Deleted

nid
mid
fields
1440363813218 1438565846692 Alpha Amanitin Toxin found in mushrooms<br><br>
<br>Blocks RNA polymerase II > blocks elongation<br><br><br>Kills quickly by li
ver failure
1440363813219 1438565846692 What does SLE make antibodies to?
snRNP >
affects splicing
1440363813220 1438565846692 RETT
xlinked dominant<br><br><br>Chromatin err
or<br><br><br>MR, seizures, scoliosis
1440363813221 1438565846692 PrPsc Prion diseases.<br><br><br>Multiple type
s infectious and inherited.<br><br><br>Kuru cannabalism<br><br><br>CJD, vCJD, Fa
tal Hereditary Insomnia<br><br><br>Tx: Experimentally chaotropics
1440363813222 1438565846692 Diphtheria
2 chains:<br>
A Toxin > 60S
inhbits binding of AAtRNA to A site<br> <br> B gets toxin into cell<br><br><br>
Tx: Macrolides, antiserum (must test allergic sensitivity)
1440363813223 1438565846692 Ricin Affects 60S, inhibits binding of AAtRNA t
o A site<br><br><br>A chain toxin, B chain get into cell<br><br><br>1. Causes 28
S RNA depurination
1440363813224 1438565846692 Hereditary Hyperferritinemia
1. Increased fer
ritin causing cataracts<br><br><br>2. IRE cannot bind IREBP so ferritin productio
n is not regulated
1440363813225 1438565846692 Vanishing White Matter Syndrome 1. Mutation of E
IF2B<br><br><br>2. Assoc with head trauma
1440363813226 1438565846692 MeierGorlin Syndrome Mutation of origin repli
cation complex (ORC) 1,4, 6<br><br><br>CDT 1 and CDC 6 (necessary minichromosome
maintenance protein mmp, helicase activity)<br><br><br>Growth defects, slow gro
wth slow
1440363813227 1438565846692 Seckler Syndrome
"Bird Head"<div><br /><d
iv>Autosomal recessive</div><div>Affect ATR<br /><div>(ATR helps resolve blockag
es w DNA synthesis)</div></div></div>
1440363813231 1438565846692 Multiple Sulfatase Deficiency Defect in sulfat
ase modifying factor1 gene<br />
required to mod essential Cys <br /><br /><b
r />Enzyme deficiency and phenotypic features of several dz<br /><br /><br />S/S
: Prog paralysis, skeletal deform, neuro
1440363813232 1438565846692 Selenium
Essential micronut > needed for
redox reaction with glutathione peroxidase<br /><br /><br />5'deiodinases activa
tes thyroxine<br /><br /><br />Large heart
1440363813233 1438565846692 5' deiodinase deficiency can lead to goiter<b
r><br><br>T4 converted to T3 by 5'deiodoinase
1440363813234 1438565846692 I Cell Disease Genetic defect in mannose6phosphat
e<br><br><br>Does not add to enzymes<br><br><br>Failure of enzymes to target lys
osomes
1440363813235 1438565846692 Zellweger Syndrome
mutations in genes requi
red for peroxisome targeting
1440364024104 1438565846692 Nucleotide Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors<br><
br><br>Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors
Tx: HIV<br><br><br>Compe
titive inhibitors of reverse transcriptase.<br><br><br>AZT (azidothymidine, nucl
eoside analog)
1440364024105 1438565846692 Nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors
Tx: HIV<br><br><br>Noncompetitive inhibition<br><br><br>Efavirenz, Sustiva
1440364024117 1438565846692 What is the process by which Coumadin inhibits c
oag production? Stop gamacarboxylation<br>Gammacarbxylation converts inactive prec
ursoes of Vit K dep factors to active. Vit K and NADPH react.
1440434519257 1438565846692 Junctional Epidermalysis Bullosa
1. Reces
sive disease<div><br /></div><div>2. Defect in LAMB3 gene (coding Lamin-332)</di
v><div><br /></div><div>3. S/S: severe dermatological </div><div><br /></di
v><div>4. <b>Somatic Mosaicism: </b><i>reversion back to wild type functioning b
y showing patches of normal skin. </i></div><div><i> &
nbsp; - Diseased cells grow slowly /die fast</i></div><div><i> &nbs
p; - Reverted cells can occaisionally outgrow diseased.</i></div>
1440434628741 1438565846692 What type of mutation was Junctional Epidermalys
is Bullosa
Intragenic suppressor mutation
1440434695079 1438565846692 Hereditary Non-polyposis Colon Cancer (Lynch Syn
drome, HNPCC) <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </spa
n>- Mismatch repair (hMSH2) </div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="
white-space:pre"> </span>- Early colorectal and extracolonic cancers</div><div><
span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Autosomal dominant
inheritence</div><div><br /></div><div>SOMATIC loss of heterozygosity initiates
cancer</div>
1440437091615 1438565846692 What is the most important mutatgenic concequenc
e of oxygen radicals? Oxidation - 8-oxoG (guanine)
1440437737185 1438565846692 What is a genetic cause of Hemophilia A Disrupti
on of factor VIII gene<div><br /></div><div>TGE like DNA element</div>
1440445090305 1438565846692 <div>Acicardi-Goutieres Syndrome:</div><div><br
/></div>
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </spa
n>- Rare autosomal recessive</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white
-space:pre"> </span>- Neurodevelopment disorder</div><div><span class="Apple-tab
-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- DEFECT in RNaseH2</div><div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Homozygous defects for RNase
H2 leads to embryonic lethality (in mice)</div><div><br /></div>
1440445102725 1438565846692 <div>Xeroderma Pigmentosum</div><div><br /></div
>
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Highly
susceptible to skin cancer</div><div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="w
hite-space:pre"> </span> Hypermutagenesis because of defect in NEW</div></div><di
v><br /></div>
1440445203503 1438565846692 <div> Cockayne Syndrome</div><div><br /></d
iv>
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Assoc
with TC-ER, defect in accelerating TC-ER</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span"
style="white-space:pre"> </span> Defect: Loss of CS-A or CS-B </div><div><sp
an class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> S/S: photosensitivity,
growth/mental retardation, premautre aging, little cancer</div><div><br /></div
>
1440445589667 1438565846692 Trichothiodystrophy (TTD)
<div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> BRITTLE HAIR</div><div><span c
lass="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Sulfur deficiency</div><di
v><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> s/S: UV sensitive
, half patients also partially defective for DNA repair</div><div><span cl
ass="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Autosomal Recessive</div><d
iv><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Defect: XPB or X
PD (factors in TC-ER)</div><div><br /></div>
1440445810406 1438565846692 <div>Bloom Syndrome</div><div><br /></div>
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Growth defec
ts, sun sensitive, chromosomal instability, MALE infertility, cancer predisposit
ion</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- AUT
OSOMAL RECESSIVE</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre">
</span>- Defect: BLM Coding for RecQ-like helicase</div><div><span class="Apple
-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Defect in recombination, including
DSB repair</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </spa
n> Elevated sister chromatid exchange</div><div><br /></div>
1440447089790 1438565846692 Werner Syndrome Gene defect: WRN<div>DNA helicas
e/nuclease dysfunction</div><div><br /></div><div>Progeria of adult</div><div><b
r /></div><div>Susceptible to various CA</div>
1440447125988 1438565846692 XP Variant
Extreme photosensitivity
<div>early cancer</div><div><br /></div><div>Defect: speciliazed DNA polymerase
Eta</div>
1440448979929 1438565846692 Trichothiodystropy (TTD)
Defect: Transcri
ption coupled repair, transcription<div><br /></div><div>s/S: Photosensitivity,
premature senility, <b>brittle hair</b></div>
1440449092245 1438565846692 Li-Fraumeni Syndrome
Cancer susceptible (defe
ct in p53)<div><br /></div><div>DNA damage reponse defective</div>
1440449118790 1438565846692 Familial Breast Cancer BRCA1, BRCA 2 affected<d
iv><br /></div><div>dsDNA break repair pathway dysfunction</div>

1440456921941 1438565846692 Person A is asking to find out what his risk of
being a CF carrier is. He is unaffected but his brother and sister both ha
ve CF.What is his risk of being a carrier?
2/3<div><br /></div><div>If know
n not affected that removed homozygous recessive possibility, overall increasing
risk of carrier state </div>
1440456991552 1438565846692 Red-Green color blindness shows what type of inh
eritence?
X-linked recessive<div><br /></div><div>Transmits unaffected car
rier female to their SONS</div>
1440457017982 1438565846692 What type of inheritence does Ducheynne Muscular
Dystrophy exhibit?
X-linked recessive
1440539812561 1438565846692 MERRF<div>(Myoclonic Epilepsy)</div>
Key Feat
ure: Ragged Red Fibers<div><br /></div><div>DefecT: A to G mutation at nucleotid
e 8344</div><div><br /></div><div>- mt tRNA lysine defective</div>
1440539857699 1438565846692 MELAS (Mitochondrial encephalomyopathy with Lact
ic Acidosis and Stroke like episodes) Defect: Mutations in tRNA for leucine an
d glutamine<div><br /></div><div>- mutations in <b>comple I ND </b>genes</div>
1440539906773 1438565846692 LHON (leber hereditary optic neuropathy)
Defect: mutations in <b>complex I </b>ND genes
1440539943879 1438565846692 What is the most common trisomy?
21, Down
<div><br /></div><div>Most other trisomy are lethal</div>
1440544221865 1438565846692 What are the clinical features of Cystic Fibrosi
s?
1. Clogged and infected airway<div>2. Digestive prob - <b>meconium ileus
</b></div><div>3. Bilateral Abscence of vas deferens</div><div>4. Salty sweat</d
iv>
1440548687281 1438565846692 What bacteria is common in cystic fibrosis pneum
onia? Pseudomonas
1440548704709 1438565846692 What inheritence pattern for cystic fibrosis
aut recessive
1440548809877 1438565846692 What type of defect is most common in cystic fib
rosis A class II Delta F508 deletion
1440549706542 1438565846692 Who should be offered genetic testing for CF?
1. Adults with (+) FmHx<div>2. Partners of individuals with CF</div><div>3. Coup
les currently planning a pregnancy</div><div>4. Couples seeking prenatal care</d
iv>
1440549899073 1438565846692 What disease does CFTR dysfunction protect again
st?
S. Typhi
1440550173291 1438565846692 What type of inheritence in Duchenne Muscular Dy
strophy X-linked recessive
1440550686361 1438565846692 What test can be indicative of Duchenne Muscular
Dystrophy?
CPK<div><br /></div><div>Marks for muscle damage</div>
1440550712023 1438565846692 What type of deletions in DMD? Large out of fra
me deletions
1440551611403 1438565846692 What happens in DMD when there is a non-sense mu
tation? loss of RNA<div>No dystrophin made</div><div><br /></div><div>nonsense m
ediated decay (also with lg deletion)</div>
1440551647887 1438565846692 What type of deletions in Duchenne Muscular Dyst
rophy Out of frame exon deletion
1440552018454 1438565846692 What type of deletions in becker muscular dystro
phy
in frame
1440552027934 1438565846692 What can be used for genetic therapy in DMD?
High dose <b>aminoglycosides</b> will inhibit 16s rRNA and cause misreading
1440593907964 1438565846692 What type of dominance for Fragile X
X-linked
dominant
1440594138921 1438565846692 What gene for Fragile X FMR1
1440594156069 1438565846692 Constellation for fragile X?
<div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Constellation</div><div><spa
n class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Long face, big ears, hy
perext joints</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </
span> NON PROGRESSIVE MODERATE TO SEVERE RETARDATION</div><div><span class="Apple
-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Learning disabilities</div><div>X-lin

ked dominant (Sherman Paradox)</div>
1440594205874 1438565846692 <div>What is risk that a woman with FMR1 g
ene with 70 CGG repeats will have Fragile X Child?</div><div><br /></div>
50%
1440595008395 1438565846692 Why type of disorder is Fragile X?
Loss of
funciton<div><br /></div><div>hypermethylation CpG</div><div><br /></div><div>Hu
ge expansion of CGG repeats</div>
1440595142779 1438565846692 Why is a feature of Myotonic Dystrophy Anticipa
tion<div><br /></div><div>generational worsening of disease</div>
1440595232026 1438565846692 What type of inheritence for myotonic dystrophy
aut dom
1440595247482 1438565846692 Features of mild myotonic dys prefrontal baldn
ess, cataracts<div><br /></div><div>Sx worsen with each generation</div>
1440595268105 1438565846692 What is DM2
Second variation of dystonia myo
tonic that has defect in CCTGn, instead of CTG. ZNF9<div><br /></div><div>
Same symptoms</div>
1440595732530 1438565846692 describe DM1 vs DM2
<img src="paste-12713103
20071.jpg" />
1440595839339 1438565846692 What repeat is found in huntingtons?
CAG repe
at<div><br /></div><div>found in open coding region</div>
1440595906649 1438565846692 What determines age of onset in Huntington disea
se?
number of CAG repeats
1440596110453 1438565846692 What type of Toxicity in Huntingtons
Toxic pr
otein
1440596744050 1438565846692 What type of toxicity in DM1
Toxic RNA
1440596760185 1438565846692 Kennedy Disease <div><span class="Apple-tab-span
" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Adult onset spinal bulbar muscular dystrophy</
div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Motoro neu
ronopathy, compatible with long life in males</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-s
pan" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Expansion of CAG triplet causing GAIN of FU
NCTION in androgen receptor</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whitespace:pre"> </span> Some mutations cause Loss of function</div><div><span class="
Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> No androgen receptor = no respon
s testosterone</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> <
/span> Complete feminization of testicles</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span"
style="white-space:pre"> </span> Loss of function, promoter mutation</div><div>CA
USES XY FEMALE</div>
1440596921530 1438565846692 In Fragile X and MD what large expansions cause
severe disease <div><br /></div><div>FX: CGG 5' UTR</div><div>MD: CTG 3' UT
R</div> > 1000 repeats
1440601261251 1438565846692 What are three common trisomies?
21, 18,
13
1440601359129 1438565846692 Chromosome disorder consequences
<div><sp
an class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- F - facials features
</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- B - bi
rth defects, physical variation</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="wh
ite-space:pre"> </span>- G - growth retardation, microcephaly</div><div>D - deve
lopmental problems</div>
1440602645604 1438565846692 Common symptoms in Trisomy 21 <div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> F - epicanthal folds, upslanti
ng palpebrae, small ears</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-spa
ce:pre"> </span> B - single palmar creases, septal heart defect GI defect, vision
and hearing loss</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"
> </span> G - mild SS</div><div>D - moderate ID, premature aging</div>
1440602850551 1438565846692 Features of Trisomy 18 <div><span class="Appletab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> F - bird like face, abl ears, small ch
in</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> B - he
art, clenched fist, rocker bottom feet</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" st
yle="white-space:pre"> </span> G - IUGR</div><div>D - increased tone, ID, poor su
rvival</div>
1440603217805 1438565846692 Features of Trisomy 13 <div><span class="Appletab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Features</div><div><span class="Appl
e-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> F - micro-opthalmia, sloping forehea
d</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> B - hol
oprosencephaly, oro-facial cleft, heart defect, polydactyly</div><div><span clas
s="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> G - IUGR</div><div>D severe disease, many early deaths, seizures, severe ID</div>
1440603463900 1438565846692 What allows Trisomy 16 to survive?
Mostly d
eadly<div><br /></div><div>mosaicism - some noral CS</div>
1440603567303 1438565846692 What is the most common chromosomal deletion?
4p1440603655254 1438565846692 <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-s
pace:pre"> </span>Wolf Hirschhorn (4p-): Features</div><div><br /></div>
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> F- helmet nose
, arched eyebrows</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"
> </span> B - oro-facial clefts</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whi
te-space:pre"> </span> G - IUGR, microcephaly</div><div>D- ID</div>
1440603743581 1438565846692 What are features of chromosome 22q11.2 deletion
? (fmly DiGeorge syndrome)
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-s
pace:pre"> </span>F - long narrow face, prominent nasal tip</div><div><span clas
s="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>B - conotruncl heart defects,
parathyroid glands (hypoCa), immunodeficiency, long tapered fingers</div><div><
span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>G - normal growth</d
iv><div>D - mild ID or LD, increased risk psych prob</div>
1440603922543 1438565846692 What is interesting about the survival of Turner
Syndrome
Only 1 X<div><br /></div><div>Although many sex chromosome probs
have fewer symptoms, only 1% of turner kids survive</div>
1440604730913 1438565846692 Features of Turner syndrome
<div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> F - wdiely spaced eyes, webbed
neck,</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Bshield like chest, puffy hands,</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="w
hite-space:pre"> </span> G - SS in childhood</div><div>D- LD, visual spacial prob
s, infertility due to ovarian failure</div>
1440604809703 1438565846692 Do Triple X syndrome children have fertility pro
blems? No
1440604977753 1438565846692 What are features of Tiple X syndrome? <div><sp
an class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Features</div><div><sp
an class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Mild LD</div><div><spa
n class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Increased risk psych</d
iv><div>seizures</div>
1440604985393 1438565846692 Features of Klinefelters (XXY) <div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Mild LD<span class="Apple-tabspan" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Speech delay</div><div><span class="Appletab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Motor incoordination<span class="Apple
-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Behavioral/social issues</div><div><s
pan class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Poor pubertal devel<s
pan class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Gynecomastia</div><di
v><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Small testes<span
class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>infertility</div><div><b
r /></div>
1440605093339 1438565846692 What are features of XYY
<div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Mild LD<span class="Apple-tabspan" style="white-space:pre"> </span>ADHD</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span
" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Behavioral <span class="Apple-tab-span" style=
"white-space:pre"> </span>Tall stature</div><div><br /></div><div>Normal fertili
ty</div>
1440686976935 1438565846692 What two genes are more active in thrombophilia
Factor 5<div><br /></div><div>Prothrombin</div>
1440687761299 1438565846692 What is the mutation in Factor V leiden?
G - A mutation GLN -> ARG

1440687969177 1438565846692 What is the risk of DVT in Factor V homozygotes
80x increase DVT risk
1440687984517 1438565846692 What do you do if a family member has a clot?
Genetic testing
1440688109519 1438565846692 What are the two most common genes responsible f
or Long QT?
LQT 1 55%<div><br /></div><div>LQT 2 45% (HERG)</div>
1440688559339 1438565846692 Why does HCM have variable age presentation?
Typically presents once you become extremely physically active
1440688948385 1438565846692 Which genes are most affected with HCM? MYBPC3 41%<div>MYH7 - 41%</div>
1440689110906 1438565846692 What is a common protein defect in APP? B Amyloi
d Precursor Protein (APP)
1440690298298 1438565846692 What type of inheretence for genetic related AD?
Autosomal Dominant<div>- earlier onset</div><div>- 5% of cases</div>
1440690335874 1438565846692 Which protein confirs some protection from AD?
Epsilon 2 <div><br /></div><div>allele of ApoE</div>
1440690361513 1438565846692 What factor confirs 4x increased risk of AD and
15% of population
APOE Epsilon 4
1440732204253 1438565846692 What causes Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS a
ka Lou Gehrig's Disease)?
Mutations in superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1)<div><
br /></div><div>- Familial Form: G93A mutation (Gly - Ala)</div>
1440732259106 1438565846692 What type of mutation is seen in sickle cell ane
mia?
single nucleotide polymorphism<div><br /></div><div>(in hb beta gene)</d
iv>
1440732290284 1438565846692 What are the human prion disease?
Cruetzfe
ldt-Jakob Disease (sporadic or inherited)<div><br /><div>CJDv - infectious BSE</
div><div><br /></div><div>Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker Syndrome (usually inher
ited, aut dom, rare)</div><div><br /></div><div>Fatal Familial Insomnia (inherit
ed, aut dom, rare)</div><div><br /></div><div>Kuru - cannibalism</div></div>
1440732391090 1438565846692 What are four common misfolding and aggregation
diseases?
Parkinson's<div>Huntingtons'</div><div>Alzheimers</div><div>ALS<
/div>
1440732477294 1438565846692 What is the most common type of osteogenesis imp
erfecta?
Type 1<div><br /></div><div>Mildest</div><div><br /></div><div>F
unction but low quality collagen formed</div>
1440732599021 1438565846692 What is the most severe form of osteogenesis imp
erfecta?
Type II<div><br /></div><div>collagen in insufficient quality an
d quantity</div><div><br /></div><div>- most die in first year of life from resp
failure, ICH</div><div><br /></div><div>Pathogmneumonic sign: blue sclera</div>
<div><br /></div>
1440732651678 1438565846692 What is Type 3 osteogenesis imperfecta? Collagen
improperly formed, enough made but defective
1440797679169 1438565846692 What is OTCase deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>
What is an investigational treatment?</div>
1. Loss of function<div><br /></
div><div>2. Normal OTCase cDNA inserted into adenovirus to infect liver cells</d
iv><div> - good response but require redosing</div><div><br /></div>
<div><br /></div>
1440797733727 1438565846692 What is Adenosine Deaminase Deficiency (SCID)
"boy in bubble" disease<div><br /></div><div>Severe combined immunodeficiency di
sorder</div><div><br /></div><div>Can be treated with marrow enriched ADA cells
imlpanted in viral vector</div><div><br /></div><div>Problem: 3 cases developed
leukemia</div>
1440822147075 1438565846692 Familial Hyperinsulinemia<div><br /></div><div>1
. Inheretance</div><div><br /></div><div>2. What causes it</div><div><br /></div
><div>3. DM?</div>
1. Autosomal dominant<div>2. Defective pro insulin cleav
age</div><div>3. equal insulin and partially cleaved insulin= DM</div><div>&nbsp
; --> NO DM in heterozygotes<br /></div>
1471110383010 1471110292325 Age Definitions:<div><br /><div>Adult = {{c1::Ad
olescents (ie, after onset of puberty) and older}}</div></div><div>Children = {{
c1::1 year of age to puberty}}</div><div>Infants = {{c1::Less than 1 year of age

(excluding infants in the delivery room)}}</div>
1471111001028 1471110292325 CPR is a lifesaving procedure for a victim who h
as signs of {{c1::cardiac arrest }}
1471111091565 1471110292330 Signs of cardiac arrest 1. Unresponsive<div>2. N
o normal breathing</div><div>3. No pulse</div>
1471111135754 1471110292325 Start compressions within {{c1::10}} second
s
1471111169224 1471110292325 Compress at a rate of {{c1::100-120}} compressio
ns/min
1471111209210 1471110292325 Compression depth for<div>Adults: {{c1::At least
2 in (5 cm)}} </div><div>Children: {{c1::At least 1/3 the depth of chest a
bout 2 (5 cm)}}</div><div>Infants: {{c1::At least 1/3 the depth of chest, about
1/5 inches (4 cm)}}</div>
1471111482567 1471110292330 6 steps of High-Quality CPR
1. Start compres
sions within <font color="#ff2629">10 seconds</font><div>2. <font color="#ff2629
">Push</font> hard, Push Fast</div><div>3. Allow complete <font color="#ff2629">
chest recoil</font></div><div>4. Minimize <font color="#ff2629">interruptions</f
ont></div><div>5. Give <font color="#ff2629">effective breaths</font></div><div>
6. Avoid <font color="#ff2629">excessive ventilation</font></div>
1471111798345 1471110292325 Compression depth greather than {{c1::2.4 inches
(6 cm)}} in adults may cause injuries
1471111867491 1471110292325 It is optimal to target your compression depth f
rom {{c1::2-2.4 inches (5-6 cm)}}
1471112263198 1471110292330 In-hospital cardiac arrest chain of survival:&nb
sp;
1.Surveillance, prevention, and treatment of <font color="#ff2629">prear
rest conditions</font><div>2. Immediate <font color="#ff2629">recognition</font>
of cardiac arrest and <font color="#ff2629">activation</font> of the emergency
response system</div><div>3. Early <font color="#ff2629">CPR</font> with an emph
asis on chest compressions</div><div>4. Rapid <font color="#ff2629">defibrillati
on</font></div><div>5. Multidisciplinary <font color="#ff2629">post-cardiac arre
st care</font></div>
1471112409849 1471110292330 Chain of survival for Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Ar
rest (OHCA):
1. Immediate <font color="#ff2629">recognition</font> of cardiac
arrest and <font color="#ff2629">activation</font> of the emergency response sy
stem<div>2. Early <font color="#ff2629">CPR</font> w/ emphasis on chest compress
ions</div><div>3. Rapid <font color="#ff2629">defibrillation</font> with AED</di
v><div>4. Effective <font color="#ff2629">advanced life support</font> (includin
g rapid stabilization and transport to post-cardiac arrest care)</div><div>5. Mu
ltidisciplinary <font color="#ff2629">post-cardiac arrest care</font></div>
1471113965089 1471110292325 In adults, cardiac arest is often sudden and res
ults form a {{c1::cardiac}} cause. <div>In children, cardiac arrest is ofte
n secondary to {{c2::respiratory failure and shock.}}</div>
1471114022599 1471110292330 Pediatric Chain of Survival:
1. <font color="
#ff2629">Prevention</font> of arrest<div>2. Early high-quality bystander <font c
olor="#ff2629">CPR</font></div><div>3. <font color="#ff2629">Rapid activation</f
ont> of the emergency response system</div><div>4. Effective <font color="#ff262
9">ALS</font> (including rapid stabilization and transport to post-cardiar arres
t care)</div><div>5. Integrated <font color="#ff2629">post-cardiac arrest care</
font></div>
1471114339230 1471110292330 Definition difference between <font color="#ff26
29">sudden cardiac arrest </font>and <font color="#ff2629">heart attack</font>
Sudden cardiac arrest: occurs when the heart develops an abnormal rhythm and can
't pump blood<div><br /></div><div>Heart attack: occurs when blood flow to tpart
of the heart muscle is blocked</div>
1471114701497 1471110292330 Difference between outcome of sudden cardiac arr
est and heart attack? Sudden cardia arrest: death occurs w/in minutes if victi
m does not receive immediate lifesaving treatment<div><br /></div><div>Heart att
ack: Signs of heart attack may appear immediately or last weeks or longer. Typic
ally, the heart continues to pump blood. The longer the person with a heart atta
ck goes without treatment, the greater the possible damage to the heart muscle.
Occasionally, the damaged heart muscle triggers an abnormal rhythm that can lead
to a sudden cardiac arrest.</div>
1471114962345 1471110292330 General symptoms of heart attack
- Severe
discomfort in chest or other areas of upper body<div>- Shortness of breath</div
><div>- Cold sweats</div><div>- Nausea/vomiting</div>
1471115048783 1471110292330 Symptoms of heart attack more specific to women:
- Pain in the jaw, arms, back, or neck<div>- Light-headedness</div><div>- Nausea
/vomiting</div>
1471115113301 1471110292330 3 types of CPR
Hands-only CPR: chest co
mpressions<div>30:2 CPR: CPR + rescue breaths</div><div>Multirescuer coordinated
CPR: High-performance team</div>
1471115511227 1471110292330 3 main components of CPR
1. Chest compres
sions<div>2. Airway</div><div>3. Breathing</div>
1471115554028 1471110292330 1st step of Adult cardiac arest algorithm
Verify scene safety
1471120339217 1471110292330 What to do immediately after scene safety is ass
essed? Check victim:<div>-Victim is unresponsive</div><div>-Shout for nearby he
lp</div><div>-Activate emergency response system </div><div>-Get AD and eme
rgecy equipment (or send someone to do so)</div><div><br /></div>
1471120503099 1471110292330 If patient is unresponsive, what is the next ste
p?
Look for no <font color="#ff2629">breathing</font> or only gasping and <
font color="#ff2629">check pulse</font> (simultaneously)
1471120585726 1471110292330 What should be done if breathing is normal and t
here is a pulse?
monitor until emergency responders arrive
1471120634444 1471110292330 What should be done if the person has a pulse bu
t no normal breathing? Provide resuce breathing:<div>-1 breath every <font colo
r="#ff2629">5-6 seconds</font>, or about <font color="#ff2629">10-12 breaths/min
</font></div><div>-Activate emergency response system (if not already done) afte
r <font color="#ff2629">2 minutes</font></div><div>-Continue rescue breathing; <
font color="#ff2629">check pulse about every 2 minutes</font>. If no pulse, begi
n CPR.</div><div>-If possible opioid overdose, administer <font color="#ff2629">
naloxone</font> if available per protocol</div>
1471120819891 1471110292325 Rescue breaths is 1 breath every {{c1::5-6}} sec
onds, or about {{c1::10-12}} breaths/min
1471121094158 1471110292330 What should be done if victim has no breathing o
r only gasping, and there is no pulse? Begin CPR:<div>- 30 compressions and 2 b
reaths</div><div>- Use AED as soon as it is available</div>
1471121095800 1471110292330 What happens if AED arrives while you are doing
CPR?
Stop CPR and immediately check for rhythm
1471121146800 1471110292330 What should be done if the AED shows a shockable
rhythm?
<font color="#ff2629">Give 1 shock</font>. <font color="#ff2629"
>Resume CPR</font> immediately for about <font color="#ff2629">2 minutes</font>
(until prompted by AED). Continue until ALS providers take over or victim starts
to move.
1471121245137 1471110292330 What should be done if AED does not find a shock
able rhythm?
Resume CPR immediately for about <font color="#ff2629">2 minutes
</font> (until prompted by AED to allow rhythm check). Continue until ALS provid
ers take over or victim starts to move.
1471121675247 1471110292325 To minimize delay in starting CPR, you may asses
s {{c1::breathing}} at the same time as you {{c1::check for pulse}}. This should
take no mor than {{c2::10}} seconds
1471121713282 1471110292330 How to check a person's breathing?
Scan the
victim's chest for rise and fall
1471121770323 1471110292330 How to check for pulse in an unresponsive adult
victim? Palpate carotid pulse
1471121808337 1471110292330 What if the (unresponsive) person presents with
<font color="#ff2629">agonal gasps</font>?
This is not normal breathing. Th
is may be present in teh first few minutes after sudden cardiac arrest. Person u
sually looks like he is drawing air in very quickly. Sometimes it may sound like
a snort, snore, or groan.

1471121960036 1471110292330 When is it OK to move a victim that needs CPR?
If the victim is in a dangerous environment or if you believe you cannot perform
CPR effectively in the victim's present position or location
1471122208943 1471110292325 To make compressions as effective as possible, p
lace the victim {{c1::on a firm surface::location}}
1471122880282 1471110292330 What should you do if a if you suspect a victim
in a prone position has a head/neck injury?
Keep head, neck, and torso in li
ne when rolling the victim to a faceup position
1471122953804 1471110292325 Position your hands and body to perfor chest com
pressions:<div>- Put the heel of one hand {{c1::in the center of the victim's ch
est::location}}, on the {{c2::lower half of the breastbone (sternum)::more speci
fically}}</div><div>- Put the heel of your other hand on top of the first hand</
div><div>- Straighten your arms and position your {{c3::shoulders}} directly ove
r {{c3::your hands}}</div>
1471123159175 1471110292330 Why is chest recoil important? It allows blood
to flow back into the heart
1471123261889 1471110292325 For breaths to be effective, the victim's {{c1::
airway}} must be open
1471123296092 1471110292330 What are the 2 methods for opening the airway?
1.Head tilt-chin lift<div>2. Jaw thrust</div>
1471123326795 1471110292330 When should the jaw-thrust maneuver be used?
If a head or neck injury is suspected (but switch to head tilt-chin lift if the
jaw thrust is not properly opening the airway)
1471123408979 1471110292325 Head tilt-chin lift:<div><br /></div><div>1. Pla
ce one hand on the victim's {{c1::forehead}} and push with your palm to tilt the
head back</div><div>2. Place the fingers of the other hand {{c2::under the bony
part of the lower jaw near the chin}}</div><div>3. Lift the jaw to bring the ch
in forward</div>
1471123541585 1471110292325 Jaw-Thrust Maneuver:<div><br /></div><div>1. Pla
ce one hand on {{c1::each side of the victim's head}}. You may rest your elbows
on the surface on which the victim is lying</div><div>2. Place your fingers {{c2
::under the angles of the victim's lower jaw}} and lift with both hands, displac
ing the jaw forward</div><div>3. If the lips close, {{c3::push the lower lip wit
h your thumb to open the lips}}</div>
1471123692326 1471110292325 For mouth-to-mask breaths, use a {{c1::pocket ma
sk::barrier device}}
1471123737469 1471110292325 The air we breathe contains about {{c1::21}}% ox
ygen; The airw we breathe out contains about {{c1::17}}% oxygen
1471123901615 1471110292325 During CPR, jaw thrust and bag mask-ventilation
are more effectively performed when {{c1::2 or more rescuers are providing venti
lation}}
One resucer positioned above victim's head and use both hands to
poen the airway, lift the jaw, and hold the mask to the face while the second r
escuer squeezes the bag.
1471124294047 1471110292330 If 2 people are available, how often should they
take turns doing CPR? About every 2 minutes (about 5 CPR cycles, typically whe
n the AED is analzying)
1471124414365 1471110292330 When 2 people are available, why is it helpful t
o have the compressor count out loud? The rescuer providing breaths can antici
pate when breaths will be given. Also, the count will alert both rescuers when t
he time for a switch is approaching.
1471303416179 1421373138997 <img src="6480a4ed6d77e36fb672e33ff0865f5acc7466
af_Q 1.svg" /> <img src="6480a4ed6d77e36fb672e33ff0865f5acc7466af_A 1.svg" />
<img src="6480a4ed6d77e36fb672e33ff0865f5acc7466af_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="6480a4ed6d77e36fb672e33ff0865f5acc7466af_tmpzgyskm.png" />

1471303424991 1421373138997 <img src="34cfdbc07e37b1d7e29da7a04928b62f31c369
79_Q 0.svg" /> <img src="34cfdbc07e37b1d7e29da7a04928b62f31c36979_A 0.svg" />
<img src="34cfdbc07e37b1d7e29da7a04928b62f31c36979_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="34cfdbc07e37b1d7e29da7a04928b62f31c36979_tmpzgyskm.png" />
1471303570456 1421373138997 <img src="4484483c992f1bd3de9a75be51bcaab37fc234
6b_Q 0.svg" /> <img src="4484483c992f1bd3de9a75be51bcaab37fc2346b_A 0.svg" />
<img src="4484483c992f1bd3de9a75be51bcaab37fc2346b_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="4484483c992f1bd3de9a75be51bcaab37fc2346b_tmpc0jevt.png" />
1441148186914 1438565846692 What are the four ways to metabolize carbohydrat
es?
1. Glycogenesis<div><br /></div><div>2. Glycogenolysis</div><div><br /><
/div><div>3. Glycolysis</div><div><br /></div><div>4. Gluconeogenesis</div><div>
<br /></div><div><img src="paste-17381732646913.jpg" /></div>
1441148594101 1438565846692 What are the featuers of catabolic and anabolic
pathways?
Anabolic: simple --> complex, reductive, REQUIRE energy<div><
br /></div><div>Catabolic: complex --> simple, oxidative, result in RELEASE o
f energy</div>
1441148666370 1438565846692 How many moles of pyruvate result from met of gl
ucose? 2 mol<div><br /></div>
1441148826932 1438565846692 1. High concentrations of ____ inhibit hexokinas
e.<div><br /></div><div>2. T/F Fructose 6 Phosphate --> F 1,6 BP is irreversi
ble</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Name the other two irreversible reactions</div
>
1. G-6-P<div><br /></div><div>2. True</div><div><br /></div><div>3.&nbsp
;</div><div> a. Glucose --> G-6-p (enzyme hexokinase)</div
><div> b. F-6-P --> F 1,6 BP (enzyme phosphofructokinase)<
/div><div><br /></div><div> c. Phosphoenol Pyruvate --> Pyruvate
(enzyme Pyruvate kinase)</div>
1441148992046 1438565846692 Imporance of Glycolysis Energy - for life proces
ses<div>Intermediates for other pathways --> ie dihydroxyglycerol phosphate f
or trigylceride pathway.<br /><div><br /></div></div>
1441149040890 1438565846692 What cells do glycolysis occur in?
All of t
hem
1441149049102 1438565846692 Where may glucokinase catalyze glycolysis?
Liver and to a lesser extent the kidney
1441149089384 1438565846692 Explain the energy consumption and yield in Glyc
olysis.<div><br /></div><div>1. How many reactions use ATP</div><div>2. What is
Net production</div><div>3. What are the ATP consuming reactions?</div> <img src
="paste-18605798326273.jpg" />
1441149174081 1438565846692 What makes Glucokinase useful? It has a higher
Km which allows it to bind more substrate (glucose). Therefore, in times o
f over-eating it kicks in in the liver and metaboilzes more glucose
1441149208379 1438565846692 What is the most important reaction in glycolysi
s?
Fructose 6 Phosphate --> Fructose 1,6 Bisphosphate<div><br /></div><d
iv>Enzyme: Phosphofructokinase</div><div>Requires ATP</div>
1441149240966 1438565846692 The F6P --> F 1,6 BP is the most important, w
hat makes it so?<div><br /></div><div>Role of ATP, Citrate, F26BP and AMP?</div>
IT IS ALLOSTERICALLY REGULATED<div><br /></div><div>ATP is an allosteric inhibit
or</div><div>Citrate inhibits</div><div><br /></div><div>F26BP stimulates</div><
div>AMP stimulates</div>
1441149402380 1438565846692 F 1,6 BP is reacted (in an aldolase rxn) to form
___ and ____ Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate<div><br /></div><div>Glyceraldehyde 3

-Phosphate</div>
1441149473136 1438565846692 What are the enzymes, intermediates for the glyc
eraldehy 3-phosphate --> 1, 3 Biphosphoglycerate
Dehydrogenase<div>NAD -> NADH</div><div>Phosphate</div>
1441149534892 1438565846692 What step has the first release of free energy i
n glycolysis? 1,3 BPG --> 3-P-Glycerate <div><br /></div><div>Phosphog
lyercate kinase catalyzes RELEASE OF ATP</div>
1441149574551 1438565846692 What does an enolase do?
result in releas
e of water
1441149615121 1438565846692 What is the third irreversible reaction of glyco
lysis? Phosphoenolpyruvate --> Pyruvate (enzyme pyruvate kinase)
1441149644813 1438565846692 What is the second reaction that releases a high
energy phosphate (ATP)?
PEP --> Pyruvate (enzyme pyruvate kinase)
1441149679428 1438565846692 What is the additional step in anaerobic glycoly
sis that creates lactate?
Lactate dehydrogenase reacts with pyruvate
1441149707477 1438565846692 Which reaction in glycolysis requires NADH?
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate --> 1,3 BPG<div><br /></div><div>Releases high ene
rgy phosphate</div><div><br /></div><div>called: DEHYDROGENASE REACTION</div>
1441149848013 1438565846692 What is released in the Glyc-3-P reaction with D
ehydrogenase to form 1,3 BPG? High energy phosphate
1441149875228 1438565846692 What is the reason for anaerobic metabolism?
Cant use electron transport.<div><br /></div><div>requires NADH, goes to NAD+</d
iv><div><br /></div><div>NAD+ will go back to dehydrogenase reaction and go thro
ugh the last 4 steps of glycolysis and anerobic metabolism to continue generatin
g NAD+</div>
1441152533024 1438565846692 What is gluconeogenesis?
A pathway to rev
erse three irreversible rxns of glycolysis
1441152562453 1438565846692 Where does gluconeogenesis occur?
Liver &g
t;> Kidney
1441152572553 1438565846692 What reaction(s) are required to reverse the pyr
uvate kinase reaction?? a. Biotin, Enzyme + CO2 --> (acetyl-coA, ATP) E
nzyme-Biotin-CO2<div><br /></div><div>b. Enzym/Biotin/Co2 complex + Pyruvate --&
gt; Oxaloacetate</div>
1441152695617 1438565846692 What does acetyl-Coa do in the reaction of Bioti
n to reverse pyruvate? Acetyl-Coa undergoes a conformational change to allow bi
otin to bind Enzyme (pyruvate carboxylase)<div><br /></div><div>Acetyl-CoA is an
allosteric effector</div>
1441152785683 1438565846692 Where does the conversion of pyruvate to oxaloac
etate occur?
Mitochondria<div><br /></div><div>*All other gluconeogenesis rea
ctions in the cytosol</div>
1441152818486 1438565846692 What are the four descriptors of gluconeogenesis
?
Anabolic reaction<div><br /></div><div>Simple to complex (anaboilc)</div
><div><br /></div><div>Reductive</div><div><br /></div><div>Occurs in liver and
kidney</div>
1441152883786 1438565846692 How does oxaloacetate get out of the mitochondri
a since it cannot pass the mitochondrial membrane?
Malate shuttle<div><br /
></div><div>Oxaloacetate converted to malate --> passes mit membrane --> c
onverted back to oxaloacetate</div>
1441152930853 1438565846692 What is the energy source of the reaction conver
ting oxaloacetate to phosphoenol pyruvate?<div><br /></div><div>what is the enzy
me in that reaction?</div>
1. GTP<div><br /></div><div>2. Phosphoenol Pyruv
ate Carboxykinase</div>
1441152987875 1438565846692 1. Explain how you reverse the irreversible reac
tion of Fructose 1,6 Bisophosphate to F6P<div><br /></div><div>2. Explain how yo
u reverse the hexokinase reaction during gluconeogenesis?</div> <img src="paste31701153611777.jpg" />
1441153139450 1438565846692 What inhibits gluconeogenesis?<div><br /></div><
div>what stimulates it?</div> Inhibits: Fructose 2,6, BPG. AMP<div
><br /></div><div>Stimulates: Citrate</div>
1441153167574 1438565846692 How does high glucose act on gluconeogenesis

It inhibits
1441153181494 1438565846692 What enzymes of gluconeogenesis reverse the pyru
vate kinase reaction of glycolysis
1. Pyruvate carboxylase<div><br /></div>
<div>2. Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxykinase</div>
1441153233862 1438565846692 What enzymes are needed to reverse the hexokinas
e reaction in glycolysis when running gluconeogenesis? F-1,6-BPg, Glucose-6-Pho
sphatase
1441153264944 1438565846692 What is the effect of insulin and cortisol on gl
uconeogenesis? Insulin inhibits<div><br /></div><div>Cortisol stimulates</div>
1441153290169 1438565846692 What does insulin do to gluconeogenesis enzymes?
Inhibits transcription of G-6P and PEP Carboxykinase
1441153395722 1438565846692 What does Glucagon do? It inhibits Fructose 2,6
, Bisphosphate<div><br /></div><div>If you "inhibit the inhibitor" the reaction
will proceed to stimulate more gluconeogenesis</div>
1441153465564 1438565846692 What TCA intermediate are proline, arginine, glu
tamine and histidine converted to during starvation periods?
Alpha-ketoglutar
ate
1441153678404 1438565846692 What TCA intermediate are valine and isoleucine
converted to during starvation? Succinate
1441153720486 1438565846692 Hyperalimentation
Feed early, use the gut<
div><br /></div><div>Glucose, lipids PRN, amino acids</div>
1441153742002 1438565846692 What does hyperalimentation do? Stimulates gluco
neogenesis
1441153753567 1438565846692 What are the substrates for gluconeogenesis?
Lactate<div>Amino Acids</div><div>Glycerol</div>
1441153773570 1438565846692 What enzymes reverse Pyruvate Kinase reaction?
Pyruvate Carobxylase and PEPkinase
1441154102484 1438565846692 What enzymes reverse the phosphofructokinase rea
ction? Fructose-1,-6-bisphophosphatase
1441154180758 1438565846692 What enzyme reverses the hexokinase reaction?
Glucose-6-Phosphatase
1441154199717 1438565846692 What inhibits the reversal of the hexokinase rea
ction? High glucose<div><br /></div><div>inhibits glucose-6-phosphatase</div>
1441154218709 1438565846692 What mechanism does cortisol stimulate gluconeog
enesis and insulin inhibit?
Transcriptional control of enzymes
1441155471671 1438565846692 what are the three enzymes of the PDC? 1. Pyruv
ate Caroboxylase (aka dehydrogenase)<div>2. Dihydrolipoyl Transacetylase</div><d
iv>3. Dihydrolipoyl Dehydrogenase</div>
1441155515335 1438565846692 What coenzyme does Pyruvate Dehydrogenase requir
e?
thiamine pyrophosphate
1441155619508 1438565846692 What coenzyme does dihryolipoyl transacetylase r
equire? Lipoic acid and CoA
1441155638688 1438565846692 What coenzyme does dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase r
equire? FAD, NAD+
1441155655831 1438565846692 what activates E1 in the PDC? PDH phosphatase
1441155808813 1438565846692 What allosterically activates PDH phosphatase ki
nase? ATP, Acetyl CoA and NADH<div><br /></div><div>this means when high energ
y signals are present PDC is turned off</div>
1441155866262 1438565846692 what inactivates PDH? E1 is phosphorylated by
PDH kinase<div><br /></div><div>Allosterically regulated by ATP, NADH, Acetyl-Co
A</div>
1441156158888 1438565846692 what catalyzes the synthesis of citrate from OAA
and Acetyl CoA citrate synthase
1441156547134 1438565846692 What is special about the inhibiting activity of
citrate?
It inhibits phosphofructokinase-1 , rate limiting step of glycol
ysis<div><br /></div><div>(activates acetyl CoA carboxylase - rate limiting enzy
me of fatty acid synthesis)</div>
1441156606859 1438565846692 which step of the TCA cycle yields the first NAD
H?
Oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate<div><br /></div><div>by isocitra
te dehydrogenase</div>
1441156793604 1438565846692 What is the only rate limiting step of the TCA C
ycle
decarboxylation of isocitrate<div><br /></div><div>Enzyme limited by pre
sence of ATP and NADH</div>
1441156924918 1438565846692 Which reaction releases the second CO2 and produ
ces second NADH?
Oxidative Decarboxylation of a-ketoglutarate
1441157075216 1438565846692 What are the required coenzymes of the decarboxy
lation of a-ketoglutarate
TPP<div>Lipoic acid</div><div>FAD</div><div>NAD+
</div><div>CoA</div>
1441157138741 1438565846692 T/F: decarboxylation of a-ketoglutarate is regul
ated by phosphorylation/dephosphorylation
FALSE
1441157190378 1438565846692 Cleavage of succinyl CoA:<div><br /></div><div>1
. What enzyme</div><div><br /></div><div>2. What byproduct</div><div><br /></div
><div>3. What is the next step in the TCA</div> 1. Succinyl CoA synthetase (coup
led with GDP)<div><br /></div><div>2. GTP via substrate level phosphorylation</d
iv><div><br /></div><div>3. Oxidation of succinate</div>
1441157603602 1438565846692 which enzyme of the TCA cycle is embedded in the
mitochondrial membrane?<div><br /></div><div>What else does it do?</div>
Succinate Dehydrogenase<div><br /></div><div>Actas as complex II</div>
1441157711390 1438565846692 What enzyme catalyzes the freely reversible reac
tion of ___ to ____
Enzyme: Fumarase<div><br /></div><div>reaction: Hydratio
n of fumarate to malate</div>
1441157896509 1438565846692 what produces the final CO2 and NADH of the TCA
cycle? OXidation of malate
1441158114455 1438565846692 How many pairs of electrons are transferred per
turn of TCA to reduce NAD+
3
1441158203097 1438565846692 what inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase complex?
ATP<div>NADH</div><div>Acetyl CoA</div>
1441158613098 1438565846692 What inhibits citrate synthase? ATP
1441158623965 1438565846692 What inhibits isocitrate dehydrogenase? ATP<div>
NADH</div>
1441158632965 1438565846692 What inhibits a-ketoglutarate? NADH<div>succiny
l-CoA</div>
1441158644909 1438565846692 What activates isocitrate dehydrogenase?
ADP
1441158653540 1438565846692 What other reactions are the following TCA inter
mediates used in?<div><br /></div><div>Citrate</div><div><br /></div><div>a-keto
glutarate</div><div><br /></div><div>Succinyl-CoA</div><div><br /></div><div>Oxa
loacetate</div> <img src="paste-53961969106945.jpg" />
1441158721794 1438565846692 What is a theory behind the linkage of CA and TC
A cycle?
1. Low fumarase activity shifts cancer cells (typically in kidne
y tumors) to aerbic glycolysis<div><br /></div><div>2. 2HG inhibits a-ketoglutar
ate dependent dioxygenases which cause hypermethylation of histones in DNA</div>
1441244097262 1438565846692 which component of the ETC is not located in the
mitochondria? Cytochrome C
1441244163754 1438565846692 What are the electron carriers of the ETC?
Cytochrome C<div><br /></div><div>Coenzyme Q (Ubiquinone)</div>
1441244193526 1438565846692 What is the coenzyme for complex I in ETC?
Flavin Mononucleotide (related to FAD<div><br /></div><div>Accepts 2 H --> FM
NH2</div>
1441244269684 1438565846692 Name the enzymes/factors of the five ETC complex
es
Complex I - NADH Dehydrogenase<div>Complex II - Succinate Dehydrogenase<
/div><div>CoEnzyme Q</div><div>Cytochromes</div><div>Complex III - uses cytochro
me B</div><div>Complex IV - Cytochrome a + a3</div><div>Complex V - ATP Synthase
</div>
1441244433692 1438565846692 Complex Iv is the only ETC carrier which ____ __
__ has available coordination site that can react directly with O2
Heme iro
n
1441244464482 1438565846692 What complexes is cytochrome C located between i
n the intermembrane space?
Complex III and IV
1441244489677 1438565846692 1. What are the electron transport inhibitors?<d

iv><br /></div><div>2. What is their effect on the proton gradient?</div><div><b
r /></div><div>3. What is their effect on O2 consumption?</div> 1. Rotenone, ant
imycin A, CYANIDE (chemical strangling), carbon monoxide<div><br /></div><div>2.
Decreased</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Decreased</div>
1441244588450 1438565846692 1. What are the ATP Synthase Inhibitors?<div><br
/></div><div>2. What is their effect on the proton gradient?</div><div><br /></
div><div>3. What is their effect on O2 consumption?</div>
1. Oligomycin<di
v><br /></div><div>2. Increased</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Decreased</div>
1441244610947 1438565846692 1. What are the uncoupling agents?<div><br /></d
iv><div>2. What is their effect on the proton gradient?</div><div><br /></div><d
iv>3. What is their effect on O2 consumption?</div>
1. 2,4 Dinitrophenol, As
pirin (high dose), thermogenin<div><br /></div><div>2. Decreased</div><div><br /
></div><div>3. Increased</div>
1441244841361 1438565846692 What complex does Rotenone inhibit?
<div>Com
plex I</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-2026795066982
5.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><img src="paste-20143396618241.jpg" />
1441244962454 1438565846692 What is used to pump protons through the ETC?<di
v><br /></div><div>Which complexes are protons reduced and oxidized?</div>
1. Free energy release from reductant (e- donor) or acceptance (oxidant) is used
to pump protons at <div><br /></div><div>2. Complex I, III, V</div>
1441245084128 1438565846692 What is done to increase substrate availability
for ATP Synthase in the ETC?
hydrolysis of ATP to ADP +Pi increasing the prot
on flow through Complex V
1441245133044 1438565846692 What is one benefit to ETC uncoupling As proto
ns are uncoupled from ETC and released without carrying energy they release heat
.<div><br /></div><div>this can be a mechanism to raise body temperature</div><d
iv><br /></div><div><b>thermogenin found in brown fat mitochondria of adipose ti
ssue</b></div>
1441245235657 1438565846692 Name a synthetic uncoupler of the ETC 2,4 Dini
trophenol
1441246066749 1438565846692 Name 3 small antioxidants that contribute to def
ense
Alpha-tocopherol (vitE)<div>Uric acid</div><div>Vit C</div><div>Betacaro
tene</div><div>Bilirubin</div><div>glutathione</div>
1441246109679 1438565846692 What is a down side to high doses of antioxidant
s?<div><br /></div><div>Name two antioxidants that could pose a problem in high
dose?</div>
1. They can become pro-oxidant<div><br /></div><div>2. Particuar
ly Betacarotene, Vit C</div>
1441246314598 1438565846692 Chronic Granulomatous Disease:<div><br /></div><
div>1. What is the inheretance?</div><div><br /></div><div>2. What is the geneti
c defect?</div><div><br /></div><div>3. What are symptoms?</div><div><br /></div
><div>4. What is the progression?</div><div><br /></div><div>5. Do females ever
show symptoms? If so, why?</div>
1. X-linked recessive<div><br /></div><d
iv>2. Gene for subunit of NADH Oxidase</div><div> &nb
sp; - bacteria not broken down prior to engulf by phagosome</div><div> &nb
sp; - ball up and create clump</div><div><br /></div><div>3
. Sx consistent with decreased immune response</div><div> &n
bsp; - especially against bacteria that produce <b>catalase</b> (sta
ph, salmonella, E coli, mycobacterium)</div><div><br /></div><div>4. Progresses
to Granuloma</div><div><br /></div><div>5. 50% of females that are carriers prod
uce inactive NADPH, nonmutant allele gets inactivated on X</div>
1441246865365 1438565846692 What are the irreversible reactions in the pento
se pathway?
1. glucose-6-phosphate --> 6-phosphogluconate (6-PPG)<div><br
/></div><div>2. 6-PPG --> 6-Phosphoglucoacetone</div><div><br /></div><div>3
. 6-phosphoglucoacetone --> Ribulose-5-Phosphate</div><div><br /></div><div><
br /></div>
1441247128190 1438565846692 Which reactions are the irreversible reactions?
Oxidative or nonoxidative?
Oxidative
1441247159242 1438565846692 What is the fastest way for ribulose-5-phosphate
to participate in glycolysis? Convert to xyulose-5-phsophate then Glyceraldehy
de-3-phosphate<div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>other two glycolysis interm

ediates are Fructose-6-phosphate and glyeraldehyd-3-phosphate</div>
1441329600253 1438565846692 How is galactose and glucose linked in Lactose?
B-1,4 glycosidic linkage
1441329862436 1438565846692 Describe the Galactose pathway.<div><br /></div>
<div>1. How is UDP-glucose made?</div><div><br /></div><div>2. What are the step
s to go from Galactose to Glucose?</div><div><br /></div><div>3. how is glycogen
made?</div>
<img src="paste-4303557230593.jpg" />
1441329923632 1438565846692 Structure of Glycogen:<div><br /></div><div>1. T
ypes of linkages in straight chain?</div><div><br /></div><div>2. Types of linka
ges in branch?</div><div><br /></div><div>3. What enzyme makes the branches?</di
v><div><br /></div><div>4. What enzyme is needed in the synthesis and degredatio
n of glycogen?</div>
1. a-1,4<div><br /></div><div>2. a-1,6</div><div><br /><
/div><div>3. amylo-a(1-4)-a(1-6)-transglucosidase</div><div><br /></div><div>4.
Phosphoglucomutase</div>
1441330039970 1438565846692 In the formation of glycogen branches where do n
ew bonds form? At the anomeric hydroxyl of C1on the activated carbon and C4 on
the accepting glucosyl residue
1441330074907 1438565846692 What serves as the primer for the elongation of
glycogen?
Glycogenin<div><br /></div><div>Glycogen synthase cannot initiat
e chain synthesis with free glucose of UDP-Glucose. Glycogenin serve
s as a primer.</div><div> -It is an autoglucosylating molecu
le and thus acts as an enzyme</div>
1441330162314 1438565846692 what catalyzes the breakdown of glycogen?
1. Glycogen Phosphorylase <div><br /></div><div>2. Glycogen Debranching Enz
yme</div>
1441330217001 1438565846692 What is the role of cAMP in glycogenolysis?
cAMP binds the releasing factor and allow cAMP dependent protein kinase A to ina
ctivate Glycogen Synthase to the B form. <div><br /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-5059471474689.jpg" /></div><div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div></div>
1441330408095 1438565846692 what does Glycogen Phosphorylase Kinase A do, wh
at is it dependent on? It must be phosphorylated by cAMP dependent protein Kina
se A<div><br /></div><div>Phosphorylates Glycogen Phosphorylase A (converts from
inactive B) and leads to glycogen degredation</div><div><br /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-5166845657089.jpg" /></div>
1441330514492 1438565846692 What is the role of insulin in glycogen degredat
ion?
Opposes effect of glucagon and epinephrine --> decreases serum glucos
e<div><br /></div><div>Activates phosphodiesterase that degrades cAMP</div><div>
<br /></div>
1441330705975 1438565846692 In the well fed states what does high Glucose-6Phosphate and ATP do? Glycogen synthase B in liver and muscle is allostericall
y activated
1441331044786 1438565846692 what activates glycogen phosphorylase? phosphor
ylation
1441331279869 1438565846692 Von Gierke disease - Type 1 GSD<div><br /></div>
<div>Enzyme Defect:</div><div><br /></div><div>Glycogen Structure:</div><div><br
/></div><div>Organs Involved:</div><div><br /></div><div>Characteristics:</div>
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Enzyme Defec
t: Glucose -6-Phosphatase</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-sp
ace:pre"> </span>- Glycogen Structure: Normal</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-s
pan" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Organs Involved: Liver, Kidney</div><div>
<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Characteristics:
severe hypoglycemia, hepatomegaly, lactic acidosis, ketosis</div><div><br /></di
v><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Increased
glucose-6-phosphate activated glycogen synthase b</div><div><br /></div>
1441331347425 1438565846692 Pompe Disease - type II<div><br /></div><div><di
v><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Enzyme Defect:&
nbsp;</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- G
lycogen Structure: l</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:p
re"> </span>- Organs Involved: </div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" styl
e="white-space:pre"> </span>- Characteristics: </div></div><div><br /></div

>
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Enzy
me: <b>alpha glucosidase (LYSOSOMAL)</b></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span"
style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Glycogen structure: normal</div><div><span cla
ss="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Organs involved: Generaliz
ed</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Char
acteristics: cardiomegaly, cardiopulm failure</div><div><i><span class="Apple-ta
b-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- MOST SEVEER</i></div><div><u><br /></u
></div><div><u><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- On
ly with error in lysossome metabolism</u></div><div><br /></div>
1441331382976 1438565846692 Cori Syndrome - Type III GSD
<div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Enzyme:<b> Glycogen Debranch
ing Enzyme</b></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> <
/span>- Glyocgen Structure: <u>Short outer chains on fasting</u></div><div><span
class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Organs: Generali
zed</div><div><br /></div><div>Characteristics: hepatomegaly, moderate hypoglyce
mia, acidosis</div>
1441331415745 1438565846692 Andersen Disease - Type IV
<div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Enzyme Defect: <b>Glycogen B
ranching Enzyme</b></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pr
e"> </span>- Glycogen Structure: Few Branch Points</div><div><span class="Appletab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Organs: Generalized</div><div><span
class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Characteristics: Cirrho
sis, progressive liver failure</div><div><br /></div><div><span class="Apple-tab
-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>-<i><u> Only that results from defect in
glycogen synthesis</u></i></div><div><br /></div>
1441331445785 1438565846692 McArdle Disease - Type V
<div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Enzyme: <b>Muscle Glycogen P
hosphorylase</b></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre">
</span>- Glycogen Structure: Normal</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" styl
e="white-space:pre"> </span>- Organs: skeletal</div><div><span class="Apple-tabspan" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Characteristics: muscle cramps on exerci
se</div><div><br /></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pr
e"> </span>- Simialr symptoms seen in type VII which has dec activity of PFK in
muscle</div><div><br /></div>
1441331474803 1438565846692 Hers Disease - Type VI GSD
<div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Enzyme Defect:<b> Liver glyc
ogen phosphorylase</b></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space
:pre"> </span>- Glycogen Structure: Normal</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span
" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Organ: Liver</div><div><span class="Apple-ta
b-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Characteristics: hepatomegaly, moderat
e hypoglycemia, mild acidosis</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whit
e-space:pre"> </span>- Deficiency of liver glycogen phosphorylase kinase has bee
n classified as type VIII or included in VI. </div><div><span class="Apple
-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span><b> X-linked whereas others are autoso
mal recessive</b></div><div><br /></div>
1441331610930 1438565846692 What is the typical charge of glycoproteins
Neutral or negative
1441331721710 1438565846692 Compare and contrast O-Glycosidic Linkage and Nglycosidic Linkage
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre
"> </span><b><u> O-Glycosidic Link</u></b></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span"
style="white-space:pre"> </span> Collaged has this link between galactose
or glucose and the hydroxyl of hydroxylysine</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-sp
an" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Others have link between N-acetyl galactosam
ine and either serine or threonine</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><
br /></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> <b>
<u>N-glycosidic Link</u></b></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white
-space:pre"> </span> Exists between N-acetylglucosamine and asparagine&nbsp
;</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span><u>Two
Types</u></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span
> High mannose</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </

span> Complex</div><div><br /></div>
1441331833531 1438565846692 what are Proteoglycans linked to?
Glycosam
inoglycan <div><br /></div><div>- a long polysaccharide with repeating disa
ccharide motif</div>
1441331900292 1438565846692 What does branching allow glyogen to do?
Get bigger and become more soluble
1441331920868 1438565846692 Bottle Brush Arrangement -- describe
Proteogl
ycan monomers bound to <b>hyaluronic acid</b> molecule in association with
linker proteins...appears as bottle brush
1441331966309 1438565846692 Name 6 common glycosaminoglycans
Hyaluron
ic Acid<div>Chondroitin Sulfate</div><div>Dermatan Sulfate</div><div>Heparan Sul
fate</div><div>Heparin</div><div>Keratan sulfate</div>
1441332003859 1438565846692 What is the most densly anionic glycosaminoglyca
n?<div><br /></div><div>What is it's function?</div><div><br /></div><div>Where
is it located?</div>
1. Heparin<div><br /></div><div>2. Anticoagulant.</div><
div><br /></div><div>3. Intracellular, mast cells</div>
1441332042812 1438565846692 which has more sulfate: Heparan Sulfate or Hepar
in
heparin
1441332062972 1438565846692 what distinguishes the N-linked glycoprotein fro
m O-linked?
Linkage with asparagine
1441332096317 1438565846692 How are glycoproteins degraded? first on last of
f...
1441332577076 1438565846692 Study Slide: Glycogen Degredation
<img src
="paste-17725330030593.jpg" />
1441332605567 1438565846692 Study Slide: Glyocgen Synthesis <div><br /></div
><div><img src="paste-18292265713665.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><img src="pas
te-18266495909889.jpg" /><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-18279380811777.jp
g" /></div>
1441332649173 1438565846692 Study Slide: Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex, ETC
, TCA, Glycolysis, Pentose Pathway
<div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><
br /></div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-19039590023169.jpg" /></div><di
v><br /></div><div><img src="paste-19026705121281.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
<div><img src="paste-19013820219393.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></d
iv><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-19000935317505.jpg" /></div><div><br />
</div><div><img src="paste-18988050415617.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div><im
g src="paste-18975165513729.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><img src="paste-189622
80611841.jpg" />
1441503472927 1438565846692 Where are fatty acids predominantly synthesized?
Liver
1441503503272 1438565846692 Where are very long chain fatty acids broken dow
n?
Peroxisomes
1441503550429 1438565846692 Where is the primary site of chemical digestion
for absorption by small intesting (fatty acids)?
Duodenum
1441503591605 1438565846692 Where is B12 absorbed? Ileum
1441503603603 1438565846692 What is the backbone of Triglycerides? Glycerol
1441503626616 1438565846692 What are gut lumen triglycerides hydrolized to?
Fatty Acids<div>Monoacyglcerols</div><div>Diacylglycerols</div>
1441503658587 1438565846692 Describe the pathway for Triglycerides to enter
the enterocytes <img src="paste-1005022347468.jpg" /><div><br /></div><div><img
src="paste-1017907249479.jpg" /></div>
1441503704967 1438565846692 What enzyme do triglycerides require to cross in
to the enterocytes? Can triglycerides pass in their full form?
1. DGAT
- mediates transport of triglycerides across membrane<div><br /></div><div>2. No
, must be broken down. too hydrophobic</div>
1441503771670 1438565846692 What does DGAT catalyze?
Transport of tri
glycerides across cell membrane<div><br /></div><div>TERMINAL AND ONLY committme
nt step in tracylglycerol synthesis</div>
1441503818813 1438565846692 What are the two essential fatty acids?<div><br
/></div><div>(must be ingested...others are synthesized de novo)</div> 1. Linoe
lic Acid<div><br /></div><div>2. Alpha Linoleic Acid</div>

1441503851654 1438565846692 What is the precursor of arachidonic acid?
Linoleic acid<div><br /></div><div>Arachidonic acid neeed for prostaglandin synt
hesis</div>
1441503873935 1438565846692 What is the most predominant long chain fatty ac
id?
Palmitic Acid
1441503907690 1438565846692 What is the primary site of de novo synthesis of
fatty acids?<div><br /></div><div>What are the two cofactors?</div><div><br /><
/div><div>Where does it occur in the cell?</div>
1. Liver<div><br /></div
><div>2. NADPH, ATP</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Cytosol</div>
1441503944188 1438565846692 What does acetyl-CoA provide to fatty acid synth
esis?<div><br /></div><div>What is the conundrum with using acetyl-coa for de no
vo fatty acid synthesis?</div><div> How is this overcome?</div>
1. Carbon atoms<div><br /></div><div>2. Acetyl-CoA is produced in the mitochondr
ia and CANNOT freely cross into the cytosol</div><div><br /></div><div>3. CITRAT
E can gross into the cytosol</div><div> --> After getting
to cytosol Acetyl CoA carboxylase catalyzes reaction producing Acetyl CoA and O
AA</div>
1441504127800 1438565846692 What is the rate limiting step of fatty acid syn
thesis? Acetyl CoA Carboxylase catalyzing conversion of citrate to acetyl coa an
d OAA
1441504218228 1438565846692 Describe allosteric regulation of fatty acid syn
thesis <img src="paste-1498943586877.jpg" />
1441504264518 1438565846692 What does phosphorylation of acetyl CoA carboxyl
ase do? Inactivate it.<div><br /></div><div>To Activate: <b>Protein Phosphatase
</b>dephosphorylates and activates acetyl coA carboxylase</div>
1441504350603 1438565846692 What does AMP Activated Kinase do to fatty acid
synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>What effect does insulin have on fatty acid synt
hesis?</div><div><br /></div> 1. Inactivates (phosphorylates) acetyl coA carbo
xylase (ACC)<div><br /></div><div>2. Insulin activates ACC</div><div> &nbs
p; - Increased glucose uptake regulates</div>
1441504521778 1438565846692 What catalyzes the formation of fatty acids?
Fatty Acid Synthase
1441504561541 1438565846692 Where does synthesis begin of fatty acids? (what
part of the molecule) Free methyl end
1441504719897 1438565846692 What is the mechanism of fatty acid synthesis?
<img src="paste-1851130904680.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-1864015806757.jpg" /><
/div><div><img src="paste-1876900708703.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-188978
5610804.jpg" /></div>
1441504767253 1438565846692 What are the substrates of fatty acid synthesis?
<div><br /></div><div>What are products of fatty acid synthesis?</div> 1. Subst
rates: Acetyl CoA, Malonyl CoA, NADPH, ATP, H+<div><br /></div><div>2. Pro
ducts: Palmitic acid, NAPD+, CoA, CO2, H2</div>
1441505122465 1438565846692 What is fatty acid oxidation needed for? <
div><br /></div><div>Name three areas where fatty oxidation is necessary.</div>
1. Fatty acid oxidation required as principal source of energy by:<div><br /></d
iv><div> a. Generating ATP -- >very high currency</div><div>&nbsp
; b. Diabetics when glucose metabolism is low</div><div> &nbs
p; -<i> lack of insulin leads to RELEASE of free fatty acids and &
nbsp; breakdown leading to ketones</i></div><div> &nb
sp;c. Cardiac contractility--> <i>depends almost entirely on fatty acid oxida
tion</i></div><div><i> </i>d. Periods of starvation</div><div> e. Ex
tended bioenergetic exertion</div>
1441505446513 1438565846692 How are fatty acids transported in the plasma?
Via albumin<div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1441505498863 1438565846692 Where does B-oxidation occur? Mitochondria
1441505515787 1438565846692 Which hormones stimulate b-oxidation?<div><br />
</div><div>Which hormones inhibit?</div><div><br /></div><div>What is the hormon
al cascade that stimulates fatty acid oxidation?</div> 1. Stim: Epi, Glucagon,
ACTH<div><br /></div><div>2. Inhibit: Insulin</div><div><br /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-2589865280002.jpg" /></div>
1441505601279 1438565846692 What do short/medium chain fatty acids need to e
nter the mitochondiral matrix?<div><br /></div><div>What do long chain fatty aci
ds need to access the mitochondrial matrix?</div>
1. Nothing, they can cro
ss freely<div><br /></div><div>2. Utilizes the carnitine palmitoyltransferase I
shuttle</div><div><img src="paste-2753074037084.jpg" /></div>
1441505829469 1438565846692 What does carnitine palmitoyltransferase I do?
CPT 1 catalyzes the <b>rate limiting step</b> in fatty acid oxidation
1441505951856 1438565846692 What can block CPT I? (fatty acid synthesis)
Malonyl CoA
1441506040878 1438565846692 What does CPT II do?
Mediates translocation o
f RC-Carnitine across the INNER mitochondiral membrane
1441506089911 1438565846692 What needs to happen for long chain fatty acids
to cross into mitochondiral membrane?
long chain FA cannot cross inner
mitochondrial membrane. <b> Carnitine shuttle</b> is utilized. Carnitine p
almitoyltransferase I shuttles removes CoA in the intermembrane space. CoA
and the acyl component go across inner membrane via <b>translocase and CPT II <
/b>mediates translocation. Acyl and CoA reform fatty acid in matrix.
1441506357590 1438565846692 What are the 4 steps of fatty acid oxidation?
*2 C fragments sequentially removed<div><br /></div><div>Step 1: Oxidation ---&g
t; <b>FADH2 produced </b>and sent to ETC complex II</div><div><br /></div><div>S
tep 2: Hydration</div><div><br /></div><div>Step 3. Oxidation --> <b>NADH pro
duced</b> and sent to ETC complex I</div><div><br /></div><div>Step 4. <b>Thyoli
tic cleavage --> Acetyl CoA produced</b></div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><i
><u>Products of B-Oxidation = FADH2, NADH, Acetyl CoA</u></i></div>
1441506560007 1438565846692 What makes fatty acid oxidation so wonderful?
Very high yield of ATP through produced NADH, FADH2 and acetyl CoA
1441506589589 1438565846692 T/F: Short and medium chain fatty acids are pack
aged in chylomicrons and transported.<div><br /></div><div>How are long chain fa
tty acids absorbed?</div>
1. False. Short and medium chain bind to a
lbumin for transport and are directly absorbed into the blood by intestinal capi
llaries. <div><br /></div><div>2. Long chain FA packaged into chylomicrons<
/div><div> Triglycerides + H2O + Lipase --> FA + Di
acylglycerols -------> DGAT (mediates transport of trigys across membr)
, Triglycerides reformed and packaged in chylomicrons </div>
1441506877127 1438565846692 What are the three main ketone bodies? Acetone<
div>Acetoacetic acid</div><div>B-hydroxybutyric acid</div>
1441507138914 1438565846692 Where are ketone bodies formed? Liver, mitochond
rial matrix
1441507178557 1438565846692 What triggers formation of ketone bodies?
When Acetyl CoA <b><i>exceeds the capacity of the TCA cycle</i></b><div><b><i><b
r /></i></b></div><div><i>In DKA plasma glucose levels are so high that very hig
h amounts of Acetyl CoA are produced....overwhelms TCA. Therefore Fatty Acids ar
e broken down to produce ATP and creates ketone bodies --> b-hydroxybutyrate<
/i></div>
1441507583965 1438565846692 Do ketone bodies need to bind albumin? Why/why n
ot?
They do not. Ketones are soluble in plasma
1441507671515 1438565846692 What is the primary source of energy for the bra
in?
Glucose<div><br /></div><div>When that is low ==> ketone bodies</div>
1441507689867 1438565846692 Study Slide: Synthesis of ketone bodies <img src
="paste-3560527889049.jpg" />
1441507715031 1438565846692 What are the enzymes required to reverse the syn
thesis of ketones?
Can reverse acetoacetate<div><br /></div><div>1. Acetoac
etate ---> beta-Hydroxy-beta-methyl glutaryl-CoA (Enzyme: HMG CoA Lyase)</div
><div><br /></div><div>2. Acetoacetyl-CoA ---> Acetoacetyl-CoA (Enzyme: Thiop
horase)</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Acetoacetyl-CoA ---> 2 Acety
l CoA (Enzyme: Acetyl-CoA Cacetyltransferase)</div>
1441507916823 1438565846692 What are the benefits of Roux en Y gastric bypas
s
1. Type II DM resolves almost immediately, before weight loss or reducti
on of food intake.<div><br /></div><div>2. More effective than non-med treatment
s (ie orlistat)</div>
1441508049912 1438565846692 What does Leptin do?
Inhibit hunger<div><br /
></div><div>Prevents lipid accumulation in non-adipose tissues</div>
1441508087989 1438565846692 How does Leptin regulate metabolism?
Stimulat
es uptake of glucose<div><br /></div><div>Stimulates AMP kinase </div><div>
(<b>inhibits fatty acid synthesis)</b></div>
1441508179761 1438565846692 What does cholecystokinin do? 1. Suppress hung
er<div><br /></div><div>2. stim release of digestive enzymes </div>
1441508355750 1438565846692 What does Ghrelin stimulate?
Hunger<div><br /
></div><div>binds receptors in pituitary</div>
1441508373796 1438565846692 What is GLP-1 and what does it do?
Glucagon
Like Peptide-1<div><br /></div><div>Increases insulin, DECREASES glucagon</div>
<div>Increases satiety</div><div><br /></div><div>Secreted by <b>L cells in ileu
m</b></div>
1441508512428 1438565846692 What type of hormones are prostaglandins?
Paracrin
1441508537318 1438565846692 Which fatty acid is a major precursor of prostag
landins?
Linoleic Acid
1441508562306 1438565846692 What structural feature do all prostaglandins ha
ve?
5 member ring
1441508601228 1438565846692 What catalyzes arachadonic acid --> PGH2?
<b>Prostaglandin Endoperoxide Synthase</b>
1441508713138 1438565846692 What are the two catalytic activities of prostag
landin endoperoxide synthase? PES is used in the creation of prostaglandins (A
rachadonic acid --> PGH2)<div><br /></div><div>1. Converted to prostaglandins
</div><div><br /></div><div>2. Converted to thromboxanes</div>
1441508855512 1438565846692 Which COX is constitutive, always present?
COX1
1441508867081 1438565846692 T/F: Bacterial infection and cytokines increase
the activity of COX 2 True<div><br /></div><div>Induced by cytokines</div><div
><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1441508898778 1438565846692 What inhibits COX 2?
Steroids<div><br /></div
><div>COX 1 is not affected by steroids because always</div><div><br /></div>
1441509383803 1438565846692 Describe the mechanism of prostaglandin synthesi
s
<img src="paste-5407363826243.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-5420248728068.
jpg" /></div>
1441509421617 1438565846692 How can prostaglandins promote periodontitis?
<img src="paste-5454608466228.jpg" />
1441509441047 1438565846692 What is the homeostatic relationship between pro
staglandins and thromboxanes? Thromboxanes stimulate constriction of blood ves
sels and clotting of platelets. <div><br /></div><div>Prostaglandins has op
posite effect on wall of blood vessels</div><div> - prevent i
nappropriate clot</div><div> - homeostatic relationship</div>
1441509553594 1438565846692 Which prostaglandin is responsible for uterine c
ontractions?
PGE2
1441768217796 1438565846692 What creates phosphatidic acid? Transfer of two
fatty acids from acyl CoA to glycerol-3-phosphate
1441768263374 1438565846692 How is glycerol-3-phosphate formed
reductio
n of dihydroxyacetone phosphate<div><br /></div><div>NADH is coenzyme</div><div>
<br /></div><div>In liver glycerol phosphorylated by glycerol kinase</div>
1441768314141 1438565846692 Describe the intermediates fo diacylglycerol for
mation? <img src="paste-3341484556289.jpg" />
1441768342028 1438565846692 What are the roles of Phospholipase A2 1. Act i
n pancreatic enzymes<div>2. Act on phosphotidylinositol to release arachidonic a
cid</div><div><br /></div>
1441768605618 1438565846692 What inhibits phospholipase A2 Glucocorticoids
1441768617999 1438565846692 Where is phospholipase C found? liver lysosomes
and a-toxin of clostridia/bacilli
1441768637526 1438565846692 What does phospholipase C do? membrane bound p
hospholipase C activates PIP 2 system and plays a role in second messengers
1441768660635 1438565846692 What are sphingosines synthesized from? palmitoy

