NOTES ON MATHEMATICAL WRITING

Presented on Workshop of Mathematical Writing

By : Subiono
Email:subiono2008@matematika.its.ac.id
April 5, 2014

Figure 1:

1. Notation
Symbols in different formulas must be seperated by words.
Bad: Consider Sq , q < p.
Good: Consider Sq , where q < p.
Good: Every element of the set B is negative.
Good: For all b B, b < 0.
Bad: (b B)(b < 0).
Good: For all b, if b B, then b < 0.
Bad: (b)(b B b < 0).
All five statements above are acceptable ways of making the same universal
statement, but only three of them are good for writing.
Do not begin sentences with a symbol.
Bad: f (x) is a positive function on the interval [a, b].
Good: Let f be a positive function on the interval [a, b].
Good: The function f is positive and has domain the interval [a, b].
Bad: G is a group of finite order.
Good: We use the notation G to denote a group of finite order.
Good: The group G has a finite order.
Good: Some elements of the set A is positive.
Good: There exists a A such that a > 0.
Bad: (a A)(a > 0).
Good: There exists a such that a A and a > 0.
Bad: (a)(a A a > 0).
Bad: xn a has n distinct zeroes.
Good: The polynomial xn a has n distinct zeros.
Bad: x is positive, so it has a square root.
Good: Since x is positive, it has a square root.
The inequality n2 < 2n is true for n 5, but not if 1 < n 4. In other words,
there exists a natural number n (at least one such number) such that n2 2n .
We can write these expression as follows.

Good: There exists a natural number n such that n2 2n .

Good: There exists n such that n N and n2 2n .
Bad: (n)(n N n2 2n ).
Good: For all natural numbers n, if n 5, then n2 < 2n .
Good: For all n, if n N and n 5, then n2 < 2n .
Bad:(n)[(n N n 5) (n2 < 2n )].
Bad: Let n be an even number. n = 2m for some m Z.
Good: Let n be an even number. Thus n = 2m for some m Z.
Good: Let n be an even number, so n = 2m for some m Z.
Bad: One solution is f (x) = sin x. f (x) is periodic.
Good: One solution is f (x) = sin x. In this case, f (x) is periodic.
Do not use unnecessary notations when writing the statement of a theorem (or some claim
in the middle of a proof).
Bad: Every differentiable function f is continuous.
Good: Every differentiable function is continuous.
Good: All differentiable functions are continuous.
When introducing notation, make it fit the context. A lot of the time a choice of notation
is just common sense.
Bad: Let m be a prime.
Good: Let p be a prime.
Bad: Let X be a set, and pick an element of X, say t.
Good: Let X be a set, and pick an element of X, say x.
Bad: Pick two elements of the set X, say x and u.
Good: Pick two elements of the set X, say x and y.
Good: Pick two elements of the set X, say x1 and x2 .
Good: Pick two elements of the set X, say x and x .
Always define new notation (is it a number? a function? of what type?) and be clear
about its logical standing.
Very bad: Since n is composite, n = ab.
Bad: Since n is composite, n = ab for some integers a and b.
Good: Since n is composite, n = ab for some integers a and b greater than 1.

[Every integer is a product, since n = n1, so writing n = ab alone introduces no constraint

whatsoever.]
Bad: If a polynomial f (x) satisfies f (n) Z, does f (x) have integer coefficients?
Good: If a polynomial f (x) satisfies f (n) Z for every n Z, does f (x) have
integer coefficients?
Do not duplicate the meaning of a variable within the same proof.
Bad: To show the sum of two even numbers is even, suppose a and b are even.
Then a = 2m and b = 2m, for some integer m. We have a + b = 4m = 2(2m),
which is even. [Notice this proof showed the sum of two even numbers is
always a multiple of 4, which is nonsense.]
Good: To show the sum of two even numbers is even, suppose a and b are even.
Then a = 2m and b = 2n, for some integers m and n. We have a+b = 2m+2n =
2(m + n), which is even.
Avoid overloading meaning into notation.
Bad: Let x > 0 Z.
Good: Let x be an integer, with x > 0.
Good: Let x be a positive integer.
NEVER use the logical symbols , , , , , , when writing, except in a paper on
logic. Write out what you mean in ordinary language.
Bad: The conditions imply a = 0 b = 1.
Good: The conditions imply a = 0 and b = 1.
Bad : lim f (x) = L means that > 0, > 0 s.t. x,
xx0

0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) L| < .

