresult
inexcessiveheatlossesandlowvolumetricefficiency.
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TYPESOFCOMBUSTIONCHAMBER
TYPES
OFCOMBUSTIONCHAMBER
TheadTypeCombustionChamber
yp
Thead type of combustion chamber. This was the earliest type
used by Ford Motor Corporation during early stages of engine
development in 1908. The Thead design suffers from the
following disadvantages:
The distance across the combustion chamber is very long.
The spark plug is located near the exhaust valve, so the

flame travel distance from the spark plug to the endgas
(near the inlet valve) increases. Therefore, knocking
tendency is increased.
The configuration provides two valves on either side of the
combustion chamber, requiring two camshafts.
There was a violent knocking even at compression ratio 4: 1.This
was also because of the low octane number of petrol available at
that time, which varied from 45 to 50.
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TYPES
OFCOMBUSTIONCHAMBER
LheadTypeCombustionChamber
In this, the combustion chamber is in the form of a more or less flat slab,
extending over the piston.
piston The disadvantages of the Thead
T head type of
combustion chamber forced the development of Lhead, in which the two
valves are placed on the same side of the combustion chamber, thus
reducing the flame travel distance, and the valves are operated by a single
camshaft.
The valve mechanism can easily be enclosed and lubricated. The detachable
head can easily be removed for decarbonising without disturbing either the
valve gear or the main pipe work.
Initsoriginalform,thistypeofenginegavepoorperformancebecauseofthe
f ll i li it ti
followinglimitations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Lack of turbulence as the charge had to take two right angle turns to enter into the
cylinder and in doing so the initial velocity of the charge got reduced.
Extremely prone to knock due to lack of turbulence, resulting in a low flame speed. The
flame travel distance was also large, and it therefore caused knock.
Extremely sensitive to ignition timing due to lower rate of burning and slow
combustion.
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TYPES
OFCOMBUSTIONCHAMBER
Ricardo Turbulent Head Side Valve Combustion Chamber (1919)
The main objective of this design was to increase turbulence in order to obtain a higher
flame speed and to reduce the knocking tendency of the engine
engine..
A greater volume of the space of combustion chamber was available over the valves
and was called the main body of the combustion chamber.
A slightly restricted passageway was provided over the cylinder. During the
compression stroke the gases were forced back to the main body through the
restricted passageway that created additional turbulence
By varying the throat area of the restricted passage it was possible to achieve any
desired degree of turbulence within the main body of the combustion chamber.
In order to reduce the knocking tendency to a minimum, the distance of effective
flame travel was shortened by forming a very thin layer of entrapped gas between
the piston crown and the portion of combustion chamber at the endgas region,
when the piston was at TDC.
The surface tovolume ratio in this region was high, which helped in rejecting
enough heat from the endgas to prevent knocking. The flame travel distance was
further reduced by placing the spark plug in the centre of the effective combustion
space with a slight shift towards the exhaust valve.
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Overheadvalve or Ihead Type Combustion Chamber
The overheadvalve combustion chamber is also called the Ihead type in
which both the inlet and the exhaust valves are located in the cylinder
head.
h d
(a)The volumetric efficiency is higher because of the better breathing of the engine
from larger valves or valve lifts, and the pumping losses are less because of the more
direct passage ways provided for the gas exchange processes with less pressure drops
through valves.
(b) The average flame travel distance is reduced and therefore the engine is less prone
to knock, resulting in reduced octane requirements.
(c) The surfacetovolume ratio is decreased, therefore, the heat losses through the
combustion chamber walls from the burned gas to the coolant are reduced. It results
in an increase in the thermal efficiency of the engine. It also provides more complete
combustion
b ti off fuel,
f l thus
th producing
d i more power and
d reducing
d i air
i pollution.
ll ti
(d) Hot exhaust valve is placed over the head instead of in the cylinder block, thus
confining thermal failures only to the cylinder head which can easily be removed and
replaced.
(e) The possibility of leakage of compression gases and jacket water is reduced as in
this type of arrangement the cylinder head bolts are subjected to less force.
(f) The casting process is easier, thus leading to reduction in costs.
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Followingaretheadvantagesofthehemisphericalhead:
(a)Thecombustionchamberisverycompact.
(b)Thesurfacetovolumeratioissmallwhichreducestheheatlosstothecylinderwallduringcombustion,thus
providingahigherthermalefficiency.
(c)Thelargerdiametervalvescanbeemployedwhichmayincreasethevolumetricefficiency.
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Piston Cavity Combustion Chamber
This resembles the combustion chamber of
the normal direct injection compression
ignition engine.
Here an al most ideal chamber shape is
provided with all surfaces machined to give
an accurately defined volume.
Such a design was not possible in the past
when long strokes and low compression
ratios were used, but now with the use of
higher compression ratios and stroke/bore
ratios near one or less,
less this configuration has
become practical and will appear more in
the future.
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Combustion Chamber with a Prechamber for
g
Lean Burn Engine.
Lean combustion in an engine is one of the most promising
methods for reducing the exhaust emission and improving the
fuel economy. The problems associated with lean bum are:
It is impossibleto operate an engine with a mixture leaner
than an air/fuel ratio of 19 due to deteriorated ignitability.
The fuel consumption tends to increase because of the lower
combustion speed and the deterioration of the flame
propagation in a combustion with a lean mixture.
mixture
Increased variation of combustion from cycle to cycle causes
fluctuations in torque, thus resulting in poor drivability.
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60

Me6016 Advanced I.C Engines - Unit - 1

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12/20/2016

Mixture requirements Fuel injection systems

Mono point, Multipoint & Direct injection

In petrol engine the combustible mixture of fuel is prepared outside the

the air and be completely burned is called the stoichiometric ratio, a

Practicallyy for complete

The best airfuel ratio for one engine

The mixture corresponding to maximum

The mixture corresponding to maximum

The actual A/F ratio requirement for an

High Power (rich)

During idling, engine operates at no load and closed throttle.

The engine requires rich mixture for starting at idling.

Focus is on fuel economy.

No exhaust gas dilution.

Carburetor has to give best economy mixture i.e.. Lean mixture.

As high power is required, additional fuel has to be supplied to achieve rich

Type Of Injection System on the basis of Injector

Single Point Fuel Injection (Throttle Body Injection - TBI)

sits on top of inlet manifold.

Throttle Body Fuel Injection (TBI)

Throttle Body Fuel Injection (TBI)

Multipoint or port Fuel Injection

Multiport Fuel Injection

Multiport Fuel Injection

Multiport Fuel Injection (Contd.)

practically at a constant speed.

The flame travel patterndivides

mass fraction burned follows the same

the spark plug about 15 after TDC. At this point

When the speed increases, the time in terms of milli

One of the prominent characteristics of the sparkignition engine

flame is initiated by the spark, the flame front travels

and. the burning is almost instantaneous which

High volumetric efficiency

Provisionofasuitablequenchregion pro-vided at the farthest distance of the flame travel.

restrictions, a high lift is employed.

The spark plug is located near the exhaust valve, so the

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