l CoA and Serine
1441768680607 1438565846692 Adding choline phosphate to ceramide yields ____
__
Sphingomyelin
1441768747166 1438565846692 Adding sugars to ceramid yields?
cerebros
ides and globosides
1441768770415 1438565846692 What is the only sphingolipid classified as a ph
ospholipid? What are all the others?
1. Sphingomyelin<div><br /></div><div>2.
Glycolipids</div>
1441768902294 1438565846692 Fabry disease<div><br /></div><div>Accumulation
of:</div><div>Inheretance:</div><div>Enzyme:</div><div>Features:</div> <div><sp
an class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Accumulation of: glo
bosides</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Enzyme: A-galactosidase</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-spa
ce:pre"> </span>- X-linked</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-s
pace:pre"> </span>- Reddish-purple skin rash, renal/cardiac failure, burning pai
n LE</div><div><br /></div>
1441769033418 1438565846692 Describe the structure of cholesterol? <div><sp
an class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> 8-10 carbon on side ch
ain at C17 and a hydroxyl at C3 are sterols</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-spa
n" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Cholesterol is major sterol in animals</div><
div><br /></div>
1441769094477 1438565846692 What provides the reducing equivalents for chole
sterol synthesis?
NADPH
1441769124791 1438565846692 What organelle does cholesterol synthesis occur?
Smooth ER
1441769143463 1438565846692 What adds the third acetyl CoA molecule in chole
sterol synthesis?
HMG CoA Synthase
1441769166390 1438565846692 What is the rate limiting step in mevalonate for
mation? HMG CoA reductase
1441769181207 1438565846692 Where does mevalonate synthesis occur? cytosol
1441769188726 1438565846692 Is the mevalonate reaction reversible? No...rel
easing CoA makes it irreversible
1441769210182 1438565846692 Study Slide: Cholesterol Synthesis
<img src
="paste-11123965296641.jpg" />
1441769229366 1438565846692 Study Slide: Formation of mevalonate
<img src
="paste-11188389806081.jpg" />
1441769245845 1438565846692 Describe the energy requirements for cholsterol
synthesis
<img src="paste-11257109282817.jpg" />
1441769266139 1438565846692 Describe the pathway for HMG CoA synthesis?
<img src="paste-11330123726849.jpg" />
1441769291202 1438565846692 What is SREBP2? Integral protein in ER<div>trans
cription factor that controls expression of HMG CoA Reductase</div>
1441769332161 1438565846692 What does SREBP2 do?
activates synthesis of H
MG CoA reductase and increases cholesterol synthesis
1441769474220 1438565846692 What happens to SREBP2 if sterols are abundant?
they bind SCAP in the Er<div>down regulates cholesterol synthesis</div><div><br
/></div><div>SCAP binds to Insulin induced gene prods (INSIGs)</div><div><br /><
/div><div><br /></div>
1441769538358 1438565846692 What is the role of AMPK is cholesterol synthesi
s?
chilesterol synthesis decreased when ATP availability decreases
1441769567208 1438565846692 Which hormones favor increase in cholesterol syn
thesis, which favor a decrease? 1. insulin and thyroxine<div><br /></div><div>2.
glucagon and glucocorticoids</div>
1441769608666 1438565846692 What are bile acids (salts)
contact 24 C<div
><br /></div><div>2 or 3 hydroxyl groups</div><div><br /></div><div>polar and no
npolar face can act as emulsifying agent</div>
1441769677644 1438565846692 What are the most common bile acid compounds?
cholic acid and chenodeoxycholic acid
1441769727999 1438565846692 What is the only significant mechanism for chole
sterol excretion?
bile salts
1441769767695 1438565846692 What are bile acids conjugated with?
Glycine
or Taurine<div> - amide bond between carboxyl group of bile acid and amino
of added compound</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-13275743911937.jpg"
/></div>
1441847167442 1438565846692 What are at the core of lipoproteins? esters a
nd TG
1441847192539 1438565846692 What is the difference between the cholesterol i
n a cell membrane and chylomicron?
Cell membrane has a bilayer<div><br /></
div><div>Chylomicron has a single layer in a sphere with hydrophobic tails point
ed inward</div>
1441847250339 1438565846692 What is the purpose of a lipoprotein? keep com
ponent lipid soluble during transport
1441847283108 1438565846692 Describe the composition of a plasma lipoprotein
Neutral core of TAG and cholesteryl esters<div>Shell surrounding of amphipathic
apolipoproteins, phospholipid and unesterified cholesterol</div>
1441847334232 1438565846692 List the lipoproteins in order from largest (lea
st dense) to smallest (most dense
Chylomicrons > VLDL > LDL > HDL
1441847377215 1438565846692 Which lipoprotein has the largest percentage of
TAG?
Chylomicrons
1441847409927 1438565846692 What are the four functions of apolipoproteins
1. recognition for cell surface receptors<div>2. Activator or coenxyme for enzym
es involved in lipoprotein metaboilsm</div><div>3. Some required as essential st
ructural component of particles and cannot be removed</div><div>4. Some transfer
red freely between particles</div>
1441847473526 1438565846692 where are chylomicrons assembled?
Instesti
nal mucosa
1441847490051 1438565846692 Which apolipoprot is unique to chylomicrons?
Apo-B48
1441847506773 1438565846692 where does synthesis of chylomicrons begin? Wher
e does it end? Begin rough ER<div><br /></div><div>End golgi</div>
1441847530833 1438565846692 What does ApoB-100 represent? Entire protein e
ncoded by gene<div><br /></div><div>- in the entire codon there is a stop codon
after 48% transcripted ===> hence ApoB48</div>
1441847799295 1438565846692 What do nascent chylomicrons receive in the inte
stinal wall?
ApoE and C
1441847849458 1438565846692 What does LPL do?<div><br /></div><div>Where is
it?</div><div><br /></div><div>Where is it not?</div> 1. degrades triglyceride
s LPL = lipoprotein lipase<div><br /></div><div>2. Adipose, skeletal muscl
e, cardiac</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Liver</div>
1441847900719 1438565846692 What happens if TAG broken down by LPLs are not
immediately stored or used?
they are transported on proteins until uptake oc
curs
1441847943326 1438565846692 Study Slide: Chylomicrons synthesis
<img src
="paste-4724464025601.jpg" />
1441847998907 1438565846692 What regulatory effect does insulin have on LPL?
Are the effects the same everywhere?
LPL is upregulated by insulin in
the adipose tissue and downregulated by high insulin in cardiac/skeletal muscle
<div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1441848150628 1438565846692 In a fasting state what happens to LPL in adipos
e tissue?
Lower insulin = downreg of LPL<br />
1441848173263 1438565846692 Where is the highest concentration of LPL?
Cardiac muscle
1441848188432 1438565846692 Study Slide: Synthesis of LDL <img src="paste5209795330049.jpg" />
1441848205267 1438565846692 Where are VLDL produced?
liver
1441848221358 1438565846692 What do VLDL do?
carry lipid from liver t
o peripheral tissues
1441848238761 1438565846692 What is the role of Cholesterol Ester Transfer P
roteins (CETP) <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </spa
n> HDL transfers apo-CII and apo-E to chylomicrons</div><div><span class="Apple-t

ab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Chylomicrons return apo-COO to mature H
DLs</div><div><br /></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:p
re"> </span> HDL transfers apo-CII and apo-E to VLDL</div><div><span class="Apple
-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> VLDL returns apo-CII and apo-E to HDL
s</div><div><br /></div><div>DRUGS: Keep cholesterol esters with HDLs, prevent t
ransfer to LDL</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>New drugs target CETP
(cholesterol ester transfer protein</div>
1441848274291 1438565846692 What ApoB does LDLexpress? What is the maj
or role of LDL? 1. ApoB-100<div><br /></div><div>2. Transport cholesterol to per
ipheral tissues</div>
1441848364006 1438565846692 Explain receptor mediated endocytosis of LDL. &n
bsp;How are receptor recycled? <img src="paste-5682241732609.jpg" />
1441848395660 1438565846692 What inhibits HMG CoA Reductase?
high pla
sma choelsterol
1441848420457 1438565846692 What happens if cholesterol is not immediately n
eeded for structural/synthetic purposes?
It is esterified by acetyl CoA:C
holesterol Acyltransferase (ACAT)<div><br /></div><div>Cholestyl ester stored in
cell</div>
1441848496778 1438565846692 What forms atherosclerotic plaques?
Accumula
tion of choesteryl esters in macrophages cause a transformation to "foam cells"
and create plaques
1441848536577 1438565846692 Which apoplipoprotein makes up 70% of HDL?
ApoA-1
1441848992149 1438565846692 where is ApoA1 made? Where secreted?
made in
liver/intestine and secreted in blood
1441849011735 1438565846692 What is ApoE requried for?
receptor mediate
d endocytosis
1441849032079 1438565846692 Describe reverse cholesterol transport that HDL
exhibits?
Selective transfer of cholesterol from peripheral cells to HDL a
nd from HDL to liver for bile acid synthesis and disposal via bile.<div><br /></
div><div>And to steroidgenic cells for homrone synthesis</div><div><br /></div><
div><b>this is what makes HDL good</b></div>
1441849675752 1438565846692 What raises HDL exercise<div><br /></div><div>Es
trogen</div>
1441849683081 1438565846692 What aspect of HDLs are a big area of research f
or new drugs? The reverse transfer of cholesterol
1441849724191 1438565846692 Explain the difference in severity between heter
ozygotes and homozygotes of familial hypercholesterolemia?
Homozygotes = MI
by teens<div><br /></div><div>heterozygotes = MI in 30-40s</div>
1441849767224 1438565846692 What is the genetic defect in familial hyperchol
esterolemia
Mutation in LDL Recetpro gene aka ApoB-100/ApoE Receptor<div><br
/></div><div>Cannot participate in endocytosis = highe rplasma cholesterol</div
>
1441849884280 1438565846692 What domain is critical for LDL endocytosis?
cytosolic domain<div><br /></div><div>with coated pit</div><div><br /></div><div
>LDL particle binds coated put, phagocytosed into cytosol, release ApoB100, rece
ptor recycled back to surface</div>
1441849929264 1438565846692 Describe the domains of an LDL receptor <img src
="paste-7477538062337.jpg" />
1441849958292 1438565846692 Class I LDL Receptor defect
No receptors syn
thesized<div><br /></div><div>Mutations in LDLR promoter, frameshift or splicing
mutation</div>
1441849988407 1438565846692 Class II LDL Receptor defect
Receptors <b>syn
thesized but retained </b>intracellularly in <b>endoplasmic reticulum or golgi</
b>
1441850031236 1438565846692 Class III LDL Receptor defect Receptors <b>rea
ch cell surface</b> but <b>lack normal LDL binding</b>
1441850056536 1438565846692 <b>What is class IV LDL Recetpro defect?</b>
Receptors reach cell surface and bind LDL but <b>are not clustered in coated pit
s and endocytosed</b>
1441850085388 1438565846692 What does PCSK9 do?
Regulated LDL Receptors.
Expression of PCSK9 degrades LDL receptors<div><br /></div><div>Area of drug re
search...if PCSK9 can be blocked more LDLR will be active</div><div><br /></div>
<div><img src="paste-8160437862401.jpg" /></div>
1441850130711 1438565846692 Study Slide: Receptor mediated endocytosis of LD
L
jpg" /><br /><div><br /></div></div><div><img src="paste-8272107012097.jpg" /></
div><div><img src="paste-8284991913985.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-8297876
815873.jpg" /></div>
1441934532082 1438565846692 Where do amino acids come from ?
<div><sp
an class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Many come from turnove
r of endogenous proteins</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-spa
ce:pre"> </span> Proteins made and degraded</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span
" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Turnover balanced by resynthesis</div><div><sp
an class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Dietary protein (~100
g/d)</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Sour
ce of essential amino acids</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whitespace:pre"> </span> PriVaTe TIM HALL</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style
="white-space:pre"> </span> Biosynthesis from essential amino acids</div><div><sp
an class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Non-essential synthesi
zed from essential or intermediates in carb metabolism</div><div><br /></div>
1441934570904 1438565846692 What are amino acids used for? <div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Body protein</div><div><span c
lass="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Synthesis of nitrogen free
intermediates</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> <
/span> Glucose - "glucogenic"</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white
-space:pre"> </span> CO2 + H2O</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whit
e-space:pre"> </span> Ketone Bodies - "ketogenic"</div><div><span class="Apple-ta
b-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Amino nitrogen substances</div><div><spa
n class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Purines, Pyrimidines</d
iv><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Porphyrins<
/div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Neurotran
smitters</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>
Creatine</div><div><br /></div>
1441934584605 1438565846692 What are the essential amino acids?
PVT TIM
HALL<div><br /></div><div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:p
re"> </span> Phenylalanine, valine, threonine</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-sp
an" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Tryptophan, isoleucine, methionine</div><div
><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Histidine, arginin
e,* leucine, lysine</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pr
e"> </span> Arg is conditional on circumstances</div><div><br /></div><div><br />
</div><div><br /></div></div>
1441934605573 1438565846692 What are the non-essential amino acids? <img src
="paste-9109625634817.jpg" />
1441934618484 1438565846692 Explain the first level of protein digestion?
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> First level of
digestion of protein in stomach</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="w
hite-space:pre"> </span> Enzyme: Pepsin</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" st
yle="white-space:pre"> </span> Synthesized as pepsinogen</div><div><span class="A
pple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Activated in stomach</div><div><s
pan class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Partially cleaves die
tary proteins</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </
span> Pepsin operates best in low pH</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>
<img src="paste-9208409882625.jpg" /></div>
1441934645371 1438565846692 Explain the second level of protein digestion
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Second level i
n duodenum/ileum</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre">
</span> Pancreas secrete bicarbonate to aid other digestive enzymes in breakdown
of proteins. All synthesized as inactive zymogens</div><div><span class="
Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Trypsin</div><div><span class="A

pple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Chymotrypsin</div><div><span clas
s="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Elastase</div><div><span clas
s="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Carboxypeptidase</div><div><b
r /></div><div><img src="paste-9302899163137.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1441934667277 1438565846692 Describe Cysteinuria<div><br /></div><div>What h
appens? What is usual first presenting sign? Which amino acids involved?</
div>
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Cyst
inuria disorder of proximal tubule reabsorption of filtered cysteine and 3 other
AA</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Cysti
ne, ornithine, arginine, lysine</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="wh
ite-space:pre"> </span> Transporter is defective</div><div><span class="Apple-tab
-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Precipitates and causes renal calculi</di
v><div><br /></div><div>Autosomal recessive</div><div><br /></div><div>first Sx:
usually renal calculi</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-9431748182017.
jpg" /></div>
1441934733124 1438565846692 Explain Hartnup Disease <div><span class="Appletab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Defective Trp absorption can result in
pellagra like symptoms</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-spac
e:pre"> </span> Corn based diets low in B3 and Trp can lead to pellagra</div><div
><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>Pellagra</div><div><br /></div><div><div><spa
n class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Deficiency of niacin
(B3) causes Pellagra</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-s
pace:pre"> </span> Effects: skin, GI, CNS</div><div><br /></div><div>Pellagra 3 D
s: Dermatitis, diarrhea, dementia ---> death</div></div><div><br /></div>
1441934777523 1438565846692 what type of nitrogen imbalance is Kwashiorkor?
negative<div><br /></div><div>Deficient dietary protein</div>
1441934799563 1438565846692 Explain the features and causes of Kwashiorkor
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Sx: failure
to gain weight, stunted linear growth, gen edema, abd distention, skin depigment
ation, reddish pigmentation of hair, decreased muscle mass</div><div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Mental changes, lethargy, ap
athy irritability</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"
> </span>- Fatty liver, anemia</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whi
te-space:pre"> </span>- Final stages: shock, coma, death</div><div><span class="
Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Can treat with re-introduction
of protein and amino acids </div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="
white-space:pre"> </span> Irreversible damage may occur</div><div><span class="Ap
ple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Discovered in Africa</div><div><
span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Woman breast feeds f
or 1-2 years then new baby born</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="wh
ite-space:pre"> </span> Older child gets put on starch rich diet and develop symp
toms</div><div><br /></div>
1441934815861 1438565846692 Explain nitrogen balance. Postive, negativ
e, neutral
v<img src="paste-9796820402177.jpg" />
1441934834894 1438565846692 What enzymes are used to remove the amino group
from the alpha-amino acid?<br />
Transaminase or Aminotransferase<div><br
/></div><div><img src="paste-9865539878913.jpg" /></div>
1441934876388 1438565846692 Which amino acids DO NOT undergo transamination?
Leucine<div><br /></div><div>Lysine --> they are also two of the three ketoge
nic amino acisd (Ile is other)</div>
1441934901009 1438565846692 Which amino acid is often formed from the transm
aination of other amino acids? Glutamate
1441934925383 1438565846692 All transaminases require which cofactor?
Pyridoxal Phosphate (derrivative of Vit B6)<br />
1441934950943 1438565846692 Your patient has eat the mushroom Amanita Phallo
ides.<div><br /></div><div>What is the toxin?</div><div><br /></div><div>What do
es it do?</div><div><br /></div><div>What do you expect to see from ALT levels a
nd bilirubin level?</div>
1. Alpha amanatin<div><br /></div><div>2. Inhibi
ts RNA Polymerase II</div><div><br /></div><div>3. ALT elevate sharply after a f
ew hours. bili elevate sharply after 36 hrs</div><div><br /></div><div><im

g src="paste-10312216477697.jpg" /></div>
1441935036077 1438565846692 Explain the interconversion of glutamate and alp
ha ketoglutarate. What is the cofactor required? NAD/NADP required<div><b
r /></div><div><img src="paste-10411000725505.jpg" /></div>
1441935111562 1438565846692 Name the allosteric inhibitor of Glutamine dehyd
rogenase<div><br /></div><div>Name the allosteric activator of Glutamine dehydro
genase</div>
1. GTP<div><br /></div><div>2. ADP</div><div><br /></div><div><i
mg src="paste-10518374907905.jpg" /></div>
1441935153171 1438565846692 3 physiologic effects of D-serine
NMDA tra
nsmission<div>Synaptic plasticity</div><div>Development</div>
1441935173441 1438565846692 3 Pathological effects of d-Serine
schizoph
renia<div>Aging</div><div>Neurodegeneration</div>
1441935189562 1438565846692 describe the two ways ammonia can get from the m
uscle to the liver
<div><b><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:
pre"> </span>- Via glutamine</b></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="w
hite-space:pre"> </span> Glutamate reacts with free ammonia in presence of glutam
in synthetase with ATP --> Glutamine</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" s
tyle="white-space:pre"> </span> Glutamine goes to liver</div><div><span class="Ap
ple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Non-toxic form of ammonia</div><di
v><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Glutaminase contr
ibutes free NH3</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre">
</span>- Pyruvate</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"
> </span> Metabolism of branched chain AA</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span"
style="white-space:pre"> </span> Through glycolysis</div><div><span class="Appletab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Through alanine aminotransferase react
ion</div><div><b><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Alanine can be another non-toxic transport for of amino group</b></div><div><b><
br /></b></div><div><b><img src="paste-10788957847553.jpg" /></b></div><div><b><
br /></b></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1441935232382 1438565846692 What are the seven intermediates that can be for
med by amino acids.<div><br /></div><div><br /></div> <img src="paste-13211319
402497_1438565846692.jpg" />
1441935321089 1438565846692 Pyruvate is derrived from which amino acids?
Ala<div>Cys</div><div>Gly</div><div>Ser</div><div>Thr</div><div>Trp</div>
1441935341979 1438565846692 Acetyl Coa can derrive Acetoacetate and visa ver
sa. Which amino acids derrive them?
Acetyl Coa = Ile<div><br /></div
><div>Acetoacetate = Leu, Lys, Phe, Trp, Tyr</div><div><br /></div>
1441935372983 1438565846692 Which amino acids derrive OAA? Asparagine < -> Aspartate
1441935401901 1438565846692 Which amino acids derrive Fumarate?
Phe<div>
Tyr</div>
1441935412889 1438565846692 Which amino acids derrived alpha ketoglutarate?
Directly Glutamate<div><br /></div><div>Glutamate can derive and be derived from
Glycine </div><div>- it can also be derrived from Arg, His, Pro</div>
1441935450315 1438565846692 Which amino acids is succincyl CoA derrived from
Ile<div>met</div><div>Thr</div><div>Val</div>
1441935468339 1438565846692 Which amino acids are glucogenic
gluco +
ketogenic = tyrosine, Ile, Phe, Trp, <div><br /></div><div>Ketogenic = Leuc
ine and Lysine</div><div><br /></div><div>ALL OTHERS are glucogenic</div><div><b
1441935516828 1438565846692 Explain the metabolism of asparagine to oxaloace
tate. Which amino acid(s) is an intermediate? what are the enzymes involve
d?<div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
<img src="paste-13718125543425.jpg" />
1441935562912 1438565846692 Explain the catabolism of histidine to a-ketoglu
tarate <img src="paste-13795434954753.jpg" />
1441935581398 1438565846692 Explain the catabolism of alanine to pyruvate. &
nbsp;which amino acid and intermediate are also involved?
<img src="paste13864154431489.jpg" />
1441935608062 1438565846692 Phenylalanine is converted to what amino acid, t
hen what? what are the cofactors? What is the enzyme

<img src="paste13937168875521.jpg" />
1441935646178 1438565846692 what is the cofactor of Phe --> Acetoacetate
+ Fumarate
Tetrahydrobioterin
1441935665170 1438565846692 Explain the degredation of Isoleucine, Valine an
d Leucine. Why do these all have a very similar pathway? What are th
e resultant intermediates?
1. They are branch chain amino acids<div>2. Leu
= Aceoacetate + acetyl coA</div><div> Val = Succinyl Coa</div><div>
Ile = Acetyl Coa + Succinyl Coa</div>
1441935735142 1438565846692 What is similar about the pyruvate -> alanine
, OAA -> asp, a-KG -> Glu reactions?
They are all the same<div><img s
rc="paste-14267881357313.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1441935767743 1438565846692 How does one synthesize epinephrine from tyrosin
e. what are the intermediates invovled? <div><br /></div><div>What tw
o major vasopressors are involved in the pathway and where? </div><div><br
/></div><div>what is the cofactor requried.</div>
Dopamine and Nor-epi&nbs
p;<div><br /></div><div>Ascorbate (Vit C) required</div><div><br /></div><div>Ty
rosine Hydroxylase is RLS</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-14431090114
561.jpg" /></div>
1441935832051 1438565846692 What is the rate limiting step in the synthesis
of dopamine?
tyrosine Hydroxylase<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-144267
95147265.jpg" /></div>
1441935855259 1438565846692 How does epinephrine differ from norepinephrine?
Presence of methy group<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-14426795147265.jpg"
/></div>
1441935937651 1438565846692 What is parkinson's a deficiency of? What
does it lead to?<div><br /></div><div>What is the overall likely cause?</div>
1. Deficiency of dopamine<div><br /></div><div>2. Leads to neurodegeneration</di
v><div>    paucity of spontaneous movement, tremor at rest,
muscle rigidity, shuffling gait, mask-like facial expression, autonomic disturb
ances, depression, cognitive impairment</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Likely cau
sed by oxidative stress. 5 nuclear mutations noted. Only 10% of case
s inherited. </div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-14851996909569.jpg
" /></div>
1441936013947 1438565846692 Explain the metabolism of catecholamins <div>MAO
I were first antidepressants, prevented breakdown of epinephrine and nor-epi.</d
iv><div><br /></div><div>Note that no matter which substance acts first (monoami
ne oxidase or Catechol-O-Methyl Transferase) the other is always the following s
tep. </div><img src="paste-14946486190081.jpg" />
1441936086779 1438565846692 What other substance does serotinin synthesize?
Melatonin
1441936103346 1438565846692 What is GABA? major inhibitory neurotransmitte
r derived from major excitatory neurotransmitters (glutamate)<div><br /></div><d
iv>glutamate is ligand for NMDA receptor</div>
1441936145813 1438565846692 How does GABA act?
It is ionotropic, metabo
tropic recetor<div><br /></div><div>Plays an important role in addictive substan
ces. Morphine inhibits GABA leads to dopamine release. This is thoug
ht to upregulate reward processing center. Suppressing GABA leads to incre
ased satisfaction and continual need to seek the reward.</div>
1441936200386 1438565846692 What is histamine synthesized from?
Histidin
e by histidine decarboxylase<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-15367392985089
.jpg" /></div>
1441936223735 1438565846692 where is creatine phosphate found?
Muscle.
high energy storage. Creatine Kinase used for cardiac damage assessment<di
v><br /></div><div><img src="paste-15436112461825.jpg" /></div>
1442069983478 1438565846692 What are the two main ammonia sources?
Glutamine and glutamate
1442070749892 1438565846692 What are the two main enzymes of ammonia metabol
ism
glutamine synthetase and glutaminase
1442070767338 1438565846692 Which tissues express blutaminase but NOT glutam
ine synthetase? Kidney<div>PERIPORTAL hepatocytes</div><div>Intestines</div>

1442070795361 1438565846692 Which tissues express glutamine synthetase but N
OT glutaminase? Brain<div>Muscle</div><div>PERIVENOUS hepatocytes</div>
1442070819817 1438565846692 Which two organs are sources of ammonia? W
here is ammonia primarily collected from?
Liver<div><br /></div><div>Kidne
y</div><div><br /></div><div>- collected from peripheral tissues</div>
1442070855217 1438565846692 What catalyzes the breakdown to ammonia?
Glutamate Dehydrogenase
1442070880667 1438565846692 Where is free ammonia principally generated from
?
Catabolism of purines and pyrimidines
1442070900818 1438565846692 What are sources of non-amino acid ammonia? What
enzyme is involved?
Dietary amines and monamines<div><br /></div><div>ie: ho
romones, neurotransmitters</div><div><br /></div><div>Ammonia formed by <b>amine
oxidase</b></div>
1442071006097 1438565846692 Explain the transport of ammonia from most tissu
es and from the liver. What intermediate is essential? Which amino acid is
a key component?
1. Alpha Ketoglutarate<div>2. Glutamate</div><div><img s
1442071050184 1438565846692 What is the role of glutaminase?
converts
glutamine to glutamate
1442071066483 1438565846692 Where is glutaminase active?
liver
1442071072419 1438565846692 What is the role of glucose alanine cycle? Where
does it occur? Which intermediate does it use? Gets rid of excess ammonia
in muscle/other peripheral tissues<div><br /></div><div>Utilizes alpha-ketoglut
arate</div>
1442071134449 1438565846692 What is the relationship between the periportal
hepatocytes and perivenous hepatocytes with regard to ammonia regulation?
periportal hepatocytes have concetrated enzymes that direct ammonia to the urea
cycle<div><br /></div><div>Should some get missed the perivenous hepatocytes cat
ch the escaped ammonia and <b>conjugates it to glutamine</b></div><div><b><br />
</b></div><div><b><img src="paste-8645769166849.jpg" /></b></div>
1442071212399 1438565846692 Name in order the intermediates of the urea cycl
e
CO2 + NH3 --> Carbamoyl Phosphate (CPS I) --> Citrulline [out of m
itochondria] --> L-aspartate + ATP --> Arginosuccinate (fumarate released)
--> L-arginine (can go to NO shunt or urea) --> +H2O releases UREA -->
L-Ornithine (back to mitrochondria)<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-897648
1648641.jpg" /></div>
1442071312783 1438565846692 What is the N source in Urea? 1. free ammonia<
div><br /></div><div>2. Aspartate</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-906
6675961857.jpg" /></div>
1442071330342 1438565846692 What are the differences between carbamoyl phosp
hate synthetase I and II?
CPS I<div>- Mitochondrial inner membrane</div><d
iv>- Involved in urea cycle</div><div>- Uses ammonia for free energy</div><div><
br /></div><div>CPS II</div><div>- In cytosol</div><div>- Pyrimidine synthesis</
div><div>- Uses Glutamine for energy </div>
1442071389144 1438565846692 Where does ammonia build up? And how does CPS ac
t to handle this?
mitochondiral matrix<div><br /></div><div>CPS combines w
ith 2ATP and bicarb to turn ammonia to Carbamoyl Phosphate</div>
1442071431218 1438565846692 How does carbamoyl phosphate react to leave the
mitochondria? reacts with L-ornithine to form citrulline and leave the mitocho
ndrial<div><br /></div><div>- ornithine is recycled</div>
1442071465137 1438565846692 If there is an enzyme deficiency in the urea cyc
le causing CPS I build up what happens? It can leak out and go to pyrimidine syn
thesis
1442071500809 1438565846692 Which two enzymes are involved in the cytosolic
reactions of the urea cycle?
Glutamate dehydrogenase<div><br /></div><div>Gly
cine synthetase</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-9513352560641.jpg" />
</div>
1442071642438 1438565846692 Explain the Nitric Oxide Shunt <div>Produces NO
and Urea</div><img src="paste-9710921056257.jpg" />
1442071688171 1438565846692 What is the major allosteric regulator of the Ur

ea Cycle
<img src="paste-9856949944321.jpg" />
1442071708571 1438565846692 What are some causes of acquired hyperammonemia?
Liver disease<div>Viral infxn</div><div>Ischemia</div><div>Cirrhosis</div><div>B
iliary obstruction</div>
1442071822267 1438565846692 Ornithine Transcarbamoylase (OTC) Deficiency<div
><br /></div><div>Inheretance</div><div><br /></div><div>What happens?</div><div
><br /></div><div>When diagnosed?</div> x-linked recessive<div><b>most common ur
ea cycle defect</b></div><div>accumulates of carbamoyl phosphate and enters cyto
sol</div><div> - participates in pyrimidine synthesis with C
PS II</div><div> - Increased orotic acid synthesis</div><div
><br /></div><div>- May be dx later in life (60% not as neonates) because male w
ith residual enzyme and female heterozygotes may not present for years</div><div
><br /></div><div><img src="paste-10380935954433.jpg" /></div>
1442071979783 1438565846692 What deficiency can cause N-acetylglutamate synt
hetase deficiency? If it is inherited, how? What does NAG regulate?
1. Acetyl CoA<div>2. Autosomal recessive</div><div>3. CPS I</div><div><br /></di
v><div><img src="paste-10376640987137.jpg" /></div>
1442072036825 1438565846692 What builds up in CTS I deficiency? what inheret
ance? When diagnosed? Prognosis?
1. Carbamoyl phosphate<div>2. Autosomal
recessive (only OTC def is x-linked)</div><div>3. Neonatal period</div><div>4. p
oor = dead babies</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-10376640987137.jpg"
/></div>
1442072097373 1438565846692 Arginosuccinate Synthetase Deficiency (ASS)<div>
<br /></div><div>What accumulates? </div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
Arginosuccinic Acid<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-10376640987137.jpg" /><
/div>
1442072162988 1438565846692 Arginosuccinate Lyase (ASL) deficiency<div><br /
></div><div>What accumulates?</div><div><br /></div><div>Symptoms?</div><div><br
/></div><div>How would you treat HTN associated with this deficiency?</div>
<div><b>Second most common urea cycle disorder (OTC #1)</b></div>1. Arginosuccin
ic aciduria<div>2. Fragile hair (trichorrhexis nodosa)</div><div>3. Treat with I
V Arginine </div><div> - NO pathway is blocked by
lack of arginine (arginosuccinate catalyzed by ASL to yield arginine)</div><div
> - NO is a potent vasodialtor</div><div><br /></div><div><i
1442072285768 1438565846692 T/F: Arginase (A1) Deficiency leads to severe hy
perammonemia? False, only mild<div><br /></div><div>- neonates typically asymp
tomatic</div><div>- can leads to progressive spastic diplegia, quadraplegia</div
><div>- ID, vomiting, delayed growth, seizures </div><div><br /></div><div>
1442072550974 1438565846692 What are the four treatments of hyperammonemia
<u>Lactulose - </u> colonic acidifier, reduces ammonia<div><u><br /><
/u></div><div><u>Sodium Benzoate</u> - combines with endogenous glycine to form
hippuric acid that is cleared by </div><div><br /></div><div><u>sodium phen
ylacetate or phenylbutarate-</u> conjugates with glutamine to form phenylac
etylglutamine, excreted in urine</div><div><br /></div><div><u>Arginine</u>- sup
plies urea cycle with ornithine and NAG. supports NO synthesis</div><div><br /><
/div><div><u>citrulline -</u> <b>useful for OTC deficiency</b></div>
1442072676349 1438565846692 Which four co-enzymes containe adenine nucleotid
es?
NAD<div>NADP</div><div>FMN</div><div>FAD</div><div>CoA</div>
1442073371448 1438565846692 what is the structural difference between uracil
and thymine? thymine has methyl group on C4<div><br /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-19834158972929.jpg" /><img src="paste-19847043874817.jpg" /></div>
1442073440689 1438565846692 How is GMP converted to GDP? What enzyme
is used?
1. Add ATP<div>2. Nucleoside monophosphate kinase</div><div><br
/></div><div><img src="paste-19988777795585 (1).jpg" /></div>
1442073499305 1438565846692 How many members are the purine ring? What
is the recursor to purines?
1. 9<div>2. xathine, hypoxanthine</div><
div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-20100446945281.jpg" /></div>
1442073584956 1438565846692 Where are the nitrogens on purine rings?

1,3,9,7<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-20199231193089.jpg" /></div>
1442073604801 1438565846692 What is the difference between Guanine and adeni
ne?
guanine has =O and adenine has -NH2 at C6 position<div><br /></div><div>
1442073628640 1438565846692 Describe De novo synthesis of purines 1. Build
s from glyolytic intermediate (glucose-6-phosphate)<div>2. Via pentose phosphate
pathway ---> ribose-5-phosphate</div><div>3. R-5-P + ATP/PRPP Synthase --&gt
; 5-Pohsphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate</div><div>4. PRPP /Glutamine/Amidophosphoribo
syl transferase ---> 5-phosphoribosylamine</div><div>5. This enters pathway o
f multiple steps utilizing 1 Gly, 2 Glu, 1 Asp, 2 THF to yield <b>inosine monoph
osphate</b></div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b>IMP is the basis for GTP and AT
P</b></div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b><img src="paste-20701742366721.jpg" /
></b></div><div><b><img src="paste-20714627268609.jpg" /></b></div><div><b><img
src="paste-20727512170497.jpg" /></b></div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b><br /
></b></div>
1442074004014 1438565846692 Descriobe the regulatory process of creating AMP
and GMP. What are the enzymes involved?
Enzymes:<div> - Aden
ylosuccinase (adenylosuccinate -> AMP, release fumarate)<div> - Adenylo
succinate (IMP -> Adenylosuccinate, requires GTP, aspartic acid)</div></div><
div>- IMP dehydrogenase ( IMP --> Xanthosine monophosphate, req H2O, NAD)</di
v><div>- GMP Synthase (Xanthosine monophos --> GMP, req ATP, glutamine)</div>
<div><br /></div><div>* ATP and GTP regulated formation of AMP, GMP by assuring
roughly stoichiometric equality</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-21126
944129025.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1442074213561 1438565846692 Study slide: Hypoxanthine -> Adenine, xanthin
e -> guanine <img src="paste-21212843474945.jpg" />
1442074240919 1438565846692 What inhibits PRPP?
IMP<div>AMP</div><div>GM
P</div>
1442074268011 1438565846692 Describe the salvage pathway of purine synthesis
Two enzymes used that have different specificities<div> 1.<b
> Adenine phosphoribiosyl transferase (APRT)</b></div><div>
- generate AMP/Adenylate</div><div>&nbs
p; 2. <b>Hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (HGRPT)&n
bsp;</b></div><div> &nbsp
; - generate GMP/guanylate</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-2153496602
2145.jpg" /></div>
1442074375134 1438565846692 How many steps to form nucleotide monophosphate
from salvage pathway? 1 step<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-216165704007
69.jpg" /></div>
1442074421351 1438565846692 What are pruines degraded to? urate<div><br />
</div><div>Uric acid is ultimate form of degredation but poorly soluble</div><di
v>- often source of crystal formation that can cause inflammation </div>
1442075178431 1438565846692 when purines are degraded what removes the amino
group? Adenosine Deaminase<div><br /></div><div>Then NH3 must go to urea cycle<
/div>
1442075216105 1438565846692 Study Slide: Purine degradation <img src="paste23493471109121.jpg" />
1442075238253 1438565846692 Explain the pathophys behind under excreters in
gout
80% of cases<div>ideopathic</div><div>risks include renal disease, DM, d
owns syndrome, HTN</div>
1442075306888 1438565846692 Explain the pathophys of over producers of uric
acid in gout? 20% of gout<div><b>PRPP synthase overactivity</b></div><div><b><
br /></b></div><div>May be caused by hemolytic disease, lymphoproliferative diso
rders, HGPRT deficiency (Lesch Nehan Syn), ETOH, purine rich diet, obesity</div>
<div><br /></div><div>IMP, AMP and GP do not inhibit PRPP as effectively leading
to increased net biosynthetic and degradation pathways</div><div><br /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-23837068492801.jpg" /></div>
1442075386526 1438565846692 What genetic mutation can increase risk of gout
from lack of HGPRT?
Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)<div><br /></div><
div>- can determine risk for gout</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-239

48737642497.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-23983097380865.jpg" /></div>
1442075467524 1438565846692 Lesch Nyhan Syndrome<div><br /></div><div>1. Inh
eretance</div><div>2. Problem>?</div><div>3. Symptoms</div> 1. X-linked rece
ssive<div>2. <b>Severe HGPRT deficiency</b></div><div><b> &n
bsp;- </b> decreased IMP + GMP</div><div> - Hyper
uricemia</div><div> - Increased PRPP + De Novo purine
pathway</div>
1442075894767 1438565846692 Study Slide: de Novo Purine Pathway
<img src
="paste-24326694764545.jpg" />
1442075906669 1438565846692 Study Slide: Purine Salvage Pathway
<img src
="paste-24399709208577.jpg" />
1442075956414 1438565846692 What are the structural features of pyrimidines
Six member heterocyclic rings<div>biosynthesis similar to purines</div><div>larg
e ring numbered clockwise (purine couterclockwise)</div><div><img src="paste-247
47601559553.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-24760486461441.jpg" /></div><div><
br /></div>
1442076527611 1438565846692 Which step in pyrimidine synthesis is regulated?
How? First step<div><br /></div><div>Glutamine reacts with bicarb and ATP</di
v><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-24910810316801.jpg" /></div>
1442076603334 1438565846692 What are the enzymatic steps in pyrimidine synth
esis? CAD<div><br /></div><div><b>Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase</b> <b>II</b>
: </div><div> -inhibit by UTP, Activate by: ATP,
PRPP</div><div><b>Aspartate</b> <b>transcarbamylase</b> - adds whole aspar
tic acid</div><div><b>Dihidroorotase</b> - closes the ring</div><div><br /
></div><div><img src="paste-25099788877825.jpg" /></div>
1442076736244 1438565846692 What is a contrasting step between purine and py
rimidine synthesis?
In purines the ring is synthesized first then side chain
s added.
1442076769590 1438565846692 Where do the component N and C come from in pyri
midines?
<img src="paste-25258702667777.jpg" /><div><br /></div>
1442076789365 1438565846692 Where do the component N and C come from in puri
nes?
<img src="paste-25348896980993.jpg" />
1442076803773 1438565846692 What is special about CAD?
It is a single p
olypeptide with 3 domains and 3 activities<div>self contained</div><div><br /></
01359617.jpg" /></div>
1442076844154 1438565846692 What is the last step in pyrimidine synthesis?
<img src="paste-25503515803649.jpg" />
1442076861749 1438565846692 Which amino acid contriubtes to both purine and
pyrimidine synthesis? Aspartate
1442076896517 1438565846692 describe the De Novo pathway of purine synthesis
in which uridine monophosphate is produced from Orotate
<img src="paste25636659789825 (1).jpg" />
1442076938583 1438565846692 What is UMP Synthase? Similar to CAD in that i
t is a single polypeptide with 2 domains and 2 activities<div><br /></div><div><
b>Orotate Phosphoribosyl Transferase: </b>adds orotate to ribose</div><div><b>OM
P Decarboxylase: </b>decarboxylation forms uridine 5'-monophosphate (UMP)</div><
div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-25868588023809.jpg" /></div>
1442077078437 1438565846692 Study Slide: Synthesis of CTP <img src="paste25967372271617.jpg" />
1442077105734 1438565846692 Study Slide: Overall pyrimidine Synthesis
<img src="paste-26156350832641.jpg" />
1442077233562 1438565846692 What is the rate limiting step in eukaryotic pyr
imidine synthesis?
CPS II
1442077249704 1438565846692 What is the rate limiting step in prokaryotic py
rimidine synthesis?
Aspartate transcarbamolyase
1442077273449 1438565846692 Increasing ATP does what to reaction of pyrimidi
ne synthesis? Increasing CTP has what effect? 1. Increases rate, left shift<di
v>2. Decreases rate, right shift</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-2641
4048870401.jpg" /></div>
1442077330621 1438565846692 What are the activators and inhbitors of ribonuc
leotide to deoxyribonucleotide conversion?
Inhibit by dATP<div><br /></div>
<div>Activated by ATP</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-26564372725761.
jpg" /></div>
1442077379007 1438565846692 Explain the process of turning UDP into dTTP. &n
bsp;How is it different from the other bases? <img src="paste-26658862006273.j
pg" />
1442077410996 1438565846692 How does pyrimidine salvage occur?
Uridinecytidine kinase = nucleoside to nucleotide<div> - Thymidine k
inase</div><div> - Deoxycytidine kinase</div><div><br /></div
><div>These principles can be utilized in drugs such as vancyclovir</div>
1442077505209 1438565846692 Describe the degradation pathway of pyrimidines
Rigns cleaved and degraded to soluble structures
1442077530608 1438565846692 How does 5-FU work?
Prevents formation of dT
MP and indirectly inhibits further cancer cell DNA synthesis<div><br /></div><di
v>methotrexate works similarly <br /><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste26938034880513.jpg" /></div></div>
1442077591455 1438565846692 What enzyme does methotrexate inhibit? Dihydrof
olate erductase
1442077610408 1438565846692 what enzyme does 5-FU inhbit? Thymidylate synt
hase
1442077629480 1438565846692 what type of drug is AZT?
Nucleoside analo
g reverse transcriptase inhibitor<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-271699631
14497.jpg" /></div>
1442077666496 1438565846692 Describe the serine --> glycine pathway
<img src="paste-27268747362305.jpg" />
1442077684158 1438565846692 what is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis o
f purines and formation of thymine?
N5, n10-methylene FH4<div><br /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-27337466839041.jpg" />.</div><div><img src="paste-27350351740
929.jpg" /></div>
1442082750940 1438565846692 What is elevated in phenylketonuria?
Phenylal
anine<div>Phenylpyruvate</div><div>Phenylacetate</div><div>Pheynyllactate</div>
1442082969150 1438565846692 What are the symptoms of phenylketouria?
Hypopigmentation<div> - blockage of Phe to Tyr
</div><div> - Tyr responsible for melanin prod
uction</div><div><br /></div><div>CNS</div><div> - LD, devel delay,
seizures</div><div><br /></div><div>Microcephaly</div><div><br /></div><div>Sx r
are now due to early screening and tx</div>
1442083052968 1438565846692 What is the enzyme deficient in PKU?
Phenylal
anine Hydroxylase
1442083069983 1438565846692 What is the pathway of phenylalanine? What
are the products if there is a blockage in Phe to Tyr? <img src="paste-28467043
237889.jpg" />
1442083100700 1438565846692 what are indirect causes of PKU?
BH4 and
dihydropteridine reductase deficiencies<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-285
40057681921.jpg" /></div>
1442083135676 1438565846692 what is the problem in maple syrup urine disease
?
Accumulation of branch chain amino acids<div><br /></div><div>Leu, Ile,
Val</div>
1442083169479 1438565846692 What are the symptomso of MSUD? maple syrup odor
to urine (b/c of Ile)<div>Feeding problems, vomiting</div><div>Neuro: can cause
coma</div><div><br /></div><div>Can be fatal</div>
1442083200960 1438565846692 What is treatment of MSUD
synthetic formul
a free of BCAA<div>Limit Ile, Val, Leu</div>
1442083216855 1438565846692 Which process in the processing of BCAA cause MS
UD?
deficient oxidative carboxylation<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-2
8875065131009.jpg" /></div>
1442083255931 1438565846692 what is deficient in albinism?<div><br />What ar
e the symptoms?</div> 1. Tyrosine kinase<div> - there are differe
nt forms</div><div> - autosomal recessive primary for of inheritanc

e </div><div><br /></div><div>2. White hair, pink eyes, hypopigmented pale
skin</div><div> Increased risk of CA<br /><div><br /></div></div>
1442084245535 1438565846692 How does melanin get synthesized from Tyrosine?<
div><br /></div><div>What are the two type of melanin?</div>
1. Tyrosine is p
recurosr<div><br /></div><div>2. Two types: pheomelanin and eumelnain</div><div>
- eu = black/brown</div>
1442084315188 1438565846692 Which melanin is most abundant? eumelanin
1442084329128 1438565846692 which gene is defective in melanoma?
BRAF V60
0
1442084351047 1438565846692 What is homocystinuria?<div><br /></div><div>Wha
t is treatment?</div><div><br /></div><div>What are symptoms?</div>
1. disor
der of metabolism of homocystein<div> - high plasma and urine
homocysteine and methionine</div><div><br /></div><div>2. restrict <b>Met, </b>
supplement B6, B12, folate</div>
1442084446588 1438565846692 what are the three characteristic signs of alkap
tonuria?
Urine oxidizes to dark pigment on standing<div><br /></div><div>
Large joint arthritis, can be crippling</div><div><br /></div><div>deposition of
black pigment in cartilage and collagenous tissue</div>
1442084485016 1438565846692 What is treatment of alkaptonuria
Diet low
in Phe and Tyr to reduce levels of homogentisic acid
1442084541562 1438565846692 What are the three types of nitrix oxide synthas
e? What are coenzymes 1. Endothelial NOS, neural NOS, inducible NOS<div><br />
</div><div>2. FMN, FAD, Heme, THB</div>
1442084636879 1438565846692 What are the immune benefits of nitric oxide and
which synthase promotes it?
1. Tumorcidal, bacterialcidal<div><br /></div><d
iv>2. inducible NOS</div>
1442084675831 1438565846692 How does nitric oxide relax smooth muscle
<img src="paste-30030411333633.jpg" />
1442084701232 1438565846692 How do phosphodiesterase 5 inhibitors treat erec
tile dysfunction?
"> </span> cGMP specific phosphodiesterase responsible for degradation of cGMP in
vascular smooth muscle of penis</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="w
hite-space:pre"> </span> PDE-5 converts cGMP to GMP decreased muscle relaxation e
ffects</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> In
hibiting this promotes relaxation</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><i
1442084738836 1438565846692 Study Slide: Concept Map for Nitrogen Metabolism
<img src="paste-30210799960065.jpg" />
1442084752781 1438565846692 Study slide: Amino Acid Metabolism
<img src
="paste-30283814404097.jpg" />
1442084778099 1438565846692 Describe the structure of heme formally known a
s: Fe (II) Protoporphyrin IX<div>- 4 pyrrole rings linked by methanyl bridges</d
iv><div>- conjungated double bonds = color</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="
paste-30468497997825.jpg" /></div>
1442085450320 1438565846692 Describe the side groups of heme
<div>The
order and location of these side group is essential for proper folding and func
tion</div><div><br /></div><img src="paste-30562987278337.jpg" />
1442085487100 1438565846692 What are two leading causes of heme diseases?
Vitamin B6 deficiency<div>Lead poisoning</div>
1442085647185 1438565846692 What are the starting components of heme synthes
is
Succinyl CoA and Glycine
1442085723440 1438565846692 What is the product of the first step in heme sy
nthesis delta-aminolevulinic acid
1442085742793 1438565846692 Where does heme synthesis begin?
mitochon
dira<div><br /></div><div>After first step moves to cytosol.</div><div><br /></d
iv><div>Sixth step takes it back to mitochondria for completion</div>
1442085782919 1438565846692 What is the feedback inhibtion for heme synthesi
s
Heme<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-31185757536257.jpg" /></div>
1442085932388 1438565846692 Explain the first step in heme synthesis. Whati
s the enzyme? <img src="paste-31503585116161 (1).jpg" />

1442086567619 1438565846692 What is the rate limiting step in heme synthesis
?
The first <div><br /></div><div>Succinyl coa and glycine</div>
1442086583773 1438565846692 What is delta-aminolevulinic acid snythase?
Enzyme for first reaction in heme synthesis<div><br /></div><div>rate limiting e
nzyme</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1442086621160 1438565846692 What are the cofactors required for ALAS?
What are the two types of ALAS? Cofactors: Vit B6, Pyridozal Phosphate<div><br /
></div><div>ALAS 1: housekeeping, in all cells. </div><div><br /></div><div
>ALAS2: erythroid cells. X-linked gene</div>
1442086670505 1438565846692 What are two diseases assoc with ALAS2? X-linked
RECESSIVE sideroblastic anemia - heme biosynth disease<div><br /></div><div>Exc
ess ALAS2 = x-linked DOMINANT erythropoeitic dominant proporphyria</div><div><br
/></div><div>not a porphyria because no porphyrin is made</div>
1442086737231 1438565846692 What causes the damage in porphyria?
Accumula
tion of intermediates rather than lack of heme
1442086837440 1438565846692 What are the two areas that lead poising affects
heme synthesis?
Enzyme 2 and 8 blockage<div><br /></div><div>2 - ALA Deh
ydratase</div><div><br /></div><div>8 - Ferrochelatase</div>
1442086917514 1438565846692 What does the reaction that creates porphobilino
gen require?
magnesium <div><br /></div><div>delta- ALA dehydratase requ
ires Mg</div>
1442086970226 1438565846692 Is the ending -ogen color or colorless colorles
s
1442086988090 1438565846692 At which step in heme synthesis is ammonia relea
sed?
Porphobilinogen to Uroporphyrinogen I and Coproporphyrinogen I<div><br /
1442087122972 1438565846692 Where do the ring 4 subunits get switched around
?
<img src="paste-32646046416897.jpg" />
1442087138182 1438565846692 What is the major alteration of side chains in h
eme synthesis? Methylation<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-32719060860929.
jpg" /></div>
1442087157637 1438565846692 What is the enzyme that significantly speeds the
spontaneous reaction of protoporphyrinogen IX to Heme? Ferrochelatase
1442087186857 1438565846692 Study slide: heme synthesis
<img src="paste32839319945217.jpg" />
1442087206573 1438565846692 What does Vit B6 deficiency do to affect heme sy
nthesis?
reduce ALAS activity<div><br /></div><div>results in microcytic
hypochromic anemia</div>
1442087264744 1438565846692 What is the most common porphyria?
Porphyri
a Cutanea Tarda<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-33002528702465.jpg" /></div
>
1442087312338 1438565846692 what is the defect in porphyria cutanea tarda?
uroporphyinogen decarboxylase<div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>MOST COMMON.
Often caused by liver damage</div><div><img src="paste-32998233735169.jpg
" /></div>
1442087364816 1438565846692 Where do uroporphyrins accumulate in porphyria c
utanea tarda? Liver, plasma, urine, stool
1442087389304 1438565846692 which enzyme is defective in <b>acute intermitte
nt poyphyria</b>
Porphobilinogen deaminase mutation
1442087414578 1438565846692 does acute intermit porphyria exhibit cutaneous
symptoms? Why /why not? No.<div><br /></div><div>Lacks skin disease beca
use porphoryinogens are not made because there are no porphyrins</div>
1442087504522 1438565846692 What accumulates in the plasma of acute intermit
tent porphyria ALA and porphorbilinogen<div><br /></div><div>causes darkening o
f urine on standing</div>
1442087553728 1438565846692 What is the most common erythropoietic protoporp
hyria Erythropoietic protoporphyria<div><br /></div><div>defective ferrochelat
ase</div><div><br /></div><div>Mostly skin sx</div>
1442087610349 1438565846692 Does the protoporphyrin accumulate in the urine
in erythropoietic protoporphyria?
No...not soluble
1442087635713 1438565846692 Explain the process of heme degradation <img src
="paste-33818572488705.jpg" />
1442087854269 1438565846692 What is the rate limiting step of heme degradati
on
HMOX1 - induced by heme, heavy metals and stress (hypoxia)<div><
br /><div>HMOX2 constitutively expressed</div></div><div><br /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-33904471834625.jpg" /></div>
1442087894821 1438565846692 What isthe first step in heme degradation?
Oxidative cleavage of heme to create <font color="#005500">Biliverdin</font>
1442087937171 1438565846692 What are the three types of bilirubin? 1. <b>Fr
ee</b> in cells (insoluble)<div>2. <b>Bound to albumin</b> (soluble in blood)</d
iv><div>3. conjugated in LIVER as <b>bilirubin diglucuronide</b></div>
1442088003398 1438565846692 How does urine get it's yellow color
Some uro
bilinogen on the way back to the liver is shuttled to the kidney for excretion i
n the urine
1442088036593 1438565846692 Where is bilirubin conjugated? liver
1442088051714 1438565846692 What are the major causes of jaundice? <img src
="paste-34424162877441.jpg" />
1442088117534 1438565846692 study slide: pre-hepatic jaundice
<img src
="paste-34497177321473.jpg" />
1442088128845 1438565846692 study slide: hepatic jaundice <img src="paste34570191765505.jpg" />
1442088155437 1438565846692 Study slide: post-hepatic (obstructive) jaundice
<img src="paste-34643206209537.jpg" />
1442088173069 1438565846692 Describe Van den Bergh Reaction. What is i
t used for?
Determines bilirubin content. Can use different aspects of
test to determine conjugated or total bilirubin.<div><br /></div><div>Indirect
(unconjugated) = Total - direct</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-34823
594835969.jpg" /></div>
1442261717229 1438565846692 What are the three main components of the diet ?
<div><br /></div><div>What is the recomended daily consumption?</div> Fat 15-3
0%<div><br /></div><div>Protein 12 %</div><div><br /></div><div>Carbs 58-73%</di
v>
1442261760335 1438565846692 What is the thermic effect ?
food associated
with digestion involves approx 5-10% of total caloric requirements<div><br /></d
iv><div>ie: it takes energy to digest food</div>
1442261798274 1438565846692 What has calorie restriction been shown to do in
lab mice?
Increase life span
1442261815185 1438565846692 how do you calculate the BMI?<div><br /></div><d
iv>How do you calculate the calories from prot, fat, carb in a meal?</div>
1. BMI = wt in lb x 705/ht in inches<div><br /></div><div>2. mutliple (gm fat)(9
cal/g) + (gm prot)(4 cal/g) + (gm carb)(4cal/g)</div>
1442262105936 1438565846692 What are the essential fatty acids
linoleic
acid<div><br /></div><div>linolenic acid</div>
1442262126938 1438565846692 what are the problems with unsaturated fatty aci
ds?
Overall healthier but are prone to oxidation and have a shorter shelf li
fe than trans/sat fatty acids
1442262177946 1438565846692 Are cis bonds in a fatty acid a good thing?
yes, makes it kinky
1442262191083 1438565846692 Are carbohydrates essential?
No, but they are
beneficial. Have protein sparing effect
1442262213978 1438565846692 What happens to carbohydrate metabolism in peopl
e with DM?
impaired ability to use carbs which changes metabolism and resem
bles some components of starvation
1442262264108 1438565846692 Which amino acids must be obtained through prote
in in diet?
PVT TIM HALL<div><br /></div><div>Phe Valine Trp</div><div><br /
></div><div>Tyr Ile Met</div><div><br /></div><div>His Arg* &n
bsp;Leu Lys</div>
1442262305209 1438565846692 Why is arginine a weird essential AA? it is pr
oduced in the body but not in sufficient amounts
1442262320185 1438565846692 What is marasmus. how does it differ from kwashi

orkor? 1. deficiency of protein and calories<div><br /></div><div>2. no edema</
div>
1442262345947 1438565846692 What are the micronutrients that are required in
gms, mgs, uq? <img src="paste-5106716114945.jpg" />
1442262364102 1438565846692 What is fiber?<div><br /></div><div>What are its
benefits?</div><div><br /></div><div>What is a potential down side?</div>
1. non-digestible polyerms<div><br /></div><div>ie: cellulose, hemicellulose, pe
ntosans</div><div><br /></div><div>2. Increases bowel motility. </div><div>
also believed to reduce diverticulosis and colon CA</div><di
v><br /></div><div>3. High doses can bind trace elements and inhibit absorption
of fat soluble vitamins</div>
1442262464955 1438565846692 What is retinol (vit A) the precusor of?<div><br
/></div><div>How does it work?</div> 1. Retinal for the visual cycle<div><div
><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Opsin binds 11-Cis
isomer of retinal</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre
"> </span> Light causes conversion to all-trans isomer which weakly bound to opsi
n</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Lipid,
requires assistance in transport</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="w
hite-space:pre"> </span> All trans retinoic binds to RAR receptors and 9-Cis reti
noic acid binds to RXR receptors </div></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></
div>
1442262533351 1438565846692 What is the second (non-eye) function of vitamin
A
Retinoic acid is used for maintenance of epithelial cells<div><br /></di
1442262566319 1438565846692 What are the two vitamins that are toxic in high
doses? Vit A and D
1442262584737 1438565846692 What happens when you are deficient in Vit A
night blindness<div><br /></div><div>keratinization of epithelial cells</div>
1442262602051 1438565846692 Describe the structures of retinol, retinal, ret
inoic acid and 11-cis-retinal <img src="paste-5725191405569.jpg" />
1442262620784 1438565846692 Thiamine (B1)<div><br /></div><div>function, def
iciency and sources</div>
<img src="paste-5793910882305.jpg" /><div><img s
rc="paste-5806795784193.jpg" /></div>
1442262658558 1438565846692 Ribofalvin (B2) <div><br /></div><div>funct
ion, deficiency, source</div> <img src="paste-5879810228225.jpg" /><div><img s
rc="paste-5892695130113.jpg" /></div>
1442262688581 1438565846692 Niacin (B3) <div><br /></div><div>function,
deficiency, source</div>
<img src="paste-5995774345217.jpg" />
1442262715655 1438565846692 Pantothenic Acid (B5)<div><br /></div><div>funct
ioon, deficiency, sources</div> <img src="paste-6068788789249.jpg" />
1442262742510 1438565846692 What is pyridoxine the precursor of?<div><br /><
/div><div>What reactions does it participate in?</div> 1. Pyridoxal Phosphate<d
iv><br /></div><div>2.</div><div> <img src="paste-6141803233281.jpg" /></di
v>
1442262783999 1438565846692 What happens with a deficiency of B6 (pyridoxine
) and what are the sources?<div><br /></div><div>Which drug is it similar to?</d
iv>
jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1442262821935 1438565846692 Biotin (B7)<div><br /></div><div>Function, defic
iency, sources</div>
<img src="paste-6326486827009.jpg" />
1442262845261 1438565846692 What is needed to be supplemented in pregnancy?
folate, Fe
1442263011503 1438565846692 What can you supplement to combate B12 deficienc
y?
Folate<div><br /></div><div>BUT --> it will not stop spinal neuron de
generation nor repair any damage. MUST supplement B12</div>
1442263042498 1438565846692 What component of raw eggs can tightly bind Biot
in and cause a deficiency in hgih doses?
Avidin
1442263067033 1438565846692 How does methotrexate, sulfonamides and trimetho
prin work? What is weird abotu dihydrofolate reductase? <div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Sulfonamides act on dihydrop

teroate synthetase to inhibit folic acid</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span"
style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Methotrexate acts on dihydrofolate reductase t
o inhibit the cell division</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whitespace:pre"> </span>- Trimethoprim also inhibits dehydrofolate reductase but acts
on bacterial version</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:
pre"> </span> Different from humans</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><
img src="paste-6773163425793.jpg" /></div>
1442263114597 1438565846692 Folic Acid<div><br /></div><div>function, source
s, deficiency</div>
<img src="paste-6854767804417.jpg" />
1442263135174 1438565846692 Describe the "folate trap"<br />
<div><di
v><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- "Folate Trap" i
f B12 deficiency</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre">
</span> Methyl-THF accumulates and cannot be used</div></div><div><br /></div><d
iv><br /></div><img src="paste-6936372183041.jpg" />
1442263159759 1438565846692 What is the central atom in Cobalamin (B12)?
Cobalt atom
1442263184132 1438565846692 What are the 2 reactions cobalamin is a derived
cofactor for? <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </spa
n> Methylmalonyl CoA isomerase requries 5-deoxyadenosyl cobalamin</div><div><br /
></div><div>Homocysteine: THF methyl transferase requires methyl cobalamin</div>
1442263211742 1438565846692 How is cobalamin absorbed
bound to B12 in
the ileum
1442263221114 1438565846692 What is a common cause of B12 deficiency?
Intrinsic factor deficiency
1442263231513 1438565846692 Is the presentation of B12 deficiency fast or sl
ow? What are the signs. 1. Slow, body holds B12. may take months of nutr
itional deficiency to see clinical effects.<div><br /></div><div>2. <span c
lass="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Pernicious anemia and de
generation of spinal cord neurons</div><div><br /></div>
1442263286245 1438565846692 What form is cobalamin typically delivered in vi
tamins? Cyanocobalamin.<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-7331509174273.jpg"
/></div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-7344394076161.jpg" /></div>
1442263314815 1438565846692 Vitamin C (ascorbate) <div><br /></div><div
>function, deficiency, sources</div>
<img src="paste-7413113552897.jpg" />
1442263338151 1438565846692 Vitamin D<div><br /></div><div>1. Function, defi
ciency, sources.</div><div><br /></div><div>2. Explain how it is synthesized</di
v>
jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-7524782702593.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1442263374374 1438565846692 Vitamin E (tocopherol) <div><br /></div><di
v>Function, deficiency, source</div>
<img src="paste-7597797146625.jpg" />
1442263411167 1438565846692 Study Slide: Effects of Vit K and Warfarin on cl
otting factors synthesis
<img src="paste-7696581394433.jpg" />
1442263428690 1438565846692 vit K<div><br /></div><div>Function, deficiency,
sources</div> <img src="paste-7765300871169.jpg" />
1442357303091 1438565846692 What are the three basic methods of public healt
h nutrition?
1. Improve quality and safety of foods<div><br /></div><div>2. I
ncrease food availability</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Increase knowledge of fo
ods</div>
1442357382177 1438565846692 What was the effect of adding folate to forify f
oods? <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>d. 199
3 - folate required</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pr
e"> </span>i. Rec all women of child bearing age consume 0.4 mg folic acid/day</
div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>1) Prevent
s neural tube defects</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:
pre"> </span>2) Estimated 50% reduction in risk after supplementation began</div
><div><img src="paste-3427383902209.jpg" /></div>
1442357532469 1438565846692 What are the two ways to improve food quality an
d safety?
Fortification and food safety laws and programs.
1442357676674 1438565846692 What is food currently fortified with in the USA
?
iodine, iron, niacin, riboflavin, thiamine, folate<div><br /></div><div>
IN: milk, margarine, flour</div>
1442357714981 1438565846692 What caused the USA Pellagra epidemic? niacin d
eficiency...prior to being fortified in foods
1442357742572 1438565846692 What are the two types of food borne illnesses c
ause disease? Infections like salmonella<div><br /></div><div>Intoxication lik
e botulism</div>
1442358075034 1438565846692 What is the food safety modernization act?
Prevention<div>Inspection and compliance</div><div>Response (mandatory recalls)<
/div><div>Import regulation</div><div>Partnership</div>
1442358108500 1438565846692 What are the most common contributors of food bo
rne illness?<div><br /></div><div>What is responsible for most hospitalization?<
/div><div><br /></div><div>What is reponsible for most deaths?</div>
1. veggi
es (34%), Dairy (14%), Poultry (10%)<div><br /></div><div>2. Veggies</div>
<div><br /></div><div>3. Poultry</div>
1442358158819 1438565846692 What is the leading cause of food born deaths?<d
iv><br /></div><div>What are its symptoms?</div><div><br /></div><div>Source?</d
iv><div><br /></div><div>Incubation?</div>
1. Listeria<div><br /></div><div
>2. Fever, headache, stiff neck, sepsis, meningitis, fetal loss, stillbirth</div
><div><br /></div><div>3. dair, deli meats</div><div><br /></div><div>4. 3-90 da
y incubation</div>
1442358240130 1438565846692 What do the follow acronyms mean?<div><br /></di
v><div>EAR</div><div>RDA</div><div>AI</div><div>UL</div>
EAR: Estimated a
verage requirement. <div> - amount
of nutrient that meets req of 50% of health age/group</div><div><br /></div><di
v>RDA: Rec Dietary allowance</div><div>
- RDA = 1.2 x EAR or 2 SD (EAR) </div><div> &nbs
p; - Meets req for <b>97-98% of population</b></div><div><b>
- Goal for individual intake</b></div><div><b><br /></b></div><di
v><b>AI: </b>Adequate Intake</div><div> - Set <b>instead </b
>of RDA if sufficient evidence for RDA not available</div><div> &nb
sp; - "<b>aim for this intake"</b></div><div><b><br /></b></div><div>UL: Tolerab
le upper intake level</div><div> - highest daily nutri
ent intake likely to pose NO risk to almost ALL</div>
1442358440484 1438565846692 Explain this chart: <div><br /></div><div><
Ex: At EAR, 50% of people are pr
otected from deficiency. <div>- At RDA 97% protected</div>
1442358479860 1438565846692 How does AI and UL vary with age?
Tehre is
a tight margin of safety in younger children
1442358503482 1438565846692 What is the UL for Ca and why?<div><br /></div><
div>Mn?</div><div><br /></div><div>Zn?</div>
Ca: 1-3 g/day to prevent<b> kidn
ey stones</b><div><br /></div><div>Mn: 2mg/d child 1-3, 11 mg/day adult to preve
nt <b>neurotoxicity</b></div><div><b><br /></b></div><div>Zn: 40 mg/day for 19+
to prevent <b>copper deficiency</b></div>
1442358579136 1438565846692 Which nutrients are considered underconsumed and
pose a health risk (< EAR or AI)
vit D<div><br /></div><div>Ca</div><div>
<br /></div><div>Potassium</div><div><br /></div><div>Fiber</div>
1442358614846 1438565846692 Which nutrients are considered underconsumed (&l
t; EAR or AI) Vit A, C, D, E<div><br /></div><div>Folate, Ca, Mg, Potassium, f
iber</div>
1442358636779 1438565846692 Can EAR of vitamin D be achieved through a diet
high in seafood and vit D fortified foods?
Yes!<div><br /></div><div>But NO
T the RDA. needs supplementation</div>
1442358672826 1438565846692 What does aspartame pose a risk for in men?
leukemia
1442358695346 1438565846692 What were the findings of the Australia exercise
/mortality study?
Exercising at least 10-149 min/week reduced all cause&nb
sp;
1442359022888 1438565846692 Which vitamins may have harmful effects?
Zn<div>vit E</div><div>Vit A</div><div>Beta-carotene</div>
1442527052411 1438565846692 What are the trace elements that are of greater
health concern? Copper, Fluoride, Iron, Iodine, Selenium, Zinc
1442527100063 1438565846692 What are the minerals of lesser health concern?
chromium, manganese, molybdenum
1442527119356 1438565846692 What are the 6 macro-minerals? Calcium, chlorid
e, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium<div><br /></div><div>Have DRIs set f
or all</div>
1442527141918 1438565846692 What are the metalloenzymatic functions of:<div>
<br /></div><div>1. Copper</div><div><br /></div><div>2. manganese</div><div><br
/></div><div>3. molybdenum</div><div><br /></div><div>4. Selenium</div><div><br
/></div><div>5. Zinc</div>
1. <b>Cystosolic </b> SOD, lysyl oxidase, c
eruloplasmin<div><br /></div><div>2. <b>Mitochondiral SOD (M for mito, Mn),</b>&
nbsp;Arginase</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Xanthine oxidase</div><div><br /></d
iv><div>4. Glutathione peroxidase (G6PD)</div><div><br /></div><div>5. Alk Phos,
Alcohol Dehydrogenase</div>
1442527239846 1438565846692 How does the RDA of a micro nutrient compare to
a macronutrient?
<img src="paste-4776003633153.jpg" />
1442527279319 1438565846692 Patient presents with severe skin ulcerations, e
xcoriations and alopecia. Has had a normal diet. Zinc levels are determine
d to be low. Pt frequently gets ill.<div><br /></div><div>What is the dise
ase, mechanism and treatment</div>
1. Acrodermatits Enterpathica<div>2. Cau
sed by a defect in the Zip4 zinc transporter preventing jejunal uptake of zinc.<
/div><div><br /></div><div>- s/s: skin lesions, alopecia, growth retardation, im
paired immunity and infection.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Treatment is life l
ong HIGH DOSE zinc</div><div> - greater than UL (of 40mg/day)</div>
1442527413747 1438565846692 Pt has gastric cancer and is on TPN. She i
s going on 6 months of TPN and has started to have alopecia, more frequent infec
tions and severe skin lesions. <div><br /></div><div>What is the disease? I
s it like anything else? mechanism? Treatment?</div>
1. Severe zinc deficienc
y<div>2. Symptoms similar to acrodermatitis enteropathjica. Early TPN form
ulations did not include zinc. If on TPN were not getting full nutrients.</div><
div>3. High dose oral zince replacement is treatment</div><div><br /></div><div>
<img src="paste-5321464479745.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-5334349381633.jp
g" /></div><div>pictures are of AE but similar concept</div>
1442527587984 1438565846692 The treatment of a disease, not the disease itse
lf may cause mineral deficiency. What are 3 medications that would require
supplementation with minerals? 1. Methotrexate - folate (Blocks dihydrofolate r
eductase)<div><br /></div><div>2. Trimethoprin - folate (blocks dihydrofolate re
ductase)</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Isoniazid - structural analog to pyridoxi
ne</div>
1442527723148 1438565846692 Wilson's disease<div><br /></div><div>1. Mechani
sm/Inheretance </div><div>2. Lab findings</div><div>3. Treatment</div>
1. Autosomal recessive. Cause high accumulation of copper in liver, brain,
kidney<div>2. Low <b>serum</b> copper and ceruloplasmin. <b>High liv
er copper (biopsy)</b></div><div>3. Low copper diet, penicillamine (binds copper
), high dose <b>zinc </b>(binds copper)</div>
1442527811476 1438565846692 Study Slide: Symptoms of Wilson's disease
Alopecia, parakeratosis<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-5832565587969.jpg"
/> pre-treatment</div><div><img src="paste-5845450489857.jpg" /> post
treatment</div><div><img src="paste-5858335391745_1438565846692.jpg" /></div><di
v><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1442527857078 1438565846692 T/F: copper deficiency is common?
False. I
t is very rare.<div><br /></div><div>Lab findings: <b>microcytic anemia</b>, neu
tropenia, leukopenia, low serum Cu and ceruloplasmin</div><div><br /></div><div>
S/S: anemia like. myelopathy, neuropathy</div>
1442527904390 1438565846692 What are risks for copper deficiency? What is a
hallmark symptom?
1. Gastrectomy or bowel resection<div><br /></div><div>2
. "stocking glove" paresthesia</div>
1442527931179 1438565846692 What happens if copper deficiency is not correct
ed quickly?
Permanent neurological damage despite eventual supplementation w
ith copper.<div><br /></div><div>Anemia and neutropenia will improve with treatm

ent.</div>
1442527968115 1438565846692 What can cause Zinc induced neutropenia/anemia?
Very high doses of zinc over time.<div><br /></div><div>Treatment is zince restr
iction and copper supplementation. Copper will bind zinc. </div>
1442528004821 1438565846692 A 80 year old woman is taking the recommened dos
e of zinc daily but is presenting with signs/symptoms of zinc induced anemia. &n
bsp;Why is the cause? DRI is set for apparently HEALTHY people. Must consider
other disease processing/changes in absorption/metabolism for individual
1442528055355 1438565846692 What happens to iron stores as wel get older
they tend to increase
1442528073171 1438565846692 What would the labs of someone with hemachromato
sis look like? <img src="paste-6476810682369.jpg" />
1442528088712 1438565846692 Your patient is a 45 year old man with abdominal
pain and arthritis. His skin is bronze/pale. He also complains of impoten
ce over the last few months. <div><br /></div><div>Labs: </div><div>&
nbsp;Hg: 12</div><div> Ferritin: 2590 (30-350)</div><div> Tran
sferrin: 85% (20-55%)</div><div> ALT: 87</div><div>  </div><div>
<br /></div><div>Liver biopsy performed. Hepatic Iron 450 (0-35)</div><div
><br /></div><div>What is your diagnosis? What is the treatment?</div>
1. Hemochromatosis<div>2. Decrease high iron foods, avoid vitamins with Fe or hi
gh Vit C, weekly phlebotomy</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-667437917
7985.jpg" /></div>
1442528201384 1438565846692 What is the third most prevalent micronutrient d
eficiency in the world? What is it associated with?
1. Iodine defici
ency<div><br /></div><div>2. Assoc with thyroid - thyroxine and triiodothyronine
</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>- Deficiency = goiter (enlarged thy
roid), impaired growth, cretinism, MR</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste
-6863357739009.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-6876242640897.jpg" /></div><div
><br /></div>
1442608530077 1438565846692 What are potential pathological processes that o
ccur from ECM changes? 1. Arthritis<div>2. Atherosclerosis</div><div>3. Fibrosi
s</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-2619930050561.jpg" /></div>
1442609243099 1438565846692 1. Name the Fibril forming collagens and their f
unction.<div><br /></div><div>2. Name the network forming collagens and their fu
nction.</div> <div>Type 1 is most abundant</div><div><br /></div><img src="pas
te-3156800962561_1438565846692.jpg" />
1442609287601 1438565846692 What are the features of fibrous proteins (colla
gen and elastin)?
insoluble<div>stable</div><div>long biological half life
</div><div>high tensile strength and contractibility</div>
1442609321158 1438565846692 What is the most abundant protein in the body? &
nbsp; Collagen
1442609337520 1438565846692 Describe the structure of collagen
<img src
="paste-3431678869505.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-3453153705985.jpg" /><br /><di
v><br /></div></div>
1442609395899 1438565846692 Describe the process of collagen formation.
/div><div><img src="paste-3564822855681.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1442609421832 1438565846692 What is collagen in a "stacked" like formation a
nd not end to end?
Promotes tensile strength. Don't want any weak lin
ks.
1442609450310 1438565846692 What the heck does ascorbate have to do with col
lagen? It is a necesary cofactor, along with iron, in the production of hte hyd
roxprolyl residue. <div><br /></div><div>The activity is a post translatio
nal modification of proline and lysine to yield hydroxyprolien and hydroxylysine
. </div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-3835405795329.jpg" /></div>
1442609527099 1438565846692 What is the function of lysyl oxidase in collage
n formation?
Works to crosslink chains<div><br /></div><div>ensures stability
. </div>
1442609555600 1438565846692 Scurvy:<div><br /></div><div>1. Cause</div><div>
<br /></div><div>2. Signs/symptoms</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Treatment</div>