Although this statement is correct mathematically, it is difficult to read (unless
you are well-versed in math-speak). This example shows that although you can
write math in all symbols as a shortcut, often it is clearer to use words. A
compromise is often preferred.
Good :
Definition of Limit: Let f (x) be defined on an open interval about x0 , except
possibly at x0 itself. We say that f (x) approaches the limit L as x approaches
x0 , and we write
lim f (x) = L
xx0

if for every number > 0, there exists a corresponding number > 0 such that
for all x we have
0 < |x x0 | < |f (x) L| < .
Bad: If a root of the polynomial then there is a linear factor.
Good: If there is a root of the polynomial then there is a linear factor.
Bad: If the functions agree at three points, they agree points.
Good: If the functions agree at three points, they agree at all points.
Avoid silly abbreviations, or the misuse of standard notations.
R
Bad: When n is , 2n is an even number.
Good: When n is integral, 2n is an even number.
Good: When n is an integer, 2n is an even number.
Bad: Let z be a C.
Good: Let z be a complex number.
Good: Choose z C.
2. Equations and expressions
If an equation or expression is important (either for its own sake or because you will refer
back to it later), display the equation on its own line. If you need to refer to it later, label
it (as (1), (2), and so on) on the side. Of course, if you only need to make a reference to a
displayed equation or expression immediately before or after it appears, you could avoid
a label and say by the above equation, etc.
Bad: As a special case of the binomial theorem,
(x + y)4 = x4 + 4x3 y + 6x2 y 2 + 4xy 3 + y 4 .
[suppose several lines of text are here]
By the equation 8 lines up, we see...
Good: As a special case of the binomial theorem,
(x + y)4 = x4 + 4x3 y + 6x2 y 2 + 4xy 3 + y 4 .

(1)

[suppose several lines of text are here]

By equation (1), we see...
If a single computation involves several steps, especially more than two, present the steps
in stacked form.
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Bad:
(x + 1)3 = (x + 1)2 (x + 1) = (x2 + 2x + 1)(x + 1) = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1.
Bad:
(x + 1)3 = (x + 1)2 (x + 1)
(x + 1)3 = (x2 + 2x + 1)(x + 1)
(x + 1)3 = x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1.
Good:
(x + 1)3 = (x + 1)2 (x + 1)
= (x2 + 2x + 1)(x + 1)
= x3 + 3x2 + 3x + 1.
Equations do not stand by themselves. They appear as part of a sentence and should be
punctuated accordingly! If an equation ends a sentence, place a period at the end of the
line. If an equation appears in the middle of a sentence, use a comma after the equation if
one would naturally pause there. Sometimes no punctuation is needed after the equation.
The following three examples illustrate each possibility.
Good: We call x0 a critical point of f when f is differentiable and
f (x0 ) = 0
Good: When f is differentiable, and x0 satisfies
f (x0 ) = 0,
we call x0 a critical point.
Good: When f is differentiable, any x0 where
f (x0 ) = 0
is called a critical point.
(That the equation was displayed separately in each case simply serves to highlight its importance to the reader. It could have been included within the main
text, and punctuation rules of course apply in the same way.)
3. Parentheses and Commas
Avoid pointless parentheses.
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Bad: (x + y)(x y) = (x2 y 2 ).

Good: (x + y)(x y) = x2 y 2 .
Bad: If 7 is a factor of the product (a1 a2 an ), then ...
Good: If 7 is a factor of the product a1 a2 an , then ...
Bad: The length is a factor of (p 1).
Good: The length is a factor of p 1.
Good: (a + b)2 (a + c)2 = b2 c2 + 2ab 2ac.
Good: (a + b)2 (a + c)2 = (b2 c2 ) + 2ab 2ac. [This example is good only if
the writer wants the reader to view b2 c2 as a single term of the right side.]
Use parentheses to avoid confusing the meaning between a subtraction sign and a negative
sign.
Very bad: (a + b) c = ac bc. [If you look at the right side, you can see the
writer meant for the left side to be the product of a + b and c, but the left side
instead looks like a plus b minus c.
Bad: (a + b) c = ac bc.
Good: (a + b)(c) = ac bc.
Commas are natural places to pause brie.y, but not as fully as a period. If you read
something in your head, you should be able to notice badly placed commas, either because
no pause should occur or because a period should be there instead of a comma.
Bad: The condition we want is, a = 2b.
Good: The condition we want is a = 2b.
Bad: The set is infinite, we pick a large finite subset of it.
Good: The set is infinite. We pick a large finite subset of it.
While If ... , then... is a common phrase, it is bad English to write Let... , then... .
Very Bad: Let n be an even number, then n = 2m for some m Z.
Good: Let n be an even number. Then n = 2m for some m Z.
Good: Let n be an even number, so n = 2m for some m Z.
4. Use helpful words
Tell the reader where you are going.
Good:
Good:
Good:
Good:
Good:
Good:

We will prove this by induction on n.

We will prove this by induction on the dimension.
We argue by contradiction.
Now we consider the converse direction.
But f (x) is actually continuous. To see why, consider...
The inequality is strict. Indeed, if there was equality then...
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 Use key words to show the reader how you are reasoning (since, because, on the other
hand, observe, note), but vary your choice of words to avoid monotonous writing. This
may require you to completely rewrite a paragraph.
Bad: We proved, for any a, that if a2 is even, then a is even. Now suppose a8 is
even. Then a4 is even. Then a2 is even. Then a is even.
Good: We proved, for any a, that if a2 is even, then a is even. Now suppose a8
is even. Then a4 , by successively applying the result we proved to a, a2 , and a,
we see that a is even.
Watch your spelling! If you arent sure of the difference between necessary and neccessary or discriminate and discriminant, look it up. (Canadian students may use their
own flavour of spelling.) Use its only to mean it is. The word its is on the same
footing as his, to denote possession.
Bad: Its clear that f (x) has a real root since its degree is odd.
Bad: Its clear that f (x) has a real root since its degree is odd.
Good: Its clear that f (x) has a real root since its degree is odd.
Good: Since f (x) has odd degree, clearly it has a real root. [Write like this if
you cant remember the difference between its and its.]
5. Logical Connectives
Mathematics has its own language. As with any language, effective communication depends on
logically connecting components. Even the simplest real mathematical problems require at
least a small amount of reasoning, so it is very important that you develop a feeling for formal
(mathematical) logic. Consider, for example, the two sentences There are 10 people waiting
for the bus and The bus is late. What, if anything, is the logical connection between these
two sentences? Does one logically imply the other? Similarly, the two mathematical statements
r2 + r 2 = 0 and r = 1 or r = 2 need to be connected, otherwise they are merely two
random statements that convey no useful information. Warning: when mathematicians talk
about implication, it means that one thing must be true as a consequence of another; not that
it can be true, or might be true sometimes. Words and symbols that tie statements together
logically are called logical connectives. They allow you to communicate the reasoning that has
led you to your conclusion. Possibly the most important of these is implication the idea that
the next statement is a logical consequence of the previous one. This concept can be conveyed by
the use of words such as: therefore, hence, and so, thus, since, if . . . then . . . , this implies, etc.
In the middle of mathematical calculations, we can represent these by the implication symbol
(). For example
r
2x
2
;
(2)
x + 7y = 3 y =
7
x (0, ) cos(x) [1, 1].
(3)
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Converse
Note that statement A statement B does not necessarily mean that the logical converse
statement B statement A is also true. Logical implication is a matter of cause and effect;
the logical converse is simply the reverse cause-effect situation (which may not be true). Consider
the following, examples, for Examples (2) and (3) above
r
2x
2
x + 7y = 3 y =
;
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x (0, ) : cos(x) [1, 1]. Since x < 0 cos(x) [1, 1] also.
Contrapositive
We have seen that simply reversing a logical statement can lead to problems. There is a way,
however, to invert an implication so that the inverted statement is also true. This is known as
the contrapositive. Consider the statement A B; this means if A is true, then B is true.
The contrapositive is if B is false, then A must be false.
Equivalence
When the implication works both ways, we say that the two statements are equivalent and we
may use the equivalence symbol (); in words we may say A is equivalent to B or A if and
only if B. If two statements are equivalent, we may use any of the implication symbols (, ,
or ). Which connective we use depends on what we are trying to show. In (2) above, if we
are trying to obtain a formula for y, we would probably just use , even though the stronger
statement () is also true. If, however, we wanted to show that two statements about x and
y were equivalent, we would write
r
2x
2
.
x + 7y = 3 y =
7
Careful logic is the heart and soul of mathematics; learn to reason with watertight arguments
and use logical connectives to explain your reasoning processes.
Example:
What is the greatest amount of water that a right-cylindrical water tank can hold if there is
100 m2 of material from which to construct it?
Good:
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Let the height of the tank be h and the radius be r. Then the volume of the tank is V (h, r) = hr 2
and the surface area is S(h, r) = 2r 2 + 2rh = 2r(r + h). Since we require V > 0, we can
assume that r, h > 0. If we have 100 m2 of material, then S = 100, and so
S