1. Vitamin C deficiency<div><br /></div><div>2. corkscrew hairs, easy bruising,
loose teeth, pale skin, poor wound healing.</div><div><br /></div><div>3. replac
e vitamin C</div><div><img src="paste-4028679323649_1438565846692.jpg" /></div><
div><img src="paste-4058744094721.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1442609624067 1438565846692 You patient is a female who was just born. &nbsp
;She dies shortly after birth. At 16 wk ultrasound she was noted to have s
keletal abnormalities. Later at 24 wks she was noted to have multiple frac
tures and a completely displaced clavicle. <div><br /></div><div>1. What i
s the likely disease process?</div><div><br /></div><div>2. What is the mechanis
m of this disease?</div><div><br /></div><div>3. What is the treatment?</div>
1. Osteogenesis Imperfecta type 2<div><br /></div><div>2. Mutation in the COL ge
ne (COL1A1 or COL1A2) which is responsible for making the collagen triple helix.
Glycine is changed to another amino acid leading to improper helix/foldin
g.</div><div> - This is the same mechanism for types III, IV.</div>
<div> - NOT type I</div><div><br /></div><div>3. There is no treatm
ent...they die.</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-4372276707329.jpg" />
</div>
1442609787059 1438565846692 Osteogenesis imperfecta Type I<div><br /></div><
div>1. Signs/symptoms</div><div><br /></div><div>2. Etiology</div><div><br /></d
iv><div>3. What is the worst type of OI?</div> 1. short stature, blue sclera, e
arly hearing loss, fractures, bowed legs/arms, scoliosis, kyphosis, poor dentiti
on.<div><br /></div><div>2. A nonsense or splice site mutation. this cause
s <b>non-sense mediated decay.</b> So...you will still make some normal col
lagen. </div><div><br /></div><div>3. Type II has almost no normal collage
n made and is thus the worst form of OI</div><div><img src="paste-4728758992897.
jpg" /></div>
1442609887711 1438565846692 Which type of Ehlers Danlos sydnrome should you
be concerned about for USMLE Step 1? <div><br /></div><div>2. Clinical fin
dings</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Gene defect</div><div><br /></div><div>4. In
heritance</div> 1. Type IV - Vascular type<div><br /></div><div>2. Arterial or u
terine rupture (things that kill babies are high yield)</div><div><br /></
div><div>3. COL3A2</div><div><br /></div><div>4. Autosomal dominant </div>
1442609952046 1438565846692 Elastin, how does it differ from collagen?
lower tensile strength<div>more stretchy </div><div><br /></div><div><b>lit
tle hydroxyprolien and NO hydroxylysine</b></div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b
><br /></b></div><div><b>Similarities: insoluble, secreted into ECM</b></div>
1442610040848 1438565846692 Who is elastins best friend? What happens if his
BFF is mutated?
1. Fibrillin<div><br /></div><div>2. Marfan syndrome</di
v>
1442610065652 1438565846692 Marfan Syndrome<div><br /></div><div>1. Inherita
nce, incidence</div><div><br /></div><div>2. Gene defect</div><div><br /></div><
div>3. signs/symptoms</div>
1. Autosomal dominant, 1:5000<div><br /></div><d
iv>2. FBN1 gene on chromosome 15 encoding <b>fibrillin</b></div><div><b><br /></
b></div><div>3. <b>rupture of vessel walls, particularly aortic dissection. Hear
t, lung, eye, blood vessels affected. </b>Arachnodactyly, pectus excavatum
</div>
1442610151066 1438565846692 What does crosslinking of lysyl oxidase do?
promote rubbery network of elastin
1442610195561 1438565846692 Describe the composition of urine. <div><b
r /></div><div>What is a good way of getting rid of protons? <div><br /></
div><div>Which component helps evaluate kidney function? Where does it com
e from?</div><div><br /></div><div>What should there be little of in the urine?<
/div></div>
1. ammonium<div><br /></div><div>2. Creatinine. NOT creatine. &n
bsp;Creatine looses it's phosphate when muscles need energy to create ATP. &nbsp
;Creatinine is spontaneously formed. Clearance of creatinine helps determi
ne renal function. </div><div><br /></div><div>3. Glucose, protein, amino a
cids.</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-5673651798017.jpg" /></div>
1442610316689 1438565846692 What are the three main functions of the kidney?
1. Produce<b> renin as part of the RAAS for control of BP and sodium</b><div><br
/></div><div>2. Produce<b> erythropoietin </b>which regulates erythropoeisis&nb

sp;</div><div><br /></div><div>3. hydroxylation and<b> activation of vitamin D</
b> in the kidney</div>
1442610379383 1438565846692 What are most nephroliths (kidney stones) compos
ed of? Calcium Oxalate
1442610395763 1438565846692 Patient has severe gout and very high uric acid
levels. He has a nasty kidney stone. <div><br /></div><div>What is i
t likely formed of other than calcium oxalate. </div><div><br /></div><div>
If he didn't have gout what would be other potential causes of nephrolithi
asis?</div>
1. Uric acid stone<div><br /></div><div>2. Calcioum phosphate, m
agnesium ammonium phosphate, calcium carbonate ---> or a mix</div>
1442610471871 1438565846692 What are five wonderful qualities of the liver?
1. capacity for regeneration<div>2. regulation of nitrogen, carbohydrate and lip
id metabolism</div><div>3. formation of bile</div><div>4. drug and hormone metab
olism</div><div>5. plasma protein synthesis</div>
1442610510542 1438565846692 What is the best test to determine nitrogen meta
bolism function? What are the two other tests and why are they not as spec
ific? 1. Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT)<div><br /></div><div>2. Aspartate Amin
otransferase (AST) - can be released during other pathological conditions such a
s MI</div><div><br /></div><div>Gamma Glyutamyl Transpeptidase - overly sensitiv
e</div>
1442610582765 1438565846692 Which tests will help determine carbohydrate met
abolism?
Glucose tolerance test<div><br /></div><div>IV galactose toleran
ce</div>
1442610603187 1438565846692 Which tests look at lipid metabolism? Choleste
rol esterification
1442610620053 1438565846692 Which tests look at bile function?
Bilirubi
n conjugation (can look at direct or indirect)<div><br /></div><div>Alkaline Pho
sphatase (ALK Phos)</div><div>Dye clearance</div>
1442610656134 1438565846692 What is used to determine drug metabolism in the
liver? Hippurate excretion from benzoate
1442610675075 1438565846692 Which two tests can help determine efficiency of
protein production in the liver?
Blood clotting times (PT, PTT)<div><br /
></div><div>Albumin/globin ratio</div>
1442610700231 1438565846692 It's Monday night. You just spent 6 hours
drinking Rich's famous cocktails....your liver is no longer partying. It's
starting to get scared. Alcohol dehydrogenase starts crying and gets comp
letely overwhelmed. Who does he call to come help?
P450 2E1<div><br
/></div><div>the back up system for when you drink too much</div>
1442610897635 1438565846692 What are the major components of striated muscle
?
Actin<div>Troponin </div><div>Tropomyosin</div><div><br /></div><di
v><img src="paste-7000796692481.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1442611001416 1438565846692 T/F: Smooth muscle has troponin false
1442611017181 1438565846692 Explain filament sliding
Filaments of mus
cles remain the same length and slide past each other during contraction<div><br
1442611044243 1438565846692 What is the rate limiting step of muscle fiber c
ontraction?<div><br /></div><div>Explain the actin-myosin "cycle"</div> RLS is d
issociation of ADP + Pi<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-7258494730241.jpg"
/></div>
1442611078804 1438565846692 What is being described:<div><br /></div><div>De
polarization is transmitted to the sarcoplasmic reticulum. This results in
a release of a substance. This substance binds C subunit of troponin. &nb
sp;A series of conformation changes occur in troponin and permit interaction of
actin with myosin.</div>
Regulatory action of calcium
1442611185365 1438565846692 Creatine Kinase...what is it good for? Immediat
e short term energy supply.<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-7464653160449.j
pg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1442611226582 1438565846692 T/F: The RESTING oxidation of fatty acids is a m
ajor source of carbohydrate metaboilsm? true
1442611252587 1438565846692 ____ is very important in fast twitch muscle whe

reas _____ _____ is important in slow twitch for sustained activity.
Glycolys
is<div><br /></div><div>mitochondrial oxidative metabolism</div>
1442611388811 1438565846692 Duchenne Muscular dystrophy: <div><br /></d
iv><div>1. inheritence</div><div>2. what is the mechanism</div> 1. X-linked rece
ssive<div><br /></div><div>2. non-sense mediated decay</div><div><br /></div>
1442611416969 1438565846692 Becker Muscular dystrophy<div><br /></div><div>W
hat is different from duchenne?</div> No nonsense mediated decay.<div><br /></
div><div>Less severe symptoms</div>
1442611439863 1438565846692 Which muscular dystrophy exhibits anticipation?
Myotonic Dystrophy<div><br /></div><div>Autosomal dominant inheritance</div><div
><br /></div><div>Mostly due to DMPK defect</div>
1442611465919 1438565846692 Which muscular dystrophy exhibits locus heteroge
neity? Limb Girdle Muscular Dystrophy<div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1442611488447 1438565846692 What type of muscle wasting is seen in limb gird
le muscular dystrophy Wasting proximal muscles from shoulders to pelvis
1442611524375 1438565846692 Gene defects in limb girdle muscular dystrophy a
re usually related to Sarcoglycan or Caplain. What are they for? Sarcogly
can: transmembrane protein<div><br /></div><div>Caplain: Calcium activated
protease</div>
1442611711572 1438565846692 <div>Transamination is the reaction that reversi
bly converts amino acids to a-Keto acids. Name some amino acid/alpha keto pairs<
/div><div><br /></div> <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre
"> </span>- Alanine/pyruvate, aspartate/OAA, glutamate/a-KG</div><div><br /></di
v>
1442611748766 1438565846692 Study slide: functions of specific amino acids
<img src="paste-17377437679617.jpg" />
1442611777921 1438565846692 Baby has burnt sugar odor to urine. What's wrong
?
Branched chain amino acid elevated (Val, Leu, Ile)<div><br /></div><div>
Maple syrup urine disease. Failure of oxidative decarboxylation</div>
1442611857811 1438565846692 <div>Arginine is precursor of second messenger,
nitric oxide. Action of NO on CV is:</div><div><br /></div>
vasodilation
1442611871234 1438565846692 <div>Patient has increased NH3, decreased citrul
line, undetectable orotic acid. What is the deficient enzyme?</div><div><b
r /></div>
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre"> </sp
an>- <b><u>Correct asnswer: NAGS</u></b></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-s
pan" style="white-space: pre; "> </span> Need the NAGS activator for formation of
carbamoyl phosphate</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:p
re"> </span>- OTC is the most common inborn error of urea cycle BUT </div><
div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> There was no or
otic acid in the urine</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space
:pre"> </span> If there is an OTC deficiency you will ACCUMULATE carbamoyl phosph
ate and ultimately have orotic aciduria</div><div><br /></div><div>Not there the
n you wont have carbamoyl phosphate build up/leak and formation of orotic acidur
ia</div>
1442611900552 1438565846692 <div>In absence of uroporphyrinogen II cosynthas
e, HMB is converted to uroporphyrinogen</div><div><br /></div> <div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Asking what the dead end pat
hway consists of</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre">
</span>- Uroporphyrinogen I</div><div><br /></div>
1442611916751 1438565846692 <div>In metabolism , immediate precursor to bili
rubin is:</div><div><br /></div>
Biliverdin
1442611935498 1438565846692 <div>Nitrogen in phosphoribosylamine is derived
most directly from?</div><div><br /></div>
Glutamine
1442611943531 1438565846692 Inhibition of xanthine oxidase results in DECREA
SED levels of? Uric Acid
1442611960613 1438565846692 <div>UMP is formed by the decarboxyltion of deca
rboxylation of</div><div><br /></div> OMP - pyrimidine synthesis<div><br /></d
iv><div>Failure can result in orotic aciduria</div>
1442611993281 1438565846692 <div>Which of the following can be synthesized i
n the body but should also be in diet for optimal health?</div><div><br /></div>
<div>a. Iron</div><div>b. Choline</div><div>c. Arginine </div><div>d. Gutam
ine </div><div><br /></div>
Choline and arginine
1442612039987 1438565846692 3 Ds
niacin deficiency
1442612055004 1438565846692 Anencephaly, spina bidida....fortified in foods.
..pregnant women MUST take it. folate
1442612071133 1438565846692 <div>Which of the following compounds is most co
mmon in kidney stones?</div><div><br /></div><div>a. Uric Acid</div><div>b. Calc
ium Oxalate</div><div>c. Calcium Phosphate</div><div>d. Calcium carbonate</div><
div>e. Magnesium Ammonium Phosphate</div>
b. Calcium oxalate
1442612128826 1438565846692 The enzymes of the pentose phosphate pathway in
mammalian cells are found primarily in the
Cytosol
1442612148307 1438565846692 <div>Sometimes a defect in more than one gene ca
n cause more than one phenotype. AKA locus heterogeneity. Which disease is
highlighted by this?</div><div><br /></div>
San filippo disease
1442612160885 1438565846692 Leukocyte sample isolated from blood of newborn
infant are homoginized and incubated with ganglioside GM2. Approx 50% expected n
ormal amount of N-acetylgalactosamine is liberated during incubation period. Res
ults show.
n>- Child is carrier for Taysachs</div><div><br /></div>
1442612174894 1438565846692 <div>Presence or absence of enzymes that are inv
olved in sphingolipid degradation and are deficient. Wha is appropriate substrat
e to use for Niemann-Pick disease</div><div><br /></div>
<div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Sphingomyelin</div><div><br
/></div><div>Looking at sphingomyelinase </div>
1442612193601 1438565846692 <div>Sustrate for cyclooxygenase is</div><div><b
r /></div>
n>- Arachidonic acid</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:p
re"> </span> Derrived from Linoleic acid</div><div><br /></div>
1442612206952 1438565846692 <div>Name substrates of gluconeogenesis</div><di
v><br /></div> 3C sugars can be broken down to glycerol - pyruvate, glycine<div
><br /></div><div>Amino acids can enter the TCA cycle as intermediated, go to OA
A and then perform gluconeogenesis. Ie: glutamate to alpha-KG, Alanine to
pyruvate</div>
1442612327456 1438565846692 T/F: Glycogen is used in gluconeogenesis
FALSE FALSE FALSE<div><br /></div><div>glycogen is storage of OLD glucose. gluco
neogenesis deals with creating NEW glucose</div>
1442612355176 1438565846692 <div>Phosphoenolpyruvate </div><div><br /><
/div> <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Cont
ains high energy phosphate bond that can be used to phosphorylate ADP</div><div>
<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Reaction catalyze
d by pyruvate kinase</div><div><br /></div>
1442612373721 1438565846692 <div>In conversion of pyruvate to glucose during
gluconeogenesis...what is required</div>
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span
" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Biotin is required, CO2 is added in one reac
tion and released in another, energy in form of GTP and ATP is utilized</div><di
v><br /></div>
1442612401511 1438565846692 What is glucagons effect on fatty acid synthesis
? Insulin?
1. Glucagon - down regulate<div><br /></div><div>2. Insulin - up
regulate </div>
1442612431170 1438565846692 Where are fatty acids primarily oxidized
Mitochondria
1442612449099 1438565846692 Explain the Glycerol Phosphate Shuttle. Ho
w does it differ from the Malate-aspartate shuttle. which is more energy e
fficient. <div>Malate-Aspartate is more energy efficient because it transf
ers NADH for NADH (2.5 ATP). Glycerol-3-Phos transfers NADH for FADH
2 (1.5 ATP)</div><img src="paste-19421842112513.jpg" />
1442612600980 1438565846692 what is the most mobile electron carrier in the
ETC, where is it lcoated?
Cytochrome C<div><br /></div><div>Between compel
x III and IV</div>
1442612630755 1438565846692 Which enzymes eliminate H2O2? Catalase<div>Glu

tathione peroxidase</div>
1442612667564 1438565846692 Where in the TCA cyle is GTP formed?
succinyl
-Coa ---> Succinate<div><br /></div><div>GDP phosphorylated as CoA leaves suc
cinate</div>
1442612703638 1438565846692 <div>What deficiency is involved in chronic gran
ulomatous disease?</div><div><br /></div>
" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- NADPH Oxidase</div><div><br /></div>
1442612715001 1438565846692 <div>In fenton reaction, ferrous iron and H2O2 r
eact to form:</div><div><br /></div>
*OH
1442612724319 1438565846692 2 month old with lethargy, feeding prob, catarac
ts, jaundice. Growth and devel. Accum of
" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Galactose-1-Phosphate</div><div><span class=
"Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Classic Galactosemia</div><div>
1442612746935 1438565846692 <div>Following serious food-borne infection in a
pregnant woman is often characterized by ingestion of:</div><div><br /></div>
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Listeria</di
v><div><br /></div>
1442612773265 1438565846692 Which food borne illness is responsible for the
most serious illnesses? salmonella<div><br /></div>
1442612807028 1438565846692 150 minutes of physical activity is the recomend
ation for what type of activity?
moderate physical activity.<div><br /></
div><div>More isnt always better. After 75 MET hr/wk the benefit of exercise dec
reases</div>
1442612843853 1438565846692 <div><br /></div><div>60 year old female taking
30mg Zinc for about a year. Stocking glove paresthesia, abnormal gai
t. Spinal myelopathy. Had partial gastrectomy. Copper level low. Wha
t is most important cause</div><div><br /></div>
gastrectomy
1442612864354 1438565846692 <div>Possibly essential trace minerals include</
div><div><br /></div> <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre
"> </span>- Boron, nickel, vanadium, silicon, arsenic</div><div><br /></div>
1442612874656 1438565846692 Which possibly essential trace minerals have UL
set?
boron<div>nickel</div><div>vanadium</div>
1443062832615 1438565846692 What are the intracellular and extracellular con
cetrations of:<div>Na, K, Cl, Mg, Ca and the pH.</div><div><br /></div><div>What
is the normal votlage in the cell</div><div><br /></div><div>What is the pH in
lysosomes, golgi and endosomes</div><div><br /></div><div>What is the difference
between calcium conc in cell and in ER/Gogli?</div>
00161.jpg" />
1443062909885 1438565846692 What does Fick's law describe?<div><br /></div><
div>What is Ficks first law of diffusion?</div> Fick's law describes diffusion c
onstant in relation to the concentration gradient.<div><br /></div><div><img src
="paste-8684423872513.jpg" /></div>
1443062966858 1438565846692 What is flux? (J)<div><br /></div><div>the num
ber of moles crossing a plane of unit area per unit time (mold/cm^2*s)</div><div
><br /></div><div><b>flux is directly proportional to magnitude of concentration
gradient</b></div>
1443063025042 1438565846692 Explain the permeability equationa nd permeabili
ty Coefficient <img src="paste-9156870275073.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-916975
5176961_1438565846692.jpg" /></div>
1443063072223 1438565846692 1. Four molecules that cross a biological membra
ne easily<div><br /></div><div>2. Three molecules that are less permeable, diffu
se slowly</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Large molecules that are very slow, almo
st impermeable. 2 of them.</div><div><br /></div><div>4. Ions that are completel
y impermeable and require a transporter</div> <img src="paste-9298604195841.jp
g" />
1443063145730 1438565846692 Explain this graph:<div><br /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-9384503541761.jpg" /></div>
Less permeable substances fall below the
line
1443063173651 1438565846692 Explain the diffusion of weak acids and bases

/div>
1443063210802 1438565846692 What is electroneutrality principle?
must alw
ays be equal numbers of positive and negative charges in any macroscopic volume<
div><br /></div><div>charge separation produces electric field and occurs over m
olecular distances only</div><div><br /></div><div>Across membrane is mild "viol
ation" of electroneutrality....causes voltage difference in memrbane over very s
hort distance</div>
1443063274548 1438565846692 what is the normal voltage in a cell? In mitocho
ndria? 1. -80 mV<div><br /></div><div>2. -160 mV</div>
1443063320478 1438565846692 A small seapration over a molecular distance is
a _____ Voltage
1443063357664 1438565846692 Explain this diagram<div><br /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-9904194584577.jpg" /></div> <img src="paste-9917079486465.jpg" />
1443063374307 1438565846692 Explain diffusion through a biological membrane<
div><img src="paste-10093173145601.jpg" /></div>
Unequal membrane permeab
ilities create charge differences. <div><img src="paste-10140417785857.jpg
" /></div>
1443063592406 1438565846692 Define:<div><br /></div><div>Osmole</div><div><b
r /></div><div>Osmolarity</div><div><br /></div><div>Electroneutrality</div>
<img src="paste-10252086935553.jpg" />
1443063620051 1438565846692 What does the Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium explain
Plasma concentration relative to interstitial fluid concentration for anions and
interstitial fluid relative to palsma for cations
1443063681267 1438565846692 Explain what happens in these three situations:<
div><br /></div><div>1. Cin < Cout</div><div><br /></div><div>2. Cout > Ci
n</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Cin = Cout</div>
286529.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-10612864188417.jpg" /></div>
1443064283038 1438565846692 What is the concentration of water in plasma?
55 molar
1443064303233 1438565846692 Which colligative property is most important in
biological organisms? Osmotic pressure. Temperature and vapor pressure s
tay relatively constant.
1443064336701 1438565846692 What is osmotic pressure
When a membrane
is permeable to water but not a solute that solute will exert a pressure on the
membrane. <div><br /></div><div>In osmosis, water always flow first. When t
alknig about changes in osmotic pressure we are talking about water moving to wo
rk towards equilibrium.</div><div><br /></div><div>At equilibrium there is no <b
>net</b> movement of water</div>
1443064408685 1438565846692 What is the Van't Hoff Equation <img src="paste11115375362049_1438565846692.jpg" />
1443064591947 1438565846692 How do you calculate osmolarity Osmolarity is th
e total concentration of all osmotically active species<div><br /></div><div>It
takes into account the number of particles a solute breaks into.</div><div><br /
></div><div>Ex: 0.3M NaCl = 0.6 Osm because NaCl dissociates into two particles<
/div><div><br /></div><div>0.3 M MgCl2 = 0.9 Osm because MgCl2 dissociates into
3 particles</div>
1443064677570 1438565846692 What is the osmotic coeffcient? The corrected Va
n't hoff equation for non-ideal behavior of real solutions (ie interactions of s
olute with solvent)<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-11424613007361_14385658
46692.jpg" /></div>
1443064794261 1438565846692 Calculate the osmotic pressure change for the fo
llowing solution<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-11510512353281.jpg" /></di
v>
<img src="paste-11540577124353.jpg" />
1443064843398 1438565846692 What is the reflection coefficent? What do it's
values mean?
<img src="paste-11622181502977.jpg" />
1443064870370 1438565846692 What is almost impermeable to the lipid bilayer.
How does it get into the cytosol?
<img src="paste-11708080848897.j
pg" />
1443064902777 1438565846692 What defines a solution as <b>isotonic?</b>

Same osmolarity as the plasma approx 300 mOsm, ranging from 285-295<div><br /></
div><div><br /></div>
1443064944882 1438565846692 What makes 0.9% sodium chloride isotonic?
Concentration of NaCl in solution is 154 mM which makes the osmolarity 308.
1443064980598 1438565846692 What do hypotonic solutions do? Increase cell vo
lume. Water will flow to higher concentration of solute (in the cell) to t
ry to equalize with the ECF
1443065016514 1438565846692 When does hemolysis occur? when does crena
tion occur?
Hemolysis - Osm < 200 mOsm<div><br /></div><div>Crenated cell
- Osm > 300 </div>
1443065056672 1438565846692 <img src="paste-12180527251457.jpg" /> <img src
="paste-12193412153345.jpg" />
1443065086278 1438565846692 How does the cell regulate changes in volume?
<div><img src="paste-12292196401153.jpg" /></div><img src="paste-12279311499265.
jpg" />
1443065124221 1438565846692 Explain the relationship between diffusion and o
smosis as far as rate <img src="paste-12463995092993.jpg" />
1443065173789 1438565846692 Explain the Nernst Equation. what is it fo
r? What are the components?
Used to determine voltage as a function of the c
oncentration gradient<div><br /></div><div>Defined by: the voltage needed by the
ion to be at equilibrium</div><div><img src="paste-12644383719425 (1).jpg" /></
1443065283687 1438565846692 T/F: The number of charges that moves changes th
e concentration?
<div>Amount of energy needed to move, number charges tha
t move, DOES NOT CHANGE THE CONCENTRATION</div><div><br /></div>
1443065316272 1438565846692 study Slide: nernst equation in action <img src
="paste-12794707574785.jpg" />
1443065643583 1438565846692 What is equilibrium potential? For any ion the
membrane potential at which that ion would be distributed in equilibrium across
the cell membrane<div><br /></div><div>Computed from the nernst equation</div>
1443065688224 1438565846692 What is the eqilibrium potential for na, K, Cl g
iven that:<div><br /></div><div>1. Na: [145]out, [12]in</div><div><br /></div><d
iv>2. K: [4]out, [140]in</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Cl: [116]out, [4]in</div>
<img src="paste-13142599925761.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-13155484827649.jpg" /
></div><div><img src="paste-13168369729537.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1443065783598 1438565846692 A big negative voltage is close to ___ equilibri
um potential whereas a big positive voltage is close to _____ equilibrium potent
ial
A big negative voltage is close to <b>potassium</b> equilibrium potentia
l whereas a big positive voltage is close to<b> sodium</b> equilibrium potential
1443065833610 1438565846692 How do biophysicists define current?
Directio
n of movement of a positive charge. Direction of movement is given by the
sign of the driving force.<div><br /></div><div>Outward current is a <b>positive
</b>current</div><div><br /></div><div>Inward current is a <b>negative </b>curr
ent</div>
1443066072886 1438565846692 Given the below information. Calculate the
current and predict the direction of flow for K, Na, and Cl<div><br /></div><di
v><img src="paste-13761075216385 (1).jpg" /><img src="paste-13778255085569.jpg"
/></div><div><img src="paste-13791139987457.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
<img src="paste-13804024889345.jpg" />
1443066149240 1438565846692 What does the Gibbs -Donnan equilibrium explain?
<b> The effect of impermeable ions on distribution of permeable ions</b><di
v><br /></div><div>- dialysis membranes</div><div><br /></div><div><div><span cl
ass="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Dialysis membrane separat
ing two compartments of 10 mmM KCl, has infinite vol </div><div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>(like outside of a cell), so c
oncentrations do not change</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whitespace:pre"> </span>Add a neg charge protein to inside to a conc of 5 mM</div><di
v><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Also add 25 K</di
v><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Result</di
v><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Protein not

permeable</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span
> No gradient of Cl</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre
"> </span> HAS conc gradient of potassium</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span"
style="white-space:pre"> </span> Movement occurs so voltage is generated that all
ow K and Cl to be at a common equilibrium potential</div><div><span class="Apple
-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> At equilibrium, Nernst potential or e
ach permanent ion must be the same</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style=
"white-space:pre"> </span> Ratios of concentrations across membrane MUST be same<
/div></div><div><br /></div>
1443066261960 1438565846692 What is biologically osmotic pressure difference
?
Oncotic Pressure<div><br /></div><div>Pressure that is the result of imp
ermeable ions on one compartment of a cell</div>
1443066294056 1438565846692 What is the equation for Equal Nernst Potential
of K and Cl?
<img src="paste-14242111553537.jpg" />
1443066369680 1438565846692 mathetmatically express the Donnan ratio
<img src="paste-14336600834049.jpg" />
1443066394744 1438565846692 How is osmotic stability maintained by cells?
Na, K ATPase pump which effectively make Na behave as an impermeable ion<div><br
/></div><div>Action of pump makes and permeable Na seem essentially impermeable
</div>
1443066494707 1438565846692 Are cells in equilibrium or steady state?
Steady state<div><br /></div><div>ongoing leakage/permeation of ions is balanced
by energy requiring ion pumps that maintain constant concentrations</div>
1443066540519 1438565846692 What is diffusion potential?<div><br /></div><di
v>electrochemical equilibrium?</div>
1. <span class="Apple-tab-span" sty
le="white-space:pre"> </span> Potential difference that exactly balances tendency
of Na to diffuse down its concentration gradient.<div><br /></div><div><br /></
div><div>2. <span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Wh
en chemical and electrical driving forces are equal and opposite</div><div><br /
></div>
1443066639780 1438565846692 Where is the neural crest?
Ectoderm<div><br
1443066662572 1438565846692 What germ layer does the gut cavity come from?<d
iv><br /></div><div>epidermis?</div><div><br /></div><div>notochord?</div><div><
br /></div><div>Neural Tube?</div><div><br /></div><div>Somite?</div> gut cavi
ty - endoderm<div><br /></div><div>Epidermis - ectoderm</div><div><br /></div><d
iv>Notochord - mesoderm</div><div><br /></div><div>Neural tube - ectoderm</div><
div><br /></div><div>somite - mesoderm</div>
1443066728295 1438565846692 How does Spina Bifida form?
Neural tube does
not close during neurulation<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-1559502625177
7.jpg" /></div>
1443066761402 1438565846692 Study Slide: Neural Crest
<img src="paste15663745728513.jpg" />
1443066783686 1438565846692 What makes stem cell pleuripotent?
They can
keep regenerating themselves without being differentiated.<div><img src="paste15788299780097.jpg" /></div>
1443066813503 1438565846692 What is the neural crest dictated by? Relative
position along hte anterior - posterior axis<div><br /></div><div>Tissue enviro
nment into which they migrate</div>
1443066842153 1438565846692 What are the main tissues derived from the neura
l crest?
1. Peripheral nervous tissue<div><br /></div><div>2. Skin pigmen
t cells</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Connective tissue (bones, muscle, cartilag
e) in head, aorta, cardiac valves, vasculature</div><div><br /></div><div>4. End
ocrine cells</div><div><br /></div><div>5. Neurosecretory cells of heart, lungs<
/div>
1443106962781 1438565846692 What is faster carriers or channels?
<img src
="paste-2370821947393_1438565846692.jpg" />
1443106991568 1438565846692 What makes carriers enzyme like? How doe t
hey work?
<img src="paste-2877628088321.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-289051
2990209.jpg" /></div>
1443107027850 1438565846692 I am a uniport, I consist of membrane proteins t
hat only move down a concentration gradient. I'm kinda like diffusion. &nb
sp;I dont need no energy.
Facilitated Diffusion
1443107086429 1438565846692 Direct energy coupling<div>Directly utilizes hig
h energy phospahte to enable transport</div>
Primary active transport
1443107104293 1438565846692 Co-transprot or symport<div>Indirectly uses ener
gy from primary transport</div> Secondary active transport
1443107131533 1438565846692 Describe the energetics of transport, downhill a
nd uphill
<img src="paste-3749506449409.jpg" />
1443107178290 1438565846692 GLUT 1<div><br /></div> Ubiquitous<div>Relativel
y slow, always in membrane</div><div>Allows glucose in cell if needed</div>
1443107199133 1438565846692 GLUT 2 Epithelia
1443107202277 1438565846692 GLUT 3 Brain
1443107205350 1438565846692 GLUT 4 (the important one)
Insulin snesitiv
e<div>higher capacity/faster rate</div><div>Sits in vesicles just below plasma m
embrane </div><div> - when insulin is present GLUT 4 inserts i
tself into membrane and vastly increases glucose uptake capacity.</div><div><br
/></div><div><img src="paste-4187593113601_1438565846692.jpg" /></div>
1443107259975 1438565846692 Describe F-class proton pump primary active tran
sport <img src="paste-4260607557633.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-4273492459521.
jpg" /></div>
1443107310850 1438565846692 Describe V class proton pumps <img src="paste4363686772737.jpg" />
1443107337586 1438565846692 Describe P type Ion pump
<img src="paste4432406249473.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-4445291151361.jpg" /></div>
1443107380690 1438565846692 What type of pump is the Na/K ATPase pump?
P type ion pump<div>requires phosphorylation to work</div>
1443107398583 1438565846692 Explain the ABC superfamily. Why does it p
ose a problem at times? <img src="paste-4608499908609.jpg" /><div><img src="past
e-4621384810497.jpg" /></div>
1443107426547 1438565846692 ATP Synthase is an F-Type ATPase. What can
it do? Where is it found? What is interesting about its structure?
<img src="paste-4698694221825.jpg" />
1443107472497 1438565846692 What do V-type (vacuolar) ATPase proton pumps do
?
couple ATP hydrolysis to pumping protons<div><br /></div><div>Acidifies
endosomal network, golgi and lysosomes </div><div><br /></div><div>Present
in intercalated cells of distal tubule and acidified osteocalsts (require acidic
environment to work)</div><div><br /></div><div>Proton pumping is regulated by
vesicle fusion</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-4874787880961.jpg" /><
/div>
1443107573894 1438565846692 Explain the P-Type ATPase <img src="paste4960687226881.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-4973572128769.jpg" /></div>
1443107607204 1438565846692 How do cardiac glycosides affect cardiac contrac
tility? They inhibit the ATPase pump thereby increasing force of cardiac contrac
tion.<div><br /></div><div>Prevents sodium from being pumped out which prevents
Ca from leaving. Increased calcium increases contractility</div><div><br /
1443107671111 1438565846692 Name two cardaic glycoside
Digoxin<div>Ouba
in </div>
1443107686014 1438565846692 Which transporter is associated with the major i
mmunohistocompatability complex? (MHC) ABC (ATP Binding Casette) Transporters<d
iv><br /></div><div><img src="paste-5390183956481.jpg" /></div>
1443107748538 1438565846692 What is SGLT1 A Na-glucose co-transporter<div>
<br /></div><div>epithelial transport.. Powered by Na/K Pump - basolateral membr
ane</div>
1443107813113 1438565846692 Explain how the E1 and E2 faces of the Na/K ATPa
se pump works <img src="paste-5626407157761.jpg" />
1443125548568 1438565846692 What is the role of an ion channel and how does
it work?
1620353.jpg" /></div>
1443125588581 1438565846692 How does the selectivity filter select? Geometry
is precise. Charge and size extremely important<div><br /></div><div><img src="
paste-2972117368833.jpg" /></div>
1443125629718 1438565846692 Which has fast conductivity a channel or a carri
er?
Channel (10^6 - 10^8)
1443125701076 1438565846692 What is the theory behind the speed at which ion
channels work? Incoming ions displace those already in the selectivity filter t
hrough electrostatic repulsion <div><br /></div><div>this was confirmed exp
erimentally in the KcsA channel</div>
1443125753615 1438565846692 Explain the first cloned chanel, the Shaker K ch
annel. Has six alpha helical transmembrane segments.<div><br /></div><div>P seg
ement is analagous to the selectivity filter</div><div><br /></div><div>S5 is vo
ltage sensitive</div><div><br /></div><div>S4 has a charge - believed that the c
harge moves and alters the conformation</div><div><br /></div><div>utilizes ball
and chain mechanism, cytosolic "ball" swings into P segment to close/block it.<
/div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-3629247365121.jpg" /></div>
1443125949474 1438565846692 What happens when a voltage gated calcium channe
l opens?
A significant influx of calcium because of the very large gradie
nt.<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-3745211482113_1438565846692.jpg" /></di
v>
1443125988189 1438565846692 Which channels open in response to acetylcholine
released from the presynaptic nerve terminal? What is it permeable to?
1. Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor<div><br /></div><div>2. Cations only</div>
1443126032656 1438565846692 What are four neurotransmitter activated channel
s?
Seratonin <div>GABA</div><div>Glycine</div><div>nAChR</div>
1443126196264 1438565846692 How does the Ryanodine Receptor work? It is a
calcium release channel (opposed to SERCA).<div><br /></div><div> When open
Ca can run down gradient, which is higher in SR or ER.</div><div><br /></div><d
iv>Intiates release in response to IP3 generated from PIP2 through G protein lin
ked receptor activation.</div>
1443126269369 1438565846692 Study Slide: Ca Release channel - Ryanodine Rece
ptor(RyR)
<img src="paste-4303557230593 (1).jpg" /><div><img src="paste-43
16442132481.jpg" /></div>
1443126304117 1438565846692 Describe the Patch Clamp Technique
<img src
="paste-4423816314881.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-4436701216769.jpg" /></div>
1443126333141 1438565846692 How was the voltage of giant squid axons determi
ned
Patch clamp technique.<div><img src="paste-4514010628097.jpg" /></div><d
1443126367080 1438565846692 What is a feature of Na channels that differs fr
om K channels?; Na channels have inactivation that is triggered by the activatin
g source<div><br /></div><div>Short delay and short opening time for Na channels
. </div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-4625679777793.jpg" /></div>
1443126413020 1438565846692 Study Slide: Sodium Channel Inactivation
<img src="paste-4715874091009.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-4728758992897 (1).jpg"
/></div>
1443126438849 1438565846692 Explain what is happening in the action potentia
l<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-4801773436929.jpg" /></div>
<img src
="paste-4814658338817.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-4827543240705.jpg" /></div>
1443126482596 1438565846692 <img src="paste-4900557684737.jpg" /><div><img s
1443126521076 1438565846692 At rest which channels are more open, K or Na?
Potassium<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-4999341932545.jpg" /></div>
1443126550643 1438565846692 What does the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation do?
How is chloride handled? <img src="paste-5076651343873.jpg" /><div><img s
rc="paste-5089536245761.jpg" /></div>
1443126580846 1438565846692 Depolarization Vm becomes less negative
1443126600095 1438565846692 Hyperpolarization
Vm becomes more negative
than RMP<div><br /></div><div>increasing external [K] depolarizes membrane</div
><div><br /></div><div>Hyperkalemia is partly considered a hyperdepolarization s
tate</div>
1443126632247 1438565846692 What is the all or none response of an action po
tential?
You must reach the threshold voltage before an AP is triggered,
once you reach that voltage there will be a full AP
1443126667523 1438565846692 what type of feedback is exhibited by the openin
g Na channels ? Positive feedback
1443126844080 1438565846692 What leads to hyperpolarization?
<div><sp
an class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Inactivation of Na c
hannels, and depolarization-driven opening of K channels leads to fall in Vm to
below the resting potential (hyperpolariation) </div><div><br /></div><div>
as PNa decreases PK increases</div>
1443126878594 1438565846692 Explain the Hodgkin-Huxley Experiements. W
hat was determined. what drugs we used? <img src="paste-5592047419393.jp
g" /><div><img src="paste-5604932321281.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-561781
7223169.jpg" /></div>
1443126937801 1438565846692 What is the matheamtical model Hodgkin-Huxley de
veloped to explain current of Na and K membrane conductance?
<img src="paste5763846111233.jpg" />
1443126976317 1438565846692 Explain Accomodation
<div><span class="Appletab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> If cell depol slowly, no action potent
ial develops because Na channels inactivate and K channels have time to open</di
v><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Both effects
tend to prevent initiation of action potential</div><div><br /></div>
1443126992927 1438565846692 Explain relative and absolute refractory periods
.
<img src="paste-5918464933889.jpg" />
1443127012677 1438565846692 how doe wide and narrow axons affect propagation
?
Wide axons have less resistance and will propagate an AP faster than nar
row. <div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-5991479377921.jpg" /></div>
1443192437969 1438565846692 What are the catabolic factors related to blood
glucose? Anabolic?
<img src="paste-833223656005.jpg" />
1443192478147 1438565846692 When does insulin production stop? (what BGL)<di
v><br /></div><div>When does the body start fatty acid oxidation?</div><div><br
/></div><div>When are significant symptoms noticed? (headache, confusion, slurre
d speech)</div> 1. 80 mg/dL<div><br /></div><div>2. 70</div><div><br /></div><di
v>3. 45</div>
1443192628216 1438565846692 You patient has a fasting blood glucose of 150.
What does this suggest. Diabetes.<div><br /></div><div>Fasting BGL: >
/= 126</div><div>Random BGL >/= 200</div>
1443192670291 1438565846692 Explain the insulin response in relation to eati
ng a meal
1889600.jpg" /></div>
1443192720980 1438565846692 <img src="paste-1108101562920.jpg" /> LIVER
1443192733613 1438565846692 What effect does the abscence of glucagon have?
Similar to insulin<div><br /></div><div>Decreased gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysi
s, fat breakdown</div>
1443192777441 1438565846692 What are the effects of insulin?
<img src
="paste-1181116006865.jpg" />
1443192800477 1438565846692 <img src="paste-1206885810692.jpg" /> MUSCLE
1443192816203 1438565846692 When muscle glycogen synthesis pathways are acti
vated which channel is open?
GLUT 4<div><img src="paste-1241245548928.jpg" />
</div>
1443192858065 1438565846692 How does GLUT 4 relate to storing glucose as fat
?
<img src="paste-1292785156677.jpg" />
1443192898136 1438565846692 <img src="paste-1318554960394.jpg" /> ADIPOSE
1443192916884 1438565846692 <img src="paste-1352914698772.jpg" /> BRAIN
1443192934903 1438565846692 What are the two main sources of energy for the
brain. In the fed state, glucose<div><br /></div><div>Fasting state, ketones</d
iv><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-1400159338894.jpg" /></div>
1443192975327 1438565846692 Study Slide: Use and storage of glucose <img src
="paste-1434519077453.jpg" />
1443193032852 1438565846692 Insulin is too large to pass the plasma membrane

. How does insulin exert its effects?
A selective extracelllular domai
n - the ligand binding domain<div><br /></div><div>Hydrophobic transmembrane dom
ain - anchors receptor in membrane and couples LBD to intracellular domain</div>
<div><br /></div><div>Cytoplasmic/intracellular domain - <b>effector domain, </b
>where the work is done. </div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-155477
8161565.jpg" /></div>
1443193123886 1438565846692 What type of receptor does insulin activate?
Receptor Tyrosine Kinase (RTK) - they work very fast<div><br /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-1589137899949.jpg" /></div>
1443193169516 1438565846692 <img src="paste-1640677507506.jpg" /> Glycogen
synthase, G6P DH, pyruvate DH, Acetyl CoA, carboxylase<div><br /></div><div>Wid
e range of functions</div>
1443193216919 1438565846692 What makes a tyrosine kinase receptor active? &n
bsp;How does the cascade work? <img src="paste-1760936591791.jpg" /><div><img s
rc="paste-1773821493641.jpg" /></div>
1443193329583 1438565846692 What are the roles of RTK in the following situa
tions:<div>- Insulin</div><div>- EGF, IGF</div><div>- Vascular Endothelial Growt
h Factor</div> 1. Carbohydrate utilization and protein synthesis<div><br /></di
v><div>2. Regulation of growth and survival</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Angiog
enesis</div>
1443193379196 1438565846692 <img src="paste-1838246003289.jpg" /> binding
of ligand to insulin receptor
1443193409596 1438565846692 What activates Ras? What is Ras?
Adapter
proteins activate Ras. Ras are <b>monomeric G Proteins</b> that activ
ate kinases<div><img src="paste-1967095022137.jpg" /></div>
1443193912866 1438565846692 Explain glucagon levels in relation to insulin a
nd glucose after a meal <img src="paste-2001454760513.jpg" /><div><img src="past
e-2022929596964.jpg" /></div>
1443194031299 1438565846692 What happens for energy during night time (short
term starvation)
<img src="paste-2065879269951.jpg" />
1443194056467 1438565846692 What changes in adipocytes during starvation
<img src="paste-2091649073736.jpg" />
1443194067620 1438565846692 What changes in muscle during starvation?
<img src="paste-2126008812096.jpg" />
1443194090984 1438565846692 What changes in the brain during starvation?
<img src="paste-2160368550491.jpg" />
1443194104367 1438565846692 What are the priorities for glucose use? Which h
ormones signal the need for glucose.
Glucose requiring tissues get glucose fi
rst...ie the brain<div><br /></div><div>Non-glucose requiring will get ketones a
nd fatty acids in low glucose states.</div><div><br /></div><div>Epinephrine and
Glucagon simulate glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis</div><div><br /></div><div><i
1443194214563 1438565846692 Study Slide: Compare and contrast starvation and
DM
<img src="paste-2306397438512.jpg" />
1443194342933 1438565846692 What is the difference between Type I and Type I
I diabetes. Which has a stronger genetic link?
1. Type I is a loss of i
nsulin. <div> Type II the tissues do not perceive the insulin
signalling, receptor downward has problem.</div><div><br /></div><div>2. Type II
has stronger genetic link</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-2349347111
471.jpg" /></div>
1443194435268 1438565846692 Type II DM: Getting the signal but not respondin
g appropriately. What other processes are affected?
<img src="paste2383706849835.jpg" />
1443194482103 1438565846692 What is happening with Maturity Onset Diabetes o
f the Young (MODY)?
"> </span>- Transcription factors that control expression of metabolism genes</d
iv><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Metabolic
enzyme mutation</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre">
</span> Ie: Glucokinase</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-spac
e:pre"> </span>- Signaling defects</div><div> Insulin

gene, tyrosine kinase</div>
1443194645645 1438565846692 What effects do genetic mutations have on metabo
lic pathways? Any significant mutation of a metabolic pathway will show symtpo
ms. <div><br /></div><div>ie: glucokinase deiciency, Aldose B deficiency ,
etc</div>
1443194688889 1438565846692 How does AMPK relate to glucose regulation? &nbs
p;What drug is involved with AMPK?
<img src="paste-2581275345313.jpg" />
1443194721658 1438565846692 <img src="paste-2718714298944.jpg" /><div><br />
</div> Insulin, they produce insulin but are not sensitive to it. Recepto
r/signal recognition problem.
1443195124053 1438565846692 <img src="paste-2753074037349.jpg" /> HbA1C no
rmally 4-6.<div><br /></div><div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whitespace:pre"> </span>- Normally 4-6% glycated by natural glucose in serum</div><di
v><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Reaction is irr
eversible </div><div>HbA1C not cleared until erythrocyte is replaced</div><
/div>
1443195151690 1438565846692 Study Slide: Comparison of Type I and Type II DM
<img src="paste-2796023710190.jpg" />
1443195213504 1438565846692 <img src="paste-2830383448685.jpg" /> Alcohol
1443195240820 1438565846692 How does alcohol cause hypoglycemia?
ETOH -&g
t; Acetylaldehyde --> Acetate --> <b>NADH</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div>
<b>Excess NADH decreases glucose synthesis</b></div>
1443195297761 1438565846692 Study Slide: Enzymes
61851.jpg" />
1443195311472 1438565846692 Name the pathway:<div><br /></div><div>Regulator
y Enzyme: Phosphofrukotkinase </div><div>Activator: AMP, F26BP</div><div>In
hibitor: ATP, cAMP, Citrate</div><div>Hormone Ratios: Inc Insulin, Dec Glucagon<
/div><div><br /></div> Glycolysis
1443195753696 1438565846692 I'm activated by acetyl CoA and have decreased i
nsulin to glucagon/cortisol ratios. Which pathway am I? Gluconeogenesis<
div><br /></div><div>Enzymes: Pyr Carboxylase, PEP carboxykinase, G6-phosphatase
</div>
1443195806438 1438565846692 My regulatory enzume is Pyruvate DH. ATP a
nd NADH inhibit me. Who am I? Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex<div><br /></div><
div>Insulin is increased</div>
1443195844555 1438565846692 cAMP inhibits me. Glucagon and Epinephrine
are decreased when I'm active. Who am I? Glycogenesis<div><br /></div><di
v>Enzyme: Glycogen Synthase</div>
1443195894314 1438565846692 My regulatory enzyme is phosphorylase. cAM
P and Calcium activate me. When active epinephrine levels may be elevated.
Who am I?
Glycogenolysis
1443225929714 1438565846692 What are the catabolic and anabolic processes of
glucose control?
<img src="paste-2581275344897.jpg" />
1443225957753 1438565846692 <img src="paste-3070901616641.jpg" /><div><img s
rc="paste-3079491551233.jpg" /></div> Cytoplasmic domain
1443226008139 1438565846692 Which receptors have intrinsic activity?
Insulin, EGF
1443226037036 1438565846692 Receptors that have associated enzyme activity?
Cytokines: EPO, Interferons, Prolactin
1443226056016 1438565846692 Receptors that dont have particular activity. &n
bsp;G-Protein (GPCR)/7 Transmembrane Receptors LH, FSH, TSH, PTH, Opiod, Calcit
onin, Dopamine, Prostaglandins<div><br /></div><div>Olfaction</div>
1443226103874 1438565846692 Why is it necessary to have sensitisation for ol
factory receptors?
So you aren't overwhelmed by scents all the time
1443226119363 1438565846692 What is a major difference between cytokine rece
ptors and RTK? cytokine receptors are associated with enzymatic axctivity
1443226151217 1438565846692 Explain the JAK/STAT pathway? What is the
end result?
Epo receptor bound. 1. ligand binding activates JAK Kinase
2. STAT is phosphorylated and dimerizes. 3. Phospho-STAT <b>enters
nucleus and exerts localized transcription effects.</b><div><b><br /></b></div>

<div><b><img src="paste-4367981740033.jpg" /></b></div>
1443226238094 1438565846692 What is STAT? (JAK STAT pathway)
Signal T
ransducers and Activator of Transcription <div><br /></div><div>Activates t
ranscription in the nucleus</div>
1443226267825 1438565846692 Explain signal amplification. Which hormon
es exert this property? Glucagon, ACTH, Epinephrine<div><br /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-4509715660801.jpg" /></div>
1443226294818 1438565846692 What is the principle difference between the swi
tches of signal phosphorylation and signalling by G-Binding Protein.
Phosphor
ylation will phosphorylate the receptor. G-binding switches out a GDP for
an GTP...no actual phosphorylation<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-47158740
91009 (1).jpg" /></div>
1443226474956 1438565846692 <img src="paste-4801773436929 (1).jpg" />
GTP exchange for GDP
1443226490788 1438565846692 What signalling pathway does Glucagon and Epi us
e?
g-protein mediate, trimeric heteromers <div><br /></div><div>hetero
trimers activated cAMP synthesis and protein kinase A</div><div><img src="paste5098126180353.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-5111011082241.jpg" /></div><div>
<br /></div>
1443227153698 1438565846692 Explain what happens if there is a problem with
GTP binding in the signalling pathway of PTH, glucagon, GHrH, TSH, or gonadotrop
in?
jpg" /><br /><div><br /></div></div>
1443227215223 1438565846692 What are diseases associated with G-protein sign
alling pathway defects? <img src="paste-5351529250817.jpg" />
1443227232519 1438565846692 What are the symptoms of Albright hereditary Ost
eodystrophy?
- pseudohypoparathyroidism<div>- short stature</div><div>- obese
</div><div>- round face</div><div>- subcutaneous calcification</div><div><br /><
/div><div><img src="paste-5420248727553.jpg" /><img src="paste-5433133629441.jpg
" /></div>
1443227309871 1438565846692 What is pseudohypoparathyroidism?
Enough P
TH produced but tissues are insensitive
1443227356444 1438565846692 <img src="paste-8843337662465.jpg" /><div><br />
</div> c. Trimeric G Protein<div><br /></div><div><div>Trimeric G-protein down
stream is the problem. If just PTH receptor then anything having to do wit
h PTH would be affected. But if you affect the receptor you have more prob
lems. </div></div><div><br /></div>
1443227397313 1438565846692 What is the pathway by which acetylcholine, vaso
pressin and thrombin signal?
1. 7 Transmembrane receptor bound by sig
naling molecule. <div>2. Activated a-G protein subunit with GTP activates p
hospholipase C</div><div>3. PLC phosphorylates IP assoc with a membrane phosphol
ipid which signals Diacylglycerol and then binds to RYR on ER. </div><div>4
. RYR open and releases calcium (HUGE) gradient</div><div>5. Ca binds protein Ki
nase C --> events occur</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-9109
625634817 (1).jpg" /></div>
1443227579961 1438565846692 Explain how hormones can "cross talk" <img src
="paste-9354438770689.jpg" />
1443227673408 1438565846692 Which pathways are reversible? Receptor tyrosin
e Kinase<div>G-protein</div><div>Seven pass transmembrane</div><div><br /></div>
<div>They all require some form of phosphorylation or dephosphorylation (for the
most part)</div>
1443227766129 1438565846692 What receptors are irreversible?
Anything
that has to do with proteolysis. Degrading a protein makes it gone foreve
r (in cell terms).<div><br /></div><div>TNF and IL-1 work in this fashion</div>
1443227802474 1438565846692 Explain the singalling pathways of TNF and IL-1<
div><br /></div><div>What happens to I-kBa?</div>
1. TNF and IL-1 bind lig
and and activate a kinase. <div>2. I-kBa cleaved from NF-kB, phosphorylate
d and ubiquinated</div><div>3. I-kBa degraded by proteosome</div><div>4. NF-kB a
ctive to go into nucleus where it will exert its immune responses</div>
1443227973933 1438565846692 What is are the two major functions of TNFa?

Avtivate NF-kB<div><br /></div><div>Activate Death Inducing Signaling Complex (t
riggers apoptosis)</div>
1443228005261 1438565846692 <img src="paste-10020158701569.jpg" /> Proteins
are irreversibly cleaved
1443228018780 1438565846692 How are reversible signaling pathways inactivate
d?
1. Rapid removal of 2nd messenger<div> - ie: c
onstitutive cAMP phosphodiesterase activity and continuous pumping of Ca out of
cytoplasm</div><div><br /></div><div>2. Phosphatases - counteract kinases</div><
div><br /></div><div>3. GTP Hydrolysis - intrinsic GTPase activity</div>
1443228141285 1438565846692 <img src="paste-10247791968257.jpg" /> E. membr
ane receptor
1443228158114 1438565846692 How is Accutane a teratogen?
It interfers wit
h FGF8 by opposing it. This interrupts how the FGF genes are expressed and
result in severe physical malformations<div><br /></div><div>MOST of these fetu
ses will spontaneously abort.</div>
1443228722970 1438565846692 which legal drugs are considered teratogens?
<img src="paste-10647223926785.jpg" />
1443228833414 1438565846692 What determines if a substance is a teratogen?
<img src="paste-10733123272705.jpg" />
1443228846780 1438565846692 What is Waardenburg Syndrome
(Splotch) PAX pr
otein mutation. PAX proteins are transcription factors.<div><br /></div><d
iv>In the heterozygotes you can get a symptom such as a streak of unpigmented ha
ir.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>HOMOZYGOTES </b>have severe deformity such as
neural tube defects (exencephaly, spina bifida) or congenital heart defects due
to neural crest migration defects.</div><div><br /></div><div> <img src="pa
ste-11033770983425.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-11046655885313.jpg" /></div
><div><br /></div>
1443228979831 1438565846692 How do genetic and environmental interaction inf
luence complex processes?
Environment can help determine fitness. Ex
p: Splotch (PAX) -/+ has adaptable mutation. Splotch -/- has teratology an
d severe symptoms.<div><br /></div><div>However, if you suplpement folate, you m
ay be able to environmentally alter the effects of the mutation toward fitness.&
nbsp;</div><div><img src="paste-11235634446337.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste
-11257109282817 (1).jpg" /></div>
1443229081821 1438565846692 You deliver a seemingly healthy newborn at term.
He has a slight cleft palate. Is this cosmetic or a zebra? Could be
a zebra. Often times craniofacial defects are associated with cardiac ano
malies.<div><br /></div><div>This is due to the embryological derivation coming
from the ectoderm. Integument derives from embryonic ectoderm as well as t
he neural tube.</div><div><br /></div><div>Neural tube further differentiates to
the neural crest and cranial neural crest. Cranial neural crest effects d
evelopment of the cardiac outflow tract, walls of the aorta and aortic arches.&n
bsp;</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-11467562680321.jpg" /></div>
1443229300879 1438565846692 Study Slide: embryonic derivations
<img src
="paste-11463267713025.jpg" />
1443229311933 1438565846692 What are effects of fetal alcohol syndrome?
Craniofacial anomalies: microcephaly, short nose, thin upper lip<div><br /></div
><div>AND</div><div><br /></div><div>Congenital heart disease</div>
1443229399490 1438565846692 Study Slide: Effects of Teratogens on deve
lopment <img src="paste-11751030521857_1438565846692.jpg" />
1443229596196 1438565846692 What are the principles of determining teratogen
esis? <img src="paste-11952893984769.jpg" />
1443229617030 1438565846692 <img src="paste-12038793330689.jpg" /><div><br /
></div><div>What do you say?</div>
<img src="paste-12055973199873.jpg" />
1443229675630 1438565846692 Signaling pathways that are used in development
can reactivate in adult pathologies. What is teh Wnt path responsivle for?
<img src="paste-12141872545793.jpg" />
1443229731084 1438565846692 <img src="paste-12236361826305.jpg" /><div>What
would Hedghog cause?</div>
<img src="paste-12137577578497.jpg" />

would RTK - Ligand family FGF cause?</div>
<img src="paste-12330851106817.j
pg" />
would TGF-B superfamily cause?</div>
<img src="paste-12416750452737.jpg" />
1443229817694 1438565846692 If the concentration of fatty acids on the outsi
de surface of a cell doubles, the rate of diffusion of the short term fatty acid
s will change from 10mg/h to which rate?<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-12
678743457793.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
30 mg/h<div><br /></div><div><im
g src="paste-12691628359681.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1443231831796 1438565846692 <img src="paste-12786117640193.jpg" /><div>a. Do
ubling molecular radius of solute</div><div>b. doubling oil/water partition coef
ficient of solute</div><div>c. doubling thickness of bilayer</div><div>d. doubli
ng concentration difference</div><div><br /></div>
542081.jpg" />
1443231896719 1438565846692 Study Slide: Diffusion of Neutral molecules acro
ss membranes
<img src="paste-12889196855297.jpg" />
1443231918470 1438565846692 <img src="paste-12957916332033.jpg" /><div>a. so
lution A has higher effective osmotic pressure than B</div><div>b. solution A ha
s a lower effective osmotic pressure than B</div><div>c. Solution A and B are is
osmotic</div><div>d. Solution A is hyperosmotic with respect to B, and they are
isotonic</div><div><br /></div> d. Solution A is hyperosmotic with respect to B,
and they are isotonic<div><img src="paste-13082470383617.jpg" /></div>
1443232117928 1438565846692 <img src="paste-13168369729537 (1).jpg" />
initially shrink then swell<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-13181254631425.
jpg" /><br /><div><br /></div><div><br /></div></div>
1443232168302 1438565846692 Study Slide: Water movements
<img src="paste13322988552193.jpg" />
1443232181311 1438565846692 Study Slide: Charge flow
<img src="paste13400297963521.jpg" />
1443232216822 1438565846692 <img src="paste-13473312407553.jpg" /> Solution
A is -60mV<div><br /></div>
1443232244357 1438565846692 <img src="paste-13550621818881.jpg" />
="paste-13632226197505.jpg" />
="paste-13743895347201.jpg" />
="paste-13829794693121.jpg" />
="paste-13932873908225.jpg" />
="paste-14031658156033.jpg" />
="paste-14117557501953.jpg" />
="paste-14203456847873.jpg" />
="paste-14289356193793.jpg" />
="paste-14383845474305.jpg" />
="paste-14491219656705.jpg" />
="paste-14577119002625.jpg" />
="paste-14671608283137.jpg" />
="paste-14757507629057.jpg" />
1443232693974 1438565846692 Roles of cAMP <img src="paste-14830522073089.j
pg" />
1443232708486 1438565846692 Roles of RTK
<img src="paste-14903536517121.j
pg" />
1443232721398 1438565846692 <img src="paste-14972255993857.jpg" /> 1-8
1443232743882 1438565846692 <img src="paste-15049565405185.jpg" /> A
1443232768743 1438565846692 <img src="paste-15122579849217.jpg" /> c. retin
a<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-15135464751105.jpg" /></div>
="paste-15238543966209.jpg" />
1443470308795 1438565846692 Describe simple squamous epithelium
<div><br /></div><div>Simple Epithelium</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" s
tyle="white-space:pre"> </span>- Single layer of squamous epithelial cells</div>
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Lines body c
avities and covers organs as mesothelium</div><div>Lines heart and blood vessels
as endotherlium</div>
1443470346311 1438565846692 Identify the following cell types:<div><br /></d
iv><div><img src="paste-850403524696.jpg" /><img src="paste-863288426586.jpg" />
<img src="paste-876173328517.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-889058230379.jpg"
/><img src="paste-901943132236.jpg" /><img src="paste-914828034184.jpg" /></div
>
<img src="paste-927712936633.jpg" />
1443470449459 1438565846692 What is the difference between endocrine and exo
crine tissues? Endocrine secretes into blood stream<div>Exocrine secretes into
glands</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-1039382086363.jpg" /></div>
1443470493433 1438565846692 What type of cells are these? What structu
res are they lining?<div><img src="paste-1090921693443.jpg" /></div>
<div><br
/></div><div><div>Cuboidal cells form the circular secretory acini in both type
s of glands and liens the ducts of exocrine glands</div></div><div><br /></div><
div><br /></div><img src="paste-1103806595725.jpg" />
1443470562142 1438565846692 What are the arrows pointing towards?<div><img s
1443470631363 1438565846692 Identify the labeled structures<div><img src="pa
ste-1211180777996.jpg" /></div> <img src="paste-1224065679483.jpg" />
1443470667054 1438565846692 How do pseudostratified epithelium appear? &nbsp
;What makes them look that way? <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-s
pace:pre"> </span>- Appear stacked but they are next to each other</div><div><sp
an class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>"fake layers"</div><di
v>Nucleaus is not aligned making </div><div><br /></div><div><div>Pseudostr
atified epithelium is a mixed layer of cuboidal and columnar epithelial cells.</
div></div><div><img src="paste-1267015352583.jpg" /></div>
1443470766242 1438565846692 Identify this type of tissue<div><br /></div><di
v><img src="paste-1301375091058.jpg" /></div> <img src="paste-1314259992700.jp
g" />
1443470802248 1438565846692 What type of cells are these? Where are th
ey found?<div><img src="paste-1382979469532.jpg" /></div>
<div>Pseudostrat
ified epithelium</div><img src="paste-1395864371476.jpg" />
1443470986441 1438565846692 What is the role of goblet cells as part of the
respiratory epithelium? <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre
"> </span>- Goblet cell secreted mucus covers the apical surface to entrap inspi
red particulates and pathogens</div><div><br /></div>
1443471016174 1438565846692 Identified the labeled structures. What ty
pe of tissue is this?<div><br /></div> <img src="paste-1640677507562.jpg" />
1443471278086 1438565846692 Differentiate the two types of epithelia and ide
ntify labeled structures
<img src="paste-1675037246193.jpg" />
1443471330517 1438565846692 Where is the basement membrane and what is it's
purpose? What does this have to do with cancer?<div><img src="paste-174375
6722337.jpg" /></div> <div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-spac
e:pre"> </span>- All epithelia rest on a basement membrane that supports epithel
ium</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Cre
ates selective filtration barrier</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="
white-space:pre"> </span>- Controls epithelial differentiation during growth and
repair</div></div><div><br /></div><div>- Prior to invading surrounding ti

ssues cancerous cells must breach the basement membrane which acts as protection
. </div><div><br /></div><img src="paste-1756641624342.jpg" />
1443471415170 1438565846692 Which type of connective tissue contains the gre
atest proportion of collagen fibers but fewer overall cells and less interstitia
l fluid?
Dense connective tissue<div><br /></div>
1443471524644 1438565846692 How do mast cells contribute to the formation of
edema in loose connective tissue that occurs during the inflammatory response t
o injury?
n>- Histamine release from mast cells as well as ability to affect local vasodil
ation causes edema</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre
"> </span>- Histamine also increases permeability leading to increasing edema</d
iv><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-1838246003050.jpg" /></div>
1443471548203 1438565846692 At what point are embryonic stem cells no longer
able to develop into all cell types? What is this ability called?<div><br
/></div>
8 cell stage<div><br /></div><div>Totipotent</div>
1443471637516 1438565846692 Where is the morula at day 3?<div><br /></div>
Near the junction of the uterus and uterine tube<div><br /></div><div><img src="
paste-1928440316297.jpg" /></div>
1443471726777 1438565846692 At wk 1 of development what connects the embryo
to the uterine wall?
Trophoblast
1443471857386 1438565846692 Why do cells of the inner cell mass have clinica
l potential?
<img src="paste-2061584302342.jpg" />
1443471871919 1438565846692 Identify the marked structures<div><img src="pas
te-2095944040623.jpg" /><img src="paste-2108828942508.jpg" /></div>
<img src
="paste-2130303779498.jpg" />
te-2173253452060.jpg" /></div> <img src="paste-2186138354131.jpg" />
1443471983178 1438565846692 Hyperemia of the uterine soft tissue provides an
area for the trophoblast to attach. Penetration of this edematous fluid c
reates what?<div><br /></div> Lacunae among trophoblast cells
1443472223023 1438565846692 When does the bilaminar germ disc with epiblast
form? <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Afte
r completion of the blastocyst implantation, the embryoblast differentiates into
a bilaminar germ disc with an epiblast and hypoblast</div><div><br /></div>
1443472260974 1438565846692 What forms the yolk sac?
Amniotic cavity
in the epiblast is filled with edematous fluid from the uterine connective tissu
e and proliferation of the hypoblast forms a lining of the blastocyst cavity tha
t transforms it into the yolk sac<div><img src="paste-2435246457321.jpg" /></div
>
te-2469606195584.jpg" /></div> <img src="paste-2482491097681.jpg" />
1443472324675 1438565846692 Study Slide<div><img src="paste-2516850836136.jp
g" /></div>
<div><br /></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whitespace:pre"> </span>- End of week 2 a linear groove (primative streak) forms in s
urface of the epiblast that faces the amniotic cavity</div><div><span class="App
le-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Primitive streak forms in the cau
dal region of the germ disk</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whitespace:pre"> </span> Closer to future lower limbs</div><div>Cranial region is at o
pposite end</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-2516850836136.jpg" /></di
v>
1443472362447 1438565846692 When does the embryonic period begin? Week 3
1443472392774 1438565846692 What and how do cells pass through the primitive
streak to form mesodermal (mesenchymal) cells between the hypoblast and epiblas
t?
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Cell
s of epiblast proliferate and via gastrulation pass through the primitive streak
to form mesodermal (mesenchymal) cells between the hypoblast and epiblast</div>
<div>Some of the migrating mesenchymal cells form endodermal cells that replace
cells of the hypoblast in the yolk sac</div><div><img src="paste-2628519985387.j
pg" /></div>
1443472441243 1438565846692 How is the primitive streak related to the forma

tion of teratomas and why do the tumors contain a mixture of tissue types?
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Remnant of t
he primitive streak that did not fully differentiate in the sacrococcygeal regio
n can result in teratomas which are tumors that usually contain all three germ l
ayers</div><div>May contain hair, teeth, bone, etc.</div><div><img src="paste-26
71469658322.jpg" /></div>
1443472486731 1438565846692 The ectoderm forms from the ____ and the epiderm
is is _____ derived.
neural tube<div><br /></div><div>ectoderm</div><div><br
1443472524607 1438565846692 Laterally, what do thin layers of the mesoderm s
plit into?
Laterally the thin lateral plate mesoderm splits into parietal m
esoderm and visceral mesoderm
1443472677104 1438565846692 Where is the simple columnar epithelium of the g
ut derived from?
Endoderm
1443472730534 1438565846692 What forms connective tissue and smooth muscle o
f the gut?
<div><br /></div><div>Mesenchymal cells of the visceral mesoderm
form connective tissue and smooth muscle of the gut tube and its derivatives&nb
sp;</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-2907692859722.jpg" /></div><div><
1443472784343 1438565846692 Where and when does the cardiovascular system be
gin to form?
n>- Cardiovascular system begins to form in the cranial region of the trilaminar
germ disc during week 3</div><div><img src="paste-2954937500145.jpg" /></div>
1443472820271 1438565846692 1. What does the gut tube consist of?<div>2. Whe
re is the primitive heart tube located?</div><div>3. What joins the midgut to th
e yolk sac?</div>
"> </span>- Gut tube consists of cranial foregut, midgut, caudal hindgut </
div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Primitiv
e heart tube forms adjacent to foregut</div><div>Midgut is joined to the yolk sa
c by vitelline duct</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-3023656976894.jpg
" /></div>
1443472893113 1438565846692 What structures does the vitelline artery supply
?
Vitelline artery transports blood from developing aorta to capillaries i
n the wall of the yolk sac where nutrients from the lumen of the sac enter the c
apillaries for delivery via vitelline vein to developing venous system<div><img
src="paste-3058016715077.jpg" /></div>
1443472985963 1438565846692 Which structures do embryonic and fetal developm
ent depend on?<div><img src="paste-3238405341676.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
Umbilical circulation
1443473419765 1438565846692 What do the lacunae do at week three? <div><br
/></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- By
week 3, lacunae coalesce into blood filled spaces that reshape trophoblast into
tufts of trophoblastic cells called villi</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span"
style="white-space:pre"> </span> Becomes intervillous space</div><div><span clas
s="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Blood filled space between th
e villi</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-3380139262485.jpg" /></div>
1443473591224 1438565846692 Explain the drainage of the uterine artery.
Branches of uterine artery empty into the intervillous spaces that drain into tr
ibutaries of the uterine vein for return to maternal circulation
1443473625002 1438565846692 Explain the circulation of the connecting stalk
at week 4
By week 4 the villi contain umbilical capillaries that join the
umbilical artery and vein in the connecting stalk.<div><br /></div><div><img src
="paste-3453153706390.jpg" /></div>
1443473713051 1438565846692 What separates maternal blood from fetal blood?
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Thin layers
of trophoblastic cells separate embryonic blood in the umbilical capillaries fro
m maternal blood in the intervillous spaces </div><div><span class="Apple-t
ab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> O2 and nutrients in maternal blood and
metabolic wastes in embryonic blood are readily exchanged</div><div><br /></div>
1443473738675 1438565846692 When does the embryonic period end?

Week 8
1443473751729 1438565846692 What does week 9 begin and what are the hallmark
s?
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Week
9 begins fetal period</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space
:pre"> </span> Trophoblastic villi and intervillous spaces form fetal portion of
placenta and maternal portion formed by decidua basalis</div><div>Compact layer
of decidual cells filled with lipid and glycogen</div>
1443473776701 1438565846692 What forms the amniotic cavity? Early in the fet
al period, fusion of the amniotic and chorionic cavities creates a single large
amniotic cavity<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-3560527888732.jpg" /></div>
1443473874300 1438565846692 Explain the role of umbilical arteries and veins
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Umbilical ar
teries transport deoxygenated blood from fetal aorta to umbilical capillaries of
placenta</div><div>Umbilical vein transports oxygenated blood</div>
1443473895339 1438565846692 Why does malformation of the esophagus and absen
ce of kidney formation cause polyhydramnios and oligohydramnios, respectively?
Fetal swallowing fluid and urination maintain amniotic fluid status in uterus<di
v><img src="paste-3616362463541.jpg" /></div>
1443473916780 1438565846692 Explain this diagram of fetal circulation<div><i
<img src="paste-3663607103550.jp
g" />
1443473958023 1438565846692 Study Slide:<div><img src="paste-3697966842491.j
pg" /></div>
<div>Ectoderm blue</div><div>Mesoderm red</div><div>Endoderm yel
low</div><div><br /></div>
1443577823790 1438565846692 Define Hormones A chemical messenger synthesized
and secreted by specialized cells in response to an external signal<div><br /><
/div><div>Synthesized by one type of tissue and it exerts its effects on another
</div>
1443577877638 1438565846692 Cortisol: <div><br /></div><div>- How many
carbons</div><div>- Where is it synthesized</div><div>- Where does it exert effe
cts and what are they</div><div>- Where is it hydroxylated and what are the hydr
oxylases</div> 1. 21C<div>2. Adrenal</div><div>3. Liver --> Increase glucone
ogenesis (among many others)</div><div>4. 21, 17, 11, Hydroxylase 21, 17, 11</di
v><div><br /></div><div>OH 21 and 17 responsible for gluconeogenic activity</div
>
1443578038329 1438565846692 Aldosterone:<div><br /></div><div><div>- How man
y carbons</div><div>- Where is it synthesized</div><div>- Where does it exert ef
fects and what are they</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-spac
e:pre"> </span>- Where is it hydroxylated and what are the hydroxlases</div></di
v><div><br /></div>
1. 21C<div>2. Adrenal</div><div>3. Kidney --> increas
e sodium reabsorption and K excretion</div><div>4. 21, 11, 18 (has aldehyde). &n
bsp;hydoxylase 11,18,21</div><div><img src="paste-3917010173953.jpg" /></div>
1443578114145 1438565846692 Testosterone<div><br /></div><div><div>- How man
y carbons</div><div>- Where is it synthesized</div><div>- Where does it exert ef
fects and what are they</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-spac
e:pre"> </span>- Where is it hydroxylated and what are the hydroxlases</div></di
v><div><br /></div><div>- How is it different from estradiol?</div><div><br /></
div>
1. 19C<div>2. Teste (small amount in adrenal)</div><div>3. Muscle -->
increase muscle mass</div><div>4. OH at 17, 17 hydroxylase</div><div>5. double
bond in A ring at C4-5</div>
1443578181395 1438565846692 <div>Estradiol:</div><div><br /></div><div>- How
many carbons</div><div>- Where is it synthesized</div><div>- Where does it exer
t effects and what are they</div><div>-Where is it hydroxylated and what are the
hydroxlases</div><div>- How is it different from testosterone</div>
1. 18C<d
iv>2. Ovary (small amount in adrenal)</div><div>3. Uterus -> increases uterin
e mass</div><div>4. OH at C17. 17 hydroxylase</div><div>5. A ring is pheny
loid</div>
1443578359131 1438565846692 Explain the regulation of cortisol
<div><b>
1. Stress initiates signal to hypothalamus</b></div><div><b>2. CRH produced --&g
t; acts on pituitary</b></div><div><b>3. Pituitary synthesizes ACTH --> acts
on adrenal</b></div><div><b>4. Adrenal synthesizes and releases <u>cortisol</u><

/b></div><div><b> (</b>Desmolase
enzyme cleaves side chain from cholesterol &
nbsp;creating cortisol)</div><div><b>5. Cortisol feedback inhibits at pituitary
and hypothalamus</b></div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-4436701216769 (1
).jpg" /></div>
1443578501789 1438565846692 What happens in Addison's disease when the adren
als to not produce enough cortisol
ACTH resembles melanocyte stimulating ho
rmone (MSH) via the first 13 AA. ACTH in high levels will bind MSH recepto
rs and cause darkening of skin. (Addison's has a number of other significant sym
ptoms)<div><img src="paste-5334349381633 (1).jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-5
347234283521.jpg" /></div>
1443578578562 1438565846692 Hydroxylases needed for cortisol, aldosterone, e
stradiol and testosterone
<img src="paste-5428838662145.jpg" />
1443578602769 1438565846692 How does cortisol get transported? Testost
erone/estradiol?
1. Bound to corticosteroid binding globulin (CBG)<div><b
r /></div><div>2. Bound to sex hormone bidning globulin</div>
1443578666204 1438565846692 Where do steroid horomones exert their effects?
At the nuclear level affecting transcription = hours - days to work
1443578688676 1438565846692 How do steroids get into the cell to act?
They are lipid soluble and diffuse through the membrane.<div><br /></div><div>On
ce inside they bind with a <b>hormone response element, </b>then enter the nucle
us and bind the <b>DNA binding domain (Zinc fingers)</b>. At this point th
e regulate <b>trasncription at the hormone binding domain</b></div>
1443578781944 1438565846692 How is Tamoxifen currently used Used in premenop
ausal women to treat breast cancer.<div><br /></div><div>Anti-estrogen. Th
ought to be useful in estrogen receptor (+) tumors, BUT some women were found to
have agonist activity with use of Tamoxifen.</div>
1443578853324 1438565846692 What is a preferred endocrine ablative therapy f
or post-menopausal women with breast cancer?
Aromitase inhibitors (ie Letrozo
le)<div><br /></div><div>Inhibits synthesis of estradiol</div><div><br /></div><
div>Cation: may cause osteoporotic effects. Should have DEXA, consider bisphosph
onates and coordinated oncology with endocrine</div>
1443579278920 1438565846692 What are two major areas of endocrine ablative r
esearch?
Histone acetyltransferase activity and RNA polymerase II<div><br
1443579352929 1438565846692 Compare and contrast peptides and steroids
<img src="paste-6378026434561.jpg" />
1443579367305 1438565846692 What are the major roles of calcium?
- struct
ural component of skeleton<div>- muscle contraction</div><div>- nerve pulse tran
smission</div><div>- secretion of hormones from endocrine/exocrine glands <
/div><div>- important for actions of Calmodulin</div>
1443579419092 1438565846692 What is Calmodulin used for?
Present in every
cell, binds calcium<div><br /></div><div>Activates enzymes such as Ca/Mg ATPase
</div>
1443579459774 1438565846692 What is the make up of calcium in the blood?
51% ionized (free Ca++)<div><br /></div><div>48% bound to proteins (most common
albumin)</div><div><br /></div><div>3% complex to other ions</div>
1443579493044 1438565846692 What are the tissue that are responsible for mai
ntaining calcium homeostasis? Intestine<div>Kidney</div><div>Bone</div>
1443579512126 1438565846692 Where and how is parathyroid hormone (PTH) synth
esized? Synthesized in chief cells of parathyroid gland<div><br /></div><div>Ini
tially a Pre-Prohormone </div><div><br /></div><div>Pre - 110 AA</div><div>
Pro - 90 AA</div><div>PTH - 84 AA --> secreted</div>
1443579633235 1438565846692 What stimulates release of PTH low blood Ca
1443579645508 1438565846692 What inhibits secretion of PTH? high blood Ca
1443579655259 1438565846692 How does PTH act on the bone? Increases calciu
m resorption from bone by binding osteoblasts and increasing synthesis of RANKL<
div><br /></div><div>RANKL binds pre-osteoclast --> osteoclast </div>
1443579705774 1438565846692 how does PTH exert effects on kidney? Promotes
calcium absorption from the distal tubule<div><br /></div><div>Decrease phospha

te absorption from the proximal tubule</div><div><br /></div><div>Stimulates syn
thesis of active Vit D in kidney (indirect effect of PTH on intestinal Ca reg)</
div>
1443579758016 1438565846692 What two types of tumors tend to exhibit <b>PTH
gene related peptide</b>
Lung and kidney<div><br /></div><div>pseudohypop
arathyroidism because the analagous peptide binds PTH receptors</div>
1443580155638 1438565846692 Where is Calcitonin synthesized? Where does it e
xert effect?<div><br /></div><div>What does it do?</div>
C cells of thyro
id<div><br /></div><div>Bone</div><div><br /></div><div>Shrinks osteoclast</div>
1443580357196 1438565846692 T/F: supraphysiological concentrations of Calcit
onin will increase Ca excretion from kidney
True...but very high levels
1443580389532 1438565846692 Does calcitonin have any effect on the intestine
?
NO
1443580398349 1438565846692 What effect does calcitonin have on the stomach?
Inhibits gastrin secretion
1443580412060 1438565846692 Explain the progression of Vit D as it is conver
ted from UV to active form.
7 dehydrocholesterol --> Vit D --> Liver (
25 (OH) Vit D) --> Kidney - calcitriol activated 1,25 (OH)2 D3 (Active)
form
1443580570182 1438565846692 What is an inactive metabolite of Vit D3 created
in the kidney? <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </spa
n> 24, 25 DihydroxyD3 is inactive metabolite --> formed in kidney</div><div><b
r /></div>
1443580592633 1438565846692 What binds calcium in the intestine and what is
the channel?
Calbindin binds calcium<div><br /></div><div>Channel TRPV6</div>
1443580746066 1438565846692 Study Slide: PTH<div><img src="paste-86199993630
73.jpg" /></div>
1443580846095 1438565846692 Study Slide: Calcium Reg<div><br /></div><div><i
1443580859856 1438565846692 Study Slide: mode of Action of PTH<div><br
1443580890219 1438565846692 Study Slide: Calcitonin<div><br /></div><div><im
g src="paste-8851927597057 (1).jpg" /></div>
1443580901576 1438565846692 Study Slide: Active Vit D<div><br /></div><div><
1443581028674 1438565846692 Summary Slide: PTH, Calcitonin, Vit D<div><br />
</div><div><img src="paste-9221294784513.jpg" /></div>
1443632974767 1438565846692 What comprises the CNS and PNS? How many cranial
nerves, spinal nerves? <div><br /></div><div>Spinal nerves, how many: Cer
vical, thoracic, lumbar, saccral, coccygeal</div>
central nervous system (
CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord; and the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
includes the cranial nerves, spinal nerves, ganglia, and autonomic nerves (not
shown). <div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-365072220751.jpg" /></div><di
v><br /></div>
1443633100084 1438565846692 Where does spinal nerve C8 exit?<div><br /></div
>
Between C7-T1
1443633128537 1438565846692 What do the cranial nerves do? cranial nerves p
rovide somatic afferent and efferent axons to the skeletal muscles, bones, and s
kin of the head and neck
1443633150548 1438565846692 What is the difference between multipolar and ps
eudo-unipolar neurons? <div><div>excitable, conductive nerve cells are designat
ed multipolar neurons and pseudounipolar neurons; and the single short stem of t
he pseudounipolar neuron divides into central and peripheral axons. <span class=
"Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span></div><div><span class="Apple-t
ab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span"
style="white-space:pre"> </span></div><div>DRG, sensory impulses pass from the
peripheral axon directly onto the central axon </div></div><div><br /></div
><img src="paste-549755814483.jpg" />
1443633238551 1438565846692 Explain pseudounipolar sensory neurons, somatic
multipolar motor neurons and autonomic multipolar neurons.

<div> long
peripheral axon conveys sensations of touch, pain, and temperature from the musc
les, bones, and skin of the body (soma) wall and som</div><div><span class="Appl
e-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span></div><div>Central axons of the DRG,
which collectively form the posterior roots of the spinal nerves, conduct impul
ses into the CNS and are called somatic sensory (aka afferent) axons. <span clas
s="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span></div><div><span class="Apple
-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span></div><div>Also recognize in the spin
al cord, the axons of the multipolar neurons form the anterior roots of the spin
al nerves that conduct impulses away from the CNS and are called somatic motor (
aka efferent) axons, which voluntarily activate the skeletal muscles of the body
wall and extremities. <span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </s
pan></div><div><br /></div><div>multipolar presynaptic neurons in the CNS and mu
ltipolar postsynaptic neurons of the autonomic ganglia in the PNS serially compr
ise the autonomic nerves, which contain visceral efferent axons that innervate o
rgans (aka viscera), glands, and smooth muscle. </div><div><br /></div><div
><img src="paste-695784702498.jpg" /></div>
1443633417562 1438565846692 <div>Which neurons are affected by </div><d
iv>amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and why is the disease ultimately fatal?&
nbsp;</div>
<img src="paste-747324309648.jpg" />
1443633447680 1438565846692 Explain the roles of the sympathetic (thoracolum
bar) division of the autonomic NS?
<div>The ANS consists of a sympathetic d
ivision and a parasympathetic division that involuntarily regulate the viscera,
glands, and smooth muscle in a contrasting, yet coordinated manner. </div><
div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-884763263521.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1443633605560 1438565846692 Study Slide: Parasympathetic NS<div><img src="pa
ste-919123001928.jpg" /></div> <div>Parasympathetic (craniosacral) division of
ANS. Presynaptic parasympathetic nerve cell bodies are located in opposite ends
of the CNS and their fibers exit by two different routes: (1) in the gray matter
of the brainstem, with fibers exiting the CNS within cranial nerves III, VII, I
X, and X (these fibers constitute the cranial parasympathetic outflow), and (2)
in the gray matter of the sacral (S24) segments of the spinal cord, with fibers e
xiting the CNS via the anterior roots of spinal nerves S24 and the pelvic splanch
nic nerves that arise from their anterior rami. (These fibers constitute the sac
ral parasympathetic outflow.) The cranial outflow provides parasympathetic inn
ervation of the head, neck, and most of the trunk; the sacral outflow provides t
he parasympathetic innervation of the pelvic viscera. </div><div><br /></
div>
1443633654702 1438565846692 Identify labeled structures<div><br /></div><div
g" /><div><img src="paste-1065151889508.jpg" /></div>
1443633893556 1438565846692 Describe the outer epineurium <div>outer epine
urium forms a strong cylindrical sheath around the whole nerve and extends inwar
d to bind bundles (aka fascicles) of the mixed axons together. Note the fascicle
s are </div><div>enclosed by perineurium. </div><div><br /></div><div>
1443633916067 1438565846692 Identify and explain this image<div><img src="pa
ste-1189705941163.jpg" /></div> <img src="paste-1236950581805.jpg" /><div>mixed
fibers (i.e., axons are also called fibers) of the spinal nerves are either myel
inated or unmyelinated. Use the LM image to observe most of the fibers are myeli
nated and the endoneurium is loose connective tissue between the fibers. </
div>
1443634045465 1438565846692 1. What are Schwann cells mostly comprised of?<d
iv><br /></div><div>2. What are gaps between neural cells?</div><div><br /></div
><div>3. Common structural feature of schwann cells and nodes of ranvier?</div>
<div>continuous series of Schwann cells form lipoproteinrich myelin (ignore neur
ilemal) sheaths around the longitudinal axes of the fibers and microscopic gaps
between the cells are called nodes of Ranvier. Both the Schwann cells and the no
des of Ranvier are invested by a basement membrane.</div><div><br /></div><div><
img src="paste-1322849927716.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1443634157112 1438565846692 Name a few unmyelinated axons Schwann cells en

gulf multiple unmyelinated axons without wrapping them with myelin sheaths; and
realize somatic sensory fibers that conduct pain and temperature sensations, the
fibers of interneurons, and the postsynaptic sympathetic fibers are unmyelinate
d axons. <div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-1365799600439.jpg" /></div>
1443634230689 1438565846692 Which somatic sensory fibers are myelinated? &nb
sp;<div><br /></div><div>Schwann cells wrap around a single axon in a ____ ____
_____</div>
<div> somatic sensory axons that conduct touch sensations,
and presynaptic sympathetic axons are myelinated fibers.</div><div><br /></div><
div>Jelly-roll like manner</div>
1443634316397 1438565846692 Do oligodendrocytes engluf unmeylinated fibers?
<div>in the CNS, oligodendrocytes envelope multiple (up to 60) axons to form mye
lin sheaths. Realize oligodendrocytes do not engulf unmyelinated fibers</div><di
1443634371560 1438565846692 <div>How does perineum contribute to the blood-n
erve barrier? </div><div><br /></div>
<div>It acts as a selective meta
bolic diffusion barrier around nerves. It restricts macromolecule substances fro
m passing</div><div><br /></div>
1443634416152 1438565846692 Why is the speed of impulse conduction faster in
myelinated fibers?
It acts as an electrical insulator and allows co
nduction of saltatory conduct. A greater thickness allows for a greater speed.
1443634601121 1438565846692 Why does a cutting nerve injury but not a crushi
ng nerve injury require surgery? Crushing injuries do not destroy the ner
ve cell body and connective tissue remains intact. Growing axons are direc
ted towards their destination. A cutting nerve injury requires surgical
intervention because regeneration of the axon requires apposition of the cut end
s by sutures through the epineurium.
1443634622285 1438565846692 <div> How do Schwann cells assist regenerat
ion of damaged nerve fibers? </div><div><br /></div>
They can clear d
ebris and aid in guiding regenerating axons
1443634633434 1438565846692 Why is the histological observation that basemen
t membranes invest Schwann cells but not oligodendrocytes clinically relevant?&n
bsp;
Leads to poor regenerations after CNS injury
1443634649868 1438565846692 Distinguish epineurium, perineurium, and endoneu
rium
<div>They are different layers surrounding peripheral nerves.</d
iv><div>Perineurium is the innermost layer which prevents diffusion of macromole
cules</div><div>Endoneurium is the second innermost layer</div><div>Epineurium i
s the outermost layer</div><div><br /></div>
1443653965420 1438565846692 What is the FDA definition of a drug? <div><sp
an class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- A substance intended
for the use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment or prevention of dise
ase</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- The
rapeutic</div><div><br /></div><div><div>Other Definition </div><div><br />
</div><div>Substance other than food/vitamins intended to affect the structure o
r function of a living organism</div></div>
1443654620364 1438565846692 Define Agonist and Antagonist <div>Agonist</di
v><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Drug that
binds to physiologic receptors and mimics regulatory effects of an endogenous si
gnaling compound</div><div><br /></div><div>Antagonist</div><div><span class="Ap
ple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Drug that binds to physiologic r
eceptors without any regulatory effects but blocks the binding of the endogenous
agonist</div><div><br /></div>
1443654637350 1438565846692 T/F: All drugs are poisons
True, at high en
ough doses all drugs are poisons
1443654653947 1438565846692 What is a partial agonist
<div>Partial ago
nist</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Dr
ug that produces only a submaximal effect</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span"
style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Drugs activate receptors in a graded manner r
ather than all-or-none</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space
:pre"> </span>- Need to have another drug to compare it to</div><div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Will not have same max no matt

er how much given</div><div><br /></div>
1443654667486 1438565846692 Differentiate drug specificity and selectivity
<div>Drug Specificity</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:
pre"> </span>- The number of types of drug targets that a drug will bind to</div
><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Only one ta
rget = high specificity (ie atropine - muscarinc receptors)</div><div><br /></di
v><div>Drug Selectivity</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-spac
e:pre"> </span>- Diversity of effects that are elicited by a drug molecule inter
acting with its targets: </div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whi
te-space:pre"> </span> Fewer effects, greater selectivity </div><div><span c
lass="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Drug molecules with high s
electivity also exhibit high specificity</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span"
style="white-space:pre"> </span> Ex: Atropine, Diphenhydramine, Heparin</div><div
><br /></div>
1443654698336 1438565846692 Is heparin high specific or selective? Both
1443654733139 1438565846692 differentiate pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynam
ics
<img src="paste-3929895075841.jpg" />
1443654750031 1438565846692 Describe the effects of drugs on Ion channels su
ch as ligand gated channels
pace:pre"> </span> Ion Channels - ligand gated</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-s
pan" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Very fast - occur in ms</div><div><span cla
ss="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> GABA add negative charge wit
hin cell</div><div><img src="paste-4045859192833.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1443654781720 1438565846692 Describe the effects of drugs on G-protein coupl
ed channels. Which second messenger is involved in the most common stimula
tory pathway? <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </spa
n> G-protein coupled largest family</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style=
"white-space:pre"> </span> Have 7 pass transmembrane unit</div><div><span class="
Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Gi = inhibitory, Gs = stimulator
y</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Activat
e second messengers</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pr
e"> </span> cAMP most common stimulatory event</div><div><br /></div><div>One mol
ecule at membrane will amplify in cell </div>
1443654817366 1438565846692 What drugs commonly work via voltage gated chann
els? What is a main principle of their functioning?
Lidocain, local anesthet
ics<div><br /></div><div>Work from inside out. Diffuse through membrane th
e block channel.</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-4342211936257.jpg" /
></div>
1443654867648 1438565846692 What type of receptor does Warfarin work on?
Enzyme. Vitamin K Epoxide Reductase<div><br /></div><div>Blocks this enzym
e preventing syntehsis of clotting factors.</div><div><br /></div><div><img src=
"paste-4483945857025.jpg" /></div>
1443654915750 1438565846692 What happens when a single molecule binds a G-pr
otein receptor? Amplification<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-4556960301057
(1).jpg" /></div>
1443654935315 1438565846692 Name a few re-uptake pump inhibitors
SSRI<div
>MAOI</div><div>NRI</div>
1443654953273 1438565846692 What is a common non-receptor mediated drug acti
on?
Antacids. neutralization of stomach acid. <div><br /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-4698694221825 (1).jpg" /></div>
1443654983720 1438565846692 what is the function of spare receptors?
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Receptor sys
tem that does not require all receptors bound to produce max effect</div><div><s
pan class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Form of redundancy<
/div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Ex: &nb
sp;Insulin - estimated 90% are spare</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" styl
e="white-space:pre"> </span> Cardiac B1 adrenergic receptor</div><div><br /></div
>
1443655001503 1438565846692 What is a major difference between intracellular
receptors and membrane receptors?

Intracellular, ie steroids, work in the
cell.<div><br /></div><div><b>Lipid soluble</b></div><div><b><br /></b></div><di
v><b>Hours before you see an effect</b></div>
1443655052274 1438565846692 Study slide: Steroid receptors <img src="paste5390183956481 (1).jpg" />
1443655080974 1438565846692 Explain the bonding that occurs in drugs.
Which type of bond is rarely, if ever, seen?
" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Covalent</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-sp
an" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Not many drugs because they are permanent</d
iv><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Ionic</di
v><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Occur over l
ong distances</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </
span> Do not require geometric arrangement of bonds</div><div><span class="Appletab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Many drugs</div><div><span class="Appl
e-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Hydrogen</div><div><span class="Ap
ple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Has geometric constrictions</div><
div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Van Der Waal'
s, Hydrophobic</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> <
/span> Strength are additive</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whitespace:pre"> </span> Probably involved in all drug binding to some extent</div><di
v><br /></div>
1443655102903 1438565846692 What do receptors have to do with the Drug-Recep
tor complex?
Maximum binding of a drug is dependent on the available receptor
s
1443655742203 1438565846692 Explain this curve:<div><br /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-5712306503681.jpg" /></div>
<img src="paste-5725191405569 (1).jpg" /
>
1443655777783 1438565846692 Which drug is more potent?<div><br /></div><div>
" style="white-space:pre"> </span> A more potent than B</div><div><span class="Ap
ple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> And more efficacious</div><div><sp
an class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> A more potent because
it takes less drug to get to EC50</div><div><br /></div>
1443655800400 1438565846692 Which is the full agonist, partial, antagonist?<
div><img src="paste-5896990097409.jpg" /></div> <div><span class="Apple-tab-span
" style="white-space:pre"> </span> A is full agonist</div><div><span class="Apple
-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Highest Emax</div><div><span class="A
pple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> D is probably antagonist because
it doesn't do anything</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space
:pre"> </span> B + C are less than A can be classified as partial agonists</div><
div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> B has slightly
more efficacy than C</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:p
re"> </span> Need to talk about comparison to full agonist when discussing partia
l agonist</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span
> A partial agonist need not be less potent than a full agonist</div><div><br /><
/div>
1443655823104 1438565846692 Explain non-competitive antagonism.<div><img src
="paste-6038724018177.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
<div><span class="Appletab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Most drugs are NOT non-competitive</di
v><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Antagonist d
oes not bind at same site as agonist</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" styl
e="white-space:pre"> </span> Allosteric site</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-spa
n" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Changes config of binding site</div><div><spa
n class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span></div><div><br /></div>
1443655854455 1438565846692 Which of the five are partial agonists?<div><img
src="paste-6137508265985.jpg" /></div> <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style=
"white-space:pre"> </span> Heptyl and Octyl are partial agonists</div><div><span
class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Graded dose response curv
es</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Magnit
ude of the effect is proportional to the magnitude of the conc present of drug</
1443655875399 1438565846692 What does the magnitude of the effect of a drug
rely on?
Concentration of the drug present
1443655896322 1438565846692 What shifts a dose response curve right?
negative effects
1443655922826 1438565846692 What shifts a dose response curve left? positive
effects<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-6313601925121.jpg" /></div>
1443655934395 1438565846692 Explain the Quantal dose response curve<img src=
"paste-6403796238337.jpg" />
pace:pre"> </span> Event occurs or does not occur</div><div><span class="Apple-ta
b-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Left is exposing whole population to inc
reasing doses and eventually get to area where peak </div><div><span class=
"Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> After the peak there is a decli
ne, shows resistant population</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whi
te-space:pre"> </span> Right is linear representation</div><div><br /></div>
1443655966594 1438565846692 How is the Quantal dose response curve practical
ly used? <div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-6493990551553.jpg" /></div>
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Dont need an al
l or none to get quantal dose curve</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style
="white-space:pre"> </span> Can take graded response and create quantal dose curv
e</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Must de
termine what you positive response is</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" sty
le="white-space:pre"> </span> Ie: BP reduction of 7 mmHg</div><div><span class="A
pple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Take something graded and make it
quantitative </div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pr
e"> </span> If it doesn't get there it is not responding (negative)</div><div><sp
an class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Effective dose rep as
ED%</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> % = p
ercentage of population responding</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style=
"white-space:pre"> </span> ED100 = 100% responds</div><div><span class="Apple-tab
-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> TD = toxic dose</div><div><br /></div>
1443655999359 1438565846692 How is therapeutic index and safety index calcul
ated?<div><img src="paste-6588479832065.jpg" /></div> <div><span class="Appletab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span></div><div><img src="paste-66443144069
13.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div> Can estimate relative safety of drug compa
ring these curves</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"
> </span> Gives therapeutic index = TI</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" sty
le="white-space:pre"> </span> IE:</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="w
hite-space:pre"> </span> TD50 at 26, ED 50 at 10</div><div><span class="Apple-tab
-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> TI = 2.67 (no units assoc)</div><div><spa
n class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Where to consider thera
peutic index safe</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"
> </span> SI = TD01/TD99</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-spac
e:pre"> </span> Note the safety index is very narrow</div><div><span class="Apple
-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Even though TI was good, there was si
gnificant adverse response</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-s
pace:pre"> </span> Use 1% of toxic dose and higher effective dose to get safety i
ndex</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Numb
er < 1 = there is overlap between toxic dose and effective dose</div><d
iv><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> That's bad</div>
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Many drugs hav
e TI around 10</div><div><br /></div>
1443656029296 1438565846692 Explain this dose response curve. Where in
lies the issue with Digitoxin?<div><img src="paste-6717328850945.jpg" /></div>
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Closed dots sh
ow the therapeutic window of Digoxin</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" styl
e="white-space:pre"> </span> Open dots are adverse symptoms</div><div><br /></div
><div>The side effect of vomiting sharply increases in incidence at a low % of p
ts responding to the drug. Make a very narrow, ineffective therapeutic window.&n
bsp;</div>
1443720912278 1438565846692 What is the basic tenent of pharmacology?

<div><br /></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </sp
an>- Effects of drugs are directly proportional to the concentration of their ac
tive forms at receptors</div><div><br /></div>
1443720953761 1438565846692 Explain: Absorption, Distribution, Excretion, Bi
otransformation <div>Pharmacokinetics</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" sty
le="white-space:pre"> </span><b>- Absorption</b></div><div><span class="Apple-ta
b-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Movement of drug from site of applicatio
n to blood</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </spa
n><b>- Distribution</b></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-spac
e:pre"> </span> Movement of drug between blood and tissue</div><div><span class="
Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span><b>- Excretion</b></div><div><sp
an class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Removal of drug from b
ody to external environment</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whitespace:pre"> </span>- <b>Biotransformation</b></div><div>Conversion of drug to a
metabolite</div>
1443720997391 1438565846692 Differentiate between transcellular and paracell
ular drug diffusion
"> </span>- <b><u>Transcellular</u></b></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" s
tyle="white-space:pre"> </span> Pass through the cell </div><div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Most common form of diffusion
for drugs</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span
> Diffuse along conc gradient</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white
-space:pre"> </span> Some drugs can passively diffuse but at lower rate and other
s cannot passively diffuse at all</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="
white-space:pre"> </span> <i>The more lipid soluble the drug the more readily it
passively diffuses across membrane</i></div><div><b><u><span class="Apple-tab-sp
an" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Paracellular diffusion</u></b></div><div>P
ass between cells</div>
1443721044865 1438565846692 What type of drugs readily pass membranes and ar
e more likely to be reabsorbed in the renal tubule?
Lipid soluble<div><br />
</div><div><i>The more lipid soluble the drug the more readily it passively diff
uses across membrane</i></div>
1443721066328 1438565846692 What is the relationship between molecule charge
and whether a drug will pass the membrane?
Only uncharged form of molecule
can be lipid soluble enough to pass through membrane<div><br /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-579820585497.jpg" /></div>
1443721117816 1438565846692 Which type of active transport is most important
for drugs?<div><br /></div>
Primary active transrpot
1443721168529 1438565846692 What does IV drug admin circumvent?
Absorpti
ve phase<div><br /></div><div>Also bypass first pass metabolism</div>
1443721198176 1438565846692 What is the most common and second most common f
orm of drug administration?
PO<div><br /></div><div>SC</div>
1443721224528 1438565846692 What type of drugs can be given sublingually<div
><br /></div> very lipid soluble
1443721244406 1438565846692 Where are most drugs absorbed? What is the
most common method?
"> </span> <b>Most absorption in the small intestine because of tremendous surfac
e area</b></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </spa
n> Weak acid, base or neutral compound doesnt mattermost absorption in SI</div><div
><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> All drug "sucked u
p" through uncharged form first</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="wh
ite-space:pre"> </span> Large water soluble, highly charged drugs not absorbed in
SI, excreted in feces</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space
:pre"> </span> Transporters in SI</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="w
hite-space:pre"> </span> Some drugs</div><div>Most common method of absorption is
<b> passive diffusion</b></div>
1443721286147 1438565846692 You took a drug that absorbs in the small intest
ine after a large meal. What happens to the drug? <div><b><u><span class="
Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Gastric emptying time (GET)</u><
/b></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> If yo

u keep a <b>drug in the stomach longer than usually you slow down absorption</b>
</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Food in
stomach slows GET</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"
> </span> Immediately before, during or after slows down oral absorption.</div><d
iv>Empty stomach drug will rapidly pass through stomach and go to SI for absorpt
ion</div>
1443721350074 1438565846692 How is rate of disintigration controlled?
Drug will dissolve into particles. Some particles will be coated preventin
g absorption, others immediately absorbed. This increases the duration of
action
1443721420963 1438565846692 How does lido with epi improve duration of actio
n?
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Blood
Flow</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Lido
w epi -> extends action of local anesthestic </div><div>Reduce blood fl
ow keeps more local anesthetic molecules at target site</div>
1443721444178 1438565846692 What are reasons for using IM administration? &n
bsp;
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>1.&nbs
p; Water soluble molecule cannot ok SC, Oral</div><div><span class="Apple-t
ab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> &nbs
p; - Does not require transcellular diffusion</div><div><span class="Appletab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>2.  Cells of capillaries ser
ving skeletal muscles have gaps</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="wh
ite-space:pre"> </span>3. Can undergo paracellular diffusion and get into c
apillaries</div><div> 4. Or can be given in an emergency when you cannot g
ive IV</div>
1443721533991 1438565846692 What is necessary for drugs to be administered t
ransdermally? Extremely lipid soluble
1443721555592 1438565846692 Explain pulmonary drug absorption. Where d
o most beta-agonists get absorbed?
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style=
"white-space:pre"> </span> In order for a drug to penetrate through to the alveol
i it must be a very small molecule</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style=
"white-space:pre"> </span> Gaseous anesthetics are only that undergo significant
absorption in alveoli</div><div>Other inhaled drugs (ie albuterol) work in <b>br
onchioles</b></div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-992137446012.jpg" /></d
iv>
1443721594331 1438565846692 Define<div><br /></div><div>Adverse Reaction, To
xicitiy, Side Effect, Idiosyncracy, Intolerance</div> <div><b>Adverse Drug Rea
ction:</b> Any response to a drug that is noxious and unintended. Occurs a
t doses used for prophylaxis, diagnosis or treatment</div><div><br /></div><div>
<b>Toxicity</b>: all tox assoc with a drug including overdose/poisoning. M
utagenicity, carcinogenicity, and teratogenicity are special instances of toxici
ty.</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Side effects:</b> non-deleterious/deleterious
effects that occur during therapy</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Intolerance</b>:
low threshold to pharm action of drug</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Idiosyncras
y</b>: inherent qualitative abnormality reaction to a drug. Usually due to
genetic abnormality. </div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whitespace:pre"> </span>Ie: porphyria</div><div><br /></div>
1443721986050 1438565846692 What causes the majority of adverse drug reactio
ns?<div><br /></div>
Extension of the usual MOA of the drug
1443722012628 1438565846692 Which drugs are responsible for the majority of
ED visits due to ADRs? Which drug has a relatively low proprotion of ED vi
sits but very high hospital admission rate?
1. Warfarin, heparin, antiplts<d
iv><br /></div><div>2. Digoxin</div>
1443722068070 1438565846692 Explain Type A Adverse Reactions
<img src
="paste-1236950581349.jpg" />
1443722093768 1438565846692 Explain Type B adverse reactions
<img src
="paste-1271310319744.jpg" />
1443722114771 1438565846692 Drug that have a wide therapeutic window.
Likely or unlikely to cause Type A ADR? Unlikely
1443722145631 1438565846692 What questions should be asked when determining

if a drug causes an ADR?
<img src="paste-1327144894868.jpg" />
1443722162046 1438565846692 Explain Type I drug allergy reactions <img src
="paste-1352914698313.jpg" />
1443722199723 1438565846692 Explain Type 2 drug allergy reactions <img src
="paste-1387274436656.jpg" />
1443722222148 1438565846692 What type of allergic response are transfusion r
eactions associated with?
<img src="paste-1382979469360.jpg" />
1443722234140 1438565846692 Explain Type III drug allergy reactions. N
ame a common offender. <img src="paste-1438814044279.jpg" />
1443722269313 1438565846692 What are some common drugs and their sites of id
iosyncratic responses <img src="paste-1576252997818.jpg" />
1443722514438 1438565846692 What determines hepatotoxicity? <img src="paste1619202670720.jpg" />
1443722544166 1438565846692 <div>Distinguish the CNS and PNS</div><div><br /
></div> <div>The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The PNS consists of
nerves and ganglia. Nerves are either cranial nerves or spinal (segmental) nerve
s, or derivatives of them.</div><div>single short stem of the pseudounipolar neu
ron divides into central and peripheral axons. </div><div><br /></div>
1443725988995 1438565846692 Compare multipolar (motor) and pseudounipolar (s
ensory) neurons <div>excitable, conductive nerve cells are designated multipolar
neurons and pseudounipolar neuron</div><div>DRG, sensory impulses pass from the
peripheral axon directly onto the central axon</div><div><br /></div>
1443726005762 1438565846692 Cite the nerves that constitute the SNS
<div>Sympathetic AKA Thoracolumbar <span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-spa
ce:pre"> </span></div><div>spinal nerves originating from T1-L2<span class="Appl
e-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span></div><div>presynaptic nerves at T6L2</div><div>Post synaptic nerves at T1-T5</div><div>Other included post synapti
c spinal nerves include C1, C4, C5, C6, C7</div><div><br /></div>
1443726026184 1438565846692 Cite the nerves of the parasympathetic NS
<div>Parasympathetic NS (AKA Craniosacral)</div><div>Cranial nerves I-XII</div><
div>S2-4</div><div><br /></div>
1443726045457 1438565846692 Describe the pair of multipolar neurons that con
stitute the ANS <div>Multipolar neurons reside in gray matter and surrounding wh
ite matter in the anterior and posterior roots of the spinal nerves<span class="
Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span></div><div>central axons from th
e DRG synapse with multipolar neurons designated interneurons (unlabeled) in the
posterior horn of the spinal cord</div><div><br /></div>
1443726061490 1438565846692 <div> Which neurons are affected by ALS and
why is the disease ultimately fatal?</div><div><br /></div>
<div>Motor neuro
ns affected</div><div>Ultimately fatal because of the effect on respiratory musc
les </div><div><br /></div>
1443726153571 1438565846692 Name the divisions of the ANS
th
e ANS consists of a sympathetic division and a parasympathetic division that inv
oluntarily regulate the viscera, glands, and smooth muscle in a contrasting, yet
coordinated manner.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span
>
1443726167973 1438565846692 <div>Compare derivatives of neuroblasts derived
from neuroepithelium and neural crest cells</div><div><br /></div>
<div>dif
ferentiation into the spinal cord, neuroepithelium-derived neuroblasts form soma
tic motor neurons, interneurons, and presynaptic sympathetic motor neurons (form
CNS)</div><div><br /></div><div>neural crest cells become neuroblasts that form
somatic sensory neurons of the DRG and postsynaptic visceral motor neurons of t
he paravertebral sympathetic ganglia</div><div><br /></div>
1443726265235 1438565846692 When do neuroblasts lose their ability to divide
and what is the clinical consequence of this loss?
Once Neuroblasts form, t
hey lose their ability to divide. Further development results in the mature neur
on. The clinical significance of loss of division is that damage is now irrepara
ble and is permanent.
1443726335868 1438565846692 Compare gray matter and white matter
<div>The
mantle layer, a zone around the neuroepithelial layer formed by neuroblasts, la

ter forms the gray matter of the spinal cord.</div><div>The outermost layer of t
he spinal cord, the marginal layer, contains nerve fibers emerging from neurobla
sts in the mantle layer. As a result of myelination of nerve fibers, this layer
takes on a white appearance and therefore is called the white matter of the spin
al cord</div><div><br /></div>
1443726392021 1438565846692 Cite the number of segmental spinal nerves
31 pairs of spinal nerves- (8) cervical nerves, (12) thoracic nerves, (5) lumbar
nerves, (5)sacral nerves, and (1) coccygeal nerves.
1443726452936 1438565846692 Compare location of the conus medullaris in neon
ates and adults Adult: L1<div><br /></div><div>Neonate: L3-4 at birrth</div>
1443726556221 1438565846692 Describe the cauda equina
<div>-comprised
of the long roots of the lumbar and sacral spinal nerves</div><div><br /></div><
div>-result from elongation of vertebral column and the onset of erect posture</
div>
1443726590840 1438565846692 Define the meningeal layers and the location of
CSF
<div>1. Dura mater composed of dense connective tissue</div
><div>2. Arachnoid mater composed of loose connective tissue</div><d
iv>3. Pia mater consists of 2-3 cell layers separated by loose conn
ective tissue, and it follows the surface contours of the spinal cord</div>
1443726618524 1438565846692 CSF (Cerebral Spinal Fluid):
<div>located in
the subarachnoid space, which is between the arachnoid and pia</div><div><br /><
/div>
1443726689888 1438565846692 <b style="font-weight:normal;" id="docs-internal
-guid-6c11f60d-24d0-f2b5-0a22-8332a30e4534"><span style="font-size:14.6666666666
66666px;font-family:Arial;color:#000000;background-color:transparent;font-weight
:700;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;text-decoration:none;vertical-align:b
aseline;white-space:pre-wrap">Summarize the arterial supply and venous drainage
of the spinal cord</span></b> <div><b>Arterial supply:</b></div><div>-Anterior
spinal artery and bilateral posterior spinal arteries only supply superior part
of spinal cord</div><div>-Anterior and posterior segmental medullary arteries,
which arise from arteries adjacent to the vertebral column, supply most of the s
pinal cord</div><div>- Great anterior segmental medullary artery (Adamkiewicz) s
upplies about 2/3 of the spinal cord</div><div> </div><div><b>Venous Draina
ge:</b></div><div>-Veins drain into the internal vertebral venous plexus that re
sides in the epidural space</div>
1443726721471 1438565846692 Why is lumbar spinal puncture an important diagn
ostic tool, and why would different vertebral levels be used for newborn infants
and adults?
<div>-Lumbar puncture (withdrawal of CSF from lumbar cistern) is
an important diagnostic tool for evaluating a variety of CNS disorders because
disorders may alter the cells in the CSF; it can also determine if blood is pres
ent</div><div>-Different vertebral levels used for infants and adults because th
ey have different vertebrae arrangements</div>
1443726995527 1438565846692 <div>What is the clinical consequence of obstruc
tive disease of the great anterior segmental artery (of Adamkiewicz)?</div><div>
<br /></div>
-interferes with blood supply to spinal cord leading to muscle w
eakness, paralysis, loss of sensation and loss of voluntary movement
1443727159857 1438565846692 Summarize a somatic reflexive response <div>-Ce
ntral axons from DRG synapse with multipolar neurons designated interneurons</di
v><div>-Synaptic activation causes the reflexive contraction of muscles</div><di
v>-Activated interneurons also contribute to conduction of action potential up t
he spinal cord to activate pain centers in the brain</div><div><br /></div>
1443727173589 1438565846692 Describe axodendritic synapses - axodendri
tic synapses, the axon terminal branch (presynaptic element) synapses on a dendr
ite of another neuron<div><br /></div><div>- Neurotransmitters released fro
m the axon diffuse across the synaptic cleft between the two neurons and become
bound to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane of the dendrite. </div><div
><br /></div>
1443727320424 1438565846692 What are the components of a neuron?
neuron i
s composed of a cell body with <b>processes (extensions) called dendrites </b>an
d an <b>axon, which carry impulses </b>to and away from the<b> cell body</b>, re
spectively. <div><br /></div><div>Neurons communicate with each other at sy
napses, points of contact between neurons. </div>
1443727360885 1438565846692 <div>Explain the general origin of spinal (segme
ntal) nerves </div>
1. exit the vertebral column (spine) through int
ervertebral foramina <div><br /></div><div>2. posterior and anterior nerve
roots unite to form mixed spinal n.</div><div>
- divides in to dorsal and ventral rami (motor and sensory n.)</div><div><br />
</div><div>3. Spinal nerves arise in bilateral pairs (cerv, thor, lum, sac, cocc
)</div>
1443727614418 1438565846692 Explain origin of sympathetic nerves
1. arise
from near the middle of the spinal cord in the intermediolateral nucleus of the
lateral grey column, beginning at the first thoracic vertebra of the vertebral
column<div><br /></div><div>2. Extend to L2-L3</div>
1443727671300 1438565846692 Where do sympathetic nerves synapse?
<div>The
y quickly separate out through white rami connectors</div><div><br /></div><div>
they connect to either the paravertebral or prevertebral ganglia extending
alongside the spinal column. </div><div><br /></div>
1443727691527 1438565846692 Describe the bilateral sympathetic trunks (chain
s)
sympathetic trunks (sympathetic chain, gangliated cord) are a pair
ed bundle of nerve fibers that run from the base of the skull to the coccyx
1443727719920 1438565846692 Explain where the sympathetic trunk travels and
what it interacts with. The sympathetic trunk (T1-L2) travels in a downward dire
ction from the skull, just lateral to the vertebral bodies.<div><br /></div><div
>It interacts with the spinal nerves or their ventral rami by way of rami commun
icantes. </div><div><br /></div><div>Along the length of the sympathetic tr
unk are ganglia known as paravertebral ganglia. </div>
1443727769916 1438565846692 What is the role of the sympathetic trunk?
<b style="font-weight:normal;" id="docs-internal-guid-6c11f60d-24e1-ca1d-e81f-6d
76a28c9008"><span style="font-size:14.666666666666666px;font-family:Arial;color:
#000000;background-color:#ffffff;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;font-variant:
normal;text-decoration:none;vertical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap">fundam
ental part of the </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympathetic_nerv
ous_system" style="text-decoration:none;"><span style="font-size:14.666666666666
666px;font-family:Arial;color:#000000;background-color:#ffffff;font-weight:400;f
ont-style:normal;font-variant:normal;text-decoration:none;vertical-align:baselin
e;white-space:pre-wrap;">sympathetic nervous system</span></a><span style="fontsize:14.666666666666666px;font-family:Arial;color:#000000;background-color:#ffff
ff;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;font-variant:normal;text-decoration:none;ve
rtical-align:baseline;white-space:pre-wrap;">, part of the </span><span style="f
ont-size: 14.666666666666666px; font-family: Arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); backgro
und-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); font-weight: 400; font-style: normal; font-varian
t: normal; text-decoration: none; vertical-align: baseline; white-space: pre-wra
p; "><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system" style="tex
t-decoration:none;">autonomic nervous system</a></span></b><div><b style="font-w
eight:normal;" id="docs-internal-guid-6c11f60d-24e1-ca1d-e81f-6d76a28c9008"><br
/></b></div><div><b style="font-weight:normal;" id="docs-internal-guid-6c11f60d24e1-ca1d-e81f-6d76a28c9008"><div> It allows nerve fibres to travel to spin
al nerves that are superior and inferior to the one in which they originated.&nb
sp;</div><div><br /></div></b></div>
1443727800513 1438565846692 Distinguish the white and gray communicating ram
i
- white and gray communicating rami (or rami communicantes) are the comm
unicating branches between a spinal nerve and the sympathetic trunk. <div><
br /></div><div>- convey autonomic signals</div><div><br /></div><div>- <b>white
rami have more myelinated fibers</b></div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b><br /
></b></div>
1443727871757 1438565846692 Function of White Rami responsible for ca
rrying preganglionic nerve fibers from the spinal cord to the paravertebral gang
lia. <br /><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>white rami communicantes
exist only at the levels of the spinal cord where the intermediolateral cell col
umn is present (T1-L2)</div>

1443727892583 1438565846692 function of gray rami <div>responsible for car
rying postganglionic nerve fibers from the paravertebral ganglia to their destin
ation</div><div><br /></div><div>for carrying those preganglionic nerve fibers,
which enter the paravertebral ganglia but do not synapse.</div><div><br /></div>
<div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div> gray rami communicantes exist at ev
ery level of the spinal cord </div>
1443727933293 1438565846692 Cite the three types of axons in the spinal nerv
es
<b>1. motor (efferent) fibers</b> passing from nerve cell bodies i
n the anterior horn of spinal cord gray matter to effector organs located periph
erally. <div><br /></div><div>2.  Dorsal nerve root consists of <
b>sensory (afferent) fibers</b> from cell bodies in the spinal (sensory) or DRG
that extend peripherally to sensory endings and centrally to the posterior horn
of spinal cord gray matter. </div><div><br /></div><div>3. posterior and ant
erior nerve roots unite, to form <b>mixed (both motor and sensory) nerve fibers<
/b> that contain both <u>afferent and efferent axons</u>, and thus conduct both
incoming sensory information and outgoing muscle commands in the same bundle.</d
iv>
1443728059886 1438565846692 Distinguish epineurium, perineurium, and endoneu
rium
<b>Perineurium </b>is the innermost layer which prevents diffusion of ma
cromolecules<div><br /></div><div><b>Endoneurium</b> is the second innermost lay
er</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Epineurium</b> is the outermost layer</div>
1443728115276 1438565846692 Compare myelinated and unmyelinated axons
<div>Myelinated axons allow for a more rapid conductance due to the myelin actin
g as an electrical insulator. A<i> thicker myelin sheath increases the rate of c
onduction. </i></div><div><br /></div><div>Fibers that are unmyelinated con
duct less rapidly. </div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div
>
1443728159548 1438565846692 Which axons are associated with Schwann cells, m
yelinated or unmyelinated?
Both myelinated and unmyelinated cells are assoc
iated with Schwann cells. <div><br /></div><div>For unmyelinated cells, the
outer surface of the schwann cells is covered by a basal lamina. </div><di
v><br /></div><div>They also invest in about 20 nerve fibers</div>
1443728189850 1438565846692 How does perineurium contribute to the blood-ner
ve barrier?
It acts as a selective metabolic diffusion barrier aroun
d nerves. It restricts macromolecule substances from passing
1443728647871 1438565846692 What is drug distribution
the movement of
drugs between blood and tissues
1443728690450 1438565846692 What are the 5 factors that affect drug distribu
tion? <img src="paste-4161823309965.jpg" />
1443728725244 1438565846692 What makes Thiopental so interesting regarding d
rug distribution?
Most lipid soluble drug every known<div><br /></div><div
>Capillaries present no barrier...readily crosses blood brain barrier.</div><div
><br /></div><div><b>Blood flow is primary determinant of where it acts, <i><u>D
ISTRIBUTION IS PERFUSION LIMITED</u></i></b></div>
1443728798370 1438565846692 What is the difference between distribution of T
hiopental and PCN?
Thiopental = <b>perfusion limited distribution</b><div><
b><br /></b></div><div>PCN = <b><i>Diffusion limited distribution</i></b></div>
1443728844494 1438565846692 What makes a drug diffusion limited in its distr
ibution?
High water solubility<div>Low lipid solubility</div><div><br /><
/div><div>Diffusion into tissues is rate limiting step</div>
1443728887763 1438565846692 What determines perfusion limited distribution
High lipid solubility<div>low water solubility</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Per
fusion is rate limiting step of distribution</b></div>
1443728924785 1438565846692 Where are the areas of highest PCN concentration
?
Liver, Muscle, Kidney<div><br /></div><div>Paracellular diffusion</div>
1443728976858 1438565846692 Does PCN cross blood brain barrier?
No
1443728984363 1438565846692 What is the most common protein drugs bind?
Albumin<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-4385161609308.jpg" /></div>
1443729028521 1438565846692 When is hepatic first pass metabolism considered
significant? <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </spa

n>- Hepatic first pass is significant if 75% or more is eliminated by the liver<
/div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Most of t
he time just need to give a large dose to overcome</div><div>Other drugs can cau
se liver tox in higher doses</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-45226005
62942.jpg" /></div>
1443729217111 1438565846692 Explain enterohepatic cycling <div><img src="p
aste-4578435137837.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><img src="paste-4565550236189.j
pg" />
1443729275875 1438565846692 What is bioavailability?
<div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> The percent or fraction of dos
e reaching the systemic circulation</div><div><br /></div>
1443729316636 1438565846692 What is the most important route of excretion?
Renal
1443729330650 1438565846692 Which drugs are easily excreted renally? What ha
ppens to those that are not easily excreted?
1. Water soluble<div><br /></div
><div>2. Reabsorped in tubule</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-4655744
549400.jpg" /></div>
1443729372458 1438565846692 <div>How does Probenecid increase the effect of
penicillin?</div>
PCN is a weak acid, water soluble and gets excreted quic
kly. Adding another weak acid, probenecid, will cause competition for excr
etion and more PCN will undergo tubular reabsorption. This slows renal eliminati
n increasing plasma levels.
1443729509834 1438565846692 There is a major flu pandemic. You don't h
ave enough Tamiflu. How can you extend the supply you have to more people?
Administer Tamiflu with Probenecid. In a similar mechanism to PCN the Prob
enecid competes with Tamiflu and increases plasma concentration decreasing the n
umber of doses needed. Other doses can be given to other people.<div><br /
></div><div>Concept of adding a weak acid to a weak acid to slow renal eliminati
on</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-4874787881522.jpg" /></div>
1443840633199 1438565846692 What is biotransformation
Conversion of a
drug to a metabolism<div><br /></div><div>Side chains matter...they are what rea
ct.</div>
1443840730367 1438565846692 Why is the metabolite more soluble than the init
ial drug?
Helps with renal elimination. Water soluble drugs get excr
eted.
1443840802510 1438565846692 What is detoxification? When a parents compound
is turned into one which is less metabolically active
1443840843467 1438565846692 What is the opposite of detoxification Activati
on<div><br /></div><div>Initially thought all drugs only underwent detox, found
that metabolic activation can occur as well. </div>
1443840884740 1438565846692 What is an example of a harmful drug activation?
Carcinogens from cigarettes.<div><br /></div><div>Chemicals are initially harmle
ss but become carcinogenic after activation. </div>
1443840925934 1438565846692 What is the purpose of metabolism?
to make
product more water soluble
1443840990727 1438565846692 Explain phase 2 reactions with two examples
<div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Have re
asonably lipid soluble substrate</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="w
hite-space:pre"> </span>- Liver takes large water soluble molecule and attaches
to lipid soluble drug</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:
pre"> </span>- This allows metabolite in kidney to NOT be reabsorbed in the tubu
le because of the large water soluble component added in liver</div><div><span c
lass="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span><b>- Almost any time you s
ee COOH or OH on a drug molecule there will be some conjugation reaction at that
functional group</b></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:
pre"> </span>- Glucuronyl transferases add glucuronide to estradiol at the OH</d
iv><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Also involv
ed with conjugating bilirubin</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whit
e-space:pre"> </span>- Both sulfate and glucuronide compounds become more water
soluble and are excreted in the urine</div></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></d

iv><img src="paste-747324310044.jpg" />
1443841114443 1438565846692 How does glutathione sacrifice itself? <div><di
v><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Different from
other conjugations</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre
"> </span>- Highest levels of glutathione in eye but not rxns</div><div><span cl
ass="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Second highest and active i
n rxns in the liver</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pr
e"> </span>- Glutathio<b>ne = glutamate + cysteine + Histidine</b></div><div><sp
an class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- <b><i>Glutathione sa
crifices itself to protect liver from toxic/highly reactive compounds</i></b></d
iv><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Glutathio
ne conjugate is more water soluble BUT <b><i><u>purpose of reaction is to detoxi
fy highly reactive/toxic compound</u></i></b></div><div>When toxic compound extr
emely reactive the glutathione can react directly and not use the glutathione tr
ansferase</div></div><div><br /></div><img src="paste-897648165475.jpg" />
1443841167048 1438565846692 What is the most active part of Phase I reations
?
CYP 450<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-1039382086234.jpg" /></div>
1443841216508 1438565846692 What is the most common type of Phase I reaction
?
Oxidation followed by hyrolyses
1443841237337 1438565846692 Explain hydrolases in Phase I reactions?
<div><b>Hydrolyses</b></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space
:pre"> </span>-<u><i> Any drug that has an ester linkage can be broken down with
esterase enzyme</i></u></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-spa
ce:pre"> </span>- <u><i>Any drug with amide linkage can be broken down by amidas
e</i></u></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span
>- These enzymes <b>mostly in the blood</b></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-spa
n" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Lower conc in liver</div><div>Many drugs use
this mechanism</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-1163936137765.jpg" /><
1443841294119 1438565846692 Explain APAP metabolism and how liver toxicity o
ccurs <img src="paste-1198295876219.jpg" />
1443841316471 1438565846692 What are the factors affecting biotransformation
<b>Age</b><div> <img src="paste-1241245548668.jpg" /></div><div><img
src="paste-1254130450551.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-1275605287290.jpg" /
></div><div><img src="paste-1288490188857.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-1301
375090742.jpg" />: inhibition/activation<br /><div><br /></div></div>
1443841448266 1438565846692 Explain how drugs can activate or inactivate oth
er drugs?
Activation occurs when one drug increasing transcription of enzy
mes that metabolize another drug (use up drug faster)<div><br /></div><div>Inact
ivation can occur when two drug interact with each other (ie Phenobarb and Dicou
marin, Phenobarb inactivates Dicoumarin and drops plasma levels)</div>
1443841524520 1438565846692 Study Slide: Induction of biotransformation<div>
1443841566133 1438565846692 Explain MTC and MEC. How does it relate to
therapeutic range?
<div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-spac
e:pre"> </span>- Purpose is to help give drug at approp dose and time intervals
to achieve conc in tissue/blood within therapeutic range</div><div><span class="
Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- MEC</div><div><span class="App
le-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Min effective concentration</div><d
iv><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- MTC</div><div>
<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Maximal tolerated c
onc</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Minim
um toxic conc</div></div><div><br /></div><img src="paste-1597727834677.jpg" />
1443842903351 1438565846692 How does the blood tell you about other concentr
ations of drug in tissues?
pace:pre"> </span>- Blood used as surrogate for what happens in rest of body</di
v><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Distributi
on is a first order process</div><div>Rate at which blood - tissue or tissue - b
lood is directly proportional to conc of blood</div>
1443842935056 1438565846692 Explain zero order and first order kinnetics. &n
bsp;Which is more desirable, why?
<div><div><br /></div><div><span class="
Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>-<b> Exponential decay is first
order decay</b></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre">
</span> Rate of elim depends on drug con</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" s
tyle="white-space:pre"> </span> Most drugs</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span"
style="white-space:pre"> </span> In first order elim drugs if dose doubled you c
an assume tissue conc will be doubled</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" sty
le="white-space:pre"> </span>- <b>Striaght line decay is zero order</b></div><di
v><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Rate of elim is i
ndependnent of drug conc</div><div>If dose doubled you will have disproportionat
e change</div></div><img src="paste-1662152344164.jpg" />
1443842983224 1438565846692 How does drug kinnetics relate to Michaelis Ment
on kinnetics? <div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre">
</span>- Vmax/Km is a constant</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whi
te-space:pre"> </span> First order constant</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span
" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- When conc is extremely high the Km dosent ma
tter</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Velo
city = Vmax</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </sp
an> Changing conc of drug has NO effect on velocity</div><div><span class="Appletab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Definition of zero order</div><div><sp
an class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Drug conc very high an
d enzyme saturated = zero order</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="wh
ite-space:pre"> </span>- Drug conc low you see first order</div></div><div><br /
></div><img src="paste-1696512082531.jpg" />
1443843040041 1438565846692 When do drugs that undergo zero order eliminatio
n convert to first order?
Below therapeutic levels
1443843112423 1438565846692 Using a straight line version of kinnetics how d
o you determine the Conc at a specific time?
g" />
1443843154235 1438565846692 What is half life, how does it relate to steady
state? <img src="paste-1846835937352.jpg" /><div><br /></div><div>Drug eliminat
ion and steady state conc occurs at 4-5 half lives</div>
1443843193775 1438565846692 What is apparent vol of distribution? How is it
calculated?
<img src="paste-1881195676274.jpg" />
1443843228784 1438565846692 If aVd is 5L where is the drug? Blood
1443843241854 1438565846692 If aVd is 40,000L where is it? Store in a tissu
e somewhere
1443843255413 1438565846692 If aVd is 28L where is the drug?
Intracel
lular
1443843273171 1438565846692 If aVd is 4L or 14 L where is the drug? 1. Plasm
a<div><br /></div><div>2. ECF</div>
1443843290360 1438565846692 What is clearance, how is it calculated?
<img src="paste-2083059138714.jpg" />
1443843311256 1438565846692 Summary of First Order Pharmacokinetics Formulas
<img src="paste-2117418877519.jpg" />
1443843336937 1438565846692 What is steady state and how is it calculated? W
here do you want it to be?
1. Drug in = Drug out<div>2. Within the therapeu
tic range</div><div>Cl * Css = Infusion rate</div><div>Inf Rate/Cl = Css</div><d
iv><br /></div><div><img src="paste-2229088027230.jpg" /></div>
1443843421605 1438565846692 Explain this chart<div><br /></div><div><img src
="paste-2263447765616.jpg" /></div>
Loading dose will get you quickly to the
rapeutic range.<div><br /></div><div>Start infusion at same time so as loading d
ose eliminates infusion reaches therapeutic range</div>
1443843467577 1438565846692 Explain how to ensure steady state with oral dru
g administration
<div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-spac
e:pre"> </span>- Saw tooth pattern represents drop in concentration and then red
osing</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- S
teady state is peak level</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-sp
ace:pre"> </span>- <i>Difference between peak and trough is greater as interval
between doses gets longer</i></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whit

e-space:pre"> </span>- If dosing intervals shortens too much you get to infusion
kinetics and trough disappears </div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" sty
le="white-space:pre"> </span>- Must account for fact that absorption takes time<
/div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Ie 20 min
, spread out</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </s
pan> Leads to slightly lower than Css conc but quickly get to Css</div><div>Will
see therapeutic effect as long as in therapeutic range</div></div><img src="past
e-2332167242363.jpg" />
1443843524497 1438565846692 Study Slide: Drug Infusion and Repeat Dose
Summary
<img src="paste-2452426326484.jpg" />
="paste-2499670966508.jpg" />
="paste-2546915606730.jpg" />
="paste-2594160246855.jpg" />
1444183111836 1438565846692 Compare and contrast Somatic and Autonomic neuro
ns
<img src="paste-3655017168897.jpg" />
1444183168594 1438565846692 Explain the parasympathetic and sympathetic refl
ex arcs of micturation <img src="paste-3959959846913_1438565846692.jpg" />
1444183219989 1438565846692 Describe somatic and autonomic neurons. In
clude parasympathetic, sympathetic and adrenal ganglion. What are the neurotrans
mitters? Are there pre/post ganglionic neurons? What is the difference between t
he effector receptor and the ganglionic receptor?
90337.jpg" />
1444183310525 1438565846692 Describe the origins and effects of the parasymp
athetic nervous system <img src="paste-4359391805441.jpg" /><div><img src="past
e-4385161609217.jpg" /></div><div><div><br /></div></div>
1444183427329 1438565846692 What are the two divisions of the sympathetic ne
rvous system?
Paravertebral (sympathetic chain) ganglia<div><br /></di
v><div>Prevertebral (collateral) ganglia</div>
1444183482846 1438565846692 Where does the innervation of vascular smooth mu
scle and sweat glands derive from?
sympathetic chain
1444183502464 1438565846692 Where does the white ramus of the symaptehtic ne
rvous system synapse? at the level of the sympathetic chain ganglia
1444183573136 1438565846692 Sympathetic Nervous System:<div><br /></div><div
>1. What comprises the thoracolumbar division</div><div><br /></div><div>2. What
are the neurotransmitters</div><div><br /></div><div>3. T/F: Both parasympathet
ic and sympathetic nervous system innervate the skin</div>
1. Parav
ertebral chain gnaglion and prevertebral ganglia<div><br /></div><div>2. Between
pre - post = Ach. Between post - target = Norepi</div>
1444183679429 1438565846692 What makes the adrenal medulla unique?<div><br /
></div><div>Describe the hormones/neurotransmitters secreted from each level of
the adrenal</div>
1. The adrenal acts as a post ganglionic neuron releasin
g neurotransmitters (norepi, epi) directly into the blood which then travel to w
ork on targets.<div><br /></div><div>2. <img src="paste-5141075853313.jpg"
/></div>
1444183775763 1438565846692 What are the three methods a neurotransmitter is
cleared from the synapse?
1. diffusion (into effector organ)<div>&nb
sp;</div><div>2. enzymatic breakdown (ie acetylcholinesterase)</div><div> <
/div><div>3. Reuptake into presynaptic terminal (a2 receptors) </div>
1444183878817 1438565846692 What is the rate limiting step of norepi transmi
ssion? Tyrosine
1444183898915 1438565846692 What enzymes break down norepi/epi and where are
they located? MAO - on mitochondria (found in large quantities in gut/liver wh
ich is why PO norepi/epi doesnt work)<div><br /></div><div>COMT - in cytosol</di
v>
1444183956544 1438565846692 What turns off secretion of norepi into the syna
pse? how is norepi recycled
negative feedback from alpha 2 receptors
. <div><br /></div><div>reuptake channels</div>

1444183999823 1438565846692 Which enzyme synthesizes epi from norepi?
phenylethanolamine methyltransferase
1444184035365 1438565846692 Describe Fast neurotransmission <img src="paste5879810228225 (1).jpg" /><div><img src="paste-5948529704961.jpg" /></div>
1444184090029 1438565846692 Describe slow neurotransmitter channels <img src
="paste-6038724018177 (1).jpg" /><div><img src="paste-6051608920065.jpg" /></div
>
1444184119063 1438565846692 Why are excitatory postsynaptic potentials more
likely to reach threshold?
Increased permeability to cations
1444184148824 1438565846692 Why are inhibitory postsynaptic potentials less
likely to reach threshold?
Increased permeabiltiy to K or Cl
1444184185897 1438565846692 Where are nicotnic receptors found? What d
o the do?
<img src="paste-6309306957825.jpg" />
1444184213195 1438565846692 Where are M2:Gi/o receptors found, what do they
do?
<img src="paste-6395206303745.jpg" />
1444184244441 1438565846692 where are M3:Gq receptors found, what do they do
?
<img src="paste-6481105649665.jpg" />
1444184283777 1438565846692 What is unique about the innervation of sweat gl
ands? They have M3 receptors but are driven throught the sympathetic nervous s
ystem, a non-parasypathetic muscarinic receptor
1444184319775 1438565846692 Describe Alpha receptors
<img src="paste6687264079873.jpg" />
1444184336756 1438565846692 describe Beta receptors <img src="paste-66829691
12577.jpg" />
1444184344044 1438565846692 What role does the autonomic nervous system have
in nutrient partitioning/metabolism? B2, in addition to relaxing vascular/bro
nchial/GI/GU smooth muscle, stimulates <b>glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. &n
bsp;</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b>B3 involved in lipolysis of adipose tiss
ue</b></div>
1444184711495 1438565846692 What does the hypothalamus regulate?
<img src
="paste-7481833029633.jpg" />
1444184785386 1438565846692 What are the autonomic - brainstem reflexes?
regulation of BP<div>Control of resp</div><div>Salivary secretion</div><div>Vomi
ting</div><div>Swallowing</div><div>Eye reflexes (pupillary and lens accommodati
on)</div>
1444185140977 1438565846692 What are the autonomic - pelvic organ reflexes
<img src="paste-7773890805761.jpg" />
1444185169424 1438565846692 Where is the only place the PNS controls dilatio
n of blood vessels?
Penis<div><br /></div><div>erection reflex</div>
1444185189701 1438565846692 What sympathetic receptors increase heart contra
ctility and velocity of conduction through purkinje fibers?
Beta 1
1444185575522 1438565846692 Which has a greater influence on resting heart r
ate vagal tone or sympathetic? Vagal
1444185596252 1438565846692 T/F: Vagus nerve innervates the ventricles?
false
1444185605845 1438565846692 Which receptors decrease heart rate, conduction
velocity and atrial contractile force? M2
1444185640578 1438565846692 What innervates vascular smooth muscle? Sympathe
tic innervation
1444185661049 1438565846692 Are there muscarinic receptors on vascular endot
helium yes, but not innervated
1444185674563 1438565846692 when epinephrine binds B2 receptors what effect
does it have on blood vessels? vasodilation<div><br /></div><div>NOTE: B1 on he
art causes contraction</div>
1444185764058 1438565846692 Explain nitric oxide as a vasodilator <img src
="paste-8491150344193.jpg" />
1444185806863 1438565846692 How does the SNS and PNS oppose eachother in the
lung? <img src="paste-8564164788225.jpg" />
1444185842507 1438565846692 How do the SNS and PNS complement eachother in t
he secretion of saliva? <img src="paste-8637179232257.jpg" />

1444185873185 1438565846692 Explain how the parasympathetic and sympathetic
NS interact in constriction and dialation of the pupil. <img src="paste-87101936
1444185915738 1438565846692 Which autonomic division causes contraction of t
he sphincter muscle to constrict the pupil?
Parasympathetic (CN III)
1444185942706 1438565846692 Which autonomic division causes contraction of t
he radial muscle to dilate the pupil? Sympathetic (superior cervical ganglion)
<div><br /></div><div>Signal of light/darkness received a prectal region CNII di
rectly sends signal to sphincter muscle. Thoracic cord receives signal, se
nds to sympathetic chain and then to radial muscle/SNS to contract radial muscle
. </div>
1444186055290 1438565846692 Eccrine glands are under total sympathetic contr
ol, except?
Sweat glands<div><br /></div><div>Cholinergic and release Ach wh
ich interacts with msucarinic receptors!</div>
1444186105378 1438565846692 explain the metabolic effects of the sympathetic
nervous system <img src="paste-9109625634817 (2).jpg" /><div><img src="paste-91
22510536705.jpg" /></div>
1444186143133 1438565846692 Explain the metabolic effects of the parasympath
etic nervous system
<img src="paste-9199819948033.jpg" />
1444186168908 1438565846692 Study Slide: Sympathetic and Parasympathetic gen
eralizations<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-9272834392065.jpg" /></div>
<img src="paste-9285719293953.jpg" />
1444186196629 1438565846692 Explain the baroreceptors response
<img src
="paste-9474697854977.jpg" />
1444186398956 1438565846692 What is orthostatic hypotension? <img src
="paste-9560597200897 (1).jpg" />
1444186423097 1438565846692 What are the 3 important points about the organi
zation of the autonomic nervous system? <b>1</b>. <b>most tissue groups receive
parasympathetic and sympathetic innervation</b><div> - net t
one is result of balancing conflicting messages</div><div> normally slightly parasympathetic dominant</div><div> - sym
pathetic dominant in stress situations</div><div><br /></div><div><b>2. Sympathe
tic division usually behaves as a unit</b></div><div> - signa
l sent from brain to SNS, entire sympathetic division will increase tone</div><d
iv> <b>- Parasympathetic is discrete</b></div><div> &nb
sp; - can increase or decrease tone to one tissue/group wit
hout affecting others</div><div><br /></div><div><b>3. Norepi/epi is released ce
ntrally and peripherally. NT released centrally stays there and peripheral
ly stays there. </b></div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-97452807946
25.jpg" /><img src="paste-9740985827329.jpg" /></div>
1444186588999 1438565846692 Apply an alpha 1 agonist eye drop will have what
effect?<div><br /></div><div>Would adding a muscarinic antagonist potentiate or
inhibit the effects of the A1 drug?</div>
A1 agonist will increase sympath
etic tone in the eye causing tone of dialtor muscle to increase. the musca
rinic antagonist would decrease parasympathetic tone also alllowing dialtor musc
le to outcompete the constrictor muscle.
1444186766087 1438565846692 If a patient has a problem where her pupil is co
nstantly constricted, what visual problems may she have?
Poor distance vi
sion<div><br /></div><div>Poor night vision</div>
1444186796650 1438565846692 What treatment can be used for the most common t
ype of glaucoma? How does it work?
Muscarinic agonist. <div><br /></di
v><div>Causes ciliary muscle to contract and remain contracted, will lower IOP a
nd allow canal of Schlemm and trabecular network to remain open and draining the
aqueous humor.</div>
1444186855003 1438565846692 The longitudinal and radial portions of the cili
ary muscle are under what type of control?
Parasympathetic - muscarinic rec
eptors
1444186888685 1438565846692 Which receptors decrease heart rate?
Parasymp
athetic - muscarinic<div><br /></div><div>decrease HR and contractility</div>
1444186921443 1438565846692 What effect does B2 have on vascular smooth musc

le?
Sympathetic B2 relaxes vascular smooth muscle
1444186949361 1438565846692 Your patient is having an asthma attack. W
hich receptors can be activated or inhibited to relieve this condition? 1. B2 ag
onist<div><br /></div><div>2. Muscarinic antagonist ---> DO NOT use in gluaco
ma</div>
1444187013450 1438565846692 Your patient has COPD, is wheezing and has a his
tory of glaucoma. Which class of drugs are contraindicated in this patient
muscarinic antagonists
1444187052993 1438565846692 Which receptors control sphincter contraction an
d relaxation? Sympathetic A1 - contraction<div><br /></div><div>Parasymp Musca
rinic - relaxation</div>
1444187084109 1438565846692 What is the autonomic control of the detrusor mu
scle? sympathetic B2 - relaxation<div><br /></div><div>parasympathetic muscari
nic - contraction</div>
1444187112602 1438565846692 Explain the autonomic control of the salivary gl
ands
<img src="paste-10724533338113.jpg" />
1444259235214 1438565846692 What receptors do norepineprhine effect? W
hat can happen when given peripherally (although rare)? 1. A1, A2, B1<div><br />
</div><div>2. slowing of the RH</div>
1444259287969 1438565846692 What receptors does Dopamine act on? Aside
from the vasculature, where else does Dopamine work? 1. A1, B1<div><br /></di
v><div>2. Renal vasodilation</div>
1444259327209 1438565846692 Dobutamine has Alpha and Beta activity, how is i
t that you don't see much change in blood pressure but rather increased HR and c
ontractility? Dobutamine has (+) and (-) isomers. + has a1 antagonist a
ctivity. - has a1 agonist activity<div><br /></div><div>They cancel out</d
iv>
1444259406045 1438565846692 Clonidine:<div><br /></div><div>1. Aside from HT
N what else can it treat? Why?</div><div><br /></div><div>2. What receptor
s?</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Side effects?</div><div><br /></div><div>4. how
is it given?</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div> 1. suppress withdrwal sy
mptoms by crossing the blood brain barrier and decreasing sympathetic tone in th
e entire body. Also can treat gluacoma.<div><br /></div><div>2. A2 agonist
</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Dry mouth, sedation</div><div><br /></div><div>4.
Oral preparation</div>
1444259507178 1438565846692 What are the most common uses of phenylephrine?
Nasal decongestant, relieve red eyes.<div><br /></div><div>Also a vasopressor --> increase BP via vasoconstriction.</div><div><br /></div><div>A1 agonist</d
iv>
1444259557942 1438565846692 Your patient is a 70 year old male with a histor
y of CHF and ischemic cardiomyopathy, EF 45% involved in an MVC. After ini
tial resuscitation with 2L isotonic salline, 2U PRBC, 2U FFP he continues to exp
erience hypotension despite adequate hemostasis. Which vasopressor is most
appropriate? Why?
Phenylephrine because it is a pure alpha 1 agoni
st, will not affect cardiac rate or contractiltiy which would increase oxygen de
mand of the heart.<div><br /></div><div>Dopamine, norepinephrine would both incr
ease myocardial oxygen demand.</div>
1444259698850 1438565846692 Why is clonidine not a first line agent for glau
coma? What other A2 agonsit can be used? 1. Causes irritation<div><br /><
/div><div>2. Brimonidine</div><div> - A2 agonis
t that does not burn the eye</div><div> - decre
ases production of aqueous humor</div>
1444259787161 1438565846692 Name a nonslective beta AGonist?
Isoprote
renol
1444260254583 1438565846692 What is the most common beta agonist used in acu
te asthma attacks? What receptor(s) does it affect?
Albuterol (B2)&n
bsp;<div><br /></div><div>Specific but not selective for B2, can get tachycardia
</div>
1444260289970 1438565846692 What are the two useful but vastly different use
s of Terbutaline (B2 agonist) 1. Tocolytic<div><br /></div><div>2. Bronchodila

tor</div>
1444260323709 1438565846692 What are three indications for amphetamine?
ADHD<div>Narcolepsy</div><div>Chronic fatigue syndrome</div>
1444260351373 1438565846692 Explain the MOA of amphetamine It is an adrener
gic releaser. Reverses the direction of the uptake channel while also stim
ulating the sympathetic neuronal varicosity to release as much norepi as possibl
e. Floods synaptic junction with Norepi increasing its effect. <div><
br /></div><div><img src="paste-7499012898817 (1).jpg" /></div>
1444260417674 1438565846692 Side effects of amphetamines? MI if pre-exist
CVD<div>HTN</div><div> - can preciptiate stroke</div><div><br /></di
v><div>Increased cardiac workload</div><div>Induced arrhythmia</div>
1444260446781 1438565846692 How does methylphenidate (Ritalin) differ from a
mphetamine
Has fewer peripheral effects which result in fewer cardiovascula
r effects
1444260540394 1438565846692 What can happen if someone on a monoamineoxidase
inhibitor eats a whole bunch of lunch meat and nuts? Tyramine toxicity<div><b
r /></div><div>Tyramine is a breakdown product of Tyrosine in the intestine and
liver (broken down by MAO).</div><div><br /></div><div>Can have cardiac/BP effec
ts</div>
1444260602347 1438565846692 What class of drugs is cocaine? What is it used
for?
1. Adrenergic uptake inhibitor<div><br /></div><div>2. Local anesthetic<
/div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1444260642589 1438565846692 what class of drugs are tricyclic antidepressant
s?
Indirect adrenergic agonist - uptake inhibitor
1444260675663 1438565846692 explain the MOA of cocaine
<div>cocaine blo
cks uptake and accumulation of norepi</div><div>Incr HR, incr contractility, SBP
</div><div>A1 activation</div><div><br /></div><img src="paste-8074538516481.jpg
" />
1444260719875 1438565846692 What was the originial use for Ephedrine? What t
ype of drug is it?
1. Incontinence - sympathetic nervous system relaxes det
rusor, constricts internal urethral sphincter<div><br /></div><div>2. Mixed adre
nergic agonist (A/B)</div>
1444260775821 1438565846692 What type of drug is Phentyolamine? What d
oes it do? what are some side effects?
1. Non-selective alpha blocker<d
iv><br /></div><div>2. Causes reduced BP via peripheral vasodialtion</div><div><
br /></div><div>3. Increased heart rate because nonselective nature inhibits the
negatieve A2 feedback mechanism. norepi still binds Beta receptors</div><
div><br /></div><div>ORTHOSTATIC HYPOTENSION</div>
1444261070945 1438565846692 Your patient is having a cardiac emergency and i
s known to take Prazosin, which drug do you give?
Norepinephrine. Ep
i has reversed effects as an interaction with prazosin and causes more vasodilat
ion.
1444261122514 1438565846692 What is the first dose effect of Prazosin?
Hypotension/syncope<div><br /></div><div>Orthostatic hypotension due to A1 block
ade</div><div>subsequent doses should have a reduced effect</div>
1444261157540 1438565846692 what is tamsulosin?
A selective A1a blocker<
div><br /></div><div>Tx BPH, nephrolithiasis</div>
1444261184043 1438565846692 What are the two drugs Propranolol and Timolol u
sed for?
non-selective beta blockade (first gen)<div><br /></div><div>Use
s: HTN, angina, arrhythmias, MI, glaucoma, migraines, hyperthyroid</div><div><br
/></div><div>Would expect blocking B2 would cause more A1 effects, but doesnt h
appen...vasodilation occurs</div>
1444261260276 1438565846692 Name a selective B2 antagonist? Metoprolol
1444261275318 1438565846692 What is special about labetalol?
Third ge
n BB<div><br /></div><div>Beta receptor antagonist, A1 antagonist</div>
1444261368819 1438565846692 What is Reserpine and what is it's MOA? 1. Indir
ect beta antagonist (depletor)<div><br /></div><div>2. Binds transporter in sota
ge vesicle and stops from acting. Can no longer pump catecholamines.</div>
<div> - side effects are parkinsonian symptoms, resolve when
drug withdrawn</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-9302899163137 (1).jpg