2r(r + h) = 100
100
r+h=
2r
50
h=
r
r
V = hr 2 = 50r r 3 .

To find the maximum volume, we look for r such that

2
gives dV
dr = 50 3r . Hence

dV
dr

= 0. Differentiating with respect to r

dV
= 0 50 3r 2 = 0
dr
50
r2 =
3
r
50
r=
.
3
2

Since r > 0, we can use the the second derivative test and find ddrV2 = 6r < 0. This implies
q
50
that r = 3
2.3033 maximizes V . From above, the optimal volume is
V

= 50r r 3

  r
50
50
=
50
3
3

r
50
100
76.7765.
=
3
3

Thus we have found that the greatest amount of water such a tank can hold is (approximately)
76.7765 m3 .

Common Errors to Avoid When Writing Mathematics

The most common errors fall into the following categories:
not answering the question
incorrect English
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 incorrect mathematics
hard-to-read format
use of pronouns such as it
using the same symbol for different quantities
too many words and too few symbols, or vice versa
leaving too little space for possible corrections
Examples
Do not write
Do not write
Do not write
Do not write
Do not write
Do not write
Do not write
Do not write

f =x+1
n = even = 2n
n2 = 16 = n = 4
k =k+1
(3, 4, 8)
aA
length + area
1.4

when
when
when
when
when
when
when
when

you
you
you
you
you
you
you
you

mean
mean
mean
mean
mean
mean
mean
mean

f (x) = x + 1
If n is even, then n = 2k for some k
n2 = 16 implies n = 4
Replace k by k + 1
{3, 4, 8}
aA
length
and area

Do not confuse the words equation, expression, and function. An expression is an algebraic combination of terms containing no verb. An equation is a mathematical statement which contains
an equal sign. A function consists of a rule, a domain, and a range.
It is incorrect to speak or write of the quotient of a and b. When speaking or writing about
division, your statements must make it clear which is the divisor and which is the dividend.
It is correct to write:
divide both sides of the equation by 10
It is incorrect to write:
divide 10 to both sides of the equation
It is incorrect to write:
divide 10 by both sides of the equation
It is incorrect to write (or do) divide the right side of the equation by 10
e.g. Faced with 10x = 20 it is incorrect to claim that dividing 20 by 10 yields x = 2.
It is incorrect to speak or write of the difference of a and b. When speaking or writing about
subtraction, your statements must make it clear which is the subtrahend and which is the minuend.
It
It
It
It
It

is
is
is
is
is

correct to write:
incorrect to write:
incorrect to write:
incorrect to write:
incorrect to write:

subtract 5x from both sides of the equation

subtract 5x to both sides of the equation
subtract both sides by 5x
minus 5x from both sides of the equation
5x from both sides of the equation
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It is incorrect to write or speak of moving variables or numbers from one side of the equation
to the other.
It is incorrect to write 3 + 4.
It is incorrect to write 3 4.
It is incorrect to write 3 4.

Correct syntax is 3 + (4)

Correct syntax is 3 (4)
Correct syntax is 3 (4)

References
[1] Donald E.Knuth, Tracy Larrabee, and Paul M. Roberts, Mathematical Writing, MAA Notes
Number 14, (1989).
[2] Delano P. Wegener, Writing Mathematics Correctly Guidelines for Math 160C, (2006)
[3] Danielle Bundy et. al, Good Problems: teaching mathematical writing, (2001). This article
can be downloaded at: http://amath.colorado.edu/activities/preprints/

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