" /></div>
1444261438339 1438565846692 study Slide: cholinergic Effector Junction
Functional Arrangement o
f ANS:<div><img src="paste-9401683410945.jpg" /></div>
1444261486480 1438565846692 4 facts about nicotinic receptors?
1. activ
ated by nicotine<div>2. sodium channel</div><div>3. muscle type = Nm</div><div>4
. neuronal type = Nn</div><div><br /></div>
1444261518010 1438565846692 Three facts about muscarinic receptors? 1. Activ
ated by muscarine<div>2. coupled through <b>g-proteins</b></div><div>3. M1-M5 bu
t can't differentiate receptors with drugs</div>
1444261547224 1438565846692 What are some unwanted effects of activating the
nicotinic ganglion?
blurred vision<div>tachycardia/increased cardiac contrac
tility</div>
1444261578840 1438565846692 What are effects of muscarinic stmiulation<div><
br /></div>
<img src="paste-9814000271361.jpg" />
1444261599169 1438565846692 What could you expect with cholinergic and msuca
rinic blockade? <img src="paste-9887014715393.jpg" />
1444261619897 1438565846692 What type of drugs must you always avoid in glau
coma? Antimuscarinics, anticholinergics
1444261638365 1438565846692 Why does muscarinic blockade have no effect on b
lood vessels? Muscarinic receptors on blood vessels are not innervated.<div><b
r /></div><div>No Ach in blood to bind them either..Ach readily broken down by A
chE in blood</div>
1444261671131 1438565846692 Why is acetylcholine a poor drug? What can it be
used for?
1. High level of cholinesterase activity also has nicotnic activ
ity as well, want just muscarinic<div><br /></div><div>2. Can be used by ophtho
to cause accomodation</div>
1444261790929 1438565846692 What is Carbachol used for?
Eye drops in tre
atment of glaucoma<div><br /></div><div>contracts ciliary muscle and decreased a
queous humor</div><div><br /></div><div>Has significant nicotnic activity ---&gt
; not for systemic use</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1444261850942 1438565846692 What make bethanacol a good drug for paralytic i
leus and bladder atony? not broken down by cholinesterases<div><br /></div><div>
only muscarinic activity</div>
1444261882542 1438565846692 What are side effects of Bethanacol
May have
more frequent urination, defecation and salivation but it's controllable.<div><
br /></div><div>(uncontrolled and profound in poisoning)</div>
1444261913806 1438565846692 What type of drug is pilocarpine. What is it use
d for? 1. Alkaloid cholinergic agonist<div><br /></div><div>2. Most common use
for Xerostomia (lack of saliva production)</div><div> </div><div>&nb
sp; also has topical use in glaucoma</div>
1444261970763 1438565846692 What pulmonary side effect might cholinergic ago
nists exhibit? Bronchoconstriction
1444261983669 1438565846692 Explain how acetylcholine esterase works
<img src="paste-10844792422401.jpg" />
1444261998059 1438565846692 The non-covalent, rapidly reversible cholinester
ase inhibitor Donepezil is used to treat Alzheimer's. How does this drug w
ork? Is it permanent? 1. Blocks receptors on AchE<div><br /></div><div>2. temp
orary blockade, rapidly reversed</div><div><br /></div><div>Does not cure diseas
e just slows sx/progression</div>
1444262061043 1438565846692 why can't Physostigmine be used systemically?
It is a covalent AchE inhibitor that <b>crosses the blood brain barrier</b>
1444262098966 1438565846692 What is <b>neostigmine</b> used to treat. &
nbsp; 1. Myasthenia gravis<div><br /></div><div>2. Can be given with bethaneco
l to treat bladder atony and ileus</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>N
eostigmine is a covalent Ache inhibitor</div>
1444262145464 1438565846692 Explain how carbamates work.
<div><div>Carbam
ates:</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>1.&
nbsp;Carbamolate the serine hydroxyl group</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span
" style="white-space:pre"> </span> - Lef

t with intermediate</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pr
e"> </span>    Carbamolated acetylcholineste
rase</div><div> 2. Water will decarbamolate but will take MIN to HRS
to occur</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span
>   While carbamolated enzyme inhibi
ted and cannot breakdown Ach</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white
-space:pre"> </span> 3. After decarbamolated Ache is reactivated</div>
</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><img src="paste-11368778432513.jpg" />
1444262203560 1438565846692 A worker at home depot start drooling, tearing a
nd urinating on himself. What could he have been exposed to? What sh
ould be given to treat him?
Carbaryl: common pesticide<div><br /></div><div>
inhibit AchE - covalently </div><div><br /></div><div>Tx with Atropine</div
>
1444262284032 1438565846692 Which feature of organophospahtes make them so d
angerous?
they act for a very long time, they are slowly reversible inhibi
tors BUT some can exhibit aging where they permanently inhibit AchE until new Ac
hE is produced
1444262325613 1438565846692 what are the beenfits of treating glaucoma with
Echothiophate? 1. 1 drop q 4 d<div><br /></div><div>2. Long term AchE without a
ging</div>
1444262359676 1438565846692 A migrant field working is found in the fields u
nconscious with copious secretions and incontinence noted. What should you
do?
1. Administer 2-PAM<div><br /></div><div>Parathion is a common agricultu
ral pesticide. </div>
1444262426633 1438565846692 Can 2-PAM be used in the treatment of carbamate
poisoning?
NO...makes it worse
1444262442349 1438565846692 Study slide: Slowly reversible AchE inhibitors
<img src="paste-11952893984769 (1).jpg" />
1444262466656 1438565846692 What is a scary reality of Soman gas? It is an
extremly volatile chemical warfare agent that acts via acetylcholine esterase i
nhibition. <b>exhibits instant aging</b>
1444262513704 1438565846692 Jimson weed =
atropine
1444262529052 1438565846692 What are side effects of Atropine? What cl
ass of drugs is it?
1. muscarinic blockade effects<div><br /></div><div>high
doses have been shown to increase body temperature.</div><div><br /></div><div>
2. Anticholinergic. Muscarinic blocker</div>
1444262576644 1438565846692 What additional effect aside from those known to
atropine does Scopolamine exhibit?
Antiemetic proeprties
1444262608192 1438565846692 Name a synthetic quarternary amine that is a mus
carinic blocker and state its actions Ipratropium<div><br /></div><div>
- muscarinic blocker used to treat asthma (A1)</div><div> - dec bronchocon
striction and mucus production</div>
1444262659884 1438565846692 Benztropine is used to control symptoms of Parki
nson's disease. What type of drug is it? Synthetic tertiary amine.<div><b
r /></div><div>Muscarinic blocker</div>
1444262692749 1438565846692 You patient is a 65 year old male recently start
ed on Benztropine for parkinsonian movements. He reports some relief with
the medication but still doesn't feel right. While interviewing him you de
termine he is on an HMG-COA inhibitor, occular beta blocker and an indirect adre
nergic antagonist. How would you continue to treat this patient to optimiz
e his medical therapy? Remove the indirect adrenergic antagonist ----> <b>re
serpine (known to cause parkinsonian symptoms)</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div><
b>Remove Benztropine ---> being used to treat side effects of another drug</b
></div>
1444262852327 1438565846692 What type of drug is Mecamylamine and what is it
's major side effect? 1. Ganglionic muscarinic blocker<div><br /></div><div>2.
Orthostatic hypotension</div><div><br /></div><div>used to treat HTN</div>
1444262901069 1438565846692 Describe the unpredicatble nature of ganglionic
muscarinic blockers.
Drug: Mecamylamine<div><br /></div><div><div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Antagonist at ganglia in sym

pathetic and parasympathetic systems</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" styl
e="white-space:pre"> </span>- Significant side effects</div><div><span class="Ap
ple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Tissues innervated by only parasym
pathetic or sympathetic easy to predict</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" s
tyle="white-space:pre"> </span> Ie: ciliary muscle (parasympathetic innervation)
- blocking ganglia leads to same effect as blocking at muscarinic receptors = ac
ts like atropien</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre">
</span> Dual innervation is more complicated</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-sp
an" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Ie contrictor and dilator muscles</div><div>
<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Block both ganglia
look at dominant tone (parasympathetic)</div><div><br /></div><div>Mecamylamine
will take opposite of dominant tone = pupils dilat</div></div>
1471354069711 1421373138997 <img src="2d9e4ad8489496d1386a5f5ce568599e1f278f
b3_Q 4.svg" /> <img src="2d9e4ad8489496d1386a5f5ce568599e1f278fb3_A 0 (2).svg"
/>
<img src="2d9e4ad8489496d1386a5f5ce568599e1f278fb3_source_svg (2).svg" /
>
<img src="2d9e4ad8489496d1386a5f5ce568599e1f278fb3_tmpzefh3j.png" />
b3_Q 2 (1).svg" />
<img src="2d9e4ad8489496d1386a5f5ce568599e1f278fb3_A 0 (
2).svg" />
<img src="2d9e4ad8489496d1386a5f5ce568599e1f278fb3_source_svg (2
).svg" />
<img src="2d9e4ad8489496d1386a5f5ce568599e1f278fb3_tmpzefh3j.png
" />
1471354559592 1421618046184 <div>A {{c1::frameshift mutation}} results in a
randomly incorrect amino acid sequence on the</div><div>carboxyl side of the mut
ation and usually a {{c2::truncated protein}} caused by{{c2::</div><div> the</di
v><div>introduction of a premature stop codon.</div>}}
/>
>
<img src="2d9e4ad8489496d1386a5f5ce568599e1f278fb3_tmprlekr4.png" />
/>
>
1471445050495 1421373138997 <img src="e5b34e41ee985e06700abc36fe004fad65280d
82_Q 1.svg" /> <img src="e5b34e41ee985e06700abc36fe004fad65280d82_A 0.svg" />
<img src="e5b34e41ee985e06700abc36fe004fad65280d82_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="e5b34e41ee985e06700abc36fe004fad65280d82_tmp3ekvwy.png" />
1471474850322 1421373138997 <img src="ee4ede72802dea3714253902dd1ac3e7981445
39_Q 1.svg" /> <img src="ee4ede72802dea3714253902dd1ac3e798144539_A 0.svg" />
<img src="ee4ede72802dea3714253902dd1ac3e798144539_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="ee4ede72802dea3714253902dd1ac3e798144539_tmpfwvw5_.png" />
example
of a Prion disease
1471395611361 1471141547999 Where are the Phi and Psi Bonds of a dipeptide?
Why are these rotatable while the peptide bond is not?
The phi and psi
bonds are the C-N and C-C bonds in the central amino acid. The peptide bon
ds have partial double bond characteristic and are thus unrotatable
1471395611361 1471141547999 Where are the Phi and Psi Bonds of a dipeptide?
Why are these rotatable while the peptide bond is not?
The phi and psi
bonds are the C-N and C-C bonds in the central amino acid. The peptide bon
ds have partial double bond characteristic and are thus unrotatable
1471295022917 1471110292325 {{c1::Amino acid sequence}} determines {{c2::3D
structure (shape)}} of the protein
1471295049473 1471110292325 In proteins, {{c1::structure}} determines {{c2::
function}}
1471295100115 1471110292330 What are the groups of an amino acid? Amino gr
oup (NH3+)<div>Carboxyl group (COO-)</div><div>alpha Carbon</div><div>Side chain
(R)</div>
1471295171964 1471110292330 Draw the generic structure of an amino acid
<img src="Screen Shot 2016-08-15 at 5.06.43 PM.png" />
1471295411192 1471110292325 Amino acids are linked by {{c1::peptide bonds}}

1471295429181 1471110292325 amino acids are joined together via a {{c1::cond
ensation}} reaction
1471295467746 1471110292325 Amino acids are joined up side by side in a {{c1
::trans-}} conformation
1471295514979 1471110292325 In an AA, there is no rotation about the {{c1::C
-N bond, aka the peptide}} bond b/c {{c2::it has double bond character}}
1471295656166 1471110292325 AAs do have some rotational capabilities, for ex
ample, they can rotate about their {{c1::phi and psi}} bonds
1471295747639 1471110292330 What quality of the AA enables the chain to bend
into secondary structures?
The phi and psi bonds
1471295782437 1471110292330 What are the non-covalent forces that stabilize
protein tertiary structure?
1. electrostatic forces b/w positively and negat
ively charged residues<div><br /></div><div>2. Hydrogen bonds b/w hydrogen resid
ues and F, O, and/or N residues</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Van der Waals forc
es b/w non-polar side chains</div>
1471295913966 1471110292325 {{c2::Disulphide}} bonds commonly happen in poly
peptides between two {{c1::cysteines::amino acid}}
1471295950552 1471110292325 {{c2::Disulphide bonds}} stabilize protein terti
ary structure primarily in {{c1::extracellular}} proteins
1471296036117 1471110292330 Why do proteins fold, if folding is entropically
unfavorable? The hydrophobic effect (burying of hydrophobic residues) drives
protein folding forward b/c it allows for higher entropy and therefore a negativ
e free energy
1471296212346 1471110292330 How can proteins bind tightly to oxygen in the l
ungs and then efficiently release it in respiring tissue?
Cooperative bind
ing and allosteric effectors
1471296285212 1471110292330 Compare the location, function, and quarternary
structures of myoglobin (Mb) and Hemoglobin (Hb)
Location: Muscles cells
(Mb); Erythrocytes (Hb)<div><br /></div><div>Function: O2 storage (Mb), O2 trans
port (Hb)</div><div><br /></div><div>Quartenary structure: Monomer (Mb); Tetrame
r (Hb)</div>
1471296450405 1471110292325 In a heme molecule, there is {{c1::an iron molec
ule}} at the center of the porphyrin
1471296572000 1471110292330 Structurally, what happens to the heme porphyrin
when O2 binds to it? The ring flattens and the iron atom decreases in diamete
r
1471296625481 1471110292330 What effect does ring flattening of the porphory
n have on the rest of the hemoglobin? When the ring flattens, it pulls on a hi
stidine residue; this eventually causes Hb rearrangement, changing the molecule
from a T (tense) state to the R (relaxed) state
1471296703396 1471110292330 Explain allostery in terms of the Hb molecule
O2 is an allosteric effector of Hb, because when it binds to ONE subunit in Hb,
it changes the conformation of the entire molecule and the affinity of the other
subunits.
1471297699862 1471110292330 What molecule rests at the center deoxyhemoglobi
n and what does it do? 2,3-BPG; it stabilizes the tense state
1471297833686 1471110292325 The {{c2::T}} state has {{c1::low::high/low}} O2
affinity and the {{c2::R}} state has {{c1::high::high/low}} O2 affinity
1471297951689 1471110292330 Explain cooperativity (cooperative binding) in t
erms of Hb
The binding of one O2 molecule to Hb raises the affinity for O2
of the other 3 subunits
1471297983788 1471110292330 Which has a steeper dissociation curve: Mb or Hb
?
Mb; affinity is higher so it requires lower pO2 to unload O2
1471298059224 1471110292330 What mechanisms make Hb a better O2 transporter
than Mb?
Hb is made up of four different subunits that work together (all
ostery and cooperative binding) to vastly change in affinity depending on surrou
nding environment
1471298290399 1471110292330 What is the difference between the beta subunits
in adult Hb and the gamma subunits in fetal Hb? What effect does this differenc
e have? The gamma subunit in fetal Hb lacks one of the 2,3-BPG binding residues;
Since 2,3-BPG tends to "stabilize" the T state, having one less binding residue
would favor the relaxed/high affinity state. This favors the movement of O2 fro
m maternal RBC to fetal RBC
1471298481957 1471110292330 Why is BPG necessary for cooperative O2 binding?
W/o 2,3-BPG, O2 would not unload O2 very well
1471298587190 1471110292325 2,3-BPG is a byproduct of {{c1::glycolysis
}}
1471298589916 1471110292325 Humans adapt to high altitudes by producing more
{{c1::2,3-BPG}}
1471298717542 1471110292330 Why is it beneficial for a person living at high
altitudes to have higher 2,3-BPG levels?
B/c 2,3-BPG causes the oxygen di
ssociation curve to be more right shifted due to its T-state-stabilizing effect;
this means that the RBC will unload more oxygen
1471299264658 1471110292330 Why is it good for a pregnant woman to produce h
igher amounts of BPG? B/c BPG encourages the T state, which leads to higher O2
unloading; This is great for the growing fetus :)
1471299364693 1471110292330 What is the Bohr Effect?
The protonation
(H+) of globin residues that leads to lower Hb-O2 affinity
1471299452309 1471110292330 Where do the protons that cause the Bohr effect
in Hb come from?
H+ is released upon CO2 hdyration in tissues; <div>
CO2 + H2O <--> H2CO3 <--> HCO3- + H+</div>
1471299536715 1471110292330 What are the negative heterotropic effectors of
O2 binding?
1. 2,3-BPG<div>2. pH</div><div>3. CO2</div><div>4. Temp.</div>
1471299726152 1471110292325 Right shift = {{c1::decreased::decreased/increas
ed}} O2 affinity
1471299739872 1471110292325 {{c1::high::high/low}} pH, {{c1::low::high/low}}
CO2, and {{c1::low::high/low}} BPG {{c2::increase::increase/decrease}} O2 affin
ity
1471299842371 1471110292325 Carbon monoxide (CO) is a {{c1::competitive}} in
hibitor of Hb
1471300769154 1471110292330 What makes the Lineweaver-Burk plot useful?
It is easy to identify the exact value of Vmax, which is necessary for calculati
ng Km
1471300817553 1471110292330 <img src="Screen Shot 2016-08-15 at 6.43.20 PM.p
ng" />which enzyme has a higher affinity?
Blue; lower -1/Km = greater affi
nity
ng" /> Chemical X is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme; This is apparent fr
om the fact that the addition of chem. X lowers the enzyme affinity but does not
affect the Vmax
1471301204583 1471110292330 How can the effects of a competitive inhibitor b
e reversed?
By increasing [S]
1471301404201 1471110292325 {{c1::High::high/low}} Km = {{c2::low::high/low}
} affinity<div>{{c1::Low::high/low}} Km = {{c2::high::high/low}} affinity</div>
1471301496907 1471110292325 In {{c1::competitive}} inhibition, the inhibitor
resembles the substrate
1471301616277 1471110292330 Why is it called a COMPETITIVE inhibitor?
B/c the inhibitor competes with the substrate FOR THE SAME ACTIVE SITE
1471301717218 1471110292325 In {{c1::noncompetitive}} inhibition, the inhibi
tor typically does not resemble the substrate
ng" /> Chemical Y is a noncompetitive inhibitor; shown by the unchanged Km, but
different Vmax
1471302214267 1471110292330 What is the binding site of uncompetitive inhibi
tors? Non-active site of only Enzyme-Substrate complex
1471302345762 1471110292330 What influence does an uncompetitive inhibitor h
ave on Km and Vmax?
increases Km (lowers affinity) and decreases Vmax
ng" />What type of inhibition is this? Uncompetitive inhibition
1471302514051 1471110292325 {{c2::HMG-CoA reductase}} is a key enzyme in {{c

1::cholesterol}} biosynthesis
1471302571634 1471110292330 Which drugs compete for the HMG-CoA reductase ac
tive site?
Statins (competitive inhibitors)
1471302684312 1471110292325 {{c1::HIV reverse transcriptase (RT)}} is a key
enzyme for {{c2::HIV replication}}
1471303111237 1471110292330 Which 2 drugs inhibit HIV RT? Nuceloside/nucle
otide analogs: i.e. AZT (azidothymidine)--competitive<div><br /></div><div>Non-n
ucleoside analogs: i.e. Efavirenz (Sustiva or Stocrin)--noncompetitive</div>
1471303113307 1471110292330 How does substrate concentration affect reaction
velocity?
1. When [S] >>> Km, v approaches Vmax and there is litt
le dependence on [S]<div><br /></div><div>2. When [S] = Km, v= .5Vmax</div><div>
<br /></div><div>3. When [S] <<< Km, v is proportional to [S]</div>
1471303341444 1471110292325 Enzymes following {{c1::Michaelis-Menten}} kinet
ics show {{c2::hyperbolic::type}} curve; {{c3::Allosteric}} enzymes show {{c2::s
igmoid::type}} curve
1471303517825 1471110292330 Important characteristics of Allosteric Enzymes
-Mostly composed of multisubunits<div>-Have 2 or more binding sites on their sur
face (active site and regulatory site)</div><div>-The 2 sites communicate</div>
1471303600897 1471110292330 Homotropic effector
This is the substrate (p
ositive effector)
1471303673452 1471110292330 Heterotropic effector Mostly inhibitory; engag
ed in feedback inhibition of a metabolic pathway
1471303692700 1471110292330 Why is feedback inhibition important? It is es
sential for conservation of building blocks and metabolic energy; It controls th
e rate of diverse biosynthesis pathways;
1471304195747 1471110292325 Typically, the {{c1::first irreversible}} step u
nique to the pathway is the one targeted for feedback inhibition
1471304320330 1471110292330 What 3 inputs does cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)
require for activation?
1. Phosphorylation of a specific threonine side
chain<div><br /></div><div>2. Deophosphorylation of a specific tyrosine side cha
in</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Cyclin binding </div>
1471304321293 1471110292330 Why are enzymes good diagnostic markers?
- Specific to certain tissues<br /><div>- Quickly released into blood plasma whe
n tissue is damaged</div><div>- Easy to detect</div>
1471304425685 1471110292330 Why are isozymes helpful?
They are good di
agnostic markers of tissue damage b/c although they serve the same function in d
ifferent tissues, they are physically distinct from each other
1471304485163 1471110292330 What is an isozyme?
Physically distinct form
s of an enzyme
1471304541234 1471110292325 Isozymes vary in {{c1::sequence}}, {{c2::substra
te affinity}}, {{c3::maximal activity}}, and/or {{c4::regulatory properties}}&nb
sp;
1471304604899 1471110292329 Diagnostic markers of liver damage
alanine
aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST)
1471304630049 1471110292329 Diagnostic markers of pancreatitis
amylase
and lipase
1471304642560 1471110292329 Diagnostic markers of myocardial infaraction (MI
)
CK-MB (creatine kinase MB) and cTnI (cardiac troponin I)
1471304678494 1471110292329 What is the gold standard in diagnosis of MI?
cTnI (cardiac troponin I), b/c it is only found in cardiac muscle
1471305197450 1471110292329 Polysomes
A cluster of ribosomes held toge
ther by a strand of mRNA that each ribosome is translating
1471305664978 1471110292325 {{c1::Prokaryotes::prok./euk.}} couple transcrip
tion and translation
1471305736431 1471110292330 What are the stop codons?
UAA, UAG, UGA
1471305741642 1471110292330 Where (in which organisms)
could you find exceptions to the genetic code? mitochondria, mycoplasma, ciliat
es
1471306044000 1471110292330 What does it mean to say the genetic code is deg
enerate?
It is redundant; more than one codon codes for a specific amino
acid
1471306077625 1471110292330 What is the genetic code considered non-overlapp
ing?
3 nucleotides to 1 aa w/o overlap, so 6 nucelotides will only code for 2
amino acids.
1471306348297 1471110292330 sickle cell hemoglobin is a result of what?
single nucleotide change --> A to U
1471306534342 1471110292330 Types of point mutations?
- silent (doesn'
t change anything)<div>- missense (changes 1 amino acid)</div><div>- nonsense (c
reates a stop codon)</div><div>- suppressor (changes the stop codon so that sequ
ence keeps going)</div>
1471306705993 1471110292330 Types of Frameshift mutations insertions and d
eletions
1471306739151 1471110292330 hemoglobinopathy examples of:<div>1. missesnse</
div><div>2. nonsense</div><div>3. suppressor</div><div>4. insertion</div><div>5.
deletion</div> 1. HbS, Mutant beta chain<div>2. some beta thalassemias (Short)<
/div><div>3. Hb Constant Spring, alpha chain (long)</div><div>4. Hb Tak, beta ch
ain (long in this case)</div><div>5. Some other beta thalassemias (short in this
case)</div>
1471306935268 1471110292330 How do the following mutations affect protein le
ngth?<div>1. silent</div><div>2. missense</div><div>3. nonsense</div><div>4. sup
pressor</div><div>5. insertion</div><div>6. deletion</div>
1. unchanged<div
>2. unchanged</div><div>3. shorter</div><div>4. longer</div><div>5. depends</div
><div>6. depends</div>
1471380991298 1471110292325 {{c1::Eukaryotic}} ribosome is {{c2::80}}S; its
subunits are {{c2::60}}S and {{c2::40}}S.<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Prokaryotic
}} ribosome is {{c2::70}}S; its subunits are {{c2::50}}S and {{c2::30}}S</div>
1471381082933 1471110292330 What is the difference between eukaryotic and pr
okaryotic ribosome structure? Eukaryotic ribosome is 80S (60S+40S)<div><br /><
/div><div>Prokaryotic ribosome is 70S (50S + 30S)</div>
1471381129820 1471110292330 Why is translation a good antibiotic target?
B/c the ribosomes differ in bacteria and in humans
1471381230105 1471110292330 Where SPECIFICALLY on the ribosome is the peptid
e bond formed? At the peptidyl transferase center
1471381629263 1471110292330 What is special about the <font color="#ff060f">
peptidyl transferase center</font>?
(Beside the fact that it is the place wh
ere peptide bond formation occurs) <font color="#ff060f">It is made up exclusive
ly of RNA</font>
1471381836375 1471110292325 Nascent polypeptide chain leaves the ribosome th
rough the {{c1::polypeptide exit tunnel}}
1471382049115 1471110292330 If you were able to observe mRNA being translate
d in a ribosome, why would you not be able to see the amino acids in the sequenc
e as soon as they were made?
B/c the polypeptide exit tunnel is about 40-50 a
a long, so the nascent polypeptide doesn't "pop out" of the ribosome until it re
aches about that length
1471382050254 1471110292330 What protein catalyzes peptide bond formation?
Trick question. NO PROTEIN does this... it's ribosomal RNA that does this at the
peptidyl transferase center.
1471396020923 1471110292330 What are some differences between prokaryotic an
d eukaryotic mRNA?
Eukaryotioc mRNA is monocistronic, it has a 7-MeGpppGXY
cap at the 5' end, and a polyadenylation sequence at the 3' end (polyA tail)<div
><br /></div><div>The Prokaryotic mRNA is polycistronic and is neither capped no
r polyadenylated</div>
1471396786179 1471110292330 Circular, Eukaryotic mRNA was found in a patient
. Why might this be?
B/c eukaryotic mRNA is functionally circular; The protei
ns eIF4E, eIF4G, and the polyA binding sequence cause the mRNA to take on this c
ircular shape b/c it helps to faciliate the efficiency of protein synthesis.
1471397167322 1471110292325 {{c2::tRNA}} ALWAYS ends with a {{c1::CCA}} sequ
ence
1471397289248 1471110292330 What molecule is considered a "translational ada
ptor"? Why?
tRNA; It "speaks the language" of nucleic acids at the anticodon
end (loop 2) and "the language" of amino acids at the 3' end.
1471397290528 1471110292330 What antibiotic inhibits prokaryotic tRNA?
Mupirocin (topical)<div><br /></div><div>inhibits isoleucine-tRNA synthase</div>
1471397621911 1471110292330 What enzyme "sticks" the amino acid onto the tRN
A?
aminoacyl tRNA synthetase (aaRS)
1471397675949 1471110292330 If the amino acid-tRNA bond is a high energy bon
d, how is the reaction driven forward? Even thought AA~tRNA is very high energy
, the hydrolysis of PPi (pyrophosphate) releases a lot of energy so that the rea
ction is driven forward due to a negative free energy change
1471397928516 1471110292330 What are the steps of formation of aminoacyl-tRN
A?
1. Amino acid is activated by reacting with ATP; becomes aminoacyl-AMP<d
iv><br /></div><div>2. Activated amino acid is transferred from aminoacyl-AMP to
tRNA; Instead of binding to the A of AMP, it binds to the A of CCA on tRNA</div
>
1471398253476 1471110292330 Why is it helpful that the formation of aminoacy
l-tRNA has 2 steps?
The 2 steps allow for "proofreading" which is vital for
the FIDELITY of protein synthesis
1471398401823 1471110292325 {{c1::Related codons can be decoded by the same
tRNA}}, this is called {{c2::"wobble"}}
1471398541537 1471110292330 Why are there fewer tRNA types than there are an
ticodon types? B/c of "wobble". Related codons can be coded by the same tRNA
1471398543349 1471110292330 Why are there 2 tRNAs for AUG/methionine?
Because methionine serves two different functions. There is the sequence "start"
methionine, but there can also be an internal methionine. This requires two dif
ferent types of tRNAs
1471399660525 1471110292330 Met-tRNA F, Met-tRNA I, and Met-tRNA M? Met-tRNA
F and Met-tRNA I carry the "start" amino acid; F in prokaryotes and I in Eukary
otes<div><br /></div><div>Met-tRNA M carries the internal methionine</div>
1471399824073 1471110292330 Why is it important to learn about translation f
actors? B/c they differ in eukaryotes and prokaryotes and can therefore be good
targets for antibiotics
1471399922778 1471110292330 Why is the start codon not enough for signaling
ribosomes where to start translation? B/c there are also INTERNAL AUGs that co
de for internal methionine; there are also out-of-frame AUGs in the sequence
1471400796397 1471110292330 What is the principal mechanism in prokaryotes b
y which ribosomes find the initiation site?
Shine-Dalgarno box (a few base p
airs upstream of the start site)
1471401054824 1471110292330 How does the Shine-Dalgarno box work? It is co
mplimentary to the 16S rRNA of the 30S subunit of prokaryotic ribosomes
1471401096892 1471110292330 Would a drug that targets the 50S ribosomal subu
nit of prokaryotes directly affect the Shine-Dalgarno box? why or why not?
It would not, because the Shine-Dalgarno box is complementary to the 30S subunit
, not the 50S subunit.
1471401243548 1471110292330 Why is the Shine-Dalgarno box of prokaryotes con
ducive to polycistronic RNA?
B/c ribosomes can literally attach to any AUG th
at is furnished with the S-D box
1471401496532 1471110292330 What is the most common mechanism by which eukar
ytoic ribosomes find the initiation site?
Cap-dependent scanning
1471401736138 1471110292330 Which mechanism for ribosome-initiation site rec
ognition in eukaryotes most resembles the prokaryotic (Shine-Dalgarno box) mecha
nism? The internal ribosome entry; It recognizes a signal upstream of the AUG
called IRES (internal ribosome entry site)
1471402031265 1471110292330 What class of antibiotics interfere with the shi
ne dalgarno box (interfering with initiation) and cause miscoding during elongat
ion? What are some examples?
Aminoglycosides;<div>Streptomycin, gentamycin, t
obramycin, amikacin, etc.</div>
1471402197982 1471110292330 How do aminoglycosides act upon prokayrotes? Giv
e some examples Aminoglycosides such as streptomycin, gentamycin, tobramycin, an
d amikacin, interfere with the shine-dalgarno box and therfore with initiation o
f translation, but also they cause miscoding during elongation of the polypeptid
e chain
1471402292814 1471110292330 What are the steps of polypeptide elongation and
what enzymes catalyze these steps?
1. AA-tRNA binding (catalyzed by EF-Tu,T
s (EF1A, 1B) in prokaryotes)<div><br /></div><div>2. Peptidyl transfer (by pepti
dyl transferase at the 50S subunit in prokaryotes)</div><div><br /></div><div>3.
Translocation (by EF-G (EF2) in prokaryotes)</div>
1471402813818 1471110292330 Which drugs work at the AA-tRNA binding step of
elongation?
tetracyclines and spectinomycin
1471402855542 1471110292330 What do tetracyclines and spectinomycin act upon
?
These antibiotics act at the level of AA-tRNA binding during the elongat
ion phase of translation
1471402914667 1471110292330 What does Chloramphenicol do? It acts at the r
ibozyme site (peptidyl transferase) of the prokaryotic ribosome to inhibit elong
ation
1471402984006 1471110292330 Which drug acts to inhibit elongation at the pep
tidyl transferase?
Chloramphenicol
1471403030601 1471110292330 Which drug acts by inhibiting translocation?
Clindamyicin and macrolides (e.g. erythromycin)
1471403104407 1471110292330 What does puromycin act upon? Why is it not a us
eful antibiotic?
Puromycin acts by inhibiting peptidyl transfer; Not usef
ul b/c it also acts upon the eukaryotic ribosome
1471403161816 1471110292330 What does Diphtheria toxin affect?
It inhib
its elongation factor eEF2 which allows for translocation during the elongation
phase of translation in eukaryotes
1471403256126 1471110292330 What do ricin and alpha-sarcin have in common?
They affect the same step of elongation (translocation) in eukaryotic mRNA trans
lation
1471403333651 1471110292330 How exactly does Puromycin work?
It inhib
its elongation as an analog of aminoacyl-tRNA; The growing polypeptide chain get
s linked to the NH2 group on it, and this leads to premature chain termination.<
div><br />The issue is that it works in both prokaryotic AND eukaryotic ribosome
s and therefore cannot be usedas an antibiotic<img src="Screen Shot 2016-08-17 a
t 10.00.23 AM.png" /></div>
1471442462382 1471110292330 Which disease often presents with sore throat, f
ever, and difficulty swallowing as well as swollen neck, a grey pseudomembrane i
n the the throat, and a possible fever? How is it treated (2 ways)?
Diphther
ia;<div><br /><div>Diphteria antitoxin can be administered after a negative skin
test for horse serum sensitivity is done; Alternatively, one can use oral eryth
romycin</div></div>
1471442790860 1471110292330 How does diphtheria toxin inhibit amino acid cha
in elongation? Diphtheria toxin is produced by Corynebactierum diphteriae (tox+
) and is a protein that is cleaved into 2 fragments (A and B). Fragment B causes
the toxin to be internalized, fragment A poisons translation. One molecule is s
ufficient to kill a cell. <div><br /></div><div>It catalyzes ADP-ribosylati
on of eEF2: the transfer of ADP-ribose from NAD onto a modified histidine residu
e in eEF2. </div><div><img src="Screen Shot 2016-08-17 at 10.12.48 AM.png"
/></div><div><br /></div><div>It does not affect bacterial EF2, but the antibiot
ic erythromycin does.</div>
1471443034371 1471110292330 Which antibiotic works on bacterial EF2?
erythromycin
1471443206996 1471110292330 What does ricin do and by what mechanism does it
accomplish this? Where does it come from?
Ricin inhibits translocation of
tRNA at the ribosome and therefore stops aa chain elongation. <div><br /></
div><div>It does this by depurinating 28S rRNA at a specific A residue IN EUKARY
OTES</div><div><br /></div><div>It is derived from castor beans</div>
1471444033555 1471110292330 How does aa chain termination normally occur?
The stop codons (UAA, UAG, and UGA) do not have a corresponding tRNA, instead, t
hey have complementary release factor that LOOKS like a tRNA and therefore plugs
into the ribosome in very much the same way.<div>The RF causes the growing aa c
hain to not be attached to another amino acid, but to water instead so that the
end of the aa chain is -COOH</div>
1471447884723 1471110292330 What are the energetics of protein synthesis?
1. Charging: ATP, 2~ (ATP -> AMP)<div><br /><div>2. Initiation : Unwinding/sc
anning = ATP (several), 1~; Met-tRNAi binding= GTP, 1~</div><div><br /></div><di
v>3. Elongation: AA-tRNA binding= GTP, 1~; translocation= GTP, 1~</div><div><br
/></div><div>4. Termination: GTP (# unknown), 1~</div><div><br /></div></div>
1471456830661 1471110292330 Specific, General, and Selective examples of tra
nslational control
Specific: translational repression of ferritin<div><br /
></div><div>General: eIF2 phosphorylation</div><div><br /></div><div>Selective:
eIF4E activity</div>
1471457059478 1471110292330 What is ferritin?
It is an INTRAcellular F
e2+ binding portein; needed when Fe2+ IN cells at high concentration
1471457283093 1471110292330 What is the mechanism for translational repressi
on of ferritin? Ferritin mRNA translation is blocked by bound IRE-BP (iron respo
nse element binding protein) EXCEPT when intracellular Fe++ levels are high<img
src="Screen Shot 2016-08-17 at 2.09.24 PM.png" />
1471457389108 1471110292330 What is hereditary hyperferritinemia-cataract sy
ndrom (HHCS)? It is an IRE mutation in ferritin mRNA that cannot bind IRE-BP;
ferritin synthesis is DE-REPRESSED; ferritin synthesis increased -> ferritin
released into serum -> early onset of cataract formation
1471458012142 1471110292330 Which translation factor aids Met-tRNAi with rib
osome binding? eIF2/GTP complex
1471458300635 1471110292330 How is the eIF2/GDP complex transformed to eIF2/
GTP?
It requires another translation factor--eIF2B
1471458418737 1471110292330 How is Met-tRNAi down-regulated via enzymes?
kinases of eIF2 phsophorylate the eIF2/GDP complex so that instaed of being conv
erted to eIF2/GTP by eIF2B, it instead gets trapped by eIF2B and therefore initi
ation is inhibited.
1471458607818 1471110292325 {{c1::eIF2::translation factor}} supplies {{c2::
Met-tRNAi}} to {{c3::40S}} subunit
1471458649002 1471110292330 Which enzymes can down-regulate Met-tRNAi via eI
F2?
eIF2 kinases:<div>1. HRI (heme regulated inhibitor): prevents synthesis
of globin chains in immature red blood cells (reticulocytes) if heme is unavaila
ble</div><div>2. PKR (protein kinase R): interferon downregulates initiation if
virus is present</div><div>3. PERK: ER stress-- protein misfolding</div><div>4.
GCN2: amino acid starvation</div>
1471459195548 1471110292330 What is Vanishing White Matter (VWM)? Why does i
t occur? What are its symptoms? Neurological deterioration exacerbated by head t
rauma; the white matter (axon sheaths) begin to disappear; Occurs as a result of
a mutation in any of the 5 subunits of eIF2B<div><br /></div><div>symptoms: ata
xia, ovarian failure</div>
1471459396445 1471110292330 What would a mutation in eIF2B lead to?
Vanishing White Matter (VWM)
1471459464315 1471110292330 Which translation factor supplies aa-tRNA to rib
osome during elongation?
EF-Tu in complex with GTP
1471459600117 1471110292330 Which translation factor "re-charges" the EF-Tu/
GDP complex?
EF-Ts -> turns it back into EF-Tu/GTP
1471459635140 1471110292330 What is eIF4E? It is a cap-binding protein nece
ssary for scanning and recognition of the initiation site
1471459746855 1471110292330 What regulates the activity of eIF4E? How?
phosphorylation (kinase activity);<div><br /></div><div>If eIF4E is directly pho
sphorylated in complex with other initiation factors, it binds to the 5' cap and
scans. </div><div><br /></div><div>On the other hand, if eIF4E is bound by
4E-BP. However, <font color="#ff060f">phosphorylating </font>the 4E-BP, release
s eIFE and allows it go and bind to the 5' cap</div>
1471459979999 1471110292330 Name the class, target, and action for these ant
ibiotics and toxins:<div><br /></div><div>1. Streptomycin</div><div>2. tetracycl
ine</div><div>3. chloroamphenicol</div><div>4. erythromycin</div><div>5. diphthe
ria toxin</div><div>6. ricin</div>
1. Aminoglycoside, 30 S, inhibit initiat
ion<div>2. tetracyclines, 30 S, inhibit binding of AA-tRNA to A-site</div><div>3

. oxazolidones, 50S, inhibit peptidyl transferase</div><div>4. macrolides, 50S,
inhibit translocation</div><div>5. eEF2, inhibits translocation (ADP ribosylatio
n)</div><div>6. 60S, inhibits binding of AA-tRNA to A-site (28S rRNA depurinatio
n)</div>
1471460378811 1471110292330 What is protein targeting?
It is the proces
s by which proteins that have been synthesized get to where they need to be
1471464172760 1471110292325 {{c1::"free"}} polysomes make {{c2::cytosolic}}
protein; {{c1::membrane-bound}} polysomes make {{c2::secreted (translocated)}} p
rotein
1471464692837 1471110292330 How do mRNA sequences that need to get to the ER
get there?
These sequences have something called a "<font color="#ff0700">s
ignal sequence</font>"; the signal sequence is then bound by a <font color="#ff0
700">signal recognition particle (SRP)</font>, which <font color="#ff0008">block
s chain</font> <font color="#ff0008">elongation</font>. SRP doesn't fall off unt
il an <font color="#ff0008">SRP receptor </font>in the wall of the ER membrane t
akes it off. mRNA <font color="#ff0008">resumes elongation</font> into the lumen
of the ER. <font color="#ff0008">Signal peptidase</font> then comes in and clea
ves off the signal sequence
1471464703077 1471110292330 Why is protein translocation (secretion) conside
red cotranslational?
Cotranslational: any process involving the maturation or
delivery of a protein that occurs during the process of translation.<div><br />
</div><div>It is considered thsi b/c mRNA that is destined for secretion isn't m
ade until it is first attached for insertion into the ER by SRP</div>
1471464982237 1471110292330 What does SRP stand for?
Signal recogniti
on particle
1471464998496 1471110292330 What are the functions of SRP? - recognizes sig
nal peptide and SRP receptor<div>- controls (halts) <font color="#ff0008">e
longation</font></div><div>- targets ER</div>
1471465100295 1471110292330 What is the signal sequence for secretion-destin
ed proteins made up of? N-terminal signal peptide (15-30 hydrophobic aa's)
1471465271513 1471110292330 How are proteins that are destined to stay in th
e ER membrane coded? what about lysosomal enzymes? enzymes for secretion?
All of these have signals in addition to the signal sequence...<div><br /></div>
<div>ER membrane: they have a halt (stop-transfer) signal </div><div><br />
</div><div>Lysosomal enzymes: mannose-6-phosphate attachment </div><div><br
/></div><div>Secretion: default sequence</div>
1471465892517 1471110292330 In addition to staying in the cytosol, where els
e can proteins made in the cytosol be trafficked and how?
Nucleus: <font c
olor="#ff0008">nuclear localization signal </font>(basic amino acids) --> by
<font color="#ff0008">importins </font>and <font color="#ff0008">Ran proteins</f
ont><div><br /></div><div>Peroxisomes: peroxisomal targeting sequenes --> PTS
receptors </div><div><br /></div><div>Mitochondria: N-terminal leader (2080 charged aa's) --> by translocation complexes</div>
1471466294123 1471110292330 Which amino acids have not yet been shown to hav
e modifications?
The aliphatic AAs: gly, ala, val, ile, leu
1471466329074 1471110292330 Chemically speaking, what is a "perm" really?
It's a reorganization of disulfide bridges
1471466440110 1471110292330 How is a perm achieved? reduction of the disulfi
de bridges. The hair then becomes more malleable so that it can be curled if it'
s straight or vice versa. Once the desired texture isachieved, the hair oxidized
to reform the disulfide bridges
1471466648150 1471110292330 How are modified AAs regulated? One example is p
hosphorylation; usually at sites containing ser, thr, tyr;<div><br /></div><div>
Also, acetylation and methylation of histones on lysine and arginine </div
>
1471466964088 1471110292330 What is multiple sulfatase deficiency (MSD)? Why
does it happen?
Combines the enzyme deficiency and phenotypic features o
f several diseases;<div><br /></div><div>Primary defect is in sulfatase-modifyin
g factor-1 gene (SMF-1) required to modify and essential Cys int he active site
of sulfatases--ALL sulftases are affected</div>

1471467274046 1471110292330 What are the symptoms of multiple sulfatase defi
ciency (MSD)? Progressive paralysis, skeletal deformities, neurological defect
s;<div><br /></div><div>Infants develop slowly, lose abilities after age 1</div>
1471467334886 1471110292330 What is selenium?
an essential micronutrie
nt
1471467471168 1471110292330 What is Keshan Disease? Symptoms: dilated cardio
myopathy, congestive heart failure, striated muscle degeneration, and weakness<d
iv><br /><div>It results from selenium deficiency;</div></div>
1471467641339 1471110292330 What is the purpose of selenoproteins? They cat
alyze oxido-reduction reactions
1471467655470 1471110292330 Two examples of selenoproteins? Glutathione pero
xidase (reduces peroxides)<div>and</div><div>5'-deiodinases (activates thyroxine
)</div>
1471467720121 1471110292330 What does glutathione peroxidase do?
Destroys
reactive and damaging H2O2; reduces organic peroxides R-OOH to R-OH;
1471467831723 1471110292330 How does glutathione peroxidase work? It reduc
es organic peroxides by reducing glutathione (G-SH)
1471467890204 1471110292330 What does 5'-deiodinase doe?
Activates the ho
rmone thyroxine (T4); T4 is more active as T3, and therefore 5'-deiodinase conve
rts T4 to T3 by removing an iodine.
1471468027464 1471110292330 What can 5'-deiodinase deficiency lead to?
Goiter
1471468051487 1471110292330 How do selenoproteins get their selenium?
It is co-translational; <div><br /></div><div>1) Selenium first reacts with
an ATP to form a selenophosphate (SePO3--)</div><div>2) the selenophosphate mod
ifies a serine already bound to tRNA (Ser-tRNA)</div><div>3) This turns the SertRNA into SeCys-tRNA </div><div>4) The SeCys-tRNA is incorporated into the
AA chain in response to a UGA codon </div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div
>
1471468786664 1471110292330 How is SeCys inserted into an AA chain if the co
don that matches the SeCys-tRNA is UGA (a stop codon)? Even though UGA is a "st
op" codon, it is RECODED for the inclusion of a SeCys residue due to a downstrea
m element called SECIS element which bends back and recodes the UGA
1471469077899 1471110292330 Examples of anticoagulants
Coumarin, Warfar
in (Coumadin), dicoumarol
1471469118634 1471110292330 Which drugs counteract the action of vitamin K?&
nbsp; Anticoagulants such as warfarin (coumadin), dicouamarol, other coumarins
1471469831849 1471110292330 How does vitamin K cause blood-clotting?
It mediates gamma-carboxylation (a post-translational modification); the extra c
arboxyl group (gamma-carboxylation) allows the clotting factors to bind and kela
te calcium ions in the clotting process
1471470280478 1471110292330 Why are people taking coumadin told to watch the
ir intake of leafy greens?
many leafy greens have vitamin K, and since Warf
arin (coumadin) is a COMPETITIVE inhibitor of Vit. K, increased vitamin K concen
tration will undo the inhibitory effect of coumadin
1471470389690 1471110292330 What is the non-enzymatic reaction of glucose wi
th protein amino groups called? protein glycation
1471470474063 1471110292330 What is protein glycation?
The non-enzymati
c reaction of glucose with protein amino groups
1471470618366 1471110292325 {{c1::HbA1C}} is {{c2::glycated (glycosylated)::
modification}} on {{c3::N}}-terminal {{c4::valine::amino acid}} of {{c5::beta::a
lpha/beta}} chains
1471471044482 1471110292330 Does glycosylation change the function of Hb? Wh
at is its use? glycosylation of Hb results in HbA1C, which does not change the
funciton of the hemoglobin. Instead, it is useful for recording blood sugar leve
ls in diabetes over a period of several weeks
1471654354679 1471654246629 Streptomycin
Aminoglyosides<div>30S</div><div
>Initiaion and Misreading</div>
1471654397719 1471654246629 Tetracylcine
Tetracyclines<div>30S</div><div>
X Bind to A Site</div><div><br /></div>

1471654439544 1471654246629 Chloramphenicol No Class<div>50S</div><div>Pepti
dyl Transferase</div>
1471654522689 1471654246629 Erythromycin
Macrolides<div>50S</div><div>Tra
nslocation (EF2)</div>
1471654577437 1471654246629 Mupirocin
No Class<div>Ile-tRNA</div><div>
Ile tRNA cannot be charged</div>
1471654604508 1471654246629 Puromycin No Class<div>50S and 60S (this a
ffects both antibiotics)</div><div>Releases polypeptide prematurely</div>
1471654645898 1471654246629 Diphtheria Toxin
No Class<div>60S (and eE
F2)</div><div>Blocks A site binding</div><div><br /></div><div>ADP ribosylation
of eEF2 </div><div>eEF2 + NAD+ --> ADP-ribosyl-eEF2 + nicotinamide + H+<
1471654759016 1471654246629 Ricin No Class<div>60S (specifically 28S resid
ue) </div><div>Blocks A site and translocation</div>
1471654831496 1471654246629 Statins Enzyme Drug Target<div>Lovostati
n imitates HMG CoA (needed for making cholesterol)</div>
1471654984550 1471654246629 Drugs for HIV Reverse Transcriptase (RT)
<div>HRT needed for HIV replication</div><div><br /></div><div>Drugs:</div>NRTINucleoside Analog COMPETITIVE (AZT)<div>NNRTI- Nonnuceoside Analog NONCOMPETITI
VE (Efavirenz)</div>
1471655131187 1471654246629 Warfarin (Coumadin), Dicoumarol, Coumarins
Related to: Vitamin K and Clotting <div>Prevents NADPH ---> NADP+, neede
d for Vit K reduction </div><div><br /></div><div>No gamma carboxylation of
clotting factors 2, 7, 9, 10 - NO CLOTTING</div><div><br /></div>
1471655244150 1471654246629 Chaotropic Agents
<div>For diseases involv
ing PROTEIN FOLDING (Prion disease lecture)</div>Water Soluble Denaturants<div>D
isrupt TERTIARY structure (non covalent forces, van Der waals, hydrophobic)</div
><div><br /></div>
1471655330674 1471654246629 Lanosterol
Reverses protein aggrega
tion in cataracts (because alpha crystallin failed)
1471655358283 1471654246629 Protease Inhibitors
anti-HIV drugs<d
iv>Proteases cleave eukaryotic proteins, use chopped up proteins to promote grow
th of virus (like HIV)</div><div><br /></div>
1471655514602 1471654246629 Bortezomib (Velcade)
Proteasome Inhib
itor (inhibits degradation of proteins)<div>Anti cancer drug</div>
1471655577639 1471654246629 Topoisomerase Inhibtiors
Inhibits topoiso
merase, used in DNA replication<div>If topoisomerase inhibtied, DNA replication
fork cannot relieve tension from twisting ---> cell commits apoptosis</div>
1471655801706 1471654246629 Rifampin
Antibiotic drug used to treat tu
berculosis<div>Inhibits RNA polymerate by binding to it</div>
1471655836324 1471654246629 alpha-Amanitin Mushroom toxin<div>Blocks RNA Po
l 2 (prevents mRNA production)</div><div>Kills you</div><div><div><br /></div></
div>
1471397283046 1421618046184
1377139217579 1402161953270 DNA Replication Review Question 5 (not from 2015
lecture)
<img src="1_dnareplication.jpg" />
A = ORC<div>B = MCM</div
><div>C = SSB/RPA</div>
lecture)
Which poylmerase (alpha, delta and/or epsilon) moves towards the
replication fork?
Pol epsilon<div><img src="1_elongation.png" /></div>
lecture)
<div>1) where is the replication fork?</div><div>2) which Okazak
i fragment was synthesized first?</div><div><br /></div><img src="1_okazaki.png"
/>
1) on the left edge<div>2) the one on the right</div><div><br /></div><d
iv><u><img src="paste-19451906883585.jpg" /></u></div>
lecture)
<img src="1_dnareplication3.jpg" />
4
1377142939528 1402161953270 DNA Replication Review Question (not from 2015 l
ecture) <div>Additional question to help orient the diagram below:</div><div>Giv
en that the new DNA strand being synthesized is the lagging strand, where is the
replication fork: on the left side or the right side? Stated another way, what
is the general direction of DNA helicase: to the left or to the right?</div><img
src="1_dnareplication4.jpg" /> <div>Additional question answer: to the left (DN
A Pol alpha and delta move <i>away</i> from the replication fork)</div><div
><img src="paste-50633369452545.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>1) fragment 4<div>
2) right</div><div>3) b</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="1_elongation.png" /
></div><div><u><img src="paste-19451906883585.jpg" /></u></div>
1440192737789 1402161953270 Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) 1
<div>pH = 7.3</d
iv><div>pCO<sub>2</sub> = 28 mmHg</div><div>HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup> = 14 mM<
/div><div><br /></div><div>The patient has a:</div><div>A) respiratory acidosis
with renal compensation</div><div>B) respiratory alkalosis with renal compensati
on</div><div>C) metabolic acidosis with respiratory compensation</div><div>D) me
tabolic alkalosis with respiratory compensation</div> C<br /><div><img src="pa
ste-15899968929793.jpg" /></div>
1440193877795 1402161953270 ABG 2 <div>pH = 7.55</div><div>pCO<sub>2</sub>
= 50 mmHg</div><div>HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup> = 42 mM</div><div><br
/></div><div>The patient has a:</div><div>A) respiratory acidosis with renal co
mpensation</div><div>B) respiratory alkalosis with renal compensation</div><div>
C) metabolic acidosis with respiratory compensation</div><div>D) metabolic alkal
osis with respiratory compensation</div>
D<div><br /></div><div><img src=
"paste-16363825397761.jpg" /></div>
1440193950503 1402161953270 ABG 3 <div>pH = 7.21</div><div>pCO<sub>2</sub>
= 70 mmHg</div><div>HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup> = 27 mM</div><div><br
/></div><div>The patient has a:</div><div>A) respiratory acidosis with renal co
mpensation</div><div>B) respiratory alkalosis with renal compensation</div><div>
C) metabolic acidosis with respiratory compensation</div><div>D) metabolic alkal
osis with respiratory compensation</div>
A<div><br /></div><div><img src=
"paste-18373870092289.jpg" /></div>
1440194041515 1402161953270 ABG 4 <div>For each scenario, list whether pat
ient has acidemia or alkalemia, the primary acid-base disorder (metabolic/respir
atory acidosis/alkalosis) and the compensatory mechanism: </div><img src="p
aste-19649475379201.jpg" />
A) acidemia; metabolic acidosis with respiratory
compensation<div><br /></div><div>B) alkalemia; metabolic alkalosis with respir
atory compensation</div><div><br /></div><div>C) acidemia; respiratory acidosis
with renal compensation</div><div><br /></div><div>D) alkalemia; respiratory alk
alosis with renal compensation</div>
1440271044090 1376852805827 Study Slide: How Telomerase works (not from 2015
lecture)
<img src="paste-105505871626241.jpg" />
1440355130557 1402161953270 Antibiotics & Toxins
List class, targ
et & action of each of the following:<div><br /></div><div>Streptomycin</div
><div>Tetracycline</div><div>Rifampin</div><div>Chloramphenicol</div><div>Erythr
omycin</div><div>Diptheria Toxin</div><div>Ricin</div><div>Puromycin</div><div>A
lpha amanitin</div><div>Mupirocin</div> Streptomycin: aminoglycoside, 30S (speci
fically 16S), inhibits initiation & causes misreading<div><br /></div><div>T
etracycline: tetracyclines, 30S, inhibits binding of AA-tRNA to A-site</div><div
><br /></div><div>Rifampin: inactivates prokaryotic RNA polymerase (note this in
terferes with prokaryotic <u>transcription</u>)</div><div><br /></div><div>Chlor
amphenicol: (its own class), 50S, inhibits peptidyl transferase</div><div><br />
</div><div>Erythromycin: macrolides, 50S, inhibits translocation</div><div><br /
></div><div>Diptheria toxin: eEF2, inhibits binding of AA-tRNA to A-site by ADPribosylation</div><div><br /></div><div>Ricin: 60S, inhibits binding of AA-tRNA
to A-site by depurinating 28S rRNA</div><div><br /></div><div>Puromycin: 50S &am
p; 60S, premature release of nascent polypeptide</div><div><br /></div><div>Alph
a amanitin: strongly inhibits elongation by RNA Polymerase II (eukaryotes); may
inhibit RNA Pol III if concentration of poison high enough</div><div><br /></div
><div>Mupirocin: inhibits Ile-tRNA synthase (topical cream antibiotic)</div><div
><img src="paste-187320703647745.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-2622549980610
57.jpg" /></div>
1440384909621 1402161953270 Prokaryotic Transcription
1) In which dire
ction does RNA Pol advance down the DNA template strand?<div><br /></div><div>2)
Describe all domains of the bacterial RNA polymerase; specify which domain(s) c
ompose the "core enzyme"</div><div><br /></div><div>3) What is/are the sequence(
s) within the prokaryotic promoter region that is/are recognized by RNA Pol?</di
v>
1) 3' to 5'<br /><div><br /></div><div>2) 1 sigma domain, 2 alpha, 2 bet
a and one omega. The sigma domain only required for initiation and is not part o
f the "core enzyme"</div><div><br /></div><div>3a) -35 sequence: TTGACA</div><di
v>3b) -10 sequence: TATAAT (called Pribnow box)</div><div><img src="paste-250581
276950529.jpg" /></div><div><img src="bacterial polymerase.jpg" /></div><div><im
1440386039993 1402161953270 Prokaryotic Transcription: Lac Operon 1 1) Is th
is an example of an inducible or repressible operon? Explain.<div><br /></div><d
iv>2) Illustrate/describe Lac operon genes (specify location of promoter and all
relevant genes)</div><div><br /></div><div>3) What is the consequence of the <i
>lac </i>promoter sequence varying from the promoter consensus sequence?</div><d
iv><br /></div><div>4) Specify structure of cAMP</div><div><br /></div><div>5) G
lucose depletion activates the membrane enzyme _______, which in turn catalyzes
synthesis of ______ from ______</div> 1) Inducible (default in "off" position:
induced to turn on in presence of lactose and absence of glucose)<div><br /></d
iv><div>2) see slide below</div><div><br /></div><div>3) need "booster" signal (
via cAMP) to achieve high levels of transcription</div><div><br /></div><div>4)
see slide below</div><div><br /></div><div>5) adenylate cyclase; cAMP; 5'-AMP</d
iv><div><img src="paste-276518584451073.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-277734
1440386570186 1402161953270 Prokaryotic Transcription: Lac Operon 2 Describe
levels of lactose and glucose for each scenario: <div><br /></div><div>1)
no mRNA transcription</div><div>2) low transcription</div><div>3) high transcrip
tion</div>
1) low lactose, high glucose<div>2) high lactose, high glucose</
div><div>3) high lactose, low glucose</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste
-283781374148609.jpg" /></div>
1440386657027 1402161953270 Prokaryotic Transcription: Trp Operon 1) Is th
is an inducible or repressible system? Explain.<div><br /></div><div>2) Explain
the relationship between [Trp] and attenuation. </div>
1) Repressible s
ystem. Normally this operon is constitutively active; it is turned off if Trp le
vels are high.<div><br /></div><div>2) If [Trp] low, ribosome pauses at the Trp
codons in the leader peptide sequence, giving time for a hairpin to form between
sequences 2 and 3 of the leader peptide, which does NOT prevent transcription.&
nbsp;</div><div><br /></div><div>If [Trp] levels are high, then quick transcript
ion of first sequence of leader peptide leads to hairpin formation of sequences
3&4, which forms an attenuator structure.</div><div><br /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-288278204907521.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-288540197912577.jpg"
/></div>
1440388178011 1402161953270 Eukaryotic Transcription
<div>1) What is
alpha-amanitin? Exactly how does it interfere with transcription? Specify lethal
dose and amount of time until death.</div><div><br /></div>2) For each eukaryot
ic RNA polymerase specify location, products and degree of inhibition by alpha-a
manitin <div>1a) cyclic octapeptide that blocks elongation by RNA Pol II</div><d
iv>1b) lethal dose is 10nM: initially presents as GI distress, but 48 hours late
r the subject dies from liver dysfunction</div><div><br /></div><div>2)</div>RNA
Pol I: nucleolus, rRNA transcripts, insensitive<div><br /><div>RNA Pol II: nucl
eoplasm, pre-mRNA & snRNA, strongly inhibited</div><div><br /></div><div>RNA
Pol III: nucleoplasm, 5S rRNA & tRNA & others, inhibited by high concen
tration</div></div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-303667072729089.jpg" />
</div>
1440389000305 1402161953270 RNA Processing and Eukaryotic Gene Expression 1
1) T/F: transcription-control elements for all RNA polymerases are located upstr
eam of the transcription initiation site<div><br /></div><div>2) T/F: none of th
e genes transcribed by RNA Pol I have a TATA sequence in their promoter region</
div><div><br /></div><div>3) Specify sequence at 3'-end of all mature tRNAs</div
><div><br /></div><div>4) List four major tRNA processing steps</div> 1) FALSE
: transcription factors for tRNA and 5S-rRNA genes (both transcribed by RNA Pol
III) bind to elements downstream of the transcription initiation site (see pictu
re below);<div><br /></div><div>2) TRUE<br /><div><br /></div><div>3) 5'-CCA-3'
(hydroxy group at 3' end)</div><div><br /></div><div>4a) 16 nucleotide sequence
at 5' end cut by RNase P</div><div>4b) 14 nucleotide intron in anticodon loop re
moved</div><div>4c) uracil residues at the 3' end replaced by CCA sequence</div>
<div>4d) many bases converted to characteristic modified bases</div><div><img sr
/></div><div><img src="paste-337163522670593.jpg" /></div></div>
<div>1) Specify the location of the TFIIB recognition element sequence relative
to the initiator sequence in non-CpG island promoters</div><div><br /></div>2) S
pecify all steps in formation of Pol II preinitiation compex
<div>1) -37 to 32; upstream of TATA box</div><div><br /></div>2) TATA Binding Protein (TBP) and
then...<div><br /></div><div><div>Bad = TFIIB</div><div>Fathers = TFIIF</div><d
iv>Escape = TFIIE (helicase)</div><div>Home = TFIIH (phosphorylates the CTD)</di
v></div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-348953207898113.jpg" /></div><div>
1) T/F: enhancer sequences are never transcribed; they may be located -50 kb or
+50kb from initiator sequence<div><br /></div><div>2a) Nuclear receptor family:
where is the ligand-binding domain located? the DNA-binding domain? the activati
on domain?</div><div><br /></div><div>2b) Which domain(s) are required for trans
location of the ligand-receptor complex to the nucleus?</div><div><br /></div><d
iv>3) T/F: DNA response elements that bind nuclear receptors consist of repeat s
equences</div> 1) FALSE: enhancer sequences may fall into the open reading fram
e (see picture)<div><br /></div><div>2a) ligand-binding domain at C-terminus; DN
A-binding domain (2 zinc finger motifs) in center and N-termini often contains a
ctivation domain</div><div><br /></div><div>2b) ligand-binding domain (near C-te
rminus)</div><div><br /></div><div>3) TRUE</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="
paste-352857333170177.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-355275399757825.jpg" /><
30257588225.jpg" /></div>
1) What nuclear receptor is constitutively activated in multiple myeloma cancers
? (not explicitly discussed in 2015 lecture)<div><br /></div><div>2) T/F: Phosph
orylation of CREB binding protein (CBP) by the catalytic domain of protein kinas
e A allows it to bind to the cAMP response element (CRE)</div><div><br /></div><
div>3) What type of enzyme is CREB binding protein (CBP)? What syndrome results
if it is mutated? Also specify inheritance pattern and distinguishing phenotype.
</div> 1) NFkB<div><br /></div><div>2) FALSE: phosphorylation of <u>CRE binding
protein (CREB)</u> (see picture)</div><div><br /></div><div>3) histone ace
tyltransferase; Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome: autosomal dominant; death w/in first
few years due to cardiac abnormalities</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="past
e-364947666108417.jpg" /></div>
1) What residue of histone gets acetylated by HATs?<div><br /></div><div>2)
T/F: The transcriptional activator Gcn5 has histone acetyltransferase activity<
/div> 1) lysine<div><br /></div><div>2) TRUE</div><div><br /></div><div><br />
<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-373344327172097.jpg" /></div></div><div><i
1440392540485 1402161953270 RNA Types
Define: snRNA, snoRNA, siRNA and
miRNA <div><img src="paste-383227046920193.jpg" /></div>
1440393347857 1402161953270 mRNA: Synthesis of 5'-cap
1) What type of
linkage exists between the 5'end of the mRNA and its methylated cap?<div><br /><
/div><div>2) T/F: two phosphodiester bonds are broken to form the 5'-cap</div>
1) 5'--->5'<div><br /></div><div>2) TRUE</div><div><br /></div><div><img src=
"cap formation 1.png" /><img src="mRNA cap.png" /></div>
1440393911970 1402161953270 mRNA: model for cleavage and polyadenylation
1) name the protein directly responsible for cleavage and slow polyadenylation<d
iv><br /></div><div>2) name the protein that binds to the poly(A) signal upstrea
m of the poly(A) site</div><div><br /></div><div>3) specify the poly(A) signal s
equence upstream of the poly(A) site</div><div><br /></div><div>4) name protein
that binds to the poly(A) site</div>
1) PAP = poly(A) polymerase<div><br /></
div><div>2) CPSF = cleavage and polyadenylation specifity factor</div><div><br /
></div><div>3) AAUAA</div><div><br /></div><div>4) CStF = cleavage stimulatory f
actor</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-410323995590657.jpg" /></div>
1440394277990 1402161953270 mRNA: Exon-Intron splice sites Specify three co
nsensus sequences around 5' and 3' splice sites in vertebrate pre-mRNAs 5' splic
e site: GU<div>3' splice site: AG</div><div>Branch point: 20-50bp upstream of 3'
splice site there is an A</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-4142495956
99201.jpg" /></div>
1440394443077 1402161953270 mRNA: splicing Illustrate the steps
1) first
transesterification: 2' OH of branch point A attacks 5' phosphate of G (at 5' s
plice site)<div><div>2) second transesterification: 3' end of exon (now with fre
e OH) attacks 5' phosphate of exon2</div></div><div>left with excised lariat int
ron</div><div><img src="lariat structure.png" /></div>
1440394721088 1402161953270 mRNA: splicing 2
1) Name the snRNP that b
inds to the branch point<div>2) Name the snRNP that binds to the 5' splice site<
/div><div>3) T/F: All snRNPs are transcribed by RNA Pol II</div><div>4) exon rec
ognition is mediated by cooperative binding of _____ and splicing factors to pre
-mRNA</div>
1) U2<div>2) U1</div><div>3) FALSE: RNA Pol III transcribes U6 (
the other four are transcribed by RNA Pol II)</div><div>4) SR proteins</div><div
><br /></div><div><img src="paste-424097955708929.jpg" /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-427246166736897.jpg" /></div>
1440395406888 1402161953270 mRNA Regulation 1) What is the function of the R
ev protein?<div>2) What is the name of process that results in intestinal&n
bsp;<i>apo</i>-B pre-mRNA being shorter than normal apoB?</div><div>3) What is t
he difference between miRNA and siRNA?</div><div>4) List four mechanisms of mRNA
degradation</div>
1) allows for incompletely spliced mRNAs to get out
of nucleus<div><br /></div><div>2) RNA editing</div><div><br /></div><div>3a) m
iRNA --> translation inhibition </div><div>3b) siRNA --> RNA cleavage
<br /><div><br /></div><div>4a) decapping, facilitating 5'-->3' exonucleolyti
c decay</div><div>4b) deadenylation, facilitating 3'-->5' exonucleolytic deca
y</div><div>4c) endonucleolytic pathway (via siRNA)</div><div>4d) nonsense media
ted decay (premature stop codon >50 bases from normal site)</div><div><img sr
c="paste-430931248676865.jpg" /></div></div><div><img src="paste-432567631216641
.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-433156041736193.jpg" /></div>
1440396000201 1402161953270 Ribosome Structures
1) Specify sedimentation
coefficients of eukaryotic and prokaryotic ribosomes<div><br /></div><div>2) Ho
w many amino acids fit into the polypeptide exit tunnel? Is this region of the r
ibosome primarily composed of proteins or rRNA?</div> 1) see picture below<div
><br /></div><div>2) 40-50 amino acids; primarily protein</div><div><br /></div>
<div><img src="paste-440642169733121.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div><img src
="paste-440856918097921.jpg" /></div>
1440396328242 1402161953270 Eukaryotic mRNA What proteins circularize the mR
NA?
4E binds to the cap<div>Pab1 binds to the poly-A tail</div><div>
4G connects 4E and Pab1</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-4421582931886
09.jpg" /></div>
1440396429576 1402161953270 tRNAs carry "activated" amino acids
Specify
reactions (and enzyme names and # ATP used) in formation of aminoacyl-tRNA
1a) activate amino acid by reacting w/ATP to form aminoacyl-AMP (<u>aminoacyl tR
NA synthetase</u> attached to amino acid)<div><br /><div>1b) transfer activated
amino acid to tRNA (enzyme and AMP released)</div></div><div><br /></div><div>st
eps 1a & 1b have delta G of zero</div><div><br /></div><div>2) <u>pyrophosph
atase</u> hydrolyzes pyrophosphate (delta G -6.6 kcal/mole)</div><div><br /></di
1440397063169 1402161953270 tRNAs 1) T/F: 20 distinct tRNA species exist,
1 for each amino acid<div><br /></div><div>2) What is the wobble position?</div>
<div><br /></div><div>3) Why are there two tRNAs for AUG?</div> 1) FALSE: 20 dis
tinct AA-tRNA synthetases exist, 1 for each amino acid; there are ~50 tRNA speci
es, at least 1 per AA, but less than 1 per codon due to the wobble<div><br /></d
iv><div>2) 5' end of the anti-codon, which complements the 3' end of the mRNA's
codon</div><div><br /></div><div>3) one tRNA is specific for the initiator codon
, while the other one is for internal codons</div><div><br /></div><div><img src
="paste-451044580524033.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-451688825618433.jpg" /
></div>
1440397449839 1402161953270 Translation: Initiation, Elongation & Termin
ation 1) List mechanisms used by eukaryotes and prokaryotes to initiate transl
ation. Specify what antibiotics/toxins act here.<div><br /></div><div>2) In
the first step of elongation, AA-tRNA binding, ___ shephers the AA-tRNA to the
empty __-site of the ribosome. Specify what antibiotics/toxins act here.</div><d
iv><br /></div><div>3) The second step of elongation is catalyzed by ____ _____,
located in the ____ ribosomal subunit. The nascent peptide now resides in the _
_-site. Specify what antibiotics/toxins act here.</div><div><br /></div><di
v>4) In the last step of elongation, ___ translocates the tRNA-peptide complex t
o the __-site of the ribosome. Specify what antibiotics/toxins act here.</d
iv><div><br /></div><div>5) List the three stop codons, and specify what they co
de for.</div> 1a) prok: 16S rRNA of the 30S unit binds to the Shine-Dalgarno s
equence. STREPTOMYCIN<div><br /></div><div>1b) euk: cap-dependent scanning or in
ternal ribosome entry (IRES)</div><div><br /></div><div>2) EF-Tu,Ts or eEF1; A s
ite; TETRACYCLINES</div><div><br /></div><div>3) peptidyl transferase; 50S/60S;
A site; PUROMYCIN (acts on both); CHLORAMPHENICOL (only on 50S)</div><div><br />
</div><div>4) EF2 or eEF2; P-site; ERYTHROMYCIN (antibiotic); RICIN & DIPTHE
RIA TOXIN (against eukaryotic ribosomes only)</div><div><br /></div><div>5) UAG,
UAA, UGA. They code for release factor.</div><div><img src="paste-4530889849569
29.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-455738979778561.jpg" /></div><div><img src=
"paste-462598042550273.jpg" /></div>
1440398338133 1402161953270 Mechanisms of Translation Toxins
Specify
mechanisms used by puromycin, diptheria toxin and ricin 1) puromycin imitates ty
rosinyl-tRNA, causing premature release of nascent peptide<div><br /></div><div>
2) diptheria toxin is cleaved into two fragments; fragment B allows internalizat
ion while fragment A poisons translation by catalyzing ADP-ribosylation of eEF2<
/div><div><br /></div><div>3) Ricin also has two chains; B allows uptake into ce
ll while A chain depurinates 28S rRNA at a specific residue; this blocks translo
cation</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-458208585973761.jpg" /></div><
div><img src="paste-458414744403969.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-4581098017
1440399111966 1402161953270 Translation: Energetics 1) How many ATP used per
polymerization (excluding initiation & termination steps)<div><br /></div><
div>2) What is average # ATP needed to synthesize one protein?</div>
1) 4 (tw
o for charging, i.e. making aminoacyl-tRNA and another two for elongation)<div><
br /></div><div>2) 1200</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-4640883962019
85.jpg" /></div>
1440399303049 1402161953270 Translation: Regulation 1a) Ferritin is needed w
hen intracellular [Fe<sup>+2</sup>] are ___<div><br /><div>1b) Ferritin's mRNA h
as an iron response element (IRE) that binds IRE-binding protein (IRE-BP) when&n
bsp;[Fe<sup>+2</sup>] are ___</div></div><div><br /></div><div>1c) Name the dise
ase that results from IRE mutations in ferritin mRNA; specify if this results in
an increase or decrease in ferritin synthesis</div><div><br /></div><div>2a) Ho
w does the cell under stress inhibit translation globally?</div><div>2b) Name re
lated disease; specify inheritance pattern and clinical manifestations</div><div
><br /></div><div>3) T/F: phosphorylation of eIF4E, which binds the mRNA 5'cap,
increases protein synthesis</div>
1a) high<div>1b) low (thus blocking tran
slation)</div><div>1c) hereditary hyperferritinemia - cataract syndrome (HHCS);
increase in ferritin synthesis</div><div><br /></div><div>2a) stress can activat
e eIF2 kinases; eIF2 phosphorylation inhibits initiation</div><div>2b) Vanishing
White Matter; autosomal recessive; neurodegenerative</div><div><br /></div><div
>3) TRUE; phosphorylation of 4E-BP also up-regulates</div><div><img src="paste-4
65132073254913.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-466278829522945.jpg" /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-467137822982145.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-46947858015

1440400492720 1376852805827 Study Slide: Translation of Prokaryotes vs. Euka
ryotes <img src="paste-473331165822977.jpg" />
1440400513080 1402161953270 Non-coding RNAs Specify which type of ncRNA for
each:<div>1) converts uridine into pseudo uridine</div><div>2) forms spliceosome
complex</div><div>3) associates with promoter/enhancer regions of protein codin
g genes, interfering with their transcription</div><div>4) 250 known genes; resp
onsible for modification and maturation of rRNA</div><div>5) very small antisens
e RNA that is complementary to 3'UTR of protein coding mRNAs, inhibiting their t
ranslation</div>
1) snoRNA or snRNA<div>2) snRNA</div><div>3) long ncRNAs
</div><div>4) snoRNA</div><div>5) miRNA</div><div><img src="paste-47594250593894
5.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-476058470055937.jpg" /></div><div><img src="
paste-475929621037057.jpg" /></div>
1440401144202 1402161953270 ncRNAs 1) Which ncRNA has the most # of genes?<
div>2) miRNA processing: name three proteins (in order)</div><div>3) List three
rules of X inactivation, i.e. inactivation is ____, ____ and ____</div><div>4) N
ame gene responsible for X inactivation. Specify size of RNA. Explain how it is
accomplished.</div>
1) long ncRNAs (6000 found so far)<div>2) Drosha, Dicer,
RISC</div><div>3) embryonic, random and perpetual</div><div>4) XIST. 17kb. Auto
somal genes only produce enough Autosomal Blocking Protein to turn off transcrip
tion of one XIST gene. The chromosome that gets its XIST gene turned off is the
one that will remain active. The other X chromosome's XIST gene will produce 17k
b mRNA that will hypermethylate and silence that X chromosome.</div><div><img sr
/></div>
1440401592064 1402161953270 Prader-Willi vs Angelman
1) Specify which
gene cluster is hypermethylated during female and male meiosis<div><br /></div>
<div>2) What is an imprinting center?</div><div><br /></div><div>3) 70% of PWS c
ases result from a deletion in the _____ (dad or mom); while 70% of AS cases res
ult from a deletion in the ____</div><div><br /></div><div>4a) What is uniparent
al disomy?</div><div>4b) Uniparental disomy in which parent would lead to PWS? A
S? Specify percentages</div>
1) males methylate AS while females methylate PW
S<div><br /></div><div>2) gene that produces large noncoding RNA to transcriptio
nally silence groups of genes</div><div><br /></div><div>3a) dad (mom silences P
WS so if have PWS then it is most likely because didn't get that gene from dad)<
/div><div>3b) mom (dad silences AS so if have AS then it is most likely because
didn't get that gene from mom)</div><div><br /></div><div>4a) two normal chromos
omes from one parent</div><div>4b) UPD from dad = AS (2%)</div><div>4b) UPD from
mom = PWS (25%)</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-477196636389377.jpg"
/></div><div><img src="paste-477072082337793.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste477381319983105.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-477626133118977.jpg" /></div><
65697.jpg" /></div>
1440402283318 1402161953270 Protein synthesis on endoplasmic reticulum
<div>Illustrate all steps</div> <img src="paste-479880990949377.jpg" />
1440402464647 1402161953270 Protein sorting 1) What are the potential destin
ations of proteins made in the ER? How are they sorted into these destinations?<
div><br /></div><div>2) What are the possible fates for proteins made in the cyt
osol? Specify how they're sorted.</div> 1) Three possible fates: ER membrane (st
op-transfer signal), lysosome (mannose-6-phosphate), secretion<div><br /></div><
div>2) Four fates: cytosol (default), mitochondria (N-terminal leader with 20-80
charged aa's), nucleus (nuclear localization signal), peroxisomes<br /><div><di
v><img src="paste-480065674543105.jpg" /></div></div></div><div><img src="paste480190228594689.jpg" /></div>
1440402757165 1402161953270 Diseases related to protein targeting & modi
fication
Briefly state molecular cause of each disease:<div><br /></div><
div>Multiple Sulfatase Deficiency</div><div>Zellweger syndrome</div><div>Keshan
Disease</div><div>I-cell disease</div> Multiple Sulfatase Deficiency: failure t
o modify essential Cys in active site of sulfatases<div><br /></div><div>Zellweg
er: mutations in genes required for peroxisome targeting or function</div><div><

br /></div><div>Keshan Disease: deficiency in selenium results in loss of seleno
proteins that catalyze redox reactions (esp. glutathione peroxidase)</div><div><
br /></div><div>I-cell disease: genetic defect in adding mannose-6-phosphate to
enzymes --> failure of enzymes to target lysosomes</div><div><br /></div><div
29.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1440403281893 1402161953270 SeCys incorporation
1) What is SeCys?<div>2)
What is its codon?</div><div>3) How does it get loaded on to tRNA?</div><div>4)
How is it incorporated into peptide?</div>
1) substitution of "S" in Cys wi
th "Se"<div>2) UGA</div><div>3) Swaps position with Serine (see picture)</div><d
iv>4) "SECIS" element downstream of actual stop codon causes a recoding of the U
GA stop codon</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-480941847871489.jpg" />
</div>
1440403496562 1402161953270 Vitamin K & Warfarin
1) Describe/Illu
strate biochemical actions of vitamin K & warfarin<div><br /></div><div>2) L
ist relevant clotting factors</div>
<div>1) Vitamin K carboxylates gamma car
bon of glutamate; warfarin blocks the regeneration of reduced vitamin K (thus bl
ocking further rounds of gamma carboxylation)</div><div><br /></div><div>2) Fact
ors II (thrombin), VII, IX and X</div><img src="paste-481216725778433.jpg" />
1440403700480 1402161953270 Protein glycation and diabetes 1) T/F: protein
glycation is irreversible and does not involve enzymes<div><br /></div><div>2) W
here is HbA<sub>1c</sub> glycated?</div><div><br /></div><div>3) How can patient
have normal blood glucose but high HbA<sub>1c</sub>?</div><div><br /></div
><div>4) Would anemia result in a false high or low HbA<sub>1c</sub>?</div>
1) TRUE<div><br /></div><div>2) N-terminal valine of beta-chains</div><div><br /
></div><div>3) blood glucose is measurement of patient's current status, while&n
bsp;HbA<sub>1c</sub> measures patient's average blood glucose over past 3-6
weeks</div><div><br /></div><div>4) false low</div><div><img src="paste-4815259
63423745.jpg" /></div>
1440403939215 1402161953270 Insulin Processing & Cleavage
1) Speci
fy # of amino acids in: signal sequence, proinsulin, A chain, B chain and C-pept
ide<div><br /></div><div>2) Familial hyperproinsulinemia: specify inheritance pa
ttern, molecular consequences and clinical manifestation</div><div><br /></div><
div>3) Where within the cell is proinsulin formed? Where does cleavage of proins
ulin occur?</div><div><br /></div><div>4) How can measuring C-peptide be used to
diagnose factitious hypoglycemia?</div>
1) 23, 86, 21, 30 and 31<div><br
/><div>2) autosomal dominant; defective proinsulin cleavage leads to high level
s of proinsulin in blood, yet no diabetes in heterozygotes</div></div><div><br /
></div><div>3) rough ER; Golgi</div><div><br /></div><div>4) if someone is dosed
with insulin will find levels of C-peptide lower than expected</div><div><br />
</div><div><img src="paste-482092899106817.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-482
080014204929.jpg" /></div>
1440404624057 1402161953270 Protein Processing & Cleavage
1) Why d
oes eIF4G cleavage not reduce translation of poliovirus proteins?<div><br /></di
v><div>2) Rank the following proteins in order of increasing half-life: hemoglob
in, insulin, lens crystallins, typical housekeeping proteins</div><div><br /></d
iv><div>3) What is ubiquitin?</div><div><br /></div><div>4) What is required for
ubiquitination?</div><div><br /></div><div>5) What is the N-end rule? PEST sequ
ence? Relevance?</div> 1) they use an internal ribosome entry mechanism, thus t
he reduction in cap-dependent scanning from the loss of eIF4G does not impact th
eir ability to initiate translation<div><br /></div><div>2) insulin, typical hou
sekeeping proteins, hemoglobin, lens crystallins</div><div><br /></div><div>3) 7
6 aa protein that targets proteins to the proteasome</div><div><br /></div><div>
4) ATP and 3 enzymes E1-E3</div><div><br /></div><div>5) Both relevant to protei
n half-life stability; PEST refers to one-letter amino acid codes that, if highl
y expressed in the protein, reduce its half-life. N-end rule posits that identit
y of amino acid at N-terminus plays key role in half-life</div><div><img src="pa
ste-483016317075457.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-483415749
1440596651300 1402161953270 Mutations: Definitions & Calculations

1) T/F: a mutation is a new allele that leads to a phenotypic change<div><br /><
/div><div>2) T/F: mutagenesis refers to any change in DNA sequence from the wild
-type</div><div><br /></div><div>3) T/F: a "polymorphism" refers to a mutation t
hat only occurs at a frequency of 10% or higher</div><div><br /></div><div>4) T/
F: mutagenesis is the ultimate source for all genetic variability</div><div><br
/></div><div>5) What is the "mutation rate"? Under what circumstances can we use
this equation in humans?</div> 1) FALSE -- mutation is a new allele, but it may
or may not lead to a phenotypic change<div><br /></div><div>2) FALSE -- only re
fers to <i>heritable</i> changes, i.e. mutagenesis doesn't refer to mutatio
ns in somatic tissue (self-note: double-check this myopic interpretation of the
term with prof)</div><div><br /></div><div>3) FALSE -- 1%</div><div><br /></div>
<div>4) TRUE</div><div><br /></div><div>5a) u = n/2N, where n = # affected with
unaffected patients and N = # births</div><div>5b) only appropriate for rare aut
osomal dominant traits</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-49160195670017
1440597645569 1402161953270 Genetic Reversion & Suppression
1) Diffe
rentiate transition from transversion mutations<div><br /></div><div>2) Which ty
pe of point mutation contributes to ~50% of common genetic disorders?</div><div>
<br /></div><div>3) Differentiate intragenic suppressor mutation from extragenic
suppressor mutation</div><div><br /></div><div>4) Which is more common: genetic
reversion or 2nd site suppressor mutation?</div><div><br /></div><div>5) T/F: S
ome patients with Junctional Epidermolysis Bullosa (which results from homozygou
s defect in <i>LAMB3</i> gene that codes for a lamin protein) can show healthy s
kin patches in which <i>LAMB3</i> has reverted to wild type function by <u><b>in
tragenic</b></u> 2nd-site suppressor mutations</div>
1) transition: purine to
purine or pyrimidine to pyrimidine; transversion is a switch from one nucleotid
e type to the other<div><br /></div><div>2) missense</div><div><br /></div><div>
3a) intragenic = 2nd mutation on the same protein that compensates for the 1st m
utation</div><div>3b) extragenic = 2nd site mutation is on the protein's substra
te molecule</div><div><br /></div><div>4) 2nd site suppressor mutation</div><div
><br /></div><div>5) TRUE</div><div><br /><div><img src="paste-53326313947137.jp
g" /></div></div><div><img src="paste-56384330661889.jpg" /></div><div><img src=
"paste-57170309677057.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-58046483005441.jpg" /></
div><div><img src="paste-60078002536449.jpg" /></div>
1440598407611 1402161953270 Fidelity Mechanisms
<div>1) List the four fi
delity mechanisms, ordered in terms of most effective to least effective (also i
nclude overall replication error rate)</div><div><br /></div><div>2) T/F: select
ivity of "tenary complex" of DNA Polymerase is much higher than that predicted b
y Watson-crick base pairing specificity</div><div><br /></div><div>3) DNA Polyme
rase delta & epsilon proofread via a ___ exonuclease</div><div><br /></div><
div>4a) Mismatch repair utilizes the enzyme ____ to differentiate the parent str
and from the nascent daughter DNA strand. </div><div>4b) Specify the exact
DNA sequence this enzyme utilizes.</div><div>4c) T/F: this enzyme recognizes mis
match and nicks the nascent daughter strand</div><div>4d) T/F: ATP, a helicase,
and an exonuclease act together to create a gap starting from the nick and endin
g at the mismatch site</div><div>4e) Emerging evidence indicates that mismatch r
epair in eukaryotes recognizes new strands via the presence of nicks: why/how ar
e nicks present in the leading strand?</div><div>4f) name disease associated wit
h defective mismatch repair enzymes</div>
<div>1) Polymerse selectivity (1
0<sup>-5</sup>), proofreading (10<sup>-2</sup>), mismatch repair (10<sup>-2</sup
>), other repair/avoidance mechanisms (10<sup>-1</sup>): sums up to match overal
l replication error rate of 10<sup>-10</sup></div><div><br /></div><div>2) TRUE<
/div><div><br /></div><div>3) 3'-->5'</div><div><br /></div><div>4a) "dam": D
NA adenine methylase</div><div>4b) GATC</div><div>4c) FALSE -- mismatch repair p
roteins carry out that function</div><div>4d) TRUE</div><div>4e) occasionally in
corporated ribonucleotides into the leading strand are cut out by RnaseH2 to pro
duce nicks</div><div>4f) Hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer (HNPCC) aka Lynch
syndrome</div><div><img src="paste-88300232638465.jpg" /></div><div><img src="p
aste-61783104552961.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-62444529516545.jpg" /></di
v><div><img src="paste-64355789963265.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-96160022

790145.jpg" /></div>
1440602628446 1402161953270 Misinsertion Error Fixation
T/F: Transversio
n mutations occur when the misinserted base belongs to the <i>same </i>nucleotid
e class as the template base, e.g. will get a transversion mutation if template
base is a G and misinserted base is an A
TRUE<div><br /></div><div>Only a
nswer choice D will result in a transversion. All other answer choices would res
ult in a transition mutation</div><div><img src="paste-88738319302657.jpg" /></d
iv>
1440603709802 1402161953270 Misreplication at Spontaneous DNA Lesions
1) Why is misreplication more likely to occur at repetitive sequences?<div><br /
></div><div>2) What is the difference between DNA damage and a mutation?</div><d
iv><br /></div><div>3a) What is the most mutagenically significant DNA damage in
flicted by oxygen radicals? </div><div>3b) If this damage is not corrected,
what mutation will result?</div><div>3c) Is this type of damage the one that oc
curs most frequently?</div><div><br /></div><div>4a) What is deamination? <
/div><div>4b) If uncorrected what mutation will result?</div><div><br /></div><d
iv>5) What is "Hoogsteen pairing" in reference to?</div><div><br /></div><div>6)
A recent discovery found that ____ may be the most prevalent type of "spontaneo
us DNA damage". </div>
1) strand-slippage more likely to occur at repet
itive sequences<div><br /></div><div>2) chemical lesion in DNA is often repaired
; a mutation may result from DNA damage if a wrong base is inserted at the damag
e site</div><div><br /></div><div>3a) G ---> 8-oxoguanine</div><div>3b) C:G to A
:T transversion </div><div>3c) No, depurination (G --> abasic site) is the
most frequent type of DNA damage</div><div><br /></div><div>4a) C --> U</div>
<div>4b) C:G ---> T:A transition mutation</div><div><br /></div><div>5) mispa
iring between 8-oxoG with A</div><div><br /></div><div>6) ribonucleotides (rN) i
n DNA</div><div><br /><div><img src="paste-103646150787073.jpg" /></div></div><d
0577.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-113717849096193.jpg" /></div><div><img sr
/></div><div><img src="paste-104853036597249.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-1
07704894881793.jpg" /></div>
1440604982180 1402161953270 DNA Damage vs. DNA Mutation
<img src="paste109156593827841.jpg" /> E: None of the above
1440605022964 1402161953270 Four Paths to Spontaneous (Background) Mutations
List the four general paths to spontaneous mutations
2912129.jpg" />
1440606618346 1402161953270 Non-excisive repair of DNA
1) Name enzyme t
hat corrects UV dimers<div>2) Name enzyme that corrects O6-methylguanine</div>
1) photolyase (does not occur in humans)<div>2) O6-methylguanine DNA methyltrans
ferase</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-121251221733377.jpg" /></div>
1440699373867 1402161953270 Mutagens True/False
1) T/F: Heat, an intrins
ic mutagen, damages DNA via deamination or depurination<div><br /></div><div>2)
T/F: The Ames test uses a strain of Salmonella that is capable of synthesizing h
istidine, but in the presence of a mutagen they lose the ability to synthesize h
istidine</div><div><br /></div><div>3) T/F: Some chemicals are not carcinogenic
until metabolized by liver enzymes [not explicitly discussed in lecture, but it
is relevant to the Ames Test]</div>
1) TRUE<div><br /></div><div>2) FALSE: A
mes test uses a strain of Salmonella that is incapable of synthesizing Histidine
</div><div><br /></div><div>3) TRUE, that is why rat-liver enzymes are usually a
dded to Ames Test</div>
1440700191176 1402161953270 DNA Double-Stranded Breaks (DSBs): Sources &
Repair 1) List a typical external cause of DSBs<div><br /></div><div>2a) T/F: h
omologous recombination repair of DSBs occurs during the S phase</div><div><br /
></div><div>2b) Name the other mechanism of DSB repair. Is this the more common
DSB repair mechanism?</div><div><br /></div><div>3) Name the human chromoso
me breakage syndrome associated with a progeroid phenotype.</div>
1) radia
tion<div><br /></div><div>2a) FALSE -- occurs during meiosis</div><div><br /></d
iv><div>2b) Non-homologous DNA End Joining; it is the major pathway.</div><div><
br /></div><div>3) Wener syndrome</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-256

1440700944387 1402161953270 p53: The Guardian of the Genome 1) Name the synd
rome that results due to inheriting a mutation in p53<div><br /></div><div>2) Ho
w does p53 responds to moderate vs severe DNA damage?</div>
1) Li-Fraumeni s
yndrome<div><br /></div><div>2) moderate DNA damage causes cell-cycle arrest to
facilitate time for DNA repair, but too much DNA damage will activate apoptotic
pathways</div><div><br /><div><img src="paste-29287381991425.jpg" /></div></div>
1440701085174 1402161953270 Mutation Fixation at unrepaired damage sites
<div>For each of the following lesions, specify how the lesion was formed, the c
omplementary base that will be inserted by DNA Pol if the damage site is unrepai
red, and whether the final mutation is a transition or transversion</div><div><b
r /></div>1) 6-methylguanine<div>2) 8-oxoguanine</div><div>3) DNA uracil</div>
1a) alkylating agents<div>1b) T</div><div>1c) transition: <b>G</b>C ---> <b>A
</b>T</div><div><br /></div><div>2a) oxidation of guanine</div><div>2b) A</div><
div>2c) transversion: <b>G</b>C --> <b>T</b>A</div><div><br /></div><div
>3a) deamination of cytosine</div><div>3b) A</div><div>3c) transition: <b>C</b>G
--> <b>T</b>A</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-30296699305985.jpg"
1440701965172 1402161953270 Repair Defects & Disease Phenotypes Name cor
rect disease<div><br /></div><div>1) defect in mismatch repair leading to non-po
lyposis colon cancer</div><div><br /></div><div>2) defect in NER leading to earl
y skin cancers</div><div><br /></div><div>3) defect in Pol Eta leading to early
skin cancers</div><div><br /></div><div>4) defect in a gene critical to DNA dama
ge response leading to high predispoisition to cancer</div>
1) HNPCC aka Lyn
ch Syndrome<div>2) XP</div><div>3) XPV</div><div>4) Li-Fraumeni Syndrome<br /><d
iv><br /><div><img src="paste-39389145071617.jpg" /></div></div></div>
1440702276935 1402161953270 Pedigree Analysis
How can you differentiat
e an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern from an X-linked dominant inheritanc
e pattern?
Absence of father-to-son transmission in X-linked dominant<div><
br /></div><div><img src="paste-40557376176129.jpg" /></div>
1440702424594 1402161953270 Positional Cloning: disease gene mapping & i
solation in humans
List, in order, how this is done
1) family linkag
e study: find the chromosome and the region of the chromosome where the disease
gene must be located by searching for genetic linkage of the disease gene with k
nown genomic markers<div><br /></div><div>2) physical isolation of genomic DNA f
rom that region of the chromosome</div><div><br /></div><div>3) identify candida
te genes in these DNA (i.e. find open reading frames)</div><div><br /></div><div
>4) find candidate genes that have mutations ONLY in the affected individuals</d
iv><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-41068477284353 (1).jpg" /></div>
1440797107185 1402161953270 Mitochondria: Basics
1) Besides ATP, what oth
er molecules do they help synthesize?<div><div>2) Which ribosomes -- cytosolic o
r rough ER -- are used to synthesize mitochondrial proteins transcribed from nuc
lear DNA?</div></div><div>3) # of mitochondrial proteins encoded by mtRNA; which
complex in the ETC has no mitochondrial proteins?</div><div>4) What else does m
tDNA code for?</div><div>5) T/F: mtDNA contains no introns and is transcribed in
to polycistronic mRNAs</div><div>6) What are the stop codons in the mitochondria
l genetic code?</div><div>7) What is the D-loop?</div> 1) heme, amino acids, nu
cleotides and steroid hormones<div><br /></div><div>2) cytosolic (rough ER used
for proteins destined for secretion, the lysosome or the ER membrane)</div><div>
<br /></div><div>3) 13; complex II</div><div><br /></div><div>4) large and small
rRNAs & tRNAs</div><div><br /></div><div>5) TRUE</div><div><br /></div><div
>6) UAA, UAG and AGA (not UGA)</div><div><br /></div><div>7) The D-loop occ
urs in the main <b>non-coding</b> area of the mtDNA molecule, a segmen
t called the control region because replication of the heavy and light strands b
egin in this region</div><div><br /><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-332859
9654401.jpg" /></div></div><div><img src="paste-4969277161473.jpg" /></div><div>
<img src="paste-7683696492545 (1).jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-106343390248
97.jpg" /></div>
1440806413499 1402161953270 Mitochondrial Inheritance
1) Define hetero
plasmy<div>2) What is approximate # of mtDNA copies per cell?</div><div>3) T/F:

Random segregation of mitochondria and mtDNA occurs during mitosis and meiosis</
div><div>4) What is the "threshold effect"?</div><div>5) T/F: mitochondrial inhe
ritance pedigree diagrams are identified by looking for an absence of father-toson transmission</div> 1) The presence of more than one type of organellar geno
me<div>2) (~10 copies per mitochondrion)*(~1,000 mitochondria/cell) = 10,000 mtD
NA molecules/cell, which only comprises 1% of cellular DNA</div><div>3) TRUE</di
v><div>4) Different tissues have different levels of tolerance for mtDNA mutatio
ns (b/c the tissues don't have the same energy needs)</div><div>5) FALSE/incompl
ete: absence of father-to-any child transmission</div><div><br /></div><div><img
src="paste-3685081939969.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-3577707757569.jpg" /
903887361_1402161953270.jpg" /></div>
1440807525723 1402161953270 Reactive Oxygen Species 1) What is presumed to b
e the source of transient vs. chronic oxidative stress? <div>2) T/F: both t
ransient and chronic oxidative stress activate inflammatory pathways</div>
1a) transient: non-specific immune response to infection<div>1b) chronic: old an
d/or malfunctioning mitochondria</div><div><br /></div><div>2) TRUE</div><div><b
r /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-8851927597057.j
pg" /></div><div><img src="paste-9573482102785 (1).jpg" /></div><div><img src="p
aste-9758165696513.jpg" /></div>
1440808051247 1402161953270 mtDNA diseases caused by mtDNA point mutations
1) Differentiate genetic cause of MERFF, MELAS and LHON<div><br /></div><div>2)
Ragged red fibers: what does it mean if there's a lot of red color versus only a
little?</div> 1) see below<div><br /></div><div>2) more red color means more p
roliferation of mitochondria<br /><div><img src="paste-10522669875201.jpg" />1</
div></div><div><img src="paste-11385958301697.jpg" /></div>
1440891358085 1402161953270 mtDNA Replication
1) T/F: replication begi
ns with synthesis of RNA primer<div>2) Name enzyme used to synthesize DNA; does
it have proofreading ability?</div><div>3) T/F: mtDNA replication does not invol
ve Okazaki fragments or single-stranded DNA binding proteins</div><div>4) Name m
tDNA helicase</div>
1) TRUE<div>2) POLG (mtDNA pol gamma); yes, it has 3' to
5' exonuclease activity</div><div>3) FALSE: mtSSBs are needed; it is true that
no Okazaki fragments appear</div><div>4) Twinkle</div><div><br /></div><div><img
src="paste-22200685953025.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-22707492093953.jpg"
1440893021986 1402161953270 Mitochondria in Aging & IVF 1) A study in mi
ce found that mice with a defective _____ show a progeroid phenotype, thus sugge
sting a causal link between increased somatic mtDNA mutations and aging.<div><br
/></div><div>2) List and briefly define two IVF treatments that involve mitocho
ndria</div>
1) mtDNA Pol gamma (proof-reading domain)<div><br /></div><div>2
a) autologous mitochondrial treatment = mitochondria from woman's immature precu
rsor eggs (i.e. primary oocytes) are introduced into mature oocytes to be used i
n IVF</div><div>2b) non-autologous mitochondrial replacement treatment = nuclei
of woman with mtDNA mutations transplanted into enucleated eggs from a donor wit
h normal mtDNA</div><div><img src="paste-30438433226753.jpg" /></div><div><br />
</div><div><div><img src="paste-31520764985345.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><di
v><img src="paste-32598801776641.jpg" /></div></div>
1440894477160 1402161953270 Diagnosis of Chromosome Errors 1) List four ind
ications for a prenatal diagnosis<div>2) T/F: Karyotype uses Gomori stain to cre
ate distinctive banding patterns in mitotic chromosomes arrested at metaphase</d
iv><div>3) T/F: Karyotype cannot detect syndromes such as Prader-Willi or Angelm
an</div><div>4) T/F: Flourescence in situ hybridization (FISH) cannot detect ane
uploidy</div><div>5) Which technique, karyotype or FISH, can be performed on int
erphase cells? Which one is faster?</div>
1) history spontaneous abortion,
advanced maternal age (35+), family history of mental retardation/developmental
delay, fetal anomalies on ultrasound<div>2) FALSE -- uses Giemsa stain; Gomori
stain used to look for ragged red fibers typical of MERFF</div><div>3) TRUE, use
FISH for that</div><div>4) FALSE</div><div>5) FISH for both questions</div><div
.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-37761352466433.jpg" /></div><div><img src="pa

ste-39303245725697.jpg" /></div>
1440894915083 1402161953270 Intra & Inter-Chromosomal Rearrangements
1) Specify what class of chromosomal rearrangement (intra-, inter- or both) can
produce: deletions, duplications, inversions and translocations<div><br /></div>
<div>2) T/F: carriers of a balanced inversion or a balanced translocation show a
n abnormal phenotype 50% of the time</div><div><br /></div><div>3a) Differentiat
e paracentric vs. pericentric inversion</div><div>3b) Why does it matter if the
inversion is paracentric or pericentric?</div><div><br /></div><div>4a) Which ch
romosomes can experience Robertsonian translocations?</div><div>4b) What % of me
iosis from a balanced translocation carrier will result in a phenotypically norm
al gamete? What if parent cell carried a Robertsonian translocation?</div>
1a) intra-chromosomal rearrangements may produce deletions and inversions<div>1b
) inter-chromosomal rearranegements may produce deletions, duplications and tran
slocations</div><div><br /></div><div>2) FALSE, they usually show a normal pheno
type. It is their children that <i>might</i> be affected.</div><div><br /></div>
<div>3a) paracentric = inversion occurs within one arm of the chromosome; perice
ntric = inversion includes centromere</div><div>3b) this only matters in c
ases of meiotic recombination <b style="text-decoration: underline; ">within</b>
the inversion; in those circumstances...</div><div>paracentric inversion y
ields 2 inviable gametes (acentric and dicentric) and 2 viable gametes (one norm
al and one inversion carrier)</div><div>pericentric inversion yields 2 potential
ly viable gametes and 2 viable gametes (one normal and one inversion carrier)</d
iv><div><br /></div><div>4a) acrocentric chromosomes: 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22</div
><div>4b) In both cases it is 33%. </div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pa
><div><img src="paste-42966852829185.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-433662847
c="paste-46591805227009 (1).jpg" /></div>
1440896400867 1402161953270 Chromosome Nomenclature 1
Define each case
:<div><br /></div><div>1) 47, XX, +21</div><div>2) 46, X, r(X)</div><div>3) 45,
XX, der (13;14) (q10:q10)</div><div>4) 46, XY, t (3;9) (p14) (q21)</div>
1) female with trisomy 21<div><br /><div>2) female with a ring X and a normal X<
/div><div><br /></div><div>3) female with a balanced Robertsonian translocation
between chromosomes 13 & 14</div><div><br /></div><div>4) male with a balanc
ed translocation between short arm of chromsome 3 and long arm of chromosome 9</
div></div><div><br /></div><div><div><img src="paste-48481590837249.jpg" /></div
><div><img src="paste-48588965019649.jpg" /></div></div>
1440896642719 1402161953270 Chromosome Nomenclature 2
Write out nomenc
lature for each case:<div><br /></div><div>1) female who is mosaic for trisomy 2
1</div><div>2) male with terminal deletion of short arm of chromosome 4 (break p
oint 14)</div><div>3) female with duplication of short arm of chromosome 5 (brea
k point 10)</div><div>4) female with unbalanced Robertsonian translocation b/w c
hr 13 & 14 resulting in trisomy 13 (break point 10 on both chromosomes)</div
>
1) 46, XX, +21/ 46, XX<div><br /><div>2) 46, XY, del(4)(p14)</div></div>
<div><br /></div><div>3) 46, XX, dup(5)(p10)</div><div><br /></div><div>4) 45, X
X, +13, der (13;14)(q10;q10)</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-48481590
1440896966424 1402161953270 Viability of chromosomal abnormalities 1) Which
chromosomal abnormality has the highest number of live births per 100,000 pregn
ancies: trisomy 21, trisomy 13, monosomy X, or trisomy X?<div>2) T/F: Unbalanced
translocations are never viable</div><div>3) Which sex chromosome aneuploidy is
least viable?</div>
1) trisomy 21 (but if looking at this question from a %
then trisomy X would be best answer since 2/3 of XXX are born whereas only 1/3 o
f trisomy 13 make it to term)<div><br /><div>2) FALSE (ex: unbalanced Robertsoni
an translocations that result in Down Syndrome)</div><div><br /></div><div>3) 45
, X (Turner's syndrome)</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-5184025526272
1.jpg" /></div></div>
1440897558363 1402161953270 Cystic Fibrosis <div>1) Specify inheritance patt
ern</div><div><br /></div>2) Specify the most common mutant CF allele in Caucasi
ans<div><br /><div>3) Specify normal protein function; explain pathophysiology w

hen it malfunctions</div></div><div><br /></div><div>4) One explanation for the
divergent carrier frequency in populations is...</div><div><br /></div><div>5) T
/F: four different CF mutations are known to exist</div><div><br /></div><div>6)
List CF treatments</div>
<div>1) autosomal recessive</div><div><br /></di
v>2) delta F508<div><br /></div><div>3a) secretion of Cl- ion; Na+ and water fol
low</div><div>3b) defective ion transport leads to dehydration in airway epithel
ia, thickening the mucus there and creating environment that makes it easier for
bacteria in lungs to evade host immune system, leading to repeated respiratory
infections. Similar mechanism underlies problems in pancreatic duct.</div><div>*
*not in lecture but nice to know: salty sweat arises b/c CFTR orientation is opp
osite: the CFTR protein allows for Cl- ions to enter the cytoplasm from the swea
t duct. Failure causes secretion of salty sweat (sweat is hypotonic to plasma in
individuals with wild-type CFTR).</div><div><br /></div><div>4) possible hetero
zygous advantage in dela F508 mutants, as these individuals have 86% lower infec
tion rate by S. typhii relative to WT</div><div><br /></div><div>5) FALSE: over
1200 known; these 1200 mutant alleles are grouped into four classes</div><div><b
r /></div><div>6) Antibiotics, physical therapy, digestive enzyme supplementatio
n (b/c their pancreatic duct is plugged up), gene therapy</div><div><img src="pa
92417.jpg" /></div>
1440904677835 1402161953270 Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD)/Becker Muscula
r Dystrophy (BMD)
1) Specify inheritance pattern<div><br /></div><div>2) H
ow was the gene isolated?</div><div><br /></div><div>3) Specify types of mutatio
ns for this gene; which mutation is more common?</div><div><br /></div><div>4) H
ow is Becker Muscular Dystrophy (BMD) different at the molecular and clinical le
vel?</div><div><br /></div><div>5) Name one molecular therapy used to treat the
disease</div><div><br /></div><div>6) Where does the dystrophin protein exist wi
thin the cell?</div>
1) X-linked recessive, but 1/3 of the affected boys have
de novo mutations<div><br /></div><div>2) by studying affected girls; these gir
ls had a balanced X-autosome translocation that unfortunately split the X chromo
some right in the middle of the gene (it is a huge gene)</div><div><br /></div><
div>3) 2/3 large out-of-frame deletions and 1/3 nonsense mutations</div><div><br
/></div><div>4) molecular level: BMD results from in-frame deletions; clinicall
y the disease is far less severe</div><div><br /></div><div>5) aminoglycosides,
a class of antibiotics that includes streptomycin, can induce eukaryotic mRNA mi
sreading of nonsense codon as a sense codon thereby allowing translation of the
full length dystrophin protein</div><div><br /></div><div>6) cell membrane</div>
<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-64759516889089.jpg" /></div><div><img src=
"paste-65176128716801.jpg" /></div>
1440906268597 1402161953270 Complex Single Gene Disorders 1 For each of the
three diseases -- Fragile X (FX), Myotonic Dystrophy (DM), and Huntington's Dise
ase (HD) -- specify:<div><br /></div><div>inheritance pattern</div><div>gain or
loss of function of gene</div><div>repeat unit and its location</div><div>conseq
uences if individual has a small expansion (50-100)</div><div>consequences if in
dividual has a large expansion (50-100)</div><div><br /></div><div>Also specify,
define and explain which disease(s) is/are associated with the "Sherman Paradox
" and "anticipation"</div>
<div>Answers mostly summarized in slide below. A
few extra notes:</div><div><br /></div><div><u>FX</u></div><div>Sherman Paradox
: X-linked dominant but it had variable penetrance</div><div>Pre-mutation carrie
r males never have affected daughters</div><div>Pre-mutation carrier females hav
e increasing risk of full expansion affected children correlated with the size o
f their allele</div><div>Molecular consequences: large expansion results in no F
MR-1 mRNA due to CpG hypermethylation in 5'UTR</div><div><br /></div><div><u>DM<
/u></div><div>Autosomal dominant</div><div>Anticipation = more severe symptoms a
nd earlier onset in successive generations</div><div>Molecular consequences: lar
ge expansion results in toxic <b style="text-decoration: underline; ">mRNA</b>;<
b> </b>normal levels of normal protein made </div><div><br /></div><di
v><u>Huntington's Disease</u></div><div>Autosomal dominant</div><div>Anticipatio
n applies only to the age of onset, i.e. more repeats = earlier age of onset</di
v><div>Molecular consequences: gain of function toxic protein (CAG codes for glu
tamine)</div><div><img src="paste-72095321030657.jpg" /></div>
1440907526744 1402161953270 Complex Single Gene Disorders 2 Match each of th
e following below to one or more of the following diseases: Fragile X (FX), Myot
onic Dystrophy (DM), Huntington's Disease (HD), Kennedy Disease, Androgen Insens
itivity Syndrome (AIS)<div><br /></div><div>1) Expansion of CAG triplet in codin
g region</div><div>2) Disease(s) due to a gain of function mutation</div><div>3)
X-linked</div><div>4) characterized by moderate to severe retardation</div><div
>5) Expansion of CTG repeat</div><div>6) Expansion of CGG repeat</div> 1) HD an
d Kennedy Disease<div><div>2) DM, HD and Kennedy Disease</div></div><div>3) FX,
Kennedy and AIS</div><div>4) FX</div><div>5) DM</div><div>6) FX</div><div><br />
1440908623356 1402161953270 Chromosome Errors
<div>1) What % of childr
en born to an individual with the karyotype 45, XX, der (21:21) would result in
Down Syndrome? </div><div>[this was asked by professor in lecture, but the
question was not written on the slide]</div><div><br /></div><div>2) Define the
mnemonic "Fools Believe Genes are Disposable"</div><div><br /></div><div>3) Spec
ify the chromosome error behind each case:</div><div>webbed neck, short stature
in childhood, infertility due to ovarian failure</div><div>conotruncal heart def
ects, hypocalcemia, immunodeficiency</div><div>bird-like facies, rocker bottom f
eet, intrauterine growth retardation</div><div>not diagnosed in infancy, mild le
arning disability, seizures and increased risk for psychiatric disorders</div><d
iv>holoprosencephaly, oro-facial clefts, extra fingers/toes, intrauterine growth
retardation</div><div>epicanthal folds, upslanting palpebrae, septal heart defe
cts</div><div>not diagnosed in infancy, mild learning disability, ADHD & beh
avioral problems, tall stature, normal fertility</div><div>helmet nose, arched e
yebrows, oro-facial clefts, microcephaly</div><div>not diagnosed in infancy, mil
d learning disability, small testes and infertility, significantly increased ris
k for breast cancer</div><div>boxy head, downslanting palpebrae, moderate to sev
ere intellectual development</div>
1) 100%. This woman has a balanced
translocation of her 21st chromosomes; the only viable eggs would have two copie
s of chromosome 21 attached to each other (monosomy 21 is not viable at all)<div
><br /></div><div>2) </div><div>F = facial features</div><div>B = birth def
ects</div><div>G = growth retardation</div><div>D = developmental problems</div>
<div><br /></div><div>3) </div><div><br /></div><div><div>Turner's syndrome
(XO): <b>webbed neck</b>, short stature in childhood, infertility due to ovaria
n failure</div><div><br /></div><div>22q11 deletion (aka DiGeorge syndrome): con
otruncal heart defects, <b>hypocalcemia</b>, immunodeficiency</div><div><br /></
div><div>Trisomy 18: <b>bird-like facies, rocker bottom feet</b>, intrauterine g
rowth retardation</div><div><br /></div><div>XXX: not diagnosed in infancy, mild
learning disability, seizures and increased risk for psychiatric disorders</div
><div><br /></div><div>Trisomy 13: holoprosencephaly, oro-facial clefts, extra f
ingers/toes, intrauterine growth retardation</div><div><br /></div><div>Trisomy
21: epicanthal folds, <b>upslanting palpebrae</b>, septal heart defects</div><di
v><br /></div><div>XYY: not diagnosed in infancy, mild learning disability, ADHD
& behavioral problems, tall stature, normal fertility</div><div><br /></div
><div>Wolf-Hischhorn (4p-): <b>helmet nose</b>, arched eyebrows, oro-facial clef
ts, microcephaly, mild to severe ID</div><div><br /></div><div>Klinefelter syndr
ome (XXY): not diagnosed in infancy, mild learning disability, small testes and
infertility, significantly increased risk for breast cancer</div><div><br /></di
v><div>Duplication 22q11: boxy head, <b>downslanting palpebrae</b>, moderate to
severe intellectual development</div></div>
1440910935614 1402161953270 Indications for obtaining a cytogenetic study
What symptoms would indicate ordering a cytogenetic study if patient is...<div><
br /></div><div>1) prenatal</div><div>2) infancy/childhood</div><div>3) adulthoo
d</div> 1) intrauterine growth retardation, multiple congenital anomalies, hydro
ps/edema<div><br /><div>2) multiple congenital anomalies, unusual facial fe
atures, short stature, intellectual or learning disabilities, ADHD</div><div><br
/></div><div>3) learning disability, infertibility, spontaneous abortions or st

illbirths<br /><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-89885075570689.jpg" /></div
><div><img src="paste-89992449753089.jpg" /></div></div></div>
1440911190096 1402161953270 Female Expression of X-linked recessive disorder
s
List four mechanisms that explain female expression of X-linked recessiv
e disorders
<img src="paste-93338229276673.jpg" />
1440912547397 1402161953270 Multifactorial Genetic Disorders
<div>1)
T/F: most multifactorial disorders are characterized by autosomal dominant mutat
ions</div><div><br /></div>2a) Thrombophilia: Name two genes that cause most gen
etics-based DVTs<div>2b) Thrombophilia: list treatments</div><div><br /></d
iv><div>3) Long QT Syndrome: specify what is mutated, how this results in long Q
T, and how to treat it</div><div><br /></div><div>4) Hypertropic cardiomyopathy
(HCM): most mutations are linked to which two proteins? how treat?</div><d
iv><br /></div><div>5a) Alzheimer's disease: differentiate genetics of early ons
et from late onset</div><div>5b) Alzheimer's disease: what is its proximate
molecular cause?</div><div><br /></div><div>6) Who secretes leptin? when? what
does it do its target cells?</div>
<div>1) TRUE, these are masked by incomp
lete penetrance and/or variable expresisvity due to other factors such as enviro
nment, diet, behavior and other unknown factors</div><div><br /></div>2a) Factor
V and Factor II (prothrombin)<div>2b) genetic testing if family history suggest
s it, then if have either mutation avoid extended immobility & birth control
; anti-coagulant therapy as needed<br /><div><br /></div><div>3a) mutations in p
otassium channels cause slow repolarization thus elongating the QT interval&nbsp
;</div><div>3b) predisposes one to arrythmia and sudden death</div><div>3c) trea
t with pacemaker & drugs</div><div><br /></div><div>4a) myosin binding prote
in C and myosin heavy chain, i.e. cardiac contractile proteins</div><div>4b) gen
otyping to confirm clinical diagnosis, appropriate drug therapy, implanted defib
rillators; test first degree relatives (even young athletes because it is the mo
st common cause of sudden death in young adults)</div><div><br /></div><div>5a)
early onset (5%) is autosomal dominant due to mutations in three genes (APP, pre
senilin 1 or presenelin 2) while late onset (95%) is linked to variants of apoli
poprotein E (the E4 allele is associated with a 4x increased risk; carriers deve
lop it earlier while homozygous are at very high risk)</div><div>5b) accumulatio
n of aberrantly processed APP protein - beta amyloid peptide</div><div><br /></d
iv><div>6) adipocytes secrete leptin as fat stores increase; they act on tissues
to expend energy stores and ingest less</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pa
81656965121.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-100102802767873.jpg" /></div><div>
<img src="paste-100244536688641.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-10042922028236
9.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-105389907509249.jpg" /></div><div><img src="
paste-105574591102977.jpg" /></div>
1440916842528 1402161953270 Human Genomics 1) Is centromeric DNA considered
functional repeated DNA or non-functional repeated DNA? What about telomeric? t
ransposons?<div><br /></div><div>2a) Differentiate the two types of transposons;
which type is more abundant in the human genome?</div><div>2b) Are transposons
found in intergenic regions, introns or both?</div><div>2c) How do transposons p
lay a key role in evolution?</div><div>2d) How do transposons play a key role in
bringing about individuality?</div><div><br /></div><div>3) Differentiate the t
ypes of DNA polymorphisms via the following fill-in-the-blanks:</div><div>3a) __
__ are the most useful group of polymorphic markers for mapping and personal ide
ntification</div><div>3b) Lineage tracing is done by looking for closely spaced
____</div><div>3c) ____ are caused by unequal meiotic crossing over due to impro
per match-up of transposons or other repeated sequence followed by recombination
</div> 1a) centromeric DNA: functional b/c its epigentically labeled chromatin
binds to proteins to make up the kinetochore to facilitate its binding to the sp
indle apparatus<div>1b) telomeric DNA: functional b/c the 5'-TTAGGG repeats fold
into each other to form a T-loop structure to protect the ends of the DNA</div>
<div>1c) transposons: most of it is non-functional, but some can be functional</
div><div>Whether or not transpons "function" depends on context: if transposon c
reates a copy of itself that then pastes itself into an exon then it is function
al (in the bad way!); in another vein, transposons facilitate recombination that
may cause gross genomic change and/or impact gene expression <br /><div><b
r /></div><div>2a) retrotransposons require RNA Pol and reverse transcriptase to
make DNA intermediates that can then copy back elsewhere whereas regular transp
osons do not (see slide); retrotransposons are far more abundant</div></div><div
>2b) both</div><div>2c) mis-aligned recombination between transposons of two dif
ferent chromosomes or two homologous chromosomes may lead to gene duplications o
r loss of genes or other gross genomic change that can fuel genetic variation</d
iv><div>2d) transposon insertion into a regulatory sequences will change express
ion of a gene</div><div><br /></div><div>3a) <b><u>SSRs</u></b> (simpl
e sequence repeats) are the most useful group of polymorphic markers for mapping
and personal identification</div><div>3b) Lineage tracing is done by looking fo
r closely spaced <u style="font-weight: bold; ">SNPs</u> (single nucleotide
polymorphisms)</div><div>3c) <b><u>CNVs</u></b> (copy number variants) are
caused by unequal meiotic crossing over due to improper match-up of transposons
or other repeated sequence followed by recombination</div><div><img src="paste113211042955265.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-113043539230721.jpg" /></div><
15265.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-116312009342977.jpg" /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-119730803310593.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-123875446751233.jpg"
/></div>
1440920135439 1402161953270 Cytochrome P450 genes 1) Reaction catalyzed by
this enzyme<div>2) Enzyme classification/action</div><div>3) Medical relevance?
</div><div><br /></div><div>4a) Which drug -- codeine or coumadin -- requires a
CYP gene to enzymatically activate it (what does this imply about dose for a poo
r metabolizer)? </div><div><br /></div><div>4b) How is the other drug proce
ssed by CYP genes? (specify dose consideration for poor metabolizer). </div
><div><br /></div><div>4c) Are the two drugs processed by the same exact enzyme?
</div> 1) RH<sub>2</sub> + O<sub>2</sub> + NADPH + H<sup>+</sup> ----> ROH +
H<sub>2</sub>O + NADP<sup>+</sup><div><br /></div><div>2) hydroxylase or methyl
oxidase</div><div><br /></div><div>3) modify small foreign particles (i.e. drug
s), thus they are the primary enzymes in drug metabolism. Sometimes their enzyma
tic actions will activate drug while other times its action will facilitate the
elimination of that drug</div><div><br /></div><div>4a) codeine; poor metabolize
rs will not respond to codeine so give higher dose or alternative treatment</div
><div>4b) coumadin is cleared; poor metabolizers need to be given lower dose of
coumadin</div><div>4c) No</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-12849683156
/></div>
1440949017904 1402161953270 Cell Cycle Initiation <div>1) To initiate norm
al proliferation, a cell needs ____, which bind to cell-surface ____, which dime
rize and phosphorylate each other and then other proteins leading to an intracel
lular signal cascade that ultimately results in activating transcription factors
that upregulate expression of proteins involved in cell replication</div><div><
br /></div><div>2) What is the "restriction point" of the cell cycle, and what i
s required to get past it?</div><div><br /></div><div>3) What type of proteins t
ransmit the signal from the cell-surface to the nucleus?</div> <div>1) growth f
actors; growth factor receptors (receptor tyrosine kinases)</div><div><br /></di
v><div>2) control point in G1; growth factors</div><div><br /></div><div>3) prot
ein kinases such as G-proteins, non-receptor protein tyrosine kinases and serine
-threonine protein kinases</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><img src="past
e-13563506720769.jpg" /><br /><div><img src="paste-13413182865409.jpg" /></div><
689.jpg" /></div>
1440950429544 1402161953270 Control of cell cycle progression
1) T/F:
cyclins are catalytic subunits that have activity only when associated with a CD
K<div><br /><div>2) T/F: CDK-Inhibitors can bind to and inactivate phosphorylate
d cyclin/CDK complexes</div><div><br /></div><div>3) Imagine a scenario where RB
protein has a mutation that makes it impossible to phosphorylate the RB protein

. Describe, in detail, how this would impact the control of cell cycle progressi
on.</div></div> 1) FALSE: cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are catalytic subunits
that have activity only when associated with a cyclin<div><br /><div>2) TRUE</d
iv><div><br /></div><div>3) RB phosphorylation by G1-CDK allows the release of t
he transcription factor E2F, which in turn leads to G1/S CDK expression. Failure
to phosphorylate RB would result in failure to express G1/S CDK, thus impeding
transition from G1 to S, i.e. cell would stay locked in the restriction point.<b
r /><div><img src="paste-19816979103745.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-199071
73416961.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-20169166422017.jpg" /></div></div></d
iv><div><img src="paste-35935991365633.jpg" /></div>
1440951877911 1402161953270 Control of DNA Replication during Cell Cycle
1) T/F: inactive helicase is loaded on DNA at the start of the S phase<div><br /
><div>2a) T/F: helicase is activated by phosphorylation</div><div>2b) If false,
how is helicase activated?</div><div>2c) At what point of the cell cycle is heli
case activated?</div><div><br /></div><div>3) T/F: What prevents a second round
of DNA replication?</div></div> 1) FALSE -- inactive helicase is loaded on DNA <
u><b>during G1</b></u><div><br /><div>2a) TRUE</div><div>2b) N/A</div><div>2c) s
tart of S phase</div><div><br /></div><div>3) helicase inactivation and dissocia
tion from DNA in G2</div></div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-31503585116
161.jpg" /></div>
1440952561288 1402161953270 Cell Cycle Control: Checkpoints 1) What is the s
ensor for dsDNA breaks?<div><br /></div><div>2) Which transcription factor does
this sensor activate?</div><div><br /></div><div>3) One result of the activation
of this transcription factor is cell cycle arrest in the ____ phase; this ultim
ately occurs by preventing ____ phosphorylation, thus blocking ____</div><div><b
r /></div><div>4) This transcription factor accomplishes cell cycle arrest by el
evating expression of ____ and ____ genes. </div><div><br /></div><div>5) T
/F: In addition to mediating cell cycle arrest, this transcription factor also e
levates expression of pro-apoptotic genes.</div>
1) ATM kinase<div><br />
</div><div>2) p53<br /><div><br /></div><div>3) One result of the activatio
n of this transcription factor is cell cycle arrest in the <b><u>G1</u></b>
phase; this ultimately occurs by preventing <b><u>RB</u></b> pho
sphorylation, thus blocking <b><u>expression of G1/S CDK</u></b></div><div>
<br /></div><div>4) CDKI (of G1 CDK-cyclin complex) and DNA repair genes</div><d
iv><br /></div><div>5) TRUE</div><div><b><u><br /></u></b></div><div><b><u><img
src="paste-36069135351809.jpg" /></u></b></div><div><b><u><img src="paste-362022
79337985 (1).jpg" /></u></b></div></div><div><b><u><img src="paste-3700543822233
7.jpg" /></u></b></div><div><b><u><img src="paste-37314675867649.jpg" /></u></b>
</div>
1440953250256 1402161953270 Normal vs. Cancer Cell Growth Classify each of
the following as proto-oncogene or tumor suppressor:<div><br /></div><div>1) p5
3</div><div>2) RB</div><div>3) Ras</div><div><br /></div><div>(note: not exactly
covered in lecture; might be out of scope to test, but just in case)</div>
1) Tumor suppressor. p53 activated causes cell-cycle arrest, thus it is a tumor
suppressor gene, i.e. loss of p53 would lead to cancer.<div><br /></div><div>2)
Tumor suppressor. Like p53, RB controls cell-cycle by binding to transcription f
actor E2F. Loss of RB leads to cancer.</div><div><br /></div><div>3) Proto-oncog
ene. Constitutively active Ras, a kinase used for intracellular signal transduct
ion, would amplify expression of cyclin-CDK complexes favoring cell division.</d
iv><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-40608915783681.jpg" /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-40733469835265.jpg" /></div>
1440959122793 1402161953270 Cell Injury & Cell Death 1 <div>1) List thr
ee pathologic effects of ROS and list three enzymes used to remove ROS.</div><di
v><br /></div>2) Name enzyme associated with generation of ROS due to reperfusio
n injury after ischemia<div><br /><div>3) What role does alpha-tocopherol play i
n generation of ROS?</div><div><br /></div><div>4) List three functional consequ
ences of ATP depletion due to ischemia. Specify the morphological consequences f
or each case.</div></div><div><br /></div><div>5) Why/how does hypoxia cause dis
tortion of cellular organelles?</div> <div>1a) DNA damage, lipid peroxidation,
and protein modification (resulting in breakdown & misfolding)</div><div>1b

) superoxide dismutase (converts superoxide into peroxide); glutathione peroxida
se and catalase (convert peroxide into water)</div><div>[vitamins A, C and E as
well as lactoferrin also help cell defense against free radicals]</div><div><br
/></div>2) xanthine oxidase<div><br /></div><div>3) it is a lipid-soluble anti-o
xidant that <b><u>protects</u></b> cell membranes from oxidation by reacting wit
h lipid radicals produced in lipid peroxidation chain reaction</div><div><br /><
/div><div>4a) decrease in Na/K pump ---> cell depolarization due to rise in p
lasma [K] ---> influx of calcium and sodium ions and water ---> cell swell
ing, membrane damage</div><div>4b) increase anaerobic glycolysis ---> depleti
on glycogen stores (liver & muscle), rise in lactic acid, drop in pH ----&gt
; clumping of nuclear chromatin</div><div>4c) detachment of ribosomes ---> dr
op in protein synthesis</div><div><br /></div><div>5) Membrane damage</div><div>
The drop in ATP along (and corresponding rise in cytosolic calcium) leads to red
uced phospholipid synthesis and increased phospholipid degradation, all of which
degrades the integrity of the membranes and distorts the organelles.</div><div>
Calcium activates caspases to trigger cleavage of cytoskeletal proteins (note: m
ay trigger apoptosis)</div><div>Calcium also plays role in mitochondrial permeab
ility (also may trigger apoptosis via release of cytochrome c)</div><div><br /><
336931329.jpg" /></div><div><br /><div><img src="paste-42730629627905.jpg" /></d
iv><div><img src="paste-42885248450561.jpg" /></div></div><div><img src="paste-4
9456548413441.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-51999169052673.jpg" /></div><div
.jpg" /></div>
1440964052189 1402161953270 Cell Injury & Cell Death 2 1) Describe proc
ess of steatosis<div><br /><div>2) What are mallory bodies?</div><div><br /></di
v><div>3) Define each of the following terms: hypertrophy, atrophy, hy
perplasia, metaplasia</div><div><br /></div><div>4) Specify expected type of nec
rosis in each case:</div><div>cardiac infarct</div><div>brain infection</div><di
v>skin infection</div><div>tuberculosis</div><div>chalky white areas in acute pa
ncreatitis</div><div>wall of artery</div></div> 1) Loss of ATP due to cell injur
y/ischemia/hypoxia impedes hepatocyte's processing of triglycerides into lipopro
teins. The unprocessed triglycerides clump inside hepatocyte. Note: in myocardiu
m, fat accumulates b/c ATP required for fatty acid oxidation (no ATP = fat accum
ulation within cell).<div><br /></div><div>2) inclusion found in cytoplasm of li
ver cells due to damaged intermediate filaments; suggestive of alcoholic hepatit
is</div><div><br /></div><div>3) </div><div>hypertrophy = growth of cell vo
lume in response to increased demand/stimulation from growth factors/hormones</d
iv><div>atrophy = degeneration of cell due to lack of nutrients/stimulation&nbsp
;</div><div>hyperplasia = increased cell division in response to increased
demand/stimulation from growth factors/hormones</div><div>metaplasia = chronic i
rritation leading to change in cell type (see image below of columnar epithelia
--> stratified squamous)</div><div><br /></div><div>4)</div><div><div>cardiac
infarct = coagulative necrosis</div><div>brain infection = liquefactive necrosi
s</div><div>skin infection = suppurative necrosis</div><div>tuberculosis = caseo
us necrosis</div><div>chalky white areas in acute pancreatitis = fat necrosis</d
iv><div>wall of artery = fibrinoid necrosis</div></div><div><br /><div><br /></d
iv><div><img src="paste-65850438582273.jpg" /></div></div><div><img src="paste-6
7430986547201.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-68513318305793.jpg" /></div><div
1440966070778 1402161953270 Apoptosis vs. Necrosis Match each scenario to a
poptosis, necrosis, or both:<div>1) large areas of cell death</div><div>2)
karyorrhexis (nuclear fragmentation)</div><div>3) karyolysis (nuclear dissolutio
n)</div><div>4) cytoplasm released</div><div>5) inflammation usually present</di
v><div>6) cell shrinkage and convolution</div>
<div><img src="p
aste-77494094921729.jpg" /></div>
1440967235234 1402161953270 Apotosis Mechanisms
1) What are caspases? (s
pecify molecular details)<div><br /></div><div>2) List three classes of Bcl-2 su
perfamily proteins (name one protein for each class) and specify function of eac
h class</div><div><br /></div><div>3) T/F: cell stays alive when trophic factors

keep the BH3-only proteins (like "Bad") phosphorylated </div><div><br /></
div><div>4) Re-arrange the following events of the intrinsic pathway in the corr
ect sequence: apoptosome formation, Bax pore formation, cleavage of pro-caspase
3 into caspase 3, cleavage of pro-caspase 9 into caspase 9, release of cyt c</di
v><div><br /></div><div>5) How does the extrinsic pathway activate caspase-3?</d
iv><div><br /></div><div>6) What role does p53 play in apoptosis? Does it suppor
t/inhibit both apoptotic pathways or only one?</div>
1a) proteases that targe
t cytoplasmic, cytoskeletal and nuclear proteins<div>1b) cystine in active site;
cuts at C-terminus side of aspartate in target protein</div><div><br /></div><d
iv>2a) Pro-survival (ex: Bcl-2): act at mit. surface to prevent formation of por
es</div><div>2b) Pro-apoptotic (ex: Bax): act at mit. surface to form membrane p
ores</div><div>2c) Pro-apoptotic BH3-only family (ex: Bad): assists formation of
pores</div><div><br /></div><div>3) TRUE</div><div><br /></div><div>4) Bax pore
formation --> release cyt c --> apoptosome formation --> cleavage procaspase 9 --> cleavage pro-caspase 3</div><div><br /></div><div>5) via caspas
e-8 activation</div><div><br /></div><div>6) supports both, but it is principall
y involved in stimulating intrinsic pathway by increasing expression of pro-apop
totic proteins (Bax, Bad) while decreasing exprression of anti-apoptotic protein
s (Bcl-2)</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-82398947573761.jpg" /></div
c="paste-96872987361281.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-100747047862273.jpg" /
></div>
1440968292793 1402161953270 Human Population Genetics
How calculate q
in ...<div> 1) autosomal recessive?</div><div>
2) X-linked recessive?</div><div> &nbsp
; 3) autosomal dominant?</div> <div>1) square root disease incidence</div><div>
2) equal to the disease incidence in males</div><div>3) half of the disease inci
dence (because we assume p ~1, so 2q ~ disease incidence; see slide below)</div>
<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-102078487724033.jpg" /></div>
1440968731810 1402161953270 DNA Microarrays Differentiate comparative genomi
c hybridization (CGH) from comparative RNA hybridization (CRH); use following qu
estions to help differentiate the two:<div><br /></div><div>Which test detects i
ndividual genes vs. cluster of gene deletions and duplications?</div><div>Which
test is used to stratify tumors? </div><div>Which test is used to explain f
indings of unexplained developmental delay, growth abnormality, and dysmorphic f
eatures?</div> CGH detects copy number variants (CNVs) to identify deletions or
duplications; cannot identify individual genes; used for unexplained developmen
tal delay, etc<div><br /></div><div>CRH detects functional SNPs to directly iden
tify genes that under or overproduce their mRNA; used to stratify tumors</div><d
iv><br /></div><div><img src="paste-103049150332929.jpg" /></div><div><img src="
/div>
1440969588530 1402161953270 Goals in multifactorial dieases Which of the fol
lowing is NOT a goal in multifactorial disease?<div><br /></div><div>a) identify
all the genes that significantly contribute to disease</div><div>b) identify pr
edisposing mutations of these genes that are common in the population</div><div>
c) large scale genome sequencing for individual patients to assess genetic risk
for common diseases</div><div>d) gene therapy to correct critical defective gene
s that predispose people to disease</div><div>e) I love lamp</div>
<div><di
v><img src="paste-106914620899329.jpg" /></div></div>
1440969891793 1402161953270 Gene Therapy
1) List two vectors of choice, o
utline main disadvantage of each<div><br /></div><div>2) Why is it important to
insert cloned therapeutic gene cDNA as opposed to genomic DNA?</div><div><br /><
/div><div>3) What is the therapy for dominant disorders that cayse too much or a
berrant gene products?</div>
1a) adenovirus; disadvantage is transient expres
sion and immune reactions upon reapplication (i.e. only the first dose is good)<
div>1b) retrovirus; disadvantage is the risk that when it integrates into the ho
st genome it will mutate a gene (e.g. may knock out a tumor suppressor gene); al
so it infects non-growing cells poorly</div><div><br /></div><div>2) genomic DNA

is transcribed into pre-mRNA which needs to get processed; we want to go straig
ht into mature mRNA from DNA, hence use cDNA</div><div><br /></div><div>3) shRNA
(short hairpin RNA) via retrovirus vector<br /><div><br /></div><div><img src="
/div><div><img src="paste-109272557944833.jpg" /></div></div><div><img src="past
e-111252537868289.jpg" /></div>
1440187293704 1402161953270 Plasma pH Values
<div>1) What is the norm
al plasma [H+] and pH?</div>2) What are the normal plasma [H+] and pH limits?<di
v>2) What are the extreme plasma [H+] and pH limits compatible with life?</div>
<div>1) 40 nM ==> pH 7.4</div><div><br /></div>2) 42.7 and 38 nM ==> pH ra
nge 7.37 - 7.42<div><br /><div>3) 16 and 160 nM ===> pH range 6.8 - 7.8</div>
</div>
1440188024485 1402161953270 Intra- and Extracellular Physiological Buffers
1) Name the two intracellular buffer systems<div><br /></div><div>2) Specify equ
ation to calculate plasma pH using [HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>] and pCO<sub>2&n
bsp;</sub></div><div><br /></div><div>3) Specify equation to calculate plas
ma [H<sup>+</sup>] using [HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>] and pCO<sub>2 </sub>
</div><div><sub><br /></sub></div><div>4) Specify normal plasma [HCO<sub>3<
/sub><sup>-</sup>] and pCO<sub>2 </sub>values</div><div><br /></div><div>5) Defi
ne respiratory and metabolic control</div>
1a) dihydrogen phosphate to hydr
ogen phosphate (pK = 6.8)<div>1b) ionizable amino acids on proteins, epsecially
histidine (pK ~6)</div><div><br /></div><div>2) pH = 6.1 + log (([HCO<sub>3</sub
><sup>-</sup>]/(0.03*pCO<sub>2</sub>))</div><div><br /></div><div>3) [H<sup>+</s
up>] = 23.9 * pCO<sub>2 </sub>/ [HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>]</div><di
v><br /></div><div>4a) [HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>] = 24 mM</div><div>4b)&
nbsp;pCO<sub>2 </sub>= 40 mmHg</div><div><br /></div><div>5a) respiratory contro
l = ability of lungs to change pCO<sub>2 </sub>(and thus plasma pH) via hyper or
hypoventilation</div><div><br /></div><div>5b) metabolic control = ability of k
idney to change [HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>] (and thus plasma pH) via increasin
g or decresaing [HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>] reabsorption (also can think
of as increasing or decreasing [H<sup>+</sup>] excretion)</div><div><br /></div>
<div><img src="paste-6416681140225.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-66958540144
65 (1).jpg" /></div>
1440188727963 1402161953270 Acid-Base Disturbance 1) What is the differenc
e between acidemia and acidosis?<div><br /></div><div>2) T/F: Alkalosis means th
e arterial blood pH > 7.45</div><div><br /></div><div>3) Which respiratory di
sorder leads to acidosis: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) or hyperv
entilation? Explain.</div><div><br /></div><div>4) Which metabolic disorder lead
s to alkalosis: vomiting or diarrhea? Explain.</div>
1) acidemia means the bl
ood pH < 7.35; it is caused by acidosis; however, acidosis does NOT always le
ad to acidemia. An individual suffering from acidosis may have normal blood pH i
f the lung or kidney response was sufficient to buffer blood pH back to normal r
ange<div><br /></div><div>2) FALSE. Alkalemia means arterial blood pH > 7.45<
/div><div><br /></div><div>3a) COPD sufferers struggle at exhaling air, which le
ads to accumulation of CO<sub>2</sub> in lungs</div><div><br /></div><div>3b) hy
perventilation results in alkalosis because that condition would reduce plasma C
O<sub>2</sub> </div><div><br /></div><div>4a) prolonged vomiting</div><div>
Background knowledge: the parietal cells that secrete HCl into the stomach lumen
get the H<sup>+</sup> from H<sub>2</sub>CO<sub>3</sub>. While the H<sup>+</sup>
is secreted into the stomach, the HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup> is released into
the blood. </div><div><br /></div><div>Vomiting stimulates hyperactivity of
gastric parietal cells to replace lost stomach acid, thus also leading to a ris
e in bicabonate in the blood -- and that is how prolonged vomiting leads to meta
bolic acidosis.</div><div><br /></div><div>4b) diarrhea results in lower bicarbo
nate reabsorption, thus leading to acidosis</div><div><br /></div><div><img src=
"paste-8147552960513.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-8383776161793.jpg" /></di
v>
1440196234478 1402161953270 Histidine's imidazole ring pKa 1) What is the n
ormal pK?<div><br /><div>2) What is its pK when placed near an aspartate residue
? Why?</div><div><br /></div><div>3) Explain functional relevance of the above w

ith respect to hemoglobin</div></div> 1) 6.6<div><br /><div>2) 8.0, which mean
s it is more basic. It is thermodynamically favorable for His to bear a positive
charge when placed near a negative charge (Asp). The imidazole ring's nitrogen
is more basic (higher pKa) when near a negative charge so that it can form a sal
t bridge with that negative charge.</div><div><br /></div><div>3) Deoxy Hb posit
ions the His residue near an Asp residue, thus deoxy Hb is the more basic form o
f Hb, which explains why it has a higher affinity for H+ (and thus a lower affin
ity for oxygen). </div></div>
1440196241533 1402161953270 Acid-Base Disorders: Causes
Specify
which acid-base disorder results from each case:<div><br /></div><div>vomiting</
div><div>diabetes</div><div>hyperventilation</div><div>pregnancy</div><div>loop
diuretics (not acetazolamide)</div><div>severe diarrhea</div><div>renal disease<
/div><div>drug abuse (depressed respiration)</div><div>anemia</div>
<div>vom
iting = metabolic alkalosis</div><div>diabetes = metabolic acidosis</div><div>hy
perventilation = respiratory alkalosis</div><div>pregnancy = respiratory alkalos
is</div><div>loop diuretics (not acetazolamide) = metabolic alkalosis</div><div>
severe diarrhea = metabolic acidosis</div><div>renal disease = metabolic acidosi
s</div><div>drug abuse (depressed respiration) = respiratory acidosis</div><div>
anemia = respiratory alkalosis</div>
1440197350961 1402161953270 Protein Structure & Function
1) Diffe
rentiate phi from psi<div><br /></div><div>2) The _____ ____ drives protein fold
ing</div>
1) phi is between the nitrogen and the alpha-carbon whereas psi
is between the carbonyl carbon and the alpha-carbon (memory tip: phi has an H, j
ust like the nitrogen is connected to the H whereas the carbonyl group has no H)
<div><br /></div><div><div>2) hydrophobic effect</div></div><div><br /></div><di
v><img src="paste-23063974379521.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-2315416869273
7.jpg" /></div>
1440199829137 1402161953270 Hemoglobin 1
1) How many distinct types of ch
ains exist in adult Hb?<div><br /></div><div>2) How does oxygen binding change t
he position of the iron center in heme?</div><div><br /></div><div>3) Is deoxy H
b in the "T" state or the "R" state?</div><div><br /></div><div>4) Why is myoglo
bin's oxygen dissociation curve not sigmoidal?</div>
1) Two: adult Hb is comp
osed of 2 alpha and 2 beta chains, each one of which has a heme that can bind to
one O<sub>2</sub> molecule<div><br /></div><div>2) Fe<sup>2+</sup> iron center
of heme now fits into the heme plane</div><div><br /></div><div>3) "T" state ("t
ense")</div><div><br /></div><div>4) Hb's sigmoidal curve is a result of it bein
g an allosteric protein (oxygen is a homotropic modulator). Myoglobin only has o
ne chain and one O<sub>2</sub> binding spot, so no opportunity for cooperativity
.</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-23454816403457.jpg" /></div><div><i
1440200334733 1402161953270 Hemoglobin 2
1) Is the P<sub>50</sub> for myo
globin lower or higher than hemoglobin? What does that mean?<div><br /></div><di
v>2a) T/F: 2,3-BPG stabilizes the T state</div><div>2b) Does an increase in BPG
shift the Hb dissociation curve to the left or the right?</div><div><br /></div>
<div>3) What role does BPG play in explaining why fetal Hb's dissociation curve
is to the left of adult Hb?</div><div><br /></div><div>4) Humans adapt to high a
ltitudes by producing more or less BPG?</div><div><br /></div><div>5) Do pregnan
t women produce more or less BPG -- why?</div> 1) Myoglobin has a smaller P<sub
>50</sub>. The P<sub>50</sub> is analogous to Km: larger # means lower affinity.
Myoglobin has a very high affinity for oxygen; it serves as a store of oxygen i
n skeletal muscle.<div><br /></div><div>2a) TRUE</div><div>2b) to the right</div
><div><br /></div><div>3) Instead of two beta chains, fetal Hb has two delta cha
ins. BPG binds to the pocket beteween beta chains, but fetal Hb has delta chains
instead of beta chains so BPG struggles at binding to fetal Hb.</div><div><br /
></div><div>4) more (to increase oxygen delivery)</div><div><br /></div><div>5)
more (to increase oxygen delivery to fetus at placenta)</div><div><br /></div><d
1440200729554 1402161953270 Hemoglobin 3
1) Describe two amino acid inter
actions that stabilize deoxy Hb quaternary structure<div><br /></div><div>2) Whe
re does CO<sub>2</sub> bind to Hb?</div><div><br /></div><div>3) List four cause

s of the Bohr shift</div><div><br /></div><div>4) Carbon monoxide (CO) stabilize
s the ___ state of Hb. Does this result in a leftward or rightward shift? Explai
n.</div><div><br /></div><div>5) Does CO poisoning result in acidemia or alkalem
ia?</div>
1a) protonated His residue (imidazole ring) on beta chain forms
salt bridge with an Asp residue's acidic group (also on beta chain)<div>1b) C-te
rminus of the same His residue forms H-bond with a Lysine of neighboring alpha c
hain</div><div><br /></div><div>2) N-terminal amino groups</div><div><br /></div
><div>3) decrease in pH; increase in CO<sub>2</sub>, BPG, temperature</div><div>
<br /></div><div>4) The "R" state, thus causes a leftward shift. This means the
poisoned Hb cannot release its oxygen, but that doesn't mean it binds new oxygen
well because Hb has a significantly higher affinity for CO. Stated another
way, when Hb binds CO the other O2 binding spots tighten up and don't let their
O<sub>2</sub> go even at low PO2 (leftward shift). </div><div><br /></div>
<div>5) neither. CO poisoning results in normal arterial blood gas values.</div>
1440205217255 1402161953270 Protein Diseases 1
1) Does ALS result from
a "gain of function" or "loss of function"? Explain/describe details of mutation
in ALS.<div><br /></div><div>2) What are prion diseases (aka transmissable spon
giform encephalopathies, TSE)?</div><div><br /></div><div>3) Explain how a silen
t mutation that does NOT change the amino acid sequence of a protein can result
in a protein with a different structure (ex: MDR1 gene)</div> 1a) gain of func
tion<div>1b) Gly to Ala mutation in superoxide dismutase (SOD1) results in a pro
tein prone to aggregration</div><div><br /></div><div>2) a transmissable, infect
ious protein aggregation disease of humans and animals that manifests as a neuro
degenerative disorder</div><div><br /></div><div>3) ribosome may stall due to ti
me needed to find tRNA for rare codon (even though this mutant codon codes for s
ame amino acid as WT), and this stall may give time for portion of protein alrea
dy synthesized to fold differently and thus insert differently into membrane</di
v><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-39526584025089.jpg" /></div>
1440207387149 1402161953270 Prion Proteins 1) T/F: PrP<sup>c</sup> has more
alpha helices than PrP<sup>sc</sup><div><br /></div><div>2) Does prion disease
progression require replication of PrP<sup>sc</sup>?</div><div><br /></div><div>
3) Name experimental treatment used to reduce PrP<sup>sc</sup> aggregation.</div
>
1) TRUE<div><br /></div><div>2) No. The diseased prion protein does not
need to replicate because it can convert normal prion proteins into misfolding</
div><div><br /></div><div>3) chaotropic agents -- they weaken intra and intermol
ecular interactions, thus reducing stability of protein's native state</div><div
1440208162125 1402161953270 Osteogenesis imperfecta 1) Inheritance pattern<d
iv><br /></div><div>For each of the following, answer type I, II, or III:<br /><
div>2) Which type is the most severe?</div></div><div>3) Which type is the most
common?</div><div>4) Which type is characterized by blue sclera?</div><div>5) Wh
ich type makes collagen of normal quality but low quantity?</div><div>6) Which t
ype makes sufficient quantity but defective collagen?</div>
1) autosomal dom
inant<div>2) Type II</div><div>3) Type I</div><div>4) Type II</div><div>5) Type
I</div><div>6) Type III</div><div><img src="paste-44229573214209.jpg" /></div>
1440208721913 1402161953270 Collagen
<div>1) ___ is every third amino
acid in most of the protein</div><div><br /></div><div>2) Describe fundamental
unit of collagen</div><div><br /></div><div>3) T/F: collagen molecules are packe
d together into fibrils via hydrogen bonding</div>
<div>1) Glycine</div><di
v><br /></div><div>2) triple helix: two alpha1 chains and one alpha2 chain all o
f which are held together by hydrogen bonds from peptide amide bonds of glycine
to peptide carbonyl group of adjacent polypeptide</div><div><br /></div><div>3)
FALSE. Packed via covalent bonds between C-terminus of one collagen molecule and
the N-termins of an adjacent one.</div><div><img src="paste-48228187766785.jpg"
1440209174598 1402161953270 Enzyme Inhibition
Given that curve A repre
sents the uninhibited enzyme, what type of inhibition is demonstrated in curves
B, C and D?<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-49490908151811.jpg" /></div>

Curve B = competitive inhibition (same Vmax, higher Km)<div>Curve C = noncompeti
tive inhibition (lower Vmax, same Km)</div><div>Curve D = uncompetitive inhibiti
on (lower Vmax, lower Km)</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-50006304227
329.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>The same graph in q-stem in a Velocity vs
. [S] plot:</div><div><img src="paste-50513110368259.jpg" /></div>
1440209563335 1402161953270 Enzymes as Diagnostic Markers 1) T/F: Isoenzym
es have the same molecular formula but are structurally different<div><br /></di
v><div>2) Name two common diagnostic protein markers for: </div><div>liver
damage, pancreatitis and myocardial infarction (MI). Specify which marker is the
"gold standard" for diagnosis of MI.</div>
1) FALSE, that is the definition
for isomers. Isoenzymes catalyze the same biochemical reaction, but they are ph
ysically distinct, thus isoenzymes may vary in Km, Vmax, location of expression,
and/or regulatory domains<div><br /></div><div>2a) liver damage = alanine
aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST)</div><div>2b) pancre
atitis = amylase and lipase</div><div>2c) CK-MB (creatine kinase MB) and cTnI (c
ardiac troponin I); cTnI is the "gold standard"</div><div><br /></div><div><img
src="paste-51930449575937.jpg" /></div>
1440210273054 1402161953270 Mechanisms of Enzyme (or protein) Regulation
1) T/F: substrate inhibition (lowering [S]) regulates enzyme activity by lowerin
g Vmax<div><br /></div><div>2) T/F: heterotropic allosteric modulation of hemogl
obin by CO<sub>2</sub> increases the P<sub>50 </sub></div><div><br /></div>
<div>3) Which regulatory event has the longest onset time: covalent modification
, product inhibition or [E] change?</div>
1) FALSE. Only by lowering Veloc
ity (neither Vmax or Km changed)<div><br /></div><div>2) TRUE</div><div><br /></
div><div>3) [E] change</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-52755083296769
.jpg" /></div>
1440210598557 1402161953270 Enzyme Kinetics 1) T/F: an increase in either [E
] or [S] results in an increase in Vmax<div><br /></div><div>2) T/F: Doubling [S
] will double the rate of the reaction if [S] << Km</div><div><br /></div>
<div>3) Enzymes following Michaelis-Menten kinetics show ____ curves.</div><div>
<br /></div><div>4) Differentiate kcat from catalytic efficiency</div> 1) FALSE
-- only an increase in [E] would increase Vmax (via the equation Vmax = k<sub>c
at</sub> * [E]<sub>active</sub> (equation not given in NJMS slides). Increa
sing [S] merely increases reaction rate towards Vmax, but it does not alter the
Vmax.<div><br /></div><div>2) TRUE</div><div><br /></div><div>3) hyperbolic</div
><div><br /></div><div>4a) kcat = number of molecules produced per second</div><
div>4b) catalytic efficiency = kcat/Km ==> for many enzymes this number appro
aches the diffusion limit of 10^8-10^9</div><div><img src="paste-53322018979841.
jpg" /></div>
1440211516421 1402161953270 DNA
1a) How do you determine right-or-left h
andedness? <div><div>1b) Is genomic DNA usually right or left?</div></div><
div><br /></div><div>2) Differentiate the three forms of DNA</div>
1a) see
slide below<div>1b) right</div><div><br /></div><div>2a) A form: DNA-RNA hybrid
or RNA duplex</div><div>2b) B form: most genomic DNA</div><div>2c) Z form: left
handed DNA</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-54769422958593.jpg" /></di
v><div><img src="paste-54919746813953 (1).jpg" /></div>
1440211880955 1402161953270 DNA Packaging 1) Composition of a mononucleoso
me (specify which histones, #of bp and #turns)<div><br /></div><div>2) Nucleosom
es are packed to form a polynucleosomal structure called ______, which has a lef
t-handed helical arrangement of about ___ nucleosomes per turn. </div><div>
<br /></div><div>3) What is the highest level of packing of genomic DNA?</div>
1) one histone octomer (H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 in a 1:1:1:1 ratio) with ~146 bp DNA
in 1.67 turns to form a left-handed super-helix<div><br /></div><div>2) nucleof
ilament; 5.4</div><div><br /></div><div>3) metaphase chromosomes</div><div><br /
42517071873.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-56444460204033.jpg" /></div><div><
1440212803134 1402161953270 Centromeres and Telomeres
Detail the DNA s
equences of centromeres and telomeres centromere = 0.3 Mb to 5 Mb in size cons
isting of multiple repeats of (A+T)-rich 171 bp sequence (called alpha satellite

DNA) and a 68 bp sequence (called beta satellite DNA)<div><br /></div><div>telo
mere = 5-15 kb sequence consisting of hexameric TTAGGG repeats</div><div><br /><
500816897.jpg" /></div>
1440259465525 1402161953270 Epigenetic Regulation 1) What is epigenetic re
gulation? <div>2) How is it primarily achieved?</div><div>3) Name the four
best studied histone modifying enzymes</div><div>4) T/F: all chromatin modifying
enzymes are ATP-dependent</div>
1) Regulation of the transcriptiona
l activity of chromosomal genes that are not dependent on gene sequence<div><br
/><div>2) modification of histone tails</div></div><div><br /></div><div>3)&nbsp
;</div><div>Histone acetyltransferases (HATs)</div><div>Histone deacetylases (HD
ACs)</div><div>Histone methyl transferases (HMTs) </div><div>histone demeth
ylases (LSD1 and Jumonji family of proteins)</div><div><br /></div><div>4) FALSE
. The four mentioned above are not ATP-dependent; those that are ATP-dependent r
emodel chromatin by moving/exchanging nucleosomes in relation to DNA.</div><div>
<br /></div><div><img src="paste-6975026888705.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste
-11012296146945 (1).jpg" /></div>
1440260020121 1402161953270 Euchromatin vs. Heterochromatin Specify whether
each characteristic is typical of euchromatin or heterochromatin:<div><br /></di
v><div>1) replicated throughout S phase</div><div>2) no meiotic recombination</d
iv><div>3) repetitive sequences at centromeres and telomeres</div><div>4) enrich
ed in HP1 and MeCP2</div><div>5) has two types: facultative and constitutive</di
v>
1 = euchromatin; 2-5 = heterochromatin<div><br /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-7395933683713.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-7537667604481.jpg" /></div>
1440261039535 1402161953270 Diseases associated with/caused by defects in ch
romatin regulators
For each of the following diseases specify the enzyme in
volved, the inheritance pattern and phenotype:<div><br /></div><div>1) ATR-X syn
drome</div><div>2) ICF syndrome</div><div>3) RETT syndrome</div><div>4) Rubinste
in-Taybi syndrome</div> 1) ATR-X<div>enzyme: chromatin remodeler</div><div>inher
itance pattern: X-linked recessive</div><div>phenotype: mental retardation, faci
al & skeletal abnormalities, microcephaly</div><div><br /></div><div>2) ICF
syndrome</div><div><div>enzyme: DNA methyltransferase</div><div>inheritance patt
ern: autosomal recessive</div><div>phenotype: immunodeficiency, mental retardati
on, facial abnormalities</div></div><div><br /></div><div>3) RETT syndrome</div>
<div>enzyme: MeCP2 (methyl-CpG binding protein 2)</div><div>inheritance pattern:
X-linked dominant (de novo mutation) --> only in females and men with Klinfe
lter's syndrome (XXY)</div><div>phenotype: scoliosis, autism, mental retardation
</div><div><br /></div><div>4) Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome</div><div><div>enzyme:
histone acetyltransferase</div><div>inheritance pattern: autosomal dominant</div
><div>phenotype: cardiac abnormalities, broad thumbs & toes, mental retardat
ion</div></div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-13761075216385.jpg" /></div
>
1440261483469 1402161953270 Initiation of DNA replication (eukaryotes)
List/illustrate the steps involved. Also address the following questions:<div>1)
how does it start?</div><div>2) what forms the replication bubble?</div><div>3)
what stabilizes the single-stranded DNA following bubble formation?</div><div>4
) what is name of enzyme that starts DNA synthesis?</div>
<div>1) origin r
ecognition complex (ORC) binds to replication origin </div><div>2) minichro
mosome maintenance proteins (MCM) with help of CDC6 and CTD1</div><div>3) replic
ation protein A</div><div>4) DNA polymerase alpha with primase</div><img src="pa
ste-14199161880577.jpg" />
1440263531647 1402161953270 DNA Replication Fork
816513.jpg" /> C
1440263547966 1402161953270 DNA Replication: Leading vs. Lagging Strand
1) T/F: Pol alpha-primase is loaded on the DNA template through interaction with
MCM and initiates DNA synthesis on both strands<div><br /></div><div>2) T/F: Po
l delta is loaded on the leading strand DNA template through interaction with MC
M</div><div><br /></div><div>3) What is the function of PCNA (a ring shape facto
r, called clamp)?</div><div><br /></div><div>4) How long are Okazaki fragments?<
/div> 1) TRUE<div><br /></div><div>2) FALSE -- Pol epsilon</div><div><br /></d

iv><div>3) increase processivity of the polymerase</div><div><br /></div><div>4)
100-200 nucleotides</div><div><img src="paste-18829136625665.jpg" /></div><div>
1440263826958 1402161953270 DNA Replication 2
673217.jpg" /> C
1440264022618 1402161953270 Ligation of Okazaki fragments List four steps
(specify name & function of enzyme in each step)
1) <u>RNase H</u> remove
s RNA primer<div>2) gap fill-in synthesis via DNA Pol Delta</div><div>3) <u>FEN1
</u> removes remaining RNA nucleotides with concomitant displacement synthe
sis</div><div>4) ligation of nick via <u>DNA ligase</u></div><div><u><br /></u><
/div><div><u><img src="paste-19451906883585.jpg" /></u></div>
1440264227419 1402161953270 Replication fork DNA Polymerases
Which DN
A polymerase has 5' exonuclease activity: Pol alpha primase, Pol delta and/or Po
l epsilon?
NONE: Pol delta and epsilon have 3'exonuclease activity<div
><div><img src="paste-19649475379201 (1).jpg" /></div></div><div><img src="paste
-20096151977985.jpg" /></div>
1440264586482 1402161953270 DNA Replication Origin <img src="paste-20362439
950337.jpg" /> C
1440264619569 1402161953270 DNA Replication Diseases
1) Name disease
caused by mutations in ORC or CDT1/CDC 6 genes<div><br /></div><div>2) Name dise
ase caused by mutation in ATR gene (specify what this gene does)</div><div><br /
></div><div>3) Why do topoisomerase inhibitors cause cell death in cancer cells?
What are the function of topoisomerases?</div><div><br /></div><div>4) Where is
telomerase supposed to be active? Not active?</div><div><br /></div><div>5) Wha
t symptoms/conditions are characteristic of a defect in telomerase? What is the
inheritance pattern?</div>
1) Meier-Gorlin syndrome (autosomal recessive)<d
iv><br /></div><div>2) Seckel syndrome (autosomal recessive); ATR is a checkpoin
t kinase that binds to RPA and initiates repair pathway to resolve DNA replicati
on fork stalling</div><div><br /></div><div>3a) inhibition of topoisomerases res
ults in double stranded breaks</div><div>3b) resolve supercoiling tension ahead
of the replication fork</div><div><br /></div><div>4) active in human stem cells
; not supposed to be active in somatic human cells (cancer cells find a way to r
eactivate telomerase)</div><div><br /></div><div>5a) always dyskeratosis congeni
tia, which is characterized by dystrophic nails, patchy skin hyperpigmentation a
nd oral leukoplakia</div><div><br /></div><div>5b) sometimes also will observe p
ulmonary fibrosis and aplastic anemia (bone marrow failure)</div><div><br /></di
v><div>5c) several inheritance patterns are possible</div><div><br /></div><div>
<img src="paste-185181809934337.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-18508302568652
9.jpg" /></div>
1440270918705 1402161953270 DNA Replication: True-False
1) T/F: topoisom
erases relieve the superhelical tension built behind the replication fork<div><b
r /></div><div>2) T/F: telomerase and pol epsilon jointly function to complete t
he replication of the chromosome end</div><div><br /></div><div>3) T/F: telomera
se is a telomere specific reverse transcriptase composed of RNA and protein subu
nits</div><div><br /></div><div>4) T/F: telomerase helps complete the DNA s
ynthesis of the leading and lagging strands</div><div><br /></div><div>5) T
/F: telomerase adds dATP, dGTP and dTTP to the 3' end of leading strand</div><di
v><br /></div><div>6) T/F: Dyskeratosis congenita is exclusively caused by mutat
ions in the TERT gene of telomerase</div>
1) FALSE: built *ahead* of the r
eplication fork<div><br /></div><div>2) FALSE: pol delta works with telomerase (
also need primase, pol alpha and ligase)</div><div><br /></div><div>3) TRUE</div
><div><br /></div><div>4) FALSE: only need help for the lagging strand</div><div
><br /></div><div>5) TRUE: DNA pol alpha (and then delta) build the complem
entary lagging strand <i>after</i> the telomerase reverse transcriptase act
ivity of telomerase elongates the leading strand [note: this point was not expli
citly stated on a slide nor commented on by the lecturer, but it is implied by t
he picture of telomerase activity depicted on the slide...plus its true and has
been tested before]</div><div><br /></div><div>6) FALSE: may also be caused by m
utations in other domains of telomerase</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pas
te-35609573851137.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-35442070126593.jpg" /></div>

1444055372686 1443463489034 What is acetylcholine synthesized from? acetyl c
oA
1444055390996 1443463489034 norepinephrine is synthesized from?
tyrosine

1444056607774 1443463489034 alpha 1 adrenergic receptors are usually
excitatory
1444056638224 1443463489034 In the parasympathetic nervous system, the prega
nglionic is _____ and the post is _____ myelinated and unmyelinated
1444056970643 1443463489034 True or false: In the parasympathetic nervous sy
stem, the preganglionic is long true
1444056994468 1443463489034 What is the receptor on the postganglionic neuro
n in the parasympathetic?
nAchR
1444057044814 1443463489034 What is the receptor on the target in the parasy
mpathetic nervous system?
mAchR
1444057068254 1443463489034 True or false: the parasympathetic nervous syste
m innervates the skin and skeletal muscle false
1444057237926 1443463489034 In the sympathetic nervous system, the pregangli
onic neuron is _____ and the post ganglionic is _____
short and long&n
bsp;
1444057296800 1443463489034 True or false: the adrenal medulla is analogous
to the postganglionic neuron
true
1444057400241 1443463489034 What 5 physiologic needs does hypothalamus regul
ate?
1) blood pressure, electrolyte comp,<div>2) body temperature</di
v><div>3) energy metabolism</div><div>4) repro</div><div>5) emergency response t
o stress </div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1444057496001 1443463489034 beta 1 receptors in the heart
in
creased HR, contractile force, velocity of conduction through purkinje fibers&nb
sp;
1444058004866 1443463489034 muscarinic receptors in the heart decrease
HR, decrease conduction velocity, decrease atrial contractile force
1444058059003 1443463489034 sympathetic tone refers to
constant
low level of neuronal activity
1444058268772 1443463489034 Constriction is an _____ in tone increase

1444058289050 1443463489034 Dilation is a _______ in tone
decrease

1444058295880 1443463489034 Somatic axons are ______
myelinated
1444060546675 1443463489034 The target of somatic axons is
voluntar
y (skeletal muscle)
1444060573359 1443463489034 True or false: somatic axons are involved in bot
h excitatory and inhibitory transmission false- excitatory
1444060595843 1443463489034 What is the neurotransmitter involved in the som
atic system?
acetylcholine (Ach)
1444060633962 1443463489034 What is the receptor involved in somatic nervous
system?
nAchR (nicotinic)
1444060669203 1443463489034 The target of the autonomic nervous system is?&n
bsp;
Involuntary (smooth muscle, glands)
1444060702299 1443463489034 True or false- the autonomic nervous system invo
lves multiple transmitters and multiple receptors True
1444060811940 1443463489034 True or false: in the parasympathetic divisionthe preganglionic neuron is long True
1444060950087 1443463489034 The receptor in the effector organ of the parasy
mpathetic is
muscarinic
1444061057514 1443463489034 In the sympathetic division- the receptor on the
effector organ is ______
adrenergic
1444061098815 1443463489034 What does the enteric nervous system do?
Regulates GI tract
1444061161761 1443463489034 3 ways in which a neurotransmitter can be cleare
d from the synpase ?
1) diffusion<div>2) enzymatic breakdown</div><div>3) reu
ptake into the presynaptic terminal</div>

1444061222575 1443463489034 acetylcholine is synthesized from acetyl C
oA and choline
1444061242398 1443463489034 Acetylcholine is degraded by what enzmye where&n
bsp;
acetylcholinesterase (AchE) in the synaptic cleft
1444061325305 1443463489034 what is norepinephrine synthesized from?
tyrosine
1444061365294 1443463489034 What enzymes degrade norepinephrine and where ar
e they located? monoamine oxidase (mitochondria)<div>catechol-O-methyltransferas
e (cytosol)</div>
1444061460675 1443463489034 Receptors involved in fast synaptic transmission
ligand gated (ionotropic) receptors
1444061494262 1443463489034 receptors involved in slow synaptic transmission
G-protein coupled (metabotropic)
1444061555402 1443463489034 EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic potential)
membrane potential more likely to reach threshold due to increased permeability
to cations (Na and K or Na, K, and Ca)
1444061611447 1443463489034 IPSP (inhibitory postsynaptic potential)
Membrane potential less likely to reach threshold due to leakiness of membrane t
o K or Cl
1444061775688 1443463489034 The transmitter between pre and post ganglionic
fibers in the sympathetic nervous system is?? Acetylcholine
1444062853432 1443463489034 True or false: the sympathetic nervous system ca
n innervate skeletomuscular system and vasculature ?
true
1444062885114 1443463489034 What does the adrenal medulla release? epinephr
ine and norepinephrine
1444062915296 1443463489034 where do preganglionic fibers synapse in th adre
nal medulla ? chromaffin cells
1444063047732 1443463489034 What are the 3 acetylcholine receptor subtypes??
Nicotinic <div>M2</div><div>M3 </div>
1444063083278 1443463489034 adrenergic agonists are also called
sympathomimetics
1444064820784 1443463489034 adrenergic antagonists (blockers) are also calle
d sympatholitics
1444064835055 1443463489034 Uses of autonomic drugs hypertension<div>hypoten
sion</div><div>angina</div><div>cardiac arrythmias </div><div>attention def
icit hyperkinetic disorder</div><div>asthma</div><div>glaucoma</div><div>allergi
es </div>
1444064871689 1443463489034 cholinergic agonists are also called
parasympathomimetics
1444064890244 1443463489034 cholinergic antagonists (blockers)
parasymp
atholytics
1444064905379 1443463489034 cholinergic fibers release ?
acetylcholine
1444065891457 1443463489034 alpha 2 receptors are also called
pre-junctional auto regulatory receptors
1444066147869 1443463489034 the constrictor muscle in the eye is under what
control parasympathetic
1444066637154 1443463489034 the dilator muscle in the eye is under what cont
rol
sympathetic (has alpha 1 receptors)
1444066653690 1443463489034 Mydriasis is
dilation of the pupil
1444066665740 1443463489034 The constrictor muscle in the eye has what type
of receptor
muscarinic
1444066678648 1443463489034 Two ways to dilate the pupil: 1) alpha 1 agoni
st<div>2) muscarinic antagonist </div>
1444066723421 1443463489034 contraction of radial ciliary muscle (in eye) is
called accomodation
1444066915476 1443463489034 the ciliary muscle in the eye is under what cont
rol.... parasympathetic
1444066931279 1443463489034 beta 1 receptors in the heart
increase
in rate and force <div><br /></div>
1444068001978 1443463489034 muscarinic receptors heart

decrease
in rate and force
1444068063279 1443463489034 systolic BP is determined by
Cardiac
output
1444068392903 1443463489034 Cardiac output= stroke volume x heart ra
te
1444068401430 1443463489034 sympathetic tone ____HR increases
1444068416190 1443463489034 parasympathetic tone ____ HR
decrease
s
1444068423242 1443463489034 autonomic nervous system controls blood pressure
how??
Cardiac output controls systolic BP and autonomic nervous system
controls the CO
1444068603740 1443463489034 in the blood vessels when both alpha 1 and beta
2 are activated, what effect predominates?
the alpha 1 effect- vaso
constriction
1444068704138 1443463489034 diastolic BP is controlled by
peripher
al resistance
1444089140233 1443463489034 What are the 3 prevertebral (collateral ganglia)
??
1) celiac ganglion<div>2) superior mesenteric ganglion</div><div
>3) interior mesenteric ganglion</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1444089292195 1443463489034 The vagus nerve is what number nerve? X
1444089304603 1443463489034 What are the cranial nerves of the parasympathet
ic nervous system?
3,7,9, X
1444089421050 1443463489034 What are the two classes of symphathetic ganglia
?
1) paravertebral <div>2) prevertebral </div>
1444089580393 1443463489034 What is the transmitter at the target in the SNS
?
norepinephrine
1444089811634 1443463489034 The adrenal medulla is analagous to the ______
postganglionic neuron
1444090087051 1443463489034 epinephrine is synthesized from Norepi via what
enzyme? phenylethanolamine methyltransferase
1444090732761 1443463489034 nicotinic receptors are ____
excitatory
1444091210062 1443463489034 the acetylcholine receptor subtype that is a non
-selective cation channel and is excitatory
nicotinic
1444091236212 1443463489034 the acetylcholine receptor that is coupled, inhi
bitory, postsynpatic and autoreceptors
M2; Gi/o
1444091287942 1443463489034 M2 receptors are found (2 ):
1) cardi
ac muscle (slows heart rate, decreases atrial force, slows AV conduction) <
div><br /></div><div>2) sphincters (GI, GU)</div><div>relaxation</div><div><br /
></div>
1444091971715 1443463489034 M3 receptors are found (3):
1) smooth muscle
in walls of viscera (contraction)<div>2) glands (secretion)</div><div>3) some b
lood vessels (dilation)</div><div><br /></div>
1444092235822 1443463489034 True or false: Epi is less potent than norepi at
alpha adrenergic receptors
false- usually more potent
1444092373849 1443463489034 True or false: alpha 1 adrenergic receptors are
usually inhibitory
False: usually excitatory
1444092408367 1443463489034 True or false: alpha 2 adrenergic receptors are
usually inhibitory
TRUE
1444092442741 1443463489034 True or false : the effect of epi is less than n
orepi on beta1 adrenergic receptors
false- they are usually equal&nb
sp;
1444092625641 1443463489034 Beta 2 adrenergic receptors are usually _____
inhibitory
1444092691077 1443463489034 True or false: the effect of epi and norepi are
equal on beta 2 receptors false: epi > norepi
1444092727747 1443463489034 Which beta receptor can stimulate glycogenolysis
and gluconeogenesis?
Beta 2
1444092821509 1443463489034 Which beta receptor stimulates lipolysis in adip
ose tissue?
Beta 3
1444092838565 1443463489034 Which beta adrenergic receptor relaxes vascular,

bronchial, gastrointestinal, and GU smooth muscle + stimulates glycogenolysis a
nd gluconeo?
beta 2
1444092898874 1443463489034 What do autoreceptors do? inhibit release<
div>negative feedback to prevent excessive transmitter concentration at the post
synaptic site </div>
1444093091808 1443463489034 What is the head ganglion of the ANS? hypothal
amus
1444093384571 1443463489034 6 autonomic brainstem reflexes: regulation of BP
<div>control of respiration </div><div>salivary secretion</div><div>v
omiting</div><div>swallowing </div><div>eye reflexes </div>
1444093424558 1443463489034 in pelvic organ reflexes, sympathetic nervous sy
stem provides what kind of tone? inhibitory: contracts sphincters and rel
axes walls
1444093522386 1443463489034 in pelvic organ reflexes (i.e. micturition, defe
cation), parasympathetic tone does what executes<div>you pee/shit yay&nb
sp;</div>
1444093583657 1443463489034 Parasympathetic tone in penis causes : Erection
reflex: dilation of blood vessels
1444093625576 1443463489034 Sympathetic tone in penis :
ejaculation refl
ex (emission of semen, orgasmic response) <div>yay? </div>
1444093664767 1443463489034 parasympathetic activity in the heart is mediate
d by? vagus nerve
1444094975210 1443463489034 True or false: vagal tone has greater influence
on the resting heart rate than does sympathetic tone
true
1444095004480 1443463489034 There is only sympathetic innervation on vascula
r smooth muscle except for_____ male and female erectile organs
1444095112290 1443463489034 alpha 1 receptors on vascular smooth muscle caus
e vasoconstriction with increased sympathetic tone
1444095148271 1443463489034 decreased sympathetic activity leads to
passive dilation
1444095181457 1443463489034 What are the opposing actions of the SNS and PNS
in the lung? Sympathetic :<div>upper thoracic chain ganglia </div><div>d
ilates bronchioles via Beta-2R</div><div><br /></div><div>Para:</div><div>Vagus
nerve</div><div>contracts bronchiolar smooth muscle via mAchRs</div>
1444097148098 1443463489034 True or false: saliva almost ceases when ANS ner
ves are cut
True
1444097171821 1443463489034 What division of the ANS produces thick viscous
saliva? Sympathetic
1444097216865 1443463489034 Which division of the ANS produces copious amoun
ts of watery saliva?
parasympathetic
1444097282139 1443463489034 Mydriasis occurs when
the radial muscl
e is contracted (sympathetic control) and the sphincter muscle relaxes (parasymp
)
1444097344215 1443463489034 Miosis (narrow pupil) occurs when the sphi
ncter muscle (parasympathetic control) contracts and the radial muscle (sympathe
tic) relaxes
1444097379087 1443463489034 True or false: eccrine glands are controlled by
both sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system?
False - eccrine glands (
sweat glands) are only controlled by sympathetic nervous system
1444097425942 1443463489034 Sympathetic nervous system effect on metabolism:
increases blood glucose and fatty acids for fuel utilization
1444097488882 1443463489034 how does the PNS affect metabolism
increase
s storage of blood glucose and fatty acids for fuel utilization
1444097591586 1443463489034 Secretion of saliva is an example of ____ action
of the para and symp divisions complementary
1444097779391 1443463489034 The sympathetic nervous system ____ micturition
and defecation
inhibits
1444097921123 1443463489034 Sympathetic nervous system generalization
-inhibits micturition, defecation<div>-increases heart rate and contractility</d
iv><div>-increases BP (via vasoconstriction)</div><div>-dilates bronchi</div><di

v>-dilates pupil</div><div>-stimulates sweat and piloerection</div><div>-increas
es fuel mobilization </div>
1444098156199 1443463489034 Parasympathetic nervous system generalization:&n
bsp;
-facilitates micturition, defecation<div>-decreases heart rate and contr
actility</div><div>-constricts bronchi</div><div>-constricts pupil</div><div>-in
crease fuel storage </div><div><br /></div>
1444098309529 1443463489034 what are two exceptions to the "fight or flight"
and "rest and digest" generalizations? salivary glands and sexual organ
s
1444098391353 1443463489034 What stimulates glucocorticoid release from adre
nal cortex??
ACTH release
1444098434500 1443463489034 long term effects of stress include :
inhibition of growth, reproduction, immune suppression
1444015951339 1443463489034 Epinephrine is an agonist for
alpha1,
alpha 2, beta1, beta2
1444015993221 1443463489034 What are indications for epinephrine? 1) stimu
late heart in cardiac emergenices<div>2) treat hypersensitivity reactions</div><
div>3) asthma</div><div>4) co-administer with local anesthetics</div>
1444016028951 1443463489034 norepinephrine is an agonist for (3)? alpha1,
alpha2, beta1
1444016082651 1443463489034 Dopamine is an agonist for (2)? alpha1,
beta1
1444016098857 1443463489034 Dobutamine (+ isomer) is an agonist for?
Beta1 agonist<div>weak beta 2 agonist</div><div>alpha 1 antagonist </div>
1444016264095 1443463489034 dobutamine (- isomer)
alpha 1 agonist&
nbsp;<div>weak beta 1 and beta2 agonist </div>
1444016296572 1443463489034 phenylephrine
alpha agonist
1444016318381 1443463489034 clonidine alpha 2 agonist
1444016444827 1443463489034 brimonidine
alpha 2 agonist
1444016471197 1443463489034 albuterol beta 2 agonist
1444016511146 1443463489034 isoproternol
beta 1 beta 2
1444016533541 1443463489034 ritodrine beta 2
1444016540057 1443463489034 terbutaline
beta 2
1444075750626 1443463489034 under normal conditions, which part of the auton
omic nervous system dominates? the parasympathetic
1444075776776 1443463489034 True or false: the parasympathetic division is d
iscrete true- can increase or decrease tone in one group without affecti
ng the parasympathetic tone in other groups<div>in contrast to the sympathetic d
ivision which usually behaves as a unit </div>
1444075851216 1443463489034 What are the two basic families of acetylcholine
receptors?
1) nicotinic<div>2) muscarinic </div>
1444098527683 1443463489034 True or false: epinephrine produced in the perip
hery stays in the periphery
true
1444098548329 1443463489034 The constrictor muscle in the eye has what type
of receptors ???
muscarinic receptors
1444098993609 1443463489034 What type of receptors does the dilator muscle i
n the eye have?? alpha 1 receptor
1444099038653 1443463489034 the ciliary muscle in the eye is under what cont
rol?
parasympathetic
1444099153008 1443463489034 How can glaucoma be treated?
Muscarin
ic agonist - will cause the ciliary muscle to contract and remain contracted. Wh
en the ciliary muscle is contracted, fluid can drain from the eye. The patient m
ay experience poor vision past 20 feet and poor night vision.
1444099291289 1443463489034 When the ciliary muscle is relaxed, tension in t
he lens is _____
high and we can see at a distance
1444099348615 1443463489034 When the ciliary muscle is contracted, there is
____ tension
less tension <div><br /></div><div>this occurs when
we look at something closer than 20 feet </div>
1444099380309 1443463489034 in blood vessels, alpha 1 receptors _____
constriction of vascular smooth muscle

1444099541235 1443463489034 in blood vessels, beta 2 receptors _____
relaxation of vascular smooth muscle
1444099561765 1443463489034 when both alpha 1 receptors and beta 2 receptors
are activated, which effect is dominant?
the alpha 1- vasoconstriction
1444099685080 1443463489034 B2 stimulation in the lung leads to
relaxation of bronchial smooth muscle
1444099710566 1443463489034 activation of muscarinic receptors in the lung l
ead to
constriction of bronchial smooth muscle
1444099743533 1443463489034 Beta 2 activation in GI smooth muscle leads to&n
bsp;
relaxation
1444099768119 1443463489034 activation of muscarinic receptors in GI smooth
muscle leads to contraction
1444099783632 1443463489034 In the GI tract, activation of alpha 1 receptors
causes ____ of sphincters
contraction
1444099951378 1443463489034 In the GI tract, activation of muscarinic recept
ors causes _____ of sphincters
relaxation
1444099977015 1443463489034 In the bladder, B2 activation causes ____ of the
detrusor muscle?
relaxation
1444100046491 1443463489034 In the bladder, activation of muscarinic recepto
rs causes _____ of the detrusor muscle contraction
1444100069647 1443463489034 In the bladder, alpha 1 stimulation causes _____
of the internal sphincter
contraction
1444100090209 1443463489034 In the bladder, activation of muscarinic recepto
rs leads to ____ of the internal sphincter
relaxation
1444100116073 1443463489034 Which urethral sphincter is under autonomic cont
rol?
internal urethral sphincter
1444100156514 1443463489034 In the uterus, stimulation of alpha 1 receptors
_____ contractions
increases
1444100179162 1443463489034 In the uterus, stimulation of beta 2 receptors _
____ contractions decrease
1444100199002 1443463489034 in the salivary glands, alpha 1 and beta 2 recep
tors ______ viscous secretions
increase
1444100234624 1443463489034 In the salivary glands, muscarinic receptors ___
__ watery secretions
increase
1444100254495 1443463489034 Why aren't catecholamines effective if given ora
lly?
Lots of MAO in GI and liver
1444100289479 1443463489034 Activation of what receptor in liver hepatocytes
by epinephrine will cause glycogen breakdown????
beta 2
1444137411243 1443463489034 Albuterol is a ______ agonist
selectiv
e beta 2
1444137424035 1443463489034 Terbutaline is a _____ agonist and is used to __
___
beta 2 <div>stop uterine contractions</div>
1444137715385 1443463489034 True or false: tyramine has complete hepatic fir
st pass effect true unless you're on mao inhibitors
1444138054271 1443463489034 What is ephedrine commonly used to treat?
incontinence
1444138411810 1443463489034 ephedrine is a _______ agonist
mixed (a
lpha and beta)
1444138682376 1443463489034 Phentolamine is used in hypertensive cri
ses in the hospital
1444138696635 1443463489034 Phentolamine is an antagonist for _______
alpha 1 and alpha 2
1444138722723 1443463489034 Why isn't phentolamine used to treat chronic hyp
ertension??
increased heart rate and orthostatic hypotension are side effect
s
1444138938188 1443463489034 first dose effect of prazosin (alpha 1 antagonis
t)
patients experience orthostatic hypotension after first dose but it's le
ss severe or non existent after the first dose
1444139242244 1443463489034 tamsulosin (an alpha1A) antagonist is used to tr
eat
benign prostate hyperplasia
1444140204607 1443463489034 propanolol is a ______ antagonist beta 1 a
nd beta 2
1444140219608 1443463489034 timolol is a ___ and ____ antagonist
beta 1 <div>beta 2</div>
1444140234278 1443463489034 Why are beta blockers used to treat hyperthyroid
ism??? T3 and T4 help regulate the number of adrenergic receptors that we have.

1444140461497 1443463489034 Why don't we give non-selective beta blockers to
asthmatics?? You don't want to block the beta 2 receptor
1444140481018 1443463489034 second generation beta blockers are selective fo
r_____ beta 1
1444140753470 1443463489034 True or false: second generation beta blockers (
selective for beta 1) can be given to asthmatics and insulin-dependent diabetics
true- but they need to be well-monitored because selective doesn't mean
specific (can still bind the beta 2 receptor if dose is high enough)
1444140819592 1443463489034 anticholinesterases
inhibit acetylcholineste
rase, lead to accumulation of acetylcholine
1444141145498 1443463489034 True or false: we can differentiate between the
5 types of muscarinic receptors false- we can't, makes life easier
1444141195977 1443463489034 cycloplegia
you can see things clear
ly at a distance but not up close, ciliary muscle is essentially paralyzed.&nbsp
;
1444141462716 1443463489034 Why is carachol only given in eye drops and neve
r systemically? It has both muscarinic and nicotinic activity.
1444141690505 1443463489034 Why is bethanecol the ideal cholinergic agonist?
has only muscarinic activity <div>is neglibly hydrolyzed by choline
sterases </div>
1444141796800 1443463489034 Bethanecol is used to treat (2) paralyti
c ileus and bladder atony
1444141828470 1443463489034 xerostomia
saliva production reduced-
<div>these people lose teeth, get stores</div><div>it's bad </div>
1444141943628 1443463489034 Pliocarpine is used to treat ______ and ______
xerostomia (saliva production cessation)<div>glaucoma (activates ciliary muscle)
</div><div><br /></div>
1444141991578 1443463489034 What does SLUD mean?
Salivation<div>l
acrimation</div><div>urination </div><div>defecation</div><div><br /></div>
<div>results from cholinergic agonists </div>
1444142133715 1443463489034 Donepezil is a ________ of acetylcholinesterase&
nbsp; non-covalent rapidly reversible inhibitor
1444142676382 1443463489034 True or false: carbaryl is a drug no it's
a pesticide
1444143884997 1443463489034 SLUD
cholinergic crisis
1444143900109 1443463489034 What is 2-PAM and how does it work?
an antid
ote for organophosphate poisoning <div>it is better at removing the phospha
te off the phosphorylated intermediate than water. however, this doesn't work we
ll if aging has occurred (when R group pops off ) </div>
1444144312438 1443463489034 Why is soman (nerve gases) so toxic?
1) extre
mely potent<div>2) nerve gases are volatile </div><div>3) aging occurs inst
antly </div><div><br /></div>
1444144435704 1443463489034 Atropine effect on heart reduces parasymp
athetic tone: increase in HR and force of contraction
1444144575877 1443463489034 atropine effect on salivary glands
reduces saliva production
1444144830145 1443463489034 atropine effect on bladder
suppress
es urination
1444144847293 1443463489034 what drug suppresses the early symptoms of parki
nson's ? benztropine
1444145085628 1443463489034 Ganglionic blocker
mecamylamine&nbs
p;
1444145182191 1443463489034 The ciliary muscle in the eye is innervated by t

he ________ division
parasympathetic
1444145208419 1443463489034 What does mecamylamine do to BP?
lowers b
oth systolic and diastolic
1444145306089 1443463489034 Physostigmine versus neostigmine
physosti
gmine- crosses blood brain barrier, can only be given as eye drops (used to trea
t glaucoma)<div>neostigmine- doesn't cross BBB (can be used to treat myasthenia
gravis) </div>
1444151267755 1443463489034 what is the antidote for parathion (a slowly rev
ersible inihbitor of acetylcholinesterase)???
2-PAM
1444151352210 1443463489034 Which acetylcholine esterase inhibitor can be us
ed in early Alzheimer's treatment?
donepezil
1444163323295 1443463489034 Dobutamine is adminsitered for it's ______ activ
ity
beta 1 - acts on heart to increase HR and force of contraction
1443463493813 1443463489034 What are steroid hormones derived from? choleste
rol
1443463519690 1443463489034 An agent that is produced in one organ and has i
ts effect in another
hormone
1443463550026 1443463489034 How do steroid hormones enter most cells?
By diffusion
1443463566661 1443463489034 Where does cortisol have hydroxyl groups
21,17,11
1443463624101 1443463489034 Where does aldosterone have hydroxyl groups? wha
t else does it have that distinguishes it?
21 and 11, has an aldehyde at 18
1443463723882 1443463489034 Where do testosterone and estradiol have hydroxy
l groups? What distinguishes them?
17, no side chain
1443463760935 1443463489034 What is unique about estrogen? Has a phenolic A
ring
1443463843817 1443463489034 What enzymes do you need to synthesize cortisol?
21 hydroxylase, 17 hydroxylase, 11 hydroxylase
1443463871355 1443463489034 What enzymes are needed to synthesize aldosteron
e?
21 hydroxylase<div>18 hydroxylase</div><div>11 hydroxylase</div><div><br
/></div>
1443463903461 1443463489034 What enzyme is needed for testosterone and estra
diol synthesis? 17 hydroxylase
1443463919190 1443463489034 What binds and transports testosterone and estra
diol? sex hormone binding globulin
1443463942062 1443463489034 What binds and transports cortisol?
corticos
teroid binding globuin (CBG)
1443463970448 1443463489034 Current therapy for ER+ breast cancer
aromatase inhibitors (letrozole)
1443464001113 1443463489034 Aromatase function
synthesize estra
diol
1443464104676 1443463489034 where is parathyroid hormone synthesized?
cheif cells in parathyroid gland
1443464145478 1443463489034 What is parathyroid hormone synthesized in respo
nse to? low calcium
1443464164034 1443463489034 What is the mode of action of parathyroid hormon
e in the bone?
increases number of osteoclasts , promoting bone resorpt
ion (increase calcium)
1443464810192 1443463489034 How does PTH act on the kidney? stimulat
es calcium reabsorption in the distal tubule <div>inhibits phosphate reabso
rption in the proximal and distal tubule </div><div>increased cAMP can be m
easured in the urine</div>
1443465138663 1443463489034 What is the affect of PTH on the intestine?
indirect affect
1443465380894 1443463489034 Where are membrane receptors for PTH in bones?&n
bsp;
osteoblasts
1443465397210 1443463489034 After PTH binds to the osteoblast what happens?
increased synthesis of RANKL<div>rank ligand </div><div><br /></div>
1443465712372 1443463489034 What is RANKL and what does it do?/

RANK lig
and<div>it's an osteoclast differentiating factor </div>
1443465970170 1443463489034 RANKL + preosteoclasts =
osteoclast forma
tion
1443465984621 1443463489034 What is the factor responsible in hypercalcemia
of malignancy?
PTH gene related peptide <div>PTHrp</div>
1443466226311 1443463489034 where is calcitonin secreted from??
C cells
of the thyroid
1443466240662 1443463489034 What does calcitonin promote?
decrease
d calcium
1443466389303 1443463489034 What does calcitonin do to bones?
osteocla
sts shrink in size and bone resorption is inhibited
1443466410264 1443463489034 What does calcitonin do in the kidney? increase
s urinary calcium excretion BUT only at supraphysiological conditions (not norma
l)
1443473364520 1443463489034 What does calcitonin do in the intestine?
NOTHING
1443473376402 1443463489034 What does calcitonin do in the stomach? inhibits
gastrin secretion
1443473736372 1443463489034 how is vitamin D synthesized? UV irradiation r
esults in the conversation of 7-dehydrocholesterol to vitamin D3 (cholecalcifero
l)
1443474742100 1443463489034 What is the active form of vitamin D?
1,25 hydroxyvitamin D3
1443474825631 1443463489034 What is the active form of vitamin D? 1,25
1443475424078 1443463489034 what is the effect of calcitonin on the bone?
shrinks osteoclasts
1443494565582 1443463489034 what does active vitamin D do to the intestine?
increases calcium binding protein (calbindin)<div>increases epithelial calcium c
hannel TRPV6</div><div>increases intestinal calcium absorption</div><div>also in
creases phosphate reabsorption</div>
1443494721654 1443463489034 What does osteocalcin do to the bone? stimulat
es osteoclastic activity via stimulation of RANKL synthesis
1443494795430 1443463489034 What does vitamin D do to the kidney? enhances
the action of PTH at the distal tubule
1444050957609 1443463489034 What is Addisons's disease?
Hypofunc
tioning of the adrenal cortex - decreased aldosterone and cortisol
1444051177503 1443463489034 Why do high levels of ACTH cause hyperpigmentati
on?
ACTH has the same first 13 amino acids as melanocyte stimulating hormone

1444051248903 1443463489034 Why do people with a hypofunctioning adrenal gla
nd (such as in addison's disease) experience hyperpigmentation? ACTH (adrenocort
icotrophic hormone) is usually feedback inhibited by cortisol. In addisons's cor
tisol is decreased- so we see increased ACTH. ACTH is similar to Melanocyte stim
ulating hormone
1444051426715 1443463489034 How is cortisol synthesized?
Stress t
riggers the hypothalamus to release corticotropin releasing hormone which acts o
n the pituitary which releases adrenocorticotropic hormone which triggers the ad
renal to produce cortisol <div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1471199028762 1421618046187 Glycine structure
43041.jpg" />
1471199062904 1421618046187 Alanine Structure
19777.jpg" />
1471199079861 1421618046187 Serine Structure
27329 (1).jpg" />
1471199099239 1421618046187 Threonine Structure
34881.jpg" />
1471199118709 1421618046187 Cysteine Structure
75137.jpg" />
1471199140899 1421618046187 Valine Structure
53761.jpg" />
1471199159253 1421618046187 Leucine Structure
28609.jpg" />
1471199174955 1421618046187 Isoleucine Structure
636161.jpg" />
1471199192836 1421618046187 Methionine Structure
211009.jpg" />
1471199209736 1421618046187 Proline Structure
785857 (1).jpg" /><div><br /></div>
1471199230950 1421618046187 Phenylalanine <img src="paste-10376640987137 (
1).jpg" />
1471199365636 1421618046187 Tyrosine structure
529281.jpg" />
1471199382226 1421618046187 Tryptophan Structure
104129.jpg" />
1471199411957 1421618046187 Aspartic Acid <img src="paste-10548439678977.j
pg" />
1471199427098 1421618046187 Glutamic Acid <img src="paste-10599979286529 (
1).jpg" />
1471199446822 1421618046187 Asparagine Structure
847553 (1).jpg" />
1471199528023 1421618046187 Glutamine Structure
422401 (1).jpg" />
1471199544323 1421618046187 Histidine Structure
029953.jpg" />
1471199566018 1421618046187 Lysine Structure
604801.jpg" />
1471199585517 1421618046187 Arginine Structure
179649.jpg" />
1471302629602 1421618046187 Ribosome takes two amino acids and combines them
together in a condensation reaction to make a _________. This process occurs du
ring _________. peptide bond; translation
is this configuration of side chains called? What percentage of proteins are in
this state?</div>
trans; 99%
1471302968802 1421373138997 <img src="f033b2fd84fd2d796a6db236bafcf24478eeb9
25_Q 0.svg" /> <img src="f033b2fd84fd2d796a6db236bafcf24478eeb925_A 0.svg" />
<img src="f033b2fd84fd2d796a6db236bafcf24478eeb925_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="f033b2fd84fd2d796a6db236bafcf24478eeb925_tmpz5wtv0.png" />
1471302968804 1421373138997 <img src="f033b2fd84fd2d796a6db236bafcf24478eeb9
25_Q 1.svg" /> <img src="f033b2fd84fd2d796a6db236bafcf24478eeb925_A 0.svg" />
<img src="f033b2fd84fd2d796a6db236bafcf24478eeb925_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="f033b2fd84fd2d796a6db236bafcf24478eeb925_tmpz5wtv0.png" />
1471303217656 1421618046187 (T/F) Polypeptides can rotate all of their bonds
False. They can only rotate the phi and psi bonds. The peptide bonds don't rotat
e.
1471303282670 1421618046187 Why don't the peptide bonds rotate?
The doub
le bond of the carbonyl resonates with the peptide bond next to it, which gives
it double bond characteristics<div><br /></div><div><br /><div><img src="paste-1
7373142712321.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div></div>
1471303570457 1421373138997 <img src="4484483c992f1bd3de9a75be51bcaab37fc234
6b_Q 1.svg" /><div><br /></div><div>Name the angles</div>
<img src="448448
3c992f1bd3de9a75be51bcaab37fc2346b_A 0.svg" /> <img src="4484483c992f1bd3de9a75
be51bcaab37fc2346b_source_svg.svg" /> <img src="4484483c992f1bd3de9a75be51bcaa
b37fc2346b_tmpc0jevt.png" />
1471303605407 1421618046187 Rotation around the phi and psi angles enable th
e chain to bend into shapes called _______________
secondary structures<div
><br /></div><div><img src="paste-54919746813953.jpg" /></div>
1471303653762 1421618046187 Secondary structures are joined by loops and tur
ns forming _________
tertiary structures
1471303688230 1421373138997 <img src="53ab009ef34194b59d590e751a0f7ed8f2c5c3

44_Q 0.svg" /> <img src="53ab009ef34194b59d590e751a0f7ed8f2c5c344_A 0.svg" />
<img src="53ab009ef34194b59d590e751a0f7ed8f2c5c344_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="53ab009ef34194b59d590e751a0f7ed8f2c5c344_tmpmuosmj.png" />
1471303715253 1421618046187 What are the weak non covalent forces that stabi
lize protein tertiary structure?
Electrostatic attractions, van der Waals
attractions, and hydrogen bonding<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-64746631
987201.jpg" /></div>
1471303774669 1421618046187 <div>Disulfide bonds in proteins occur between _
_______ that have been oxidized</div> <div>cysteines </div>
1471303841054 1415519657911 Disulfide bonds stabilize protein {{c1::tertiary
}} structure primarily in {{c2::extracellular}} proteins
1471303874456 1421618046187 Due to what effect do proteins fold? Since the p
rotein is becoming ordered, which decreases entropy
hydrophobic effect
1471303908933 1421618046187 What is the hydrophobic effect? burying of nonpo
lar heads of protein
1471303994774 1421618046187 What is the effect of burying nonpolar heads of
protein in the hydrophobic effect?
releases caged water, which increases en
tropy<div><img src="paste-65420941852673.jpg" /></div>
1471304139532 1415519657911 {{c1::Hemoglobin}} is a protein complex in RBCs
that efficiently transports {{c2::O2}} from the {{c3::lungs}} to {{c3::respiring
tissue}}
1471304202082 1421618046187 How do proteins bind tightly to O2 (in lungs) an
d then efficiently release it (in respiring tissue)?
cooperative binding &amp
; allosteric effectors
1471304242694 1421618046187 what is the purpose of myoglobin?
store O2
in muscle cells
1471316290163 1421618046187 what part of hemoglobin binds to oxygen?
Heme
1471316315890 1421618046187 what molecule is at the center of the heme?
iron
1471316358866 1421618046187 Oxygen binding to the Iron in Heme causes what t
o happen?
<img src="paste-68015102099457.jpg" />
1471316403235 1421618046187 <div>When heme ring flattens, it pulls on the __
______ bound to the Iron this is the conformational change induced by Oxygen bin
ding</div>
Histidine<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-68139656151041.jp
g" /></div>
1471316591327 1421618046187 Deoxyhemoglobin is in what state? Oxyhemoglobin?
T "tense" state; R "relaxed" state
1471316964832 1421618046187 Compare the oxygen affinity in the T state vs R
state T state: low affinity<div>R state: high affinity</div>
1471316991626 1421618046187 When the first O2 binds to hemoglobin, this trig
gers _____________ in the other subunits -- called ________.
conforma
tional changes; allosteric
1471317046668 1421618046187 In hemoglobin, the first O2 is difficult to load
, the next 3 bind readily -- this is called
cooperativity
conclusions can you draw about myoglobin based on this graph?</div>
myoglobi
n is good at storing oxygen, but poor at releasing. It binds well to oxygen in T
issues and Lungs
conclusions can you draw about hemoglobin based off of this graph?</div>
<div>Hemoglobin is very good at releasing oxygen, releases 50% of Oxygen, at the
partial pressure of respiring tissue</div>
1471317167919 1421618046187 2,3-BPG stabilizes which state? T state
1471317215101 1421618046187 What kind of cells make 2,3-BPG?
respirin
g
1471317243197 1421618046187 In the presence of ______ in hemoglobin, oxygen
will not rebind after being released
2,3-BPG
1471317263374 1421618046187 <div>Fetuses don't have Hb that can bind 2,3-BPG
leading to</div>
movement of O2 from maternal RBC to fetal RBC
1471317668192 1421618046187 _____ is required for cooperative O2 binding
2,3-BPG
1471317686059 1421618046187 Humans adapt to high altitudes by producing more
_____ 2,3 BPG
1471317836919 1421618046187 Pregnant women have increased levels of BPG, thu
s
more O2 offloaded to fetus
1471317857584 1421618046187 In addition to 2,3-BPG, what are the other negat
ive heterotropic effectors of O2 binding?
Protons, CO2, and temperature
1471318167195 1421618046187 H+ released upon ________ in tissues
CO2 hydr
ation
1471318211793 1421618046187 Protonation of globin residues is known as
The Bohr Effect
1471318230225 1421618046187 What is protonated in the Bohr effect? Histidin
e
1471318270530 1421618046187 What is the effect of Histidine protonation in B
ohr Effect?
it can form a salt bridge with Asp, stabilizing deoxyhemoglobin
conformation
1471318353498 1421618046187 What does CO2 do to O2 binding? modifies the glo
bin N terminal amino groups, stabilizing T state<div><br /></div><div><img src="
paste-71786083385345.jpg" /></div>
1471318617182 1421618046187 Temperature's effect on O2 binding?
Increase
d temp --> stabilizes T state
1471318635439 1421618046187 Carbon monoxide (CO) binds tightly to Hb and ___
_____ with O2 because: competes; same binding site
1471318931398 1421373138997 <img src="03c1763a422b03cb3cf5923f993ae360305224
c5_Q 0.svg" /> <img src="03c1763a422b03cb3cf5923f993ae360305224c5_A 0.svg" />
<img src="03c1763a422b03cb3cf5923f993ae360305224c5_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="03c1763a422b03cb3cf5923f993ae360305224c5_tmpseoc66.png" />
1471318990301 1421373138997 <img src="3f33e40f12dd80e8498176e4981f87274f65e2
95_Q 0.svg" /> <img src="3f33e40f12dd80e8498176e4981f87274f65e295_A 0.svg" />
<img src="3f33e40f12dd80e8498176e4981f87274f65e295_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="3f33e40f12dd80e8498176e4981f87274f65e295_tmp59whqy.png" />
1471319770247 1421618046187 When CO binds to even one subunit, the entire te
tramer switches to _______
R state
1471319786223 1421618046187 because CO binds so much more tightly than O2, i
t locks the hemoglobin in the R state, which makes:
it virtually impossible
to get the O2 off<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-112047106818049.jpg" /></
div>
1471319841824 1421618046187 Overall effects of CO binding to hemoglobin on O
2? (2)<div><br /></div> decreased O2 binding capacity<div>leftward shift (increa
sed affinity for O2)</div>
1471320183628 1421618046187 Treatment for carbon monoxide poisoning?
100% oxygen to facilitate CO dissociation
1471320395178 1421618046187 The Lineweaver Burk plot is generated by the rec
iprocol Michaelis Menten eqn, which is: <img src="paste-116312009342977 (1).jpg"
/>
1471320576562 1421618046187 Km is _______ related to affinity for substrate
inversely<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-127556233723905.jpg" /></div>
1471320636045 1421373138997 <img src="28084c0b07b8364bcfb1543447e35bedffcd7f
4a_Q 0.svg" /> <img src="28084c0b07b8364bcfb1543447e35bedffcd7f4a_A 0.svg" />
<img src="28084c0b07b8364bcfb1543447e35bedffcd7f4a_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="28084c0b07b8364bcfb1543447e35bedffcd7f4a_tmpwdtbo8.png" />
="paste-127650723004417.jpg" />
1471320759396 1421618046187 In competitive inhibition, the inhibitor resembl
es the substrate (T/F?) True
1471320800525 1421618046187 In competitive inhibition, the competitor compet
es with substrate for: binding to the active site
1471320826253 1421618046187 Noncompetitive inhibitor resembles the substrate
(T/F?) False, it doesn't

1471320871470 1421618046187 Where does a noncompetitive inhibitor bind to an
enzyme?
site on enzyme other than the active site
1471320902082 1421618046187 What does a noncompetitive inhibitor do to the e
nzyme? turns off catalytic activity, regardless of whether the substrate can bi
nd
="paste-128243428491265.jpg" />
1471321208256 1421618046187 Where does an uncompetitive inhibitor bind?
Non active site of the Enzyme-Substrate complex
1471321230403 1421618046187 Effect of Uncompetitive Inhibitor on Km and Vmax
both decrease
1471321256509 1421618046187 In uncompetitive inhibition, why does the affini
ty for substrate go up? because some Enzyme-Substrate (ES) complexes are removed
as an ESI complex, then more E binds S to restore equilibrium
1471341510565 1421373138997 <img src="852fe90983004f0b680278781970d85e98f886
77_Q 0.svg" /> <img src="852fe90983004f0b680278781970d85e98f88677_A 0.svg" />
<img src="852fe90983004f0b680278781970d85e98f88677_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="852fe90983004f0b680278781970d85e98f88677_tmprazlug.png" />
1471341510566 1421373138997 <img src="852fe90983004f0b680278781970d85e98f886
1471341510567 1421373138997 <img src="852fe90983004f0b680278781970d85e98f886
1471341510568 1421373138997 <img src="852fe90983004f0b680278781970d85e98f886
1471341510569 1421373138997 <img src="852fe90983004f0b680278781970d85e98f886
1471341510570 1421373138997 <img src="852fe90983004f0b680278781970d85e98f886
1471341722035 1421618046184 <div>{{c1::Statins}} inhibit the first step in p
roduction of cholesterol by competing with {{c2::HMG-CoA.}}</div>
<img src
="paste-143026705924099.jpg" />
1471341778092 1421618046187 What 2 drugs inhibit HIV Reverse Transcriptase?
And in what type of inhibition? NRTI: competitive<div>NNRTI: noncompetitive</div
>
1471342427385 1421618046187 Effect of [S] on V for M-M kinetic model :<div>W
hen [S]>>>Km</div>
approaches Vmax
hen [S] = Km</div>
equals 0.5 Vmax
hen [S]<<<K,</div>
proportional to [S]
1471342594747 1421618046187 Catalytic events at the active site can be influ
enced by the binding of ____________ at its __________ in allosteric enzymes.
regulatory molecule; regulatory site
1471350310516 1421618046184 {{c1::Homotropic effectors}} are typically subst
rates and are mostly {{c2::positive}} effectors
1471350320967 1421618046184 {{c1::Heterotropic effectors}} are not substrate
s and mostly {{c2::inhibitory, engaged in feedback inhibition.}}
1471350360562 1421618046184 In feedback inhibition by heterotropic effectors
, the {{c1::first irreversible}} step unique to the pathway is inhibited.
1471352143701 1421618046184 {{c1::CDKs}} are regulatory proteins for cell cy

cle control in eukaryotes that require {{c2::three distinct inputs}} for activat
ion.
1471352507549 1421618046187 What three inputs do CDKs need in order to activ
ate?
-Phosphorylation of a specific threonine side chain<div>-Dephosphorylati
on of a specific tyrosine side chain</div><div>-cyclin binding</div>
1471353421363 1421618046184 {{c1::Isozymes}} are physically distinct forms o
f an enzyme that vary in {{c2::sequence, substrate affinity, maximal activity, a
nd/or regulatory properties.}}
1471353437329 1421618046184 Isozymes have diagnostic use as markers of {{c1:
:tissue damage.}}
b3_Q 0 (1).svg" />
2).svg" />
).svg" />
" />
b3_Q 1 (1).svg" />
2).svg" />
).svg" />
" />
/>
>
/>
>
/>
>
1471354451606 1421618046184 <div>{{c1::Silent}} mutations occur when the alt
ered codon specifies the same amino acid;</div><div>therefore, there is no pheno
typic effect.</div>
1471354460875 1421618046184 <div>{{c1::Missense}} mutations occur when the a
ltered codon specifies a different amino acid,</div><div>causing variable phenot
ypic effects</div>
1471354481135 1421618046184 <div>{{c1::Nonsense}} mutations occur when the m
utation creates a stop codon that causes</div><div>premature termination during
protein synthesis, producing a nonfunctional protein</div>
1471354516263 1421618046184 <div>{{c1::Frameshift}} mutations are caused by
{{c2::insertion or deletion}} of any number of nucleotides</div><div>not divisib
le by three producing a shift in the reading frame during translation of</div><d
iv>mRNA</div>
1471354644513 1421618046187 Length of protein produced?<div><br /></div><div
><img src="paste-18786186952705.jpg" /></div> <div>Silent = unchanged</div><di
v>Missense = unchanged</div><div>Nonsense = Shorter or Nothing</div><div>Suppres
sor = Longer</div><div><br /></div><div>Insertion = Depends; longer or shorter,
on if a stop codon has now appeared</div><div><br /></div><div>Deletion = same a
s insertion</div><div><br /></div>
1471354873080 1421618046184 {{c1::Suppressor}} mutation is a change from a s
top codon to a codon which specifies an amino acid.
1471354874926 1421618046184 <div>Nonsense mutations often result in the synt
hesis of {{c1::no proteins}} because cells have a mechanism for protection from
premature stop codons</div>
1471354895177 1421618046187 Eukaryotic ribosome subunits: 80S --> 60S +
40S
1471355931860 1421618046187 Prokaryotic Ribsosome subunits: 70S --> 50S +
30S<div>30S -->16S RNA</div>

1471355957003 1421618046187 How many antibiotics in clinical use affect the
process of translation and why? About half. Can do this because of the diff
erence between the 70S and 80S style of protein synthesis
1471356073823 1421618046184 <div>Peptide bond formation is catalyzed by {{c1
::peptidyltransferase}} activity of an rRNA</div><div>component with enzyme func
tion (a ribozyme) in the large ribosomal subunit.</div>
1471356089676 1421618046187 Peptidyltransferase is made of? RNA
1471356090993 1421618046187 Polypeptide exit tunnel is how long?
40-50 am
ino acids<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-20160576487425.jpg" /></div>
1471356116529 1421618046187 What is the significance of eukaryotic mRNA bein
g monocistronic?
only 1 coding region<div><br /></div><div><img src="past
e-20315195310081.jpg" /></div>
1471356168209 1421618046187 What is the significance of prokaryotic mRNA bei
ng polycistronic?
more than one coding region<div><br /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-20392504721409.jpg" /></div>
1471356200464 1421618046187 Differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic m
RNA? (5)
Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic<div>monocistronic - polycistronic</div
><div>5 end cap - triphosphate</div><div>5' UTR - none</div><div>3' UTR - none</
div><div>polyA tail - none</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-2068456249
7537.jpg" /></div>
1471356434168 1421618046187 Why is eukaryotic mRNA functionally circular?
increases translational efficiency
1471356568778 1421618046184 <div>Small (40S) subunit (equivalent to the 30S
subunit in prokaryotes)</div><div>a. Binds {{c1::mRNA}} and {{c1::aminoacyl-tRNA
s}}</div><div>b. Locates {{c2::AUG start codon}} on mRNA</div>
1471356583269 1421618046184 <div>Large (60S) subunit (equivalent to the 50S
subunit in prokaryotes)</div><div>a. Binds to the {{c1::small subunit}} after {{
c1::the start codon is located}}</div><div>b. Has {{c2::peptidyltransferase}} ac
tivity</div>
1471356845154 1421618046184 tRNAs carry {{c1::activated amino acids}}
b3_Q 0 (2).svg" />
3).svg" />
).svg" />
<img src="2d9e4ad8489496d1386a5f5ce568599e1f278fb3_tmp0mioec.png
" />
b3_Q 1 (2).svg" />
3).svg" />
).svg" />
" />
b3_Q 2 (2).svg" />
3).svg" />
).svg" />
" />
b3_Q 3 (1).svg" />
3).svg" />
).svg" />
" />
1471357295767 1421618046187 <img src="paste-11841224835073.jpg" /><div>why d
oes the first reaction proceed?</div> Due to the negative free energy change o
f the second reaction; this is an example of a reaction driven by sequential lin
kage
1471357414124 1421618046184 In the formation of aminoacyl-tRNA, the amino ac
id is first {{c1::activated by reacting with ATP}} and then it is {{c2::transfer
red from aminoacyl-AMP to tRNA.}}
1471357417033 1421618046184 <div>{{c1::Wobble}} at the third base of the cod
on allows the {{c2::</div><div>same anticodon on aminoacyltRNA</div><div>to
pair with more than one codon</div>}}

1471357449905 1421373138997 <img src="8f55616c3440caba82699921f367052132332a
81_Q 0.svg" /> <img src="8f55616c3440caba82699921f367052132332a81_A 0.svg" />
<img src="8f55616c3440caba82699921f367052132332a81_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="8f55616c3440caba82699921f367052132332a81_tmpptlsfu.png" />
1471357553856 1421618046184 The methionine codon AUG is served by {{c1::two
tRNAs}} with specialized functions.
1471357788342 1421618046187 Why are there two tRNAs for AUG/Methionine?`
One is used only for initiation while the other matches the internal methionine
codon
1471357827112 1421373138997 <img src="2acd1591a7f3fc5b32c842468f3fdfe1507a8f
50_Q 0.svg" /><div>Which tRNA is initiation and which is internal?</div>
<img src="2acd1591a7f3fc5b32c842468f3fdfe1507a8f50_A 0.svg" /> <img src="2acd15
91a7f3fc5b32c842468f3fdfe1507a8f50_source_svg.svg" /> <img src="2acd1591a7f3fc
5b32c842468f3fdfe1507a8f50_tmprq_wqz.png" />
1471364398961 1421618046184 Oxidative metabolism generates {{c1::CO2}} and {
{c1::water}}, which reversibly combine to make large amounts of H2CO3. To remove
it, carbonic acid is converted back to CO2 in the {{c2::lung}} and {{c2::exhale
d}}.
1471364425307 1421618046184 pH = {{c1::-log[H+]}}
1471364483918 1421618046187 <img src="paste-49701361549313.jpg" /> 4
1471364499269 1421618046187 Normal [H+] and pH in blood?
40 nM and 7.4
1471364539945 1421618046187 Henderson-Hasselbach Equation <img src="paste51230369906689.jpg" />
1471364609426 1421618046187 What are two examples of intracellular buffers?
ionizable amino acids on proteins<div>phosphate</div><div><img src="paste-512862
04481537.jpg" /></div>
1471364664606 1421618046187 HH equation for the Blood Bicarbonate Buffer Sys
tem<div><img src="paste-51449413238785.jpg" /></div>
1471364803617 1421618046187 Clinically, CO2 concentration is measured as par
tial pressure (pCO2). How is [CO2] obtained?
multiplying pCO2 by CO2 solubili
ty (0.3)
1471364845983 1421618046187 What is the Henderson Equation (without logs)?&n
bsp;
<img src="paste-51685636440065.jpg" />
1471364896208 1421618046187 Why does the bicarbonate buffer system work? (2
reasons)
<img src="paste-51754355916801.jpg" />
1471364945432 1421618046187 Acidemia is when arterial blood pH <7.
35
1471364965530 1421618046187 Alkalemia is when
arterial blood pH >7.
45
1471364979088 1421618046187 Acidemia/Alkalemia associate with pathological d
isorders called Acidosis/Alkalosis
1471365014184 1421618046187 Acidosis/Alkalosis (do/do not) always lead to Ac
idemia/Alkalemia
do not
1471365069264 1421618046187 Acidosis/Alkalosis don't always lead to Acidemia
/Alkalemia. Why?
This is because the body can compensate and neutralize
1471365100668 1421618046184 <div>When you have {{c1::hyperventilation}} occu
r, you {{c3::blow off}} CO2, the CO2 concentration in your blood is {{c3::lowere
d}}, thus less acid in blood > could cause {{c2::Alkalosis}}</div>
1471365136972 1421618046184 <div>When {{c1::pulmonary system}} is suppressed
, too much CO2 responds to too much acid >can cause {{c2::Acidosis}}</div>
1471365156201 1421618046184 If {{c1::Kidney}} is not working very well, not
making enough bicarbonate, see eqn, {{c2::denominator}} drops, {{c2::higher}} [H
+], thus {{c2::lower}} pH >can lead to {{c3::Acidosis}}<div><br /></div><div><
1471380153534 1421618046184 {{c1::Respiratory compensation}} to metabolic dy
sfunction occurs in {{c1::minutes}}: respiratory center in {{c2::medulla oblonga
ta}} responds to pCO2 and pH
b3_Q 0 (3).svg" />

4).svg" />
).svg" />
<img src="2d9e4ad8489496d1386a5f5ce568599e1f278fb3_tmpavqmkz.png
" />
1471380677304 1421618046184 {{c1::Renal/kidney compensation}} to respiratory
dysfunction occurs in {{c1::hours to days}}: kidneys modulate excretion of {{c2
::H+}} & synthesis of {{c2::HCO3-.}}
1471380802317 1421373138997 <img src="6fbece24c58440e00ffd8b1cbcf7a0589437a2
79_Q 0.svg" /> <img src="6fbece24c58440e00ffd8b1cbcf7a0589437a279_A 0.svg" />
<img src="6fbece24c58440e00ffd8b1cbcf7a0589437a279_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="6fbece24c58440e00ffd8b1cbcf7a0589437a279_tmpukh8hh.png" />
1471382347564 1421373138997 <img src="014c5cc0f69c23c0b490b9baa2aed040e64496
d6_Q 0.svg" /> <img src="014c5cc0f69c23c0b490b9baa2aed040e64496d6_A 0.svg" />
<img src="014c5cc0f69c23c0b490b9baa2aed040e64496d6_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="014c5cc0f69c23c0b490b9baa2aed040e64496d6_tmpfkh62h.png" />
1471382376070 1421618046186 Rule for evaluating Respiratory Acidosis
total CO2 and HCO3- increase
1471382394875 1421618046186 Rule for evaluating Metabolic Alkalosis total HC
O3- and CO2 increase
1471382405738 1421618046186 Rule for evaluating Respiratory Alkalosis
total CO2 and HCO3- decrease
1471382421954 1421618046186 Rule for Evaluating Metabolic Acidosis total HC
O3- and CO2 decrease
1471382520156 1421618046187 <img src="paste-50676319125505.jpg" /> 5
1471382527249 1421618046187 <img src="paste-50800873177089.jpg" /> <div>Ans
wer is 3</div><div>Acidosis doesn't always cause a drop in pH</div><div>Alkalosi
s doesn't always cause increase in pH</div><div><br /></div><div>Replacing with
acidemia and alkalemia would make the statement correct</div><div><br /></div>
1471382564786 1421618046187 Hemoglobin can function as _______ in blood
buffer
1471382631706 1421618046187 Why can hemoglobin function as a buffer in blood
?
Its histidine imidazole side group has a pKa of ~6.6-8.0, depending on O
2 binding and corresponding changes of neighboring amino acids
1471383439547 1421618046184 In prokaryotes, the {{c1::Shine-Dalgarno}} seque
nce is complementary to the 16S rRNA part of the 30S ribosome, allowing it to {{
c2::find the initiation location. }}
1471383601332 1421618046187 How does the eukaryotic ribosome primarily find

its initiation site?
the 40S finds the the cap (cap-dependent scanning) and t
hen continues down to find the AUG<div><img src="paste-52282636894209.jpg" /></d
iv>
1471383655902 1421618046187 Other than cap dependent scanning, what is the o
ther mechanism eukaryotic ribosomes use (about 5% of the time) to find the initi
ation site?
the 40S finds the IRES (Internal Ribosome entry site), which is
upstream of the AUG. This is similar to Shine-Dalgarno in prokaryotes
1471383983399 1421618046184 {{c1::Streptomycin}} is a type of {{c2::aminogly
coside}}, which causes {{c3::miscoding during elongation by interfering with bas
e pairing}} in prokaryotes.
1471384335787 1421618046187 What are the three steps of elongation in protei
n synthesis?
Amino Acid - tRNA binding<div>Peptidyl transfer</div><div>Transl
ocation</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-55847459749889.jpg" /></div>
1471384337143 1421618046187 Amino Acid binding to tRNA in elongation is cata
lyzed by which factors? EF-Tu and EF-Ts
1471384483029 1421618046187 Peptidyl transfer in elongation is catalyzed by
what? Peptidyl transferase in the 50S/60S subunits
1471384526629 1421618046187 Translocation of the tRNA-AA moiety in Elongatio
n is catalyzed by?
EF-G, which uses GTP hydrolysis to translocate the amino
acid/tRNA<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-58046483005441 (1).jpg" /></div>
1471384838424 1421618046184 {{c1::Puromycin}} imitates {{c2::tyrosinyl(AA)-t
RNA}} and is a {{c3::chain terminator molecule.}}
1471385168759 1421618046184 {{c1::Diphteria toxin}} is a protein that is cle
aved into two fragments:<div><br /></div><div>1) {{c2::A, which poisons translat
ion}}</div><div>2) {{c2::B, causes the toxin to be internalized}}</div>
1471385191726 1421618046184 Diphteria toxin catalyzes the modification of {{
c1::eEF2}} by transferring {{c2::ADP ribose}} from NAD onto a modified histidine
residue in {{c1::eEF2}}. <div><br /></div><div>c1 is the same for both</di
v>
1471385368562 1421618046187 Diphteria toxin catalyzes the modification of eE
F2 by transferring ADP ribose from NAD onto a modified histidine residue in eEF2
. What is the result of this? the now ADP-ribosyl-eEF2 is blocked for elongati
on
b3_Q 0 (4).svg" /><div>This is the effect of Diphteria on eEF2, an elongation fa
ctor. There are 3 products</div>
<img src="2d9e4ad8489496d1386a5f5ce56859
9e1f278fb3_A 0 (5).svg" />
<img src="2d9e4ad8489496d1386a5f5ce568599e1f278f
b3_source_svg (5).svg" />
<img src="2d9e4ad8489496d1386a5f5ce568599e1f278f
b3_tmpzhpmn0.png" />
1471385779601 1421618046184 {{c1::Erythromycin}} inhibits {{c2::EF2}}.
1471385961101 1421618046184 {{c1::Ricin}} is a protein toxin that consists o
f 2 polypeptide chains:<div><br /></div><div>1) {{c2::B chain binds a cell surfa
ce receptor for uptake}}</div><div>2) {{c3::A chain depurinates 28S rRNA at a sp
ecific AA residue}}</div>
1471386088707 1421618046187 In termination, it is not the tRNA which recogni
zes the stop codons, what does? Termination factors: RF1,2,3
1471388282400 1421618046184 {{c1::Ferritin}} is an intracellular Fe2+ bindin
g protein needed when Fe2+ in cells at {{c2::high concentration}}. It forms a {{
c3::sphere}} which {{c3::packs excess iron inside}}.
1471388312292 1421618046184 Ferritin synthesis is controlled at the le
vel of translation by Iron through the {{c1::Iron response element (IRE)}}, in t
he 5' UTR of Ferritin mRNA, which binds to {{c1::IRE binding protein (IRE-BP)}}
and blocks initiation.
1471388345227 1421618046184 If there is {{c1::excess Iron}}, it binds instea
d to the {{c2::IRE-BP}}, which then doesn't bind to IRE, allowing for {{c3::tran
slation and making of Ferritin.}}
1471388385395 1421618046184 {{c1::Hereditary hyperferritinemia}}, a.k.a. cat
aract syndrome, is when {{c2::IRE mutations in ferritin mRNA cannot bind IRE-BP.
}}
1471388597018 1421618046187 IRE mutations in hereditary hyperferritinemia le

ad to what direct metabolic effect? What is the culminating physiological effect
?
ferritin synthesis increases; early-onset cataract formation
1471395911118 1421618046184 {{c1::eIF2}} supplies {{c2::Met-tRNA}} to {{c2::
40S subunit}} for protein synthesis.
<img src="paste-13378823127041.jpg" />
1471395988443 1421618046184 eIF2 {{c1::phosphorylation}} {{c2::inhibits}} in
itiation because {{c2::eIF2B is trapped.}}
This is important because eIF2B
is the enzyme which converts eIF2-GDP to eIF2-GTP. This GTP is then hydrolyzed t
o add the tRNA to the ribosome later on.
1471396133206 1421618046187 eIF2 phosphorylation inhibits initiation because
eIF2B is trapped.This is important because
eIF2B is the
enzyme which converts eIF2-GDP to eIF2-GTP.
1471396232918 1421618046187 eIF2 phosphorylation inhibits initiation because
eIF2B is trapped.This is important because eIF2B is the enzyme which conve
rts eIF2-GDP to eIF2-GTP. What is the significance of this GTP? This GTP is then
hydrolyzed to add the tRNA to the ribosome later on.
1471396245015 1421618046187 What phosphorylates eIF2-GDP? eIF2 kinases
1471396290072 1421618046187 A mutation in any of the 5 subunits of eIF2B lea
ds to this disease
Vanishing White Matter
1471396570599 1421618046184 Vanishing White Matter, an {{c1::autosomal reces
sive}} disease, can lead to {{c2::ovarian failure}} and {{c2::ataxia}}.
1471396573396 1421618046184 {{c1::ataxia}} is the loss of full control of bo
dily movements
1471396765950 1421618046184 {{c1::eEF1}} supplies aa-tRNA to ribosome during
elongation, {{c2::GTP}} for EF-Tu is {{c2::hydrolyzed}}.
<img src="paste20182051323905.jpg" />
1471397250749 1421618046184 {{c1::eIF4E}} binds the {{c2::mRNA 5' cap}} and
is part of a {{c2::complex required for scanning. }}
b3_Q 0 (5).svg" />
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1471441881622 1421618046184 {{c1::Protein Targeting (or sorting/trafficiking
)}} is the means by which proteins get from their cytosynthesis on polyribosomes
to where-ever they will be active
1471441884240 1421618046184 Protein {{c1::translocation (secretion)}} is {{c
2::cotranslational}} and coordinated by {{c3::SRP}}.
b3_Q 0 (6).svg" />
7).svg" />
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<img src="2d9e4ad8489496d1386a5f5ce568599e1f278fb3_tmpix_jof.png
" />
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1471442361361 1421618046184 SRP recognizes the {{c1::signal peptide}} and {{
c1::SRP receptor}}, {{c1::controls elongation}}, and targets the {{c1::ER.}}
1471442417628 1421618046184 Sorting of proteins made on the Rough ER occurs
due to specific signals:<div><br /></div><div>to ER membrane: {{c1::halt (stop t
ransfer) signal}}, so {{c1::it is not released into the lumen}}</div><div>to Lys
osomal enzymes: {{c2::mannose-6-phosphate attachment}}</div><div>to secretion: {
{c3::default}}</div>
1471442722503 1421618046184 Most proteins enter the ER via co-translational
secretion in response to the N-terminal signal peptide, which is made of {{c1::1
5-30 hydrophobic AAs}}
1471442801701 1421618046184 Proteins made in the cytosol either {{c1::stay i
n the cytosol}} or traffic to:<div><br /></div><div>Nucleus: due to a {{c2::Nucl
ear localization signal}} ({{c5::basic}} AAs) recognized by {{c2::importins/Ran
proteins}} (2 recognition things)</div><div>Peroxisomes: {{c3::Peroxisomal Targe
ting Sequences}} recognized by {{c3::PTS receptors}}</div><div>Mitochondria:&nbs
p;{{c4::N-terminal leader translocation complexes }}({{c6::20-80 charged}}
AAs)</div>
1471443125268 1421618046184 {{c1::Selenium}} is an essential micronutrient w
hose deficiency leads to {{c2::dilated cardiomyopathy}}, {{c2::congestive heart
failure}}, {{c2::muscle degeneration}}.
1471443738194 1421618046184 Selenium is present as {{c1::selenocysteine}} in
a small number of proteins. Most selenoproteins catalyze {{c2::oxido-reduction}
} reactions. Two examples of selanoproteins are {{c3::Glutathione peroxidase}} a
nd {{c3::5'-deiodinase}}.
1471443813325 1421618046184 {{c1::Glutathione Peroxidase}} reduces {{c2::org
anic peroxides}} and uses Glutathione (G-SH) as a {{c3::reducing agent}}.
1471443868028 1421618046184 {{c1::5'-deiodinase}} converts {{c2::thyroxine (
T4)}} into {{c2::T3 (more active form)}}. Deficiency in {{c1::5'-deiodinase}} ca
n lead to {{c3::goiter}}.
1471444066488 1421618046184 {{c1::Vitamin K}} is required for {{c2::blood cl
otting}} and it mediates {{c2::gamma-carboxylation}}. It is counteracted by {{c3
::anticoagulants}} like Warfarin.
1471444466180 1421373138997 <img src="cbb29818247057803d29cb3906568a99e83de1
e2_Q 0.svg" /> <img src="cbb29818247057803d29cb3906568a99e83de1e2_A 0.svg" />
<img src="cbb29818247057803d29cb3906568a99e83de1e2_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="cbb29818247057803d29cb3906568a99e83de1e2_tmpeb0scr.png" />
1471444946738 1421618046184 {{c1::Protein glycation}} is the non-enzymatic r
eaction of {{c2::glucose}} with {{c2::protein amino groups.}}
1471445562525 1421618046184 {{c1::HbA1c}} is glycated on N-terminal valine o
f beta-chains and it records the {{c2::blood sugar level}} in diabetes as a {{c3
::time average}}.
<img src="paste-66872640798721.jpg" />
1471445644359 1421618046184 The significance of {{c1::HbA1c}} is that it's a
surrogate marker which tells you other proteins may be {{c2::similarly modified
}} and their {{c2::functions impaired}}.
1471470231049 1421618046187 Changesin protein structure causing disease resu
lt from these two things
Loss of function<div>gain of function</div>
1471470387475 1421618046184 {{c1::Sickle Cell anemia}} is an example of a {{
c2::loss of function}} which causes defects in {{c3::adult hemoglobin (HbA)}}
1471470389664 1421618046184 In sickle cell anemia, {{c1::high}} O2 levels red blood cells have {{c2::normal morphology.}} <img src="paste-6571299962881.jp
g" />
1471470443320 1421618046184 In sickle cell anemia, {{c1::low}} O2 levels lea
d to red blood cells having {{c2::sickle shape}}.
41505.jpg" />
1471470488463 1421618046184 In sickle cell disease, mutation in the {{c1::HB
B}} gene, which encodes {{c2::the Beta subunit}} of Hb leads to a {{c3::defect i
n transporting oxygen.}}
1471470543845 1421618046184 {{c1::HBA1}} and {{c1::HBA2}} gene encode {{c2::
alpha}} globin<div>{{c1::HBB}} encodes {{c2::Beta}} globin</div>
1471470888859 1421618046184 HbA has {{c1::4}} heme prosthetic groups binding
O2, {{c1::one}} per subunit.
1471470922425 1421618046184 Sickle Cell disease is caused by {{c1::mutation
of HBB gene}} where {{c2::position 6 glutamic acid}} is replaced by {{c2::valine
}}.
1471470972025 1421618046184 mutant hemoglobin in sickle cell is called {{c1:
:HbS}}, which is {{c2::less}} soluble when O2 levels are {{c3::low}}.
1471471015938 1421618046184 {{c1::Valine}}, position 6, on one Beta globin s
ubunit interacts with a {{c2::hydrophobic patch}} ({{c2::Phe85}} and {{c2::Leu88

}}) on another subunit leading to {{c3::Hb polymer formation}} and {{c3::aggrega
tion}} <img src="paste-7172595384321.jpg" />
1471471117722 1421618046184 Sickle cell hemoglobin, HbS, forms {{c1::long, i
nflexible chains}}
<img src="paste-10771777978369.jpg" />
1471471166873 1421618046184 The sickle cells also block {{c1::blood flow}}&n
bsp;due to {{c2::their abnormal shape.}}
1471471218495 1421618046184 <div>Due to abnormal morphology, sickle cells di
e after {{c1::10-20}} days, compared to healthy red blood cells for {{c1::90-120
}} days.</div>
1471471260889 1421618046184 Sickle cells are stiff and sticky, {{c1::blockin
g blood flow}} in the vasculature of the limbs and organs, this can also lead to
an {{c2::inflammatory response}}. Blocked blood flow causes {{c3::pain}}, {{c3:
:organ damage}}, and {{c3::increases risk for infection}}.
1471471377690 1421618046184 {{c1::Prion diseases}} are an example of {{c2::g
ain of function}} diseases and it is a {{c3::transmissible, infectious protein a
ggregation}} disease.
1471474610988 1421618046184 Prion diseases are a rare group of {{c1::neurode
generative}} diseases in humans and animals.
1471474639907 1421618046184 Prion diseases are also known as {{c1::transmiss
ible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE)}}
1471474671226 1421618046184 An example of animal prion disease is {{c1::scra
pie}}, which occurs in goat and sheep.
b3_Q 0 (7).svg" />
8).svg" />
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<img src="2d9e4ad8489496d1386a5f5ce568599e1f278fb3_tmp7lafca.png
" />
example of a Prion disease
1471474751353 1421618046184 In animals, prion protein enters body through th
e {{c1::intestine}}.
example
of a Prion disease
example
of a Prion disease
1471474932632 1421618046184 PrP<sup>c</sup> : c stands for {{c2::normal
cellular protein}}<div>PrP<sup>sc</sup>: sc stands for {{c1::scrapie}}</div>
1471474985876 1421618046184 Misfolded PrP<sup>sc</sup> causes {{c1::agg
regation}} of other PrP<sup>c</sup> and PrP<sup>sc </sup>proteins
1471475061053 1421618046184 Transmission of prion disease is purely based on
{{c1::proteins}}, doesn't require transmission of genetic material or a pathoge
n.
1471475099572 1421618046184 Although the normal function of PrPc is {{c1::un
known}}, laboratory experiments with animals show that {{c2::chaotropic agents}}
reduce and disaggregate PrPsc
1471475145833 1421373138997 <img src="4708e739d82de212ac85185f2d73e1f49024bf
4f_Q 0.svg" /> <img src="4708e739d82de212ac85185f2d73e1f49024bf4f_A 0.svg" />
<img src="4708e739d82de212ac85185f2d73e1f49024bf4f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="4708e739d82de212ac85185f2d73e1f49024bf4f_tmpxpkck1.png" />
example
of a Prion disease
1471475145835 1421373138997 <img src="4708e739d82de212ac85185f2d73e1f49024bf
4f_Q 1.svg" /> <img src="4708e739d82de212ac85185f2d73e1f49024bf4f_A 0.svg" />
<img src="4708e739d82de212ac85185f2d73e1f49024bf4f_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="4708e739d82de212ac85185f2d73e1f49024bf4f_tmpxpkck1.png" />
example
of a Prion disease
1471475225099 1421618046184 {{c1::Chaotropic agents}} are water soluble mole

cules that {{c3::reduce the stability}} of a protein's native state by wea
kening {{c2::non-covalent forces}}.
1471475270764 1421618046184 Protein {{c2::misfolding}} and {{c2::aggregation
}} cause multiple human disorders, such as: (6 listed)<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::<div>Prion disease</div><div>Huntington</div><div>Parkinson</div><div>Alzheime
r</div><div>ALS</div><div>Cataracts</div>}}</div>
1471475857254 1421618046184 Cataract formation is a {{c1::protein aggregatio
n}} disease of the {{c2::ocular lens.}} <img src="paste-58583353917441.jpg" />
1471475913007 1421618046184 During differentiation, {{c1::cuboidal epithelia
l}} cells migrate towards the {{c2::lens equator}}, where they begin to {{c3::el
iminate their intracelllular organelles and most ribosomes}}, resulting in {{c4:
:lens transparency in the mature fibers.}}
1471475974434 1421618046184 90% of the proteins expressed in normal lens fib
ers are the {{c1::crystallin proteins}}, which ensure {{c2::lens transparency}}
required for acute vision.
1471476017283 1421618046184 Crystallin proteins over time accumulate damage
from {{c1::protein degradation}} and {{c1::photo damage}}, which leads to {{c2::
partial unfolding of the crystallin polypeptide chains and aggregation prone int
ermediates.}}
1471476098429 1421618046184 In young lenses, {{c1::alpha-crystallin}} recogn
izes and sequesters {{c2::destabilized intermediates}}. <img src="paste-58982785
875969.jpg" />
1471476135746 1421618046184 With age, alpha-crystallin complexes {{c1::aggre
gate}}, resulting in {{c2::cataracts}}. <img src="paste-58978490908673.jpg" />
1471528596613 1421618046187 What are the four eIF2 kinases? HRI, PKR, PERK,
GCN2
1471532479796 1421618046187 Polypeptide chain cleavage can occur at several
sites, including (3): N terminal end<br />C terminal end<div>internal sequence
</div>
1471536661861 1421618046187 what is the purpose of polypeptide chain cleavag
e (2)? maturation and <div>inactivation or partial inactivation</div>
1471536907365 1421618046184 {{c1::Maturation}} is the generation of active p
roducts from inactive precursors.
1471536908579 1421618046184 Insulin contains two chains linked by {{c1::disu
lfide bridges}} <img src="paste-9470402887681.jpg" />
1471536966453 1421618046184 In insulin maturation first step, {{c1::signal p
eptidase}} removes the signal sequence. <img src="paste-9539122364417.jpg" />
1471537010491 1421618046184 After the signal sequence is removed, Preproinsu
lin turns into {{c1::proinsulin}}.
1471537044898 1421618046184 Proinsulin is then cleaved by proteinases which
seperate the {{c1::C-peptide}} from the A and B chains. <img src="paste-97581656
96513 (1).jpg" />
1471537094971 1421618046184 Predominant function of C peptide is to allow th
e conformation below to occur, thus allowing for the {{c1::proper formation of s
ulfide bridges}}<div><br /></div>
<img src="paste-9831180140545.jpg" />
1471537124114 1421618046184 The cleavage of C peptide from Proinsulin is med
iated by two types of enzymes: {{c1::Carboxypeptidase like}} and {{c1::Trypsin l
ike.}}
1471537168786 1421618046184 {{c1::Familial Hyperproinsulinemia}} is a {{c2::
autosomal dominant}} disorder in which {{c3::proinsulin cleavage}} is defective.
1471537305933 1421618046184 In familial hyperproinsulinimia, there is no phy
siological trait that can be seen, but {{c1::proinsulin}} can be found in the bl
ood, which it normally isn't.
1471537347810 1421618046184 C peptide is relatively {{c1::stable}} in plasma
: half life is 30 min compared to insulin's 5-10
1471537411738 1421618046184 C-peptide can help distinguish {{c1::type 1 and
type 2 diabetes}}.
1471537436737 1421618046184 C-peptide can be used to measure {{c1::insulin p
roduction}}
1471537452833 1421618046184 C-peptide can be used to recognize type 1 diabet

es because {{c1::insulin is not being made, so no C peptide}}
1471537494346 1421618046184 C-peptide can be used to recognize type 2 diabet
es because insulin is not being effectively used, leads to {{c1::elevated C
-peptide}} since the body will {{c2::upregulate insulin synthesis}}
1471537524330 1421618046184 C-peptide can also be used to monitor endogenous
insulin production in patients receiving {{c1::injected insulin.}}
1471537554873 1421618046184 <div>{{c1::Differential cleavage}} allows the ma
king of multiple proteins from a single precursor</div> <img src="paste-10651518
894081.jpg" />
1471537585522 1421618046184 <div>{{c1::Zymogens (or Proenzymes)}} are inacti
ve proteolytic enzymes activated by the cleavage by another enzyme which {{c2::r
emoves the sequence keeping them silent}}</div><div><br /></div>
1471537627762 1421618046184 Sequence of {{c1::proteolytic cleavage}} is a me
chanism that ensures the clotting pathways proceeds
226177.jpg" />
1471537660258 1421618046184 Many viruses generate proteins as {{c1::polyprot
eins}}, a number of protein sequences linked together, which is chopped up by vi
ral proteases into {{c2::viral proteins}} and {{c2::enzymes needed by the protei
n}}
1471537707698 1421618046184 Poliovirus cleaves translation initiation factor
{{c1::eIF4G}}, and the piece remaining is {{c2::good enough for the virus'
s IRES mechanism}}, but {{c3::blocks cell's protein synthesis}}
1471537784683 1421618046184 Advantages of using precursor proteins (4) are<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Protection of cell/organism}} e.g. digestive proteases
</div><div>{{c1::Allows for folding & modification}} e.g. insulin</div><div>
{{c1::Multiple gene products}} e.g. poliovirus</div><div>{{c1::Control}} e.g. bl
ood clotting</div>
b3_Q 0 (8).svg" />
9).svg" />
).svg" />
<img src="2d9e4ad8489496d1386a5f5ce568599e1f278fb3_tmpt6no3h.png
" />
b3_Q 1 (5).svg" />
9).svg" />
).svg" />
<img src="2d9e4ad8489496d1386a5f5ce568599e1f278fb3_tmpt6no3h.png
" />
1471537937317 1421618046184 Secondary and tertiary structure forms spontaneo
usly, but the folding can be accelerated by 3 enzymes:<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::<div>Protein disulfide isomerases</div><div>Peptidyl prolyl isomerases</div><d
iv>Chaperones</div>}}</div>
1471538007945 1421618046184 {{c1::Protein disulfide isomerases}} shuffle {{c
2::disulfide crosslink combinations}}, allowing the protein to adopt the most st
able structure.
1471538040466 1421618046184 {{c1::Peptidyl prolyl isomerases}} interconvert
cis and trans forms of proline
1471538063105 1421618046184 {{c1::Chaperones}} discourage improper interacti
ons by {{c2::using energy from ATP to denature bits of protein sequence}} to all
ow it to reform in a different way.
1471706581420 1421618046184 eIF4E, which binds the mRNA 5' cap, has its func
tion {{c1::increased}} by the {{c2::phosphorylation of 4E-BP (binding protein)}}
and {{c2::eIF4E itself.}}
1401144019445 1395802358422 Which enzyme is defective in I-Cell Disease, the
reby resulting in defective protein trafficking/secretion?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Phosphotransferase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence, Mannose residues ca
nnot be phosphorylated on glycoproteins. Thereby results in proteins entering th
e default secretory pathway (extracellular secretion) instead of being sent to l
ysosomes.</i></div><div><i>Remember, the lysosomal trafficking signal is mannose
-6-phosphate.</i></div>
1401147474137 1395802358422 Which organelle is involved in the catabolism of

very-long-chain and branched-chain fatty acids?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pero
xisome}}</div>
1401230620600 1395802358422 {{c1::Marfan Syndrome}} is a connective tissue d
isorder that is caused by a defect in fibrillin, a glycoprotein that forms a she
ath around elastin.
1401230899568 1395802358422 Which connective tissue glycoprotein is defectiv
e in Marfan Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fibrillin}}</div>
1401314812810 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitochondrial Myopathies}} are a group of
rare myopathies that often show <b>"ragged red fibers"</b> on a muscle biop
sy.<br />
<br /><div><i>Also present with myopathy, lactic acidosis and CN
S disease.</i></div><div><i>Secondary to a failure in oxidative phosphorylation<
/i></div>
1401319113672 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Hypercholesterolemia}} is an auto
somal dominant cardiovascular disorder that involves an <b>elevated LDL</b>&nbsp
;due to defective or absent LDL receptors.
<br /><div><i>Causes severe athe
rosclerotic disease early in life and <b>tendon xanthomas</b> (esp at the A
chilles tendon).</i></div>
1401321205737 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Familial Hype
rcholesterolemia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401324348713 1395802358422 {{c1::N-acetylcysteine}} is a mucolytic agent us
ed to treat the mucous plugs seen in Cystic Fibrosis by cleaving disulfide bonds
within mucous glycoproteins.
1401324408282 1395802358422 Which mucolytic agent is used to treat the mucou
s plugs seen in Cystic Fibrosis by cleaving the disulfide bonds within mucous gl
ycoproteins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::N-acetylcysteine}}</div>
1401324499032 1395802358422 What is the MOA of N-acetylcysteine in the treat
ment of Cystic Fibrosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cleavage of the disulfide bo
nds in mucous glycoproteins, thereby clearing mucous plugs}}</div>
1401330146297 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Hunter Syndro
me?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401331928387 1395802358422 How do Aldolase levels change in Duchenne Muscul
ar Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1401389801179 1395802358422 What are the fat soluble vitamins?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Vitamin A, D, E, and K}}</div>
<div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>
All others are water soluble.</i></div><div><i>Absorption is therefore dependent
on the gut and pancreas.</i></div><div><i>Malabsorption syndromes often cause f
at-soluble vitamin deficiency.</i></div>
1401394831658 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvate dehydrogenase}} is a metabolic en
zyme that links glycolysis to the TCA cycle and requires Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) a
s a cofactor. <br /><div><img src="paste-9925669421121.jpg" /></div>
1401394880917 1395802358422 {{c1::Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase}} is an
enzyme involved in the TCA cycle that requires Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) as a c
ofactor.
<div><br /></div><img src="paste-9925669421121.jpg" />
1401394914859 1395802358422 {{c1::Transketolase}} is an enzyme involved in t
he HMP shunt that requires Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) as a cofactor.
<br /><d
1401410642021 1395802358422 Which water soluble vitamin is an essential comp
onent of Fatty Acid Synthase?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin B5 (Panthothena
te)}}</div>
1401411964563 1395802358422 Which water soluble vitamin is converted to Pyri
doxal pyrophosphate, a cofactor used in Glycogen Phosphorylase?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
1401419461841 1395802358422 {{c1::Sarcoidosis}} is a granulomatous immune di
sorder that involves increased activation of Vitamin D by epithelioid macrophage
s.
1401419632024 1395802358422 Which fat soluble vitamin acts as an antioxidant
, especially in RBCs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin E (Tocopherol/Tocotrien
ol)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Proteins RBCs and membranes from free radical dama
ge</i></div>
1401419707427 1395802358422 Which fat soluble vitamin is able to enhance the

anticoagulant effects of Warfarin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin E (Tocoph
erol/Tocotrienol)}}</div>
1401419862590 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitamin E (Tocopherol/Tocotrienol)}} is a
fat soluble vitamin that causes <b>posterior column</b> and <b>spinocerebel
lar tract demyelination </b>if it is deficient. <br /><div><i>This may have a si
milar neurological presentation to Vitamin V12 deficiency, but without megalobla
stic anaemia, hypersegmented PMNs or increased methylmalonic acid.</i></div>
1401420404066 1395802358422 {{c1::Acanthocytosis}} and {{c2::hemolytic
anaemia}} are hematological complications seen in Vitamin E (Tocopherol/Tocotrie
nol) deficiency.
<br /><div><i>Remember, Vitamin E (Tocopherol/Tocot
rienol) is an important antioxidant in RBCs.</i></div>
1401422962869 1395802358422 {{c1::Lactic acidosis}} is a complication of eth
anol metabolism due to an increase in the NADH:NAD ratio which drives the conver
sion of pyruvate to lactate.
<br /><div><img src="paste-27354646708362.jpg" /
></div>
1401423025592 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoglycemia}} is a complication of ethano
l metabolism due to the increased NADH:NAD ratio driving the conversion of oxalo
acetate to malate, thereby preventing gluconeogenesis. <div><br></div><i>We cor
rect the hypoglycemia with <u style="font-weight: bold; ">IV thiamine befor
e glucose</u> as thiamine is a required cofactor for glucose metabolism.</i
><br><div><img src="paste-27440546054293.jpg" /></div>
1401423079007 1395802358422 How does ethanol metabolism affect gluconeogenes
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition due to increased NADH:NAD ratio}}</div
>
1401423161498 1395802358422 {{c1::Hepatosteatosis}} is a complication of eth
anol metabolism due to the increased NADH:NAD ratio causing the conversion of gl
yceraldehyde-3-phosphate to glycerol-3-phosphate, thereby causing an increase in
triglyceride levels. <br /><div><i>Hepatosteatosis is also caused by the incr
eased use of acetyl-CoA for lipogenesis.</i></div>
1401423225950 1395802358422 {{c1::Ketoacidosis}} is a complication of alcoho
l metabolism due to the increased NADH:NAD ratio disfavouring TCA production of
NADH and causing subsequent use of acetyl-CoA for ketogenesis.
1401473784107 1395802358422 Where in the cell does fatty acid oxidation (bet
a-oxidation) occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondria}}</div>
1401473828782 1395802358422 Where in the cell does acetyl-CoA productio
n occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondria}}</div>
1401473842020 1395802358422 Where in the cell does the TCA cycle occur?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondria}}</div>
1401473852838 1395802358422 Where in the cell does oxidative phosphoryl
ation occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondria}}</div>
1401473862920 1395802358422 Where in the cell does glycolysis occur?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplasm}}</div>
1401473879365 1395802358422 Where in the cell does Fatty acid synthesis
occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplasm}}</div>
1401473888009 1395802358422 Where in the cell does the HMP shunt occur?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplasm}}</div>
1401474722855 1395802358422 Where in the cell does Gluconeogenesis occur?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both mitochondria and cytoplasm}}</div>
1401475003447 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT5}} is a carbohydrate transporter foun
d at the <b>luminal membrane</b> of the GI tract that allows <b>fructose</b
> to be absorbed.
1401475059128 1395802358422 Which carbohydrate transporter on the <b>luminal
membrane</b> of GI epithelium functions to allow <b>fructose</b> to b
e absorbed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT5}}</div>
1401475085182 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT2}} is a carbohydrate transporter loca
ted at the <b>basolateral membrane</b> of GI epithelium that moves <b>gluco
se and fructose</b> from the cell into the blood.
1401475119464 1395802358422 Which carbohydrate transporter on the <b>basolat
eral membrane</b> of GI epithelium moves <b>fructose and glucose</b> f
rom the cell into the blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT2}}</div>

1401475151890 1395802358422 {{c1::S-GLUT1}} is a Na cotransporter on the <b>
luminal membrane</b> of GI epithelium that moves<b> galactose and gluc
ose</b> into the cell <b>with Na.</b>
1401475197728 1395802358422 Which transporter on the <b>luminal membrane</b>
of GI epithelium moves <b>galactose and glucose</b> into the cell <b>
with Na</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::S-GLUT1}}</div>
1401475223934 1395802358422 What is the rate-determining enzyme of Glycolysi
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1)}}</div>
1401475517311 1395802358422 What is the rate-determining enzyme of Gluconeog
enesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase}}</div>
1401475530289 1395802358422 What is the rate-determining enzyme of the TCA c
ycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Isocitrate dehydrogenase}}</div>
1401475539831 1395802358422 What is the rate-determining enzyme of Glycogene
sis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycogen synthase}}</div>
1401475549215 1395802358422 What is the rate-determining enzyme of Glycogeno
lysis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycogen phosphorylase}}</div>
1401475563451 1395802358422 What is the rate-determining enzyme of the HMP s
hunt?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD)}}</div
>
1401475634516 1395802358422 What is the rate-determining enzyme of fatty aci
d synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC)}}</div>
1401475651685 1395802358422 What is the rate-determining enzyme of fatty aci
d oxidation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Carnitine acyltransferase I}}</div>
1401475663656 1395802358422 What is the rate-determining enzyme of ketogenes
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA synthase}}</div>
1401475673235 1395802358422 What is the rate-determining enzyme of cholester
ol synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA Reductase}}</div>
1401475685825 1395802358422 How does the activity of Phosphofructokinase-1 i
n Glycolysis change with AMP regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase; vi
a allosteric activation}}</div>
n Glycolysis change with fructose-2,6-bisphosphate regulation?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
n Glycolysis change with ATP regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</
div>
n Glycolysis change with Citrate regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease
}}</div>
1401475785362 1395802358422 How does the activity of Fructose-1,6-bisphospha
te in Gluconeogenesis change with ATP regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inc
rease}}</div>
tase in Gluconeogenesis change with acetyl-CoA regulation?<div><br></div><div>{{
c1::Increase}}</div>
<br><div><i>This is especially true in fasting states wh
en acetyl-CoA levels are elevated.</i></div>
te in Gluconeogenesis change with AMP regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dec
rease}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, gluconeogenesis only occurs in high ener
gy states.</i></div>
tase in Gluconeogenesis change with fructose-2,6-bisphosphate regulation?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1401475873367 1395802358422 How does the activity of Isocitrate dehydrogenas
e change in the TCA cycle with ADP regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increa
se}}</div>
e change in the TCA cycle with ATP regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrea
se}}</div>

e change in the TCA cycle with NADH regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
ase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence the increased NADH in alcohol metabolism shu
ts off the TCA cycle.</i></div>
1401475925423 1395802358422 How does the activity of Glycogen synthase chang
e in glycogenesis with glucose-6-phosphate regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Increase}}</div>
e in glycogenesis with Insulin regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}
</div>
e in glycogenesis with cortisol regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}
}</div>
e in glycogenesis with Epinephrine regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrea
se}}</div>
e in glycogenesis with glucagon regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}
}</div>
1401476119682 1395802358422 How does the activity of Glycogen phosphorylase
change in Glycogenolysis with epinephrine regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Increase}}</div>
change in Glycogenolysis with glucagon regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::In
crease}}</div>
change in Glycogenolysis with AMP regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increas
e}}</div>
change in Glycogenolysis with glucose-6-phosphate regulation?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
change in Glycogenolysis with Insulin regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dec
rease}}</div> <br /><div><i>Insulin activated Protein Phosphatase 1, which the
n dephosphorylates Glycogen phosphorylase, thereby inactivating it.</i></div>
change in Glycogenolysis with ATP regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decreas
e}}</div>
1401476181878 1395802358422 How does G6PD activity in the HMP shunt change w
ith NADP+ regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1401476200186 1395802358422 How does G6PD activity in the HMP shunt change w
ith NADPH regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1401476282820 1395802358422 How does the activity of acetyl-CoA carboxylase
(ACC) in fatty acid synthesis change with insulin regulation?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
(ACC) in fatty acid synthesis change with citrate regulation?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
(ACC) in fatty acid synthesis change with glucagon regulation?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
(ACC) in fatty acid synthesis change with palmitoyl-CoA regulation?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1401476333693 1395802358422 How does the activity of Carnitine acyltransfera
se I in fatty acid oxidation change with malonyl-CoA regulation?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1401476365489 1395802358422 How does the activity of HMG-CoA reductase in ch
olesterol synthesis change with insulin regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I
ncrease}}</div>

olesterol synthesis change with Thyroxine regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Increase}}</div>
olesterol synthesis change with glucagon regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Decrease}}</div>
olesterol synthesis change with cholesterol regulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Decrease}}</div>
1401476495043 1395802358422 How many pyruvate molecules are made from the me
tabolism of 1 Glucose molecule?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>1Glc + 2ADP + 2P<sub>i</sub> + 2NAD<sup>+</sup> --> 2Pyruvate
+ 2ATP + 2NADH</i></div>
1401478374227 1395802358422 How much net ATP is produced in anaerobic glycol
ysis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2/moc Glc}}</div>
1401479036239 1395802358422 {{c1::Arsenic}} is a metalloid element that can
cause glycolysis to produce net zero ATP.
1401479098580 1395802358422 How much net ATP is produced via the malate-aspa
rtate shuttle in aerobic metabolism at the heart and liver?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::32}}</div>
1401479146930 1395802358422 How much net ATP is made via the glycerol-3-phos
phate shuttle in aerobic metabolism at muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::30}}</
div>
1401479255203 1395802358422 What does NADH, NADPH and FADH2 carry when
it is in its activated form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Electrons}}</div>
1401494704964 1395802358422 Which nicotinamide electron acceptor is generall
y used in <b>catabolic</b> processes to carry reducing equivalents away as
NADH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NAD+}}</div>
1401494755285 1395802358422 Which nicotinamide electron donor is used in <b>
anabolic </b>processes as a supply of reducing equivalents?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::NADPH}}</div>
1401494782730 1395802358422 Which nicotinamide electron donor is a product o
f the HMP shunt?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NADPH}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="paste-6171868004510.jpg" /></div>
1401494829059 1395802358422 Which enzyme in glycolysis phosphorylates glucos
e to glucose-6-phosphate, the first metabolite in the pathway?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Hexokinase or Glucokinase depending on the tissue}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hexokinase = most tissue, but not liver or pancreatic beta-cells</i></div>
<div><i>Glucokinase = liver; pancreatic beta-cells</i></div>
1401495317535 1395802358422 What is the K<sub>m</sub> of Hexokinase com
pared to Glucokinase?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lower}}</div> <br /><div><i>He
nce, Hexokinase has higher affinity for glucose. This is important as Hexokinase
is found outside of the liver. We want our tissues to be able to use glucose wh
en it is in lower concentrations.</i></div>
1401495797717 1395802358422 What is the K<sub>m</sub> of Glucokinase co
mpared to Hexokinase?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Higher; by 100x}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence, Glucokinase has a lower affinity for glucose. This is very
important, as in hypoglycemic situations, we do not want the liver or pancreatic
beta-cells to be using too much Glc. Conversely, this ensures that the liver an
d pancreatic beta-cells are more inclined to utilize glucose when it is availabl
e in higher concentrations. Both of the above points exist so that the liver doe
s not take glucose away from tissue and store it when we don't need it to; and s
o that the pancreatic beta-cells don't make and secrete insulin when glucose lev
els are low.</i></div>
1401496077564 1395802358422 What is the V<sub>max</sub> of Hexokinase c
ompared to Glucokinase?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lower}}</div>
1401496136074 1395802358422 What is the V<sub>max</sub> of Glucokinase
compares to Hexokinase?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Higher}}</div>
1401496153822 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinase has both <b>lower</b
> K<sub>m</sub> and V<sub>max</sub>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hexoki
nase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hexokinase = lower</i></div><div><i>Glucokinase =
higher</i></div>
1401496356269 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinase is inducible by insu
lin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucokinase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Think abou
t this. Which form is in the liver? Where do we want to store glucose? What horm
one is elevated only when glucose is elevated?</i></div><div><i>Also remember, t
hat induction = increased expression = increased Vmax. This is why GK has higher
Vmax.</i></div><div><i>That is also why an increase in sugars in the diet will
result in increase fat deposition as GK expression has increased.</i></div>
1401496797663 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinase is inhibited by gluc
ose-6-phosphate feedback?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hexokinase}}</div>
1401496824656 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinase is associated with M
aturity-onset Diabetes of the Young (MODY)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucokina
se}}</div>
1401496867570 1395802358422 How does regulation by Glucose-6-phosphate affec
t Hexokinase activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
<br /><d
1401497455669 1395802358422 How does regulation by Fructose-6-phosphate affe
ct Glucokinase activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div> <div><br
/></div><img src="paste-8156142895185.jpg" />
1401497473230 1395802358422 What is the rate-limiting enzyme in glycolysis?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK1)}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="paste-8349416423508.jpg" /></div>
1401497503816 1395802358422 How does regulation by ATP affect Phosphofructok
inase-1 (PFK-1) activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>When ATP levels are high, PFK-1 is inhibited and upstream glucose-6phosphate builds up. When that occurs, G6P is stored as glycogen by the liver.</
i><br /><div><img src="paste-8345121456212.jpg" /></div>
1401497529282 1395802358422 How does regulation by AMP influence phosphofruc
tokinase-1 (PFK1) activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-8345121456212.jpg" /></div>
1401497563689 1395802358422 How does regulation by citrate influence the act
ivity of Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK1)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</
div>
1401497591274 1395802358422 How does regulation by fructose-2,6-bisphosphate
(F2,6BP) influence Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK1) activity?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Activation; via allosteric binding}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pas
te-8345121456212.jpg" /></div>
1401497713589 1395802358422 How does regulation by ATP influence the activit
y of Pyruvate kinase?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div><div><br /></
<br /><div><i>ATP/AMP re
gulation is pretty logical overall. When ATP exists, we don't need to make more.
</i></div>
1401497755622 1395802358422 How does regulation by alanine influence the act
ivity of Pyruvate kinase?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div><div><br
<br /><div><i>Th
is is a pretty logical negative feedback loop when you remember that <b>pyruvate
is converted to alanine by ALT and Vitamin B6</b>.</i></div>
1401497774801 1395802358422 How does regulation by fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
influence the activity of Pyruvate kinase?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activatio
n}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, <b>F1,6BP is an upstream metabolite in glycolysis</b>. D
o not confuse that with <b>F<u>2</u>,6BP</b> which is an allosteric activat
or of PFK-1.</i></div>
1401497919743 1395802358422 How does Glucagon action influence the activity
of Pyruvate kinase?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition; via phosphorylation}}
</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
1401497951667 1395802358422 How does Insulin action influence the activity o
f Pyruvate kinase?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation; via dephosphorylation}
}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>One of my biochem profs said this and I'll never forget it: "<b>In
sulin drives the <u>utilization</u> of glucose."</b></i></div>
1401498020219 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose bisphosphatase-2}} and {{c2:
:Phosphofructokinase-2}} are 2 enzymes part of the same bifunctional enzyme comp
lex that function to regulate PFK-1 through F2,6BP.
te-9955734192342.jpg" /></div>
1401499337024 1395802358422 Which Protein Kinase controls Fructose Bisphosph
ate-2 and PFK-2 in the regulation of PFK-1?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Protein Kin
ase A}}</div> <br><div><img src="paste-10544144712085.jpg" /></div>
1401499353645 1395802358422 {{c1::Phosphofructokinase-2 (PFK-2)}} is an enzy
me that forms F2,6BP, an allosteric activator of PFK-1, in response to insulin.
1401499588764 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose Bisphosphatase-2}} is an enzyme t
hat <b>breaks down</b> F2,6BP, an allosteric activator of PFK-1, in respons
e to glucagon. <br /><div><img src="paste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div>
1401499636707 1395802358422 How does Glucagon influence Phosphofructokinase2 activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inactivation, by <u>activating protein ki
nase A and subsequent phosphorylation of PFK-2</u>}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>Thereby causes <b>less glycolysis and more gluconeogenesis</b> in the f
asting state.</i><br /><div><img src="paste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div>
1401499795869 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Phosphofructokinase-2
activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation; via <u>inhibition of protein k
inase A and subsequent dephosphorylation of PFK-2</u>}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i>Thereby causes <b>more glycolysis and less gluconeogenesis</b> in the f
ed state.</i><div><i>This is also why diabetics have decreased rates of glycolys
is.<br /></i><div><img src="paste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div></div>
1401499901998 1395802358422 Which secondary messenger is involved in the act
ivation and inactivation of PFK-2 through protein kinase A?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
1401574581943 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvate Dehydrogenase}} is a mitochondria
l enzyme that links glycolysis and the TCA cycle by converting pyruvate to acety
l CoA. <br><div><i>Pyruvate + NAD + CoA --> Acetyl-CoA + CO2 + NADH</i></div
><div><i><br></i></div><div><i>This reaction is <b>irreversible</b></i></div>
1401574687733 1395802358422 What are the 5 key cofactors required by Py
ruvate Dehydrogenase?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thiamine; Lipoic Acid; CoA; FAD
; NAD}}</div> <br /><div><i>aka <b>Tender Love & Care For Nancy</b></i></d
iv><div><i><b><img src="paste-16870631538902.jpg" /></b></i></div><div><i><b><br
/></b></i></div><div><i>This is also a good way to understand Wernicke-Korsakof
f:</i></div><div><i>Alcoholism --> Thiamine deficiency --> decreased Acety
l CoA --> myelination and CNS deficits</i></div>
1401574945166 1395802358422 How does Glucagon affect Pyruvate Dehydrogenase
activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
1401575033135 1395802358422 {{c1::alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase}} is an
enzyme complex that converts alpha-ketoglutarate to succinyl-CoA in the TCA cycl
e and requires the same cofactors as pyruvate dehydrogenase.
<br /><div><i>Re
member, those cofactors are <b>Tender Love & Care For Nancy </b>(Thiamine; L
ipoic Acid; CoA; FAD; NAD)</i></div>
1401576743029 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetylaldehyde dehydrogenase}} is an enzym
e involved in alcohol metabolism that uses the same cofactors as pyruvate dehydr
ogenase.
<br><div><i>Remember, those cofactors are <b>Tender Love & C
are For Nancy</b>: (Thiamine, Lipoic Acid, CoA, FAD, NAD)</i></div><div><i><br><
/i></div><div><i>This is also a brilliant tie into thiamine deficiency and Werni
cke-Korsakoff in alcoholism. All of that alcohol needs to be metabolised, that m
eans all available thiamine needs to be used. As a consequence, there will be le
ss PDH activity, less acetyl CoA and subsequent Wernicke-Korsakoff.</i></div>
1401577288486 1395802358422 {{c1::Arsenic}} is a metalloid element that inhi
bits lipoic acid, a key cofactor of Pyruvate Dehydrogenase, Acetaldehyde DH, alp
ha-Ketoglutarate DH, and Branched-Chain Ketoacid DH.
<div><br /></div><i>Pres
ents with vomiting, rice-water stools and <b>garlic breath</b>.</i><br /><div><i
>Lipoic acid is the <b>Love</b> in <b>Tender Love & Care For Nancy</b>.
</i></div>
1401577835900 1395802358422 Which enzyme <b>irreversibly</b> converts P
yruvate into Acetyl CoA?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pyruvate Dehydrogenase}}</di
v>
<br /><div><i>"Sugar can become fat, but fat cannot become sugar."</i></
div><div><i>Glc <---> Pyruvate <b><u>---></u></b> Acetyl-CoA <--> Fat</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>The Pyruvate that is involve
d in gluconeogenesis comes from the conversion of Alanine (via ALT) and Lactate
to Pyruvate.</i></div>
1401583796468 1395802358422 How do pyruvate levels change in Pyruvate dehydr
ogenase deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>The build up of Pyruvate gets shunted to Lactate (via LDH) and Alanine (vi
a ALT).</i></div>
1401585162913 1395802358422 How do lactate levels change in Pyruvate Dehydro
genase deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><i>Th
e excess pyruvate gets made into lactate via LDH, thereby causing <b>lactic acid
osis</b>.</i></div>
1401585323923 1395802358422 How do serum alanine levels change in Pyruvate D
ehydrogenase deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>The excess pyruvate gets shunted to alanine by ALT.</i></div>
1401585722133 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvate carboxylase}} is an enzyme involv
ed in pyruvate metabolism that converts pyruvate into oxaloacetate, which can go
on to replenish the TCA cycle or feed gluconeogenesis. <br /><div><img src="pas
te-19327352832602.jpg" /></div>
1401585774062 1395802358422 What water soluble vitamin is needed for Pyruvat
e Carboxylase activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin B7 (Biotin)}}</div>
1401585798623 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvate Dehydrogenase}} is an enzyme invo
lved in pyruvate metabolism that converts pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, thereby linkin
g glycolysis to the TCA cycle. <div><br /></div><i>Remember, PDH requires <b>Te
nder Love & Care For Nancy</b> cofactors (Vitamins B1, B2, B3, B5 and L
ipoic Acid)</i><br /><div><img src="paste-19327352832602.jpg" /></div>
1401585964325 1395802358422 {{c1::Lactic Acid Dehydrogenase (LDH)}} is an en
zyme involved in pyruvate metabolism that converts pyruvate to lactate. <br /><d
iv><i>This is the end stage of <b>anaerobic glycolysis</b> (key in RBCs, le
ukocytes, renal medulla, lens, testes and the cornea) and also part of the <b>Co
ri Cycle.</b></i></div><div><i>The generated NAD+ molecules feed back into glyco
lysis for substrate level phosphorylation.</i></div><div><i><u>This reaction is
extremely vital in states of low O<sub>2</sub> or mitochondrial damage as i
t replenishes NAD needed for glycolysis.</u></i></div><div><i><b><img src="paste
-19327352832602.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401586160301 1395802358422 How many NADH molecules are made in the TCA cycl
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div>
1401587946656 1395802358422 How many FADH<sub>2</sub> molecules are mad
e in the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>
1401587965683 1395802358422 How many ATP molecules are made per Acetyl-CoA m
olecule that enters the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::10}}</div>
1401588001838 1395802358422 Where in the cell does the TCA cycle occur??<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondria}}</div>
1401588020285 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the TCA cycle is the major regul
ation point of the pathway?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Isocitrate Dehydrogenase}
}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Remember, the Krebs cycle is not influenced by Insul
in or Glucagon. <b>It is entirely regulated by local levels of energy (i.e. ATP,
NADH).</b></i><div><i>The other key regulatory steps are at <b>Citrate Synthase
</b> and <b>alpha-ketoglurate dehydrogenase</b><br /></i><div><img src="pas
te-20882130993800.jpg" /></div></div>
1401588366248 1395802358422 How does an increase in ATP levels influence the
TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hi
gh ATP = high energy = inhibitions of Krebs.</i></div><div><i>ATP and ADP act as
allosteric regulators.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-20877836026504.jpg" /><
/i></div>
1401588408409 1395802358422 How does an increase of ADP levels influence the
TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</div>

<br /><div><i>In
creased ADP = low energy state = activation of Krebs</i></div><div><i>ADP and AT
P act as allosteric regulators.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-20877836026504.
jpg" /></i></div>
1401588433623 1395802358422 How does an increase in NADH levels influence th
e TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibitions}}</div>
<br /><div><i>In
creased NADH = high energy state = inhibition of Krebs.</i></div><div><i>NADH ac
ts as a competitive inhibitor.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-20877836026504.j
pg" /></i></div>
1401588472767 1395802358422 How does an increase in NAD+ levels influence th
e TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hi
gh NAD+ = low energy state = activated Krebs.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-2
0877836026504.jpg" /></i></div>
1401588681226 1395802358422 What is the First Aid mnemonic for the intermedi
ates of the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Citrate Is Krebs' Starting Sub
strate For Making Oxaloacetate}}</div> <br /><div><img src="paste-2087783602650
4.jpg" /></div>
1401588727100 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts Pyruvate to Oxaloacetate,
which can then be fed into the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pyruvate ca
rboxylase}}</div>
1401589281420 1395802358422 Which intermediate of the TCA cycle can be made
from Alanine by AST with B6?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pyruvate}}</div>
1401589315193 1395802358422 Which intermediate in the TCA cycle can be made
from Aspartate via AST with B6?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oxaloacetate}}</div>
1401589347353 1395802358422 Which intermediate in the TCA cycle can be made
from Glutamate via Transaminase?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::alpha-ketoglutarate}
}</div>
1401589369960 1395802358422 The {{c1::Malate-Aspartate shuttle}} and {{
c2::Glycerol-3-phosphate shuttle}} are 2 metabolic shuttles that function to bri
ng NADH and FADH2 electrons into the mitochondria from glycolysis.
<br><div
><i>FADH2 comes in via the G3P shuttle.</i></div>
1401590348780 1395802358422 Which metabolic shuttle is responsible for bring
ing FADH<sub>2</sub> electrons from glycolysis into the mitochondria?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycerol-3-phosphate shuttle}}</div>
1401590394880 1395802358422 Which mitochondrial enzyme receives electrons fr
om FADH<sub>2</sub> in the electron transport chain?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Complex II (aka Succinate Dehydrogenase)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pas
te-23441931502034.jpg" /></div>
1401590448508 1395802358422 {{c1::Succinate Dehydrogenase}} is a mitochondri
al enzyme part of the electron transport chain that is also referred to as Compl
ex II. <br /><div><img src="paste-23437636534738.jpg" /></div>
1401590533116 1395802358422 {{c1::NADH Dehydrogenase}} is a mitochondrial en
zyme part of the electron transport chain that is also referred to as Complex I.
1401590587246 1395802358422 {{c1::Ubiquinone}} is an enzyme in the electron
transport chain that is also referred to as Coenzyme Q. <br /><div><img src="pas
te-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401590622172 1395802358422 {{c1::Cytochrome Oxidase}} is an enzyme in the e
lectron transport chain that is also referred to as Complex IV. <br /><div><img
src="paste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401590657862 1395802358422 {{c1::ATP Synthase}} is an enzyme in the electro
n transport chain that is also referred to as Complex V.
<br /><div><img
src="paste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401590749133 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the electron transport chain pro
duces H<sub>2</sub>O?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytochrome Oxidase (Complex IV)
}}</div>
1401590817835 1395802358422 How many ATP molecules are produced by ATP synth
ase for every molecule of NADH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2.5 (so we just use ~
3 in calculations)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Steve had sex with <b>NAD</b>ia <b
>H</b>. <b>3</b> times during frosh week and got an STI. </i></div><di
v><i><br /></i></div><div><i>(True story. Will never forget the regret on Steve'

s face. Will also never forget this mnemonic.)</i></div>
1401591083458 1395802358422 How many ATP molecules are produced by ATP Synth
ase for every FADH<sub>2</sub> molecule?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1.5 (so
we just use ~2 for calculation)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>FADH<sub style="fo
nt-weight: bold; ">2</sub> = <b>2</b> ATP</i></div>
1401591134161 1395802358422 {{c1::Rotenone}} is an electron transport inhibi
tor that directly inhibits the ETC at Complex I.
<div><br /></div><i>This
<b>decreases</b> the proton gradient and <b>blocks ATP synthesis</b>.</i><
br /><div><img src="paste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401591408045 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the electron transport chain is
inhibited by Rotenone?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Complex I (NADH Dehydrogenase)
}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This <b>decreases</b> the proton g
radient and <b>blocks ATP synthesis</b>.</i><br /><div><img src="paste-2367
8154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401591510868 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyanide}} and {{c2::CO}} are electron tran
sport inhibitors that directly inhibit the ETC at Complex IV. <div><br /></div
><i>Cyanide is detoxified by nitrites and thiosulfates.</i><div><i></i><i>This&n
bsp;<b>decreases</b> the proton gradient and <b>blocks ATP synthesis</
b>.</i><br /><div><img src="paste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div></div>
inhibited by Cyanide and CO?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Complex IV (Cytochrome O
xidase)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="paste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401591797642 1395802358422 {{c1::Antimycin A}} is an electron transport inh
ibitor that directly inhibits the ETC at Complex III. <div><br /></div><i>This
<b>decreases</b> the proton gradient and <b>blocks ATP synthesis
</b>.</i><br /><div><i>"<b>RACCO</b>" from left to right.</i></div><div><img src
="paste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
inhibited by Antimycin A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Complex III}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This <b>decreases</b> the proton gradient and&nbsp
;<b>blocks ATP synthesis</b>.</i><div><i><b>"RACCO"</b> from left to right
in the ETC.<br /></i><div><div><img src="paste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div></div
></div>
1401592020484 1395802358422 {{c1::Oligomycin}} is an ATP Synthase inhibitor
that directly inhibits ATP synthase in the ETC. <br /><div><i>This <b>increases<
/b> the proton gradient, but no ATP is produced as the ETC is inhibited.</i
></div><div><i>"<b>RACCO</b>" from left to right in the ETC.</i></div><div><i><i
mg src="paste-23678154703303.jpg" /></i></div>
1401592337244 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the ETC is inhibited by Oligomyc
in?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ATP Synthase}}</div>
<div><br /></div>"<i><b>
ROCCO</b>" from left to right.</i><br /><div><img src="paste-23678154703303.jpg"
/></div>
1401592484059 1395802358422 How do FADH<sub>2</sub> and NADH levels cha
nge when the electron transport chain is inhibited?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I
ncrease}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is pretty obvious, but think of the consequen
ces: Inhibition of the TCA cycle, decreased ATP production, and decreased O<sub>
2</sub> utilization.</i></div>
1401592821605 1395802358422 {{c1::2,4-Dinitrophenol}} is an uncoupling agent
that is sometimes used illicitly for weight loss.
1401592888587 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Uncoupling Agents in the inhi
bition of ATP synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<b>Increased permeability of
the mitochondrial membrane</b>, thereby causing a decreased proton gradient and
increased O2 consumption}}</div>
<br /><div><i>ATP synthesis stops, but e
lectron transport continues. This increase in metabolic rate produces a consider
able about of heat as well.</i></div>
1401593221266 1395802358422 {{c1::Thermogenin}} is an uncoupling agent found
in brown fat.
1401593299761 1395802358422 How do increased ATP levels influence Gluconeoge
nesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Gluconeoge
nesis only occurs in high energy states (high ATP and high NADH) because <b>Oxal
oacetate must be converted to Malate in the TCA cycle</b>. Malate then leaves to
gluconeogenesis via the malate shuttle.</i></div>
1401593619539 1395802358422 How do increased NADH levels influence Gluconeog
enesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</div> <br /><div><i>Gluconeoge
nesis only occurs in high energy states (high ATP and high NADH) because <b
>Oxaloacetate must be converted to Malate in the TCA cycle</b>. Malate then leav
es to gluconeogenesis via the malate shuttle.</i></div>
1401593640147 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvate carboxylase}} is an irreversible
enzyme that converts pyruvate to oxaloacetate in gluconeogenesis.
1401594066010 1395802358422 Which water soluble vitamin is required for Pyru
vate Carboxylase activity in gluconeogenesis?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin B
7 (Biotin)}}</div>
<br><i>Remember, Avidin from raw eggs binds to Biotin</i
>
1401594091941 1395802358422 How do increased Acetyl-CoA levels influence Pyr
uvate Carboxylase activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</div>
1401594112417 1395802358422 {{c1::Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase}} is an
irreversible enzyme in gluconeogenesis that converts oxaloacetate to phosphoenol
pyruvate.
<br /><div><i>Requires GTP.</i></div>
1401594161811 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphatase}} is an irreve
rsible enzyme that converts F1,6BP to F6P in gluconeogenesis.
1401594203282 1395802358422 How do increased Citrate levels influence Fructo
se-1,6-bisphosphatase activity in gluconeogenesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ac
tivation}}</div>
1401594251409 1395802358422 How do increased Fructose-<b>2,6</b>-bisphosphat
e levels influence Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase activity in gluconeogenesis?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
1401594297420 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucose-6-phosphatase}} is an irreversible
enzyme of gluconeogenesis that converts Glucose-6-phosphate to glucose.
1401594333809 1395802358422 Where in the body does gluconeogenesis primarily
occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Liver}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Essentiall
y, it will occur wherever the enzymes exist. Hence it also occurs at the kidneys
and intestinal epithelium. Along the same lines, it does not occur at muscle du
e to their lack of Glucose-6-phosphatase</i></div>
1401594455163 1395802358422 {{c1::Propionyl-CoA}} is a product of odd-chain
fatty acid metabolism that can enter the TCA cycle as succinyl-CoA, undergo gluc
oneogenesis and hence serve as a glucose source.
<br /><div><i>Even-chain
fatty acids provide Acetyl-CoA equivalents.</i></div>
1401594545605 1395802358422 Which metabolic shunt acts as a vital source of
NADPH from glucose-6-phosphate?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMP Shunt (Pentose Ph
osphate Pathway)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, NADPH is required for re
ductive reactions, esp. glutathione in RBCs.</i></div><div><i>Also, <u>do not co
nfuse NADPH for NADH and its role in ATP synthesis</u></i></div><div><i><u><br /
></u></i></div><div><i><u><img src="paste-29794188132607.jpg" /></u></i></div>
1401596199885 1395802358422 Which metabolic shunt is a vital source of ribos
e for nucleotide synthesis and glycolytic intermediates?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::HMP Shunt (Pentose Phosphate Pathway)}}</div>
1401596236051 1395802358422 Where in the cell does the HMP Shunt occur?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplasm}}</div>
<br /><div><i>No ATP is used or
produced.</i></div>
1401596268083 1395802358422 What is the rate limiting enzyme in the HMP shun
t?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G6PD (Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase)}}</div>
1401596354823 1395802358422 What water soluble vitamin is required in the no
noxidative, reversible step of the HMP shunt conducted by Transketolases?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Acti
vity of these transketolases are used to gauge the level of Thiamine deficiency.
<br /></i><div><img src="paste-29386166239378.jpg" /></div>
1401596476373 1395802358422 {{c1::Myeloperoxidase}} is an enzyme involved in
the respiratory burst that gives sputum its blue-green colour. <br /><div><img
src="paste-29918742184491.jpg" /></div>
1401597532687 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the respiratory burst forms supe
roxide radicals from O2?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NAPDH Oxidase}}</div>
1401597575169 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the respiratory burst forms H2O2
from superoxide radicals?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Superoxide dismutase}}</di
v>
1401597595981 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the respiratory burst forms Hypo
chlorite (HOCl) from H2O2?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myeloperoxidase}}</div>
1401597622507 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Granulomatous Disease}} is a metab
olic disorder that involves deficiency of NADPH Oxidase.
1401597727422 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Granulomatous Disease}} is an immu
ne disorder caused by NADPH Oxidase deficiency that involves an increased risk f
or recurrent infections and granuloma formation by <b>catalase-positive organism
s</b>. <br /><div><i>Catalase positive organisms are capable of neutralizing th
eir own H2O2, thereby leaving phagocytes without any ROS to fight the infection.
Catalase negative organisms on the other hand essentially provide H2O2 to phago
cytes.</i></div>
1401597935365 1395802358422 {{c1::Lactoferrin}} is a protein found in secret
ory fluids and neutrophils that functions to inhibits microbial growth via iron
chelation.
1401598127447 1395802358422 What type of organisms have a higher rate of rec
urrent infection and granuloma formation in Chronic Granulomatous Disease (CGD)?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Catalase-positive organisms}}</div> <br /><div><i>Th
e major Catalase-positive bugs: <b>Staphs N' Enterobacteriaceae Are Listed Catal
ase Positive.</b></i></div><div><i>[Staphylococcus, Neisseria, Enterobacteria, A
spergillus, Listeria, Candida, Pseudomonas (and TB!)]</i></div>
1401645975656 1395802358422 {{c1::G6PD Deficiency}} is an X-linked recessive
enzyme deficiency that results in decreased NADPH levels in RBCs, thereby makin
g them susceptible to oxidizing agents and causing hemolytic anaemia. <div><br
/></div><i>Remember, NADPH is needed to Glutathione reduced so that is can deto
xify free radicals and ROS. No G6PD = No NADPH required for Glutathione reductas
e.</i><br /><div><img src="paste-648540061960.jpg" /></div>
1401646194700 1395802358422 {{c1::Primaquine}} is an antimalarial drug that
can trigger hemolytic anaemia in G6PD Deficiency.
1401646785061 1395802358422 {{c1::Fava Beans}} are a type of bean that can t
rigger hemolytic anaemia in G6PD deficiency.
<br /><div><i><b>Infection can a
lso trigger hemolytic anaemia</b> as the free radicals generated from the i
nflammatory response can diffuse into RBCs and cause oxidative damage.</i></div>
1401647037205 1395802358422 {{c1::Essential Fructosuria}} is a disorder of f
ructose metabolism that involves a defect in <b>Fructokinase</b>.
<br /><d
1401647919414 1395802358422 What enzyme is defective in Essential Fructosuri
a?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fructokinase}}</div>
te-1700807049585.jpg" /></div>
1401647959360 1395802358422 {{c1::Essential Fructosuria}} is an <b>asymptoma
tic</b> disorder of fructose metabolism as Hexokinase is able to perform th
e same function as Fructokinase, hence Fructose is not trapped in cells.
<div><br /></div><i>The symptoms that appear are benign (fructosuria; fructosemi
a).</i><div><i>Disorders of fructose metabolism generally cause milder symptoms
than analogous disorders of galactose metabolism.<br /></i><div><div><img src="p
aste-1700807049585.jpg" /></div></div></div>
1401648271389 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose Intolerance}} is a disorder of fr
uctose metabolism that results from a deficiency of <b>Aldolase B</b>. <div><br
/></div><i>Aldolase B should not be confused with Aldolase A, the enzyme in gly
colysis. However, through Aldolase B, Fructose requires less ATP to enter glycol
ysis. For this reason, fructose is in many sports drinks. For this same reason,
high fructose corn syrups are quite bad, as the quick, cheap supply of sugar ene
rgy leads to an excess of sugars that then get turned into fat.</i><br /><div><i
1401648410695 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Fructose Intoleranc
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aldolase B}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember,
Aldolase B is unique to fructose metabolism. Aldolase A is the enzyme in glycoly
sis.</i></div>
1401648440884 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Fructose Into
lerance?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive}}</div>
1401648455934 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose Intolerance}} is a disorder of fr
uctose metabolism that presents with an accumulation of Fructose-1-Phosphate, th
ereby causing a decrease in available phosphate.
<br /><div><i>This in tu
rn results in inhibition of glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.</i></div><div><i
><img src="paste-1700807049585.jpg" /></i></div>
1401649701708 1395802358422 {{c1::Fastic hypoglycemia}}, {{c2::jaundice
}} and {{c3::cirrhosis}} are hepatic complications of Fructose Intolerance
that arise due to the extensive liver damage seen.
1401649802545 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperuricemia/Gout}} is a complication of
Fructose Intolerance as the trapping of phosphate on Fructose molecules forces P
urines towards Uric Acid.
<br /><div><img src="paste-1700807049585.jpg" />
</div>
1401649969484 1395802358422 Which renal tubule can get damaged in Fructose I
ntolerance?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Similar to Renal Tubular Acidosis, Type 2.</i></div>
1401650173302 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucose}} is a reducing sugar (aldose) tha
t becomes Sorbitol via Aldose Reductase.
<br /><div><i>The other aldose (
reducing) sugars include: </i></div><div><i>Galactose --> Galactitol;&nb
sp;</i></div><div><i>Inose --> Inositol; </i></div><div><i>Mannose --&gt
; Mannitol</i></div>
1401650177776 1395802358422 {{c1::Sucrose}} is a disaccharide that consists
of Fructose and Glucose.
1401650512131 1395802358422 {{c1::Lactose}} is a disaccharide that consists
of Galactose and Glucose.
1401650525781 1395802358422 {{c1::Galactokinase Deficiency}} is a disorder o
f galactose metabolism that involves a hereditary deficiency of <b>Galactokinase
</b>. <div><br /></div><i>Thereby results in the accumulation of Galactitol, a
the reducing form of Galactose.</i><br /><div><img src="paste-4969277161823.jpg
" /></div>
1401650861584 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Galactokinase
Deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1401650874333 1395802358422 What enzyme is deficient in Galactokinase Defici
ency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Galactokinase, duh.}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="paste-4964982194527.jpg" /></div>
1401650898779 1395802358422 {{c1::Galactokinase Deficiency}} is a <b>relativ
ely mild </b>disorder of galactose metabolism that is essentially benign except
for <b>infantile cataracts</b>. <br /><div><img src="paste-4964982194527.jpg" />
</div>
1401650972248 1395802358422 {{c1::Cataracts}} are an ocular complication of
disorders of galactose metabolism due to the accumulation of Galactitol, a reduc
ing product of Galactose.
<div><br /></div><i>For this reason, disorders o
f fructose metabolism <b>do not present with cataracts</b> as Fructose is n
ot a reducing sugar.</i><br /><div><img src="paste-4964982194527.jpg" /></div>
1401651076546 1395802358422 {{c1::Galactokinase Deficiency}} is a disorder o
f galactose metabolism that may initially present as failure to track objects or
to develop a social smile.
1401651108768 1395802358422 {{c1::Classic Galactosemia}} is a disorder of ga
lactose metabolism that involves the absence of <b>Galactose-1-phosphate Uridylt
ransferase</b>. <br /><div><img src="paste-4964982194527.jpg" /></div>
1401651661214 1395802358422 What enzyme is absent in Classic Galactosemia?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Galactose-1-phosphate Uridyltransferase}}</div>
1401651684872 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Classic Galac
tosemia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>

lactose metabolism that presents with <b>jaundice, hepatomegaly, infantile catar
acts</b> and <b>intellectual disability</b> due to the accumulation of
toxic substances.
<div><br /></div><div><i>Especially Galactitol.</i></div
><div><i>The more serious defects can also involve PO4 depletion.</i></div><i><u
>Classic Galactosemia is similar to Fructose Intolerance (Aldolase B deficiency)
except that it includes cataracts.</u></i><br /><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i
lactose metabolism that presents similarly to Fructose Intolerance (Aldolase B d
eficiency) except that it includes cataracts. <br /><div><i><b>F</b>ructose is
to <b>A</b>ldolase <b>B</b> as <b>G</b>alactose is to <b>U</b>ridyl<b>T</b>rans
ferase. (<b>FAB GUT</b>).</i></div>
1401652005087 1395802358422 Which disorder of Galactose metabolism can lead
to <i>Escherichia coli </i>sepsis in neonates?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Classi
c Galactosemia}}</div>
1401652055363 1395802358422 {{c1::Sorbitol}} is the alcohol counterpart of G
lucose formed by Aldose Reductase and stands as an alternative method of trappin
g glucose in the cell. <div><br /></div><i>Some tissues are able to then conver
t Sorbitol into Fructose via Sorbitol Dehydrogenase.</i><div><i>Other tissue tha
t do not have the above enzyme are at risk for intracellular sorbitol accumulati
on, thereby causing osmotic damage (e.g. <b>cataracts, retinopathy, peripheral n
europathy</b>). This is especially seen in hyperglycemia.</i></div><div><i>Galac
titol can cause similar problems via Aldose Reductase.<br /></i><div><img src="p
aste-6300717023664.jpg" /></div></div>
1401653655500 1395802358422 Which enzyme found on the brush border of the GI
epithelium functions to digest Lactose into glucose and galactose?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Lactase}}</div>
1401657331838 1395802358422 Which intermediate of the TCA cycle is supplied
by the Urea Cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fumarate}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i>In fact, the Urea Cycle is a very key Fumarate source.</i><br /><div><img sr
c="paste-8731668513484.jpg" /></div>
1401657734354 1395802358422 How do alpha-Ketoglutarate levels change in Hype
rammonemia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease; thereby inhibiting the TCA cycl
e}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, alpha-KG + NH2 = Glutamate.</i></div><di
v><i>Also, since this inhibits the TCA cycle, less ATP will be made and less ATP
will be available for the Urea Cycle, thereby compounding the hyperammonemia.</
i></div>
1401813535554 1395802358422 How does Glucagon influence Glycogenolysis?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Glucagon causes th
e <b>phosphorylation of Glycogen Phosphorylase</b> via Protein Kinase A, th
ereby <b>activating it.</b></i></div><div><i>Glucagon causes the <b>phosphorylat
ion of Glycogen Synthase</b> via Protein Kinase A, thereby <b>inactivating
it.</b></i></div><div><i><b><img src="paste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401819069138 1395802358422 How does Epinephrine influence Glycogenolysis?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</div>
<div><br /></div><div><div><i>Ep
inephrine causes the <b>phosphorylation of Glycogen Phosphorylase</b>
via Protein Kinase A, thereby <b>activating it.</b></i></div><div><i>Epinep
hrine causes the <b>phosphorylation of Glycogen Synthase</b> via Prote
in Kinase A, thereby <b>inactivating it.</b></i></div><div><i><b><img src="
paste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i></div></div>
1401819279758 1395802358422 Which protein kinase enzyme is involved in the r
egulation of Glycogen Phosphorylase and Glycogen Synthase by Glucagon and Epinep
hrine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Protein Kinase A}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>And remember, <b>Insulin activates phosphatases</b> hence it does the o
pposite.</i><br /><div><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="paste-2164663517742.jpg
" /></b></i></div>
1401819363556 1395802358422 Which protein phosphatase enzyme is involved in
the regulation of Glycogen Synthase and Glycogen Phosphorylase by Insulin?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Protein Phosphatase 1}}</div>

<br /><div><i><div></div
></i><i><b><img src="paste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401819410506 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Glycogenolysis?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Insulin activates
<b>Glycogen Synthase</b>.</i></div><div><i>Insulin activates <b>Protein Phosphat
ase 1</b> which <b>dephosphorylates Glycogen Phosphorylase</b>, thereby ina
ctivating it.</i></div><div><i></i><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="paste-21646
63517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401819491519 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Glycogenesis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</div> <br /><div><i>Insulin activates <b>Glyco
gen Synthase</b>.</i></div><div><i>Insulin activated <b>Protein Phosphatase 1</b
> which dephosphorylates <b>Glycogen Phosphorylase</b>, thereby inactivatin
g it.</i></div><div><i></i><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="paste-2164663517742
.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401820462778 1395802358422 How does AMP influence Glycogenolysis at muscle?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</div> <br /><div><i>This only occurs a
t muscle. <b>AMP has no effect on hepatic glycogenolysis</b>.</i></div>
1401820512824 1395802358422 Which enzyme in muscle activates Glycogen Phosph
orylase when it is bound to Ca?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Calmodulin}}</div>
<br /><div><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="paste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i>
</div>
1401820582800 1395802358422 How does Glucose-6-phosphate influence Glycogene
sis in both liver and muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</div>
<br /><div><i>G6P activated Glycogen Synthase in a feed-forward manner to drive
glycogenesis.</i></div><div><i></i><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="paste-21646
63517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401833353374 1395802358422 What type of glycosidic bond is seen in <b>glyco
gen branches</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::alpha-(1,6)}}</div>
1401833612783 1395802358422 What type of glycosidic bond is seen in <b>glyco
gen links</b> (i.e. linear glycogen)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::alpha-(1,4
)}}</div>
1401833683064 1395802358422 In skeletal muscle, Glycogen is broken into&nbsp
;{{c1::Glucose-1-phosphate}} molecules and then converted to {{c2::Glucose6-phosphate}}, which is rapidly metabolized during exercise and enters anaerobic
glycolysis.
<br /><div><i>The breakdown is the reverse of glycogen synthesis
:</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-4471060955437.jpg" /></i></div>
1401833835675 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver cleaves Glucose-1-phos
phate residues off branched glycogen until there are four remaining before a bra
nch point?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycogen phosphorylase}}</div>
<br /><d
1401834039050 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver moves <b>three</b>&nbs
p;Glucose-1-phosphate molecules from the branch to the glycogen linkage in Glyco
genolysis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4-alpha-D-Glucanotransferase (Debranching
Enzyme)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="paste-4471060955437.jpg" /></div>
1401834231654 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver cleaves off the last g
lucose-1-phosphate molecule from a branch in Glycogenolysis?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::alpha-1,6-Glucosidase (Debranching Enzyme)}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="paste-4471060955437.jpg" /></div>
1401834270124 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver removes a phosphate gr
oup from Glucose-6-phosphate, thereby allowing glucose to be transported into th
e blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose-6-phosphatase}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Remember, glycogenolysis at the liver is aimed to maintain blood sugar. Th
is final step is vital in both gluconeongenesis and glycogenolysis to allow gluc
ose to enter circulation.</i></div><div><i>In fact, <b>the liver has a unique Gl
ucose-6-phosphatase</b> that lets this last step occur.</i></div>
1401834493200 1395802358422 Which enzyme in <b>lysosomes</b> degrades a
small amount of glycogen?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::alpha-1,4-glucosidase (Aci
d Maltase)}}</div>
1401834550708 1395802358422 What is the primary role of Glycogenolysis at th
e liver?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Maintenant of blood glucose}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Glycogenolysis only lasts a short time. Soon after, gluconeogenesis takes

over to keep blood glucose levels maintained.</i></div>
1401834674758 1395802358422 How do Glycogen levels change in glycogen storag
e disorders?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Lo
l. Just making sure you're still alive.</i></div><div><i>Also, keep in mind of <
b>where</b> glycogen is made/stored: <b>Liver</b> and <b>muscle</b>. H
ence, it is these 2 tissues that are affected in these disorders. Glycogen stora
ge disorders can be sorted into liver, muscle or mixed types.</i></div>
1401835653689 1395802358422 {{c1::Von Gierke disease}} is a glycogen storage
disorder that is also referred to as Type I Glycogen Storage Disorder.
1401835707649 1395802358422 {{c1::Pompe Disease}} is a glycogen storage diso
rder that is also referred to as Type II Glycogen Storage Disorder
1401835724855 1395802358422 {{c1::Cori Disease}} is a glycogen storage disor
der that is also referred to as Type III Glycogen Storage Disorder.
1401835744015 1395802358422 {{c1::McArdle Disease}} is a glycogen storage di
sorder that is also referred to as Type V Glycogen Storage Disorder.
1401835786447 1395802358422 What is the only glycogen storage disorder that
affects <b>both</b> the liver and muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pompe
Disease}}</div>
1401835912232 1395802358422 What is the only glycogen storage disorder that
has severe fasting hypoglycemia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Von Gierke Disease}}
</div>
1401835936881 1395802358422 Which enzyme is defective in Von Gierke Disease?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose-6-phosphatase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Re
member, <b>only the liver expresses Glucose-6-phosphatase.</b></i></div><div><i>
Of the glycogen storage disorders, Von Gierke is basically the only one with rea
lly shitty biochemistry.</i></div>
1401835993657 1395802358422 {{c1::Von Gierke Disease}} is a glycogen storage
disorder that presents with <b>severe fasting hypoglycemia</b> due to a Gl
ucose-6-phosphatase deficiency.
disorder that presents with <b>hepatomegaly</b> due to a severe increase i
n Glucose-6-phosphate levels. <br /><div><i>G6P is very osmotically active and
hence causes cell swelling and ultimately hepatosplenomegaly.</i></div>
disorder that presents with <b>hyperammonemia</b> and <b>lactic acidosis</
b> due to the liver failure that arises. <br /><div><i>Von Gierke Disease
is essentially a genetic cause of liver failure due to the Glucose-6-phosphatas
e deficiency.</i></div>
1401836262125 1395802358422 {{c1::Ketoacidosis}} is a complication of Von Gi
erke Disease that arises due to Acetyl CoA being shunted towards ketogenesis.
1401836445601 1395802358422 {{c1::Gout/Hyperuricemia}} is a possible complic
ation of Von Gierke Disease due to the phosphate trapping that occurs with Gluco
se-6-phosphate accumulation and the resultant lack of phosphate for purine salva
ge.
<br /><div><i>Anything that causes phosphate trapping can cause hyperuri
cemia/gout.</i></div><div><i>Fructose Intolerance (Aldolase B deficiency; F1P ac
cumulation) is another example.</i></div><div><i>Classic Galactosemia (Gal-1-P U
ridyltransferase defect; Gal-1-P accumulation) is one as well.</i></div>
1401836484479 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Von Gierke Di
sease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive}}</div>
1401836496319 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Von Gierke Disease?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Frequent oral glucose/cornstarch; avoidance of fructose
and galactose}}</div>
rder that involves <b>cardiomyopathy.</b>
<br /><div><i>Along with systemi
c findings, hepatomegaly and muscle weakness there is early death.</i></div>
rder that involves a deficiency of Lysosomal alpha-1,4-glucosidase (Acid Maltase
).
1401849223920 1395802358422 What enzyme is deficient in Pompe Disease?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha-1,4-glucosidase (Acid Maltase)}}</div>

<br /><d
iv><i>Found in lysosomes.</i></div>
1401849315370 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of death in Pompe
Disease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CHF or arrhythmia}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i><b>P</b>ompe trashes the <b>p</b>ump.</i><br /><div><i>However remember, the
<b>liver is still affected</b>. Pompe affects both muscle and the liver.</i></d
iv>
1401849357548 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Pompe Disease
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
der that is considered a milder form of Von Gierke Disease (Glycogen Storage Dis
order Type I) with normal lactate levels.
<br /><div><i>Gluconeogenesis is
intact.</i></div>
1401849487279 1395802358422 Which glycogen storage disorder is considered a
milder form of Von Gierke Disease (Glycogen Storage Disorder Type I)?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Cori Disease}}</div> <br /><div><i>Gluconeogenesis is intact
and there are normal lactate levels.</i></div>
1401849548573 1395802358422 How do lactate levels change in Cori Disease?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Normal}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is a very key point.
There is no lactic acidosis in Cori Disease.</i></div>
1401849589562 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Cori Disease?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Debranching enzyme (alpha-1,6-Glucosidase)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Mnemonic to remember Anderson and Cori Disease:</i></div><div><i><
b>"AB,CD"</b></i></div><div><i><b>A</b>nderson = <b>B</b>ranching enzyme deficie
ncy</i></div><div><i><b>C</b>ori = <b>D</b>ebranching enzyme deficiency</i></div
>
1401849667566 1395802358422 {{c1::Cori Disease}} is a glycogen storage disea
se that involves deficiency of Debranching Enzyme (alpha-1,6-glucosidase).
<div><br /></div><div><div><i>Mnemonic to remember Anderson and Cori Disease:</i
></div><div><i><b>"AB,CD"</b></i></div><div><i><b>A</b>nderson = <b>B</b>ra
nching enzyme deficiency</i></div><div><i><b>C</b>ori = <b>D</b>ebranching
enzyme deficiency</i></div></div>
1401849717567 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Cori Disease?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
der that involves cellular glycogen with <b>too many branches </b>due to a defic
iency of Debranching Enzyme.
sorder that presents with <b>myoglobinuria</b> with <b>red urine</b> f
ollowing strenuous exercise.
sorder that presents with painful muscle cramps due to glycogen accumulation in
muscle.
sorder that presents with <b>arrhythmia</b> due to electrolyte abnormalitie
s.
1401851414844 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in McArdle Disease?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Skeletal muscle glycogen phosphorylase (Myophosphorylas
e)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Therefore <b>glycogenolysis is defective.</b></i><
/div>
sorder that involves a skeletal muscle glycogen phosphorylase (Myophosphorylase)
deficiency.
<br /><div><i>Therefore <b>glycogenolysis is defective</b>.</i><
/div>
1401851515196 1395802358422 {{c1::Painful muscle cramps}} is a complication
of McArdle Disease that arises due to the significant glycogen buildup in muscle
s.
<br /><div><i>There is no lactic acidosis in McArdle Disease as glucose
is <b>unavailable</b> due to a glycogen phosphorylase deficiency. Hence, no
glucose is available to be made into Lactate via Anaerobic Glycolysis. Therefor
e, this muscle cramping has nothing to do with lactate.</i></div>
1401851670334 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of McArdle Disea

se?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive}}</div>
1401852097481 1395802358422 Which major glycogen storage disorder is associa
ted with muscle damage?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::McArdle Disease}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b>M</b>cArdle = <b>M</b>uscle</i></div>
1401852141165 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in the glycogen storag
e disorder Anderson Disease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Branching Enzyme}}</div>
<br /><div><div><i>Mnemonic for remembering Anderson and Cori disease:</i></div>
</div><div><i><b>"AB,CD"</b></i></div><div><i><b>A</b>nderson = <b>B</b>ranching
enzyme deficiency</i></div><div><i><b>C</b>ori = <b>D</b>ebranching enzyme defi
ciency</i></div>
1401927173282 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of the lysosomal
storage disorder Fabry Disease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked recessive}}
</div> <br /><div><i>All lysosomal storage disorders <b>except Fabry and Hunter
's syndromes </b> are autosomal recessive disorders.</i></div>
1401927409823 1395802358422 What is the only lysosomal storage disorder that
is X-linked recessive?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fabry Disease and Hunter's Sy
ndrome}}</div> <br /><div><i>All other lysosomal storage disorders are autosoma
l recessive.</i></div>
1401933927937 1395802358422 {{c1::Hurler Syndrome}} is a lysosomal storage d
isorder that presents with <b>gargoylism</b> and <b>corneal clouding</b>.
isorder that presents with <b>airway obstruction</b> and hepatosplenomegaly
.
1401934028029 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in the lysosomal stora
ge disorder Hurler Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::alpha-L-iduronidase}}</d
iv>
isorder that involves a deficieny of alpha-L-iduronidase.
1401934092467 1395802358422 {{c1::Hurler Syndrome}} and {{c2::Hunter Sy
ndrome}} are lysosomal storage disorders that present with accumulation of <b>he
paran sulfate</b> and <b>dermatan sulfate</b>.
1401934123572 1395802358422 {{c1::Hunter Syndrome}} is a lysosomal storage d
isorder that presents similar to Hurler Syndrome, but <b>lacks corneal clouding<
/b>.
isorder that presents similar to Hurler Syndrome but <b>includes aggressive beha
viour</b>.
isorder that involves a deficiency of iduronate sulfatase.
1401934211249 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of the lysosomal
storage disorder Hunter Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked recessive
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hunters always aim for the <b>X</b>.</i></div>
1401934344648 1395802358422 Adipose tissue can only make Glycerol-3-Phosphat
e by reducing {{c1::Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate (DHAP)}}, a glycolytic intermedia
te.
<br /><div><i>Hence, adipose tissue requires increased glucose uptake vi
a the GLUT4 transporter in order for there to be spare DHAP available for making
and storing triglycerides. This is part of why excess sugar intake becomes fat.
</i></div><div><i>Also this is why </i><b><i>diabetics will have hyperlipid
emia</i>.</b></div>
1401936293497 1395802358422 {{c1::Fatty Acid Synthase}} is an enzyme in fatt
y acid synthesis that makes Palmitate through 7 rounds of reaction (via 7 ATP) b
y adding 2 carbons from Acetyl CoA to a growing fatty acid chain.
<br /><d
iv><i>This reaction also uses NADPH.</i></div><div><i>Only carbons from Acetyl C
oA are added.</i></div><div><i>Palmitate is essentially a storage form of 8 acet
yl-CoA mocs (2 C each).</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-11463267713772.jpg" /><
/i></div>
1401937489319 1395802358422 {{c1::Avidin}} is a protein in raw eggs that can
bind to Vitamin B7 (Biotin), thereby causing a possible deficiency of fatty aci
ds due to impaired Malonyl-CoA production.
<div><br /></div><i>Biotin is re
quired for Malonyl-CoA production in FA Synthesis.</i><br /><div><img src="paste

-11458972746476.jpg" /></div>
1401937981267 1395802358422 Which metabolic shuttle is involved in Fatty Aci
d <b>Synthesis</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Citrate Shuttle}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>This is important to remember because <b>Citrate inhibits glycolysis
.</b> Hence, when Citrate is high the body is essentially saying "Stop burn
ing sugar, brah. I'm gonna make fat. How about you use that G6P to make glycogen
or NADPH via the HMP shunt instead?".</i><br /><div><img src="paste-11458972746
476.jpg" /></div>
1401938332490 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Fatty Acid Synthase a
ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increased via induction}}</div>
<br /><d
1401938390760 1395802358422 {{c1::Fatty Acid CoA Synthetase}} is an enzyme i
nvolved in fatty acid <b>degradation</b> that "activates" fatty acids by ad
ding a CoA group.
1401938575082 1395802358422 Which nucleoside disphosphate molecule is added
to sugars to "activate" them for metabolic reactions?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:UDP (Uridine Diphosphate)}}</div>
1401938879605 1395802358422 How does Malonyl-CoA influence Fatty Acid Degrad
ation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition (at Carnitine Palmitoyl Transferase
1)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Remember, <b>Malonyl-CoA is an intermediate
of FA Synthesis</b>. Hence, if your ass is making fats, fat breakdown is going t
o be inhibited.</i><br /><div><img src="paste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939128667 1395802358422 What is the rate limiting enzyme of Fatty Acid D
egradation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Carnitine Palmitoyl Transferase <u><b>1</
b></u> (CPT1)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="paste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939154201 1395802358422 Which metabolic shuttle is involved in Fatty Aci
d Degradation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Carnitine Shuttle}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i>Involves 2 key enzymes:</i><div><i><b>Carnitine Palmitoyl Transferas
e 1 (CPT1) </b>and </i><i><b>Carnitine Palmitoyl Transferase 2 (CPT2).
</b></i></div><div><div><img src="paste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div></div>
1401939309807 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetyl-CoA}} is the final breakdown produc
t of fatty acids that then feeds into ketogenesis and the TCA cycle.
<div><br
/></div><i>Hence, when there is increased ATP (such as in diabetics), the <b>ex
cess Acetyl-CoA causes ketoacidosis</b>.<br /></i><div><img src="paste-121633473
83025.jpg" /></div>
1401939401190 1395802358422 {{c1::Carnitine Deficiency}} is a disorder of fa
tty acid breakdown that involves the <b>inability to transport long-chain fatty
acids into the mitochondria</b>, thereby resulting in toxic accumulation.
1401939467652 1395802358422 {{c1::Carnitine Deficiency}} is a disorder of fa
tty acid breakdown that presents with <b>weakness</b> and <b>hypotonia</b>.
1401939523409 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoketotic hypoglycemia}} is a feature of
Carnitine deficiency due to significantly lower levels of Acetyl-CoA as a resul
t of impaired fatty acid breakdown.
<div>Remember, Acetyl-CoA feeds into ket
ogenesis. Acetyl-CoA is also a positive allosteric regulator of Pyruvate Carboxy
lase in gluconeogenesis</div><div><img src="paste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939640650 1395802358422 {{c1::Acyl-CoA Dehydrogenase Deficiency}} is a d
isorder of fatty acid breakdown that involves <b>elevated levels of dicarboxylic
acids </b>and <b>low levels of Acetyl-CoA.</b> <br /><div><i>Because there is l
ess Acetyl-CoA, there is also <b>hypoketotic hypoglycemia</b> as acetyl-CoA
drives both ketogenesis and gluconeogenesis.</i></div>
1401939781619 1395802358422 How does Acetyl-CoA influence Pyruvate Carboxyla
se in Gluconeogenesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive allosteric regulator}
}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence, decreased Acetyl-CoA = decreased fasting glucose =
fasting hypoglycemia</i></div>
1401939841483 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetyl-CoA}} is a breakdown product of fat
ty acids that directly feeds into ketogenesis, especially when it is found in ex
cess. <br /><div><i>In prolonged starvation and DKA, Oxaloacetate is depleted
for gluconeogenesis.</i></div><div><i>In alcoholism, elevated NADH levels shunt
Oxaloacetate to malate.</i></div><div><i><u>Both of the above occurrences cause

a buildup of Acetyl-CoA, which shunts both Glucose and free fatty acids towards
Ketogenesis.</u></i></div>
1401941075357 1395802358422 Linolenic Acid is an omega-{{c1::3}} fatty acid.
<br /><div><i>i.e. fish oil.</i></div>
1401941118259 1395802358422 Linoleic Acid is an omega-{{c1::6}} fatty acid.
1401941135122 1395802358422 Arachidonic Acid is an omega-{{c1::6}} fatty aci
d.
1401941147674 1395802358422 Which omega-6 fatty acid is used to make Arachid
onic Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Linoleic Acid}}</div>
1401941166429 1395802358422 How many carbons are in the fatty acid Palmitic
Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::16:0}}</div>
1401941209238 1395802358422 How many carbons are in the <b>essential</b>&nbs
p;fatty acid Linoleic Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::18:2}}</div>
1401941226068 1395802358422 How many carbons are in the <b>essential</b>&nbs
p;fatty acid Linolenic Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::18:3}}</div>
1401989465450 1395802358422 Which metabolic process is the major source of e
nergy in the fed state (just after a meal)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycolysi
s; Aerobic Respiration}}</div> <br /><div><i>Insulin after a meal stimulates th
e storage of lipids, proteins and glycogen.</i></div>
1401990702186 1395802358422 Which metabolic process is the <b>major</b>&nbsp
;source of energy in the fasting state (between meals)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Hepatic glycogenolysis}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Glucagon and NE stimulate
use of fuel/energy reserves.</i></div>
1401990764617 1395802358422 Which metabolic process is the <b>secondary</b>&
nbsp;source of energy in the fastic state (between meals)?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Hepatic gluconeogenesis; Adipose release of FFA}}</div> <br /><div><i>Gl
ucagon and NE stimulate the use of fuel/energy reserves.</i></div>
1401990812842 1395802358422 How many days into starvation do Glycogen reserv
es usually become depleted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Day 1}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="paste-1541893259754.jpg" /><img src="paste-2435246457278.jpg" /></d
iv>
1401991850330 1395802358422 Which energy store is the <b>major</b> sour
ce of energy after day 3 of starvation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Adipose store
s}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This far into starvation, ketones become the main
energy source for the brain.</i></div><div><i>After fat stores deplete, degradat
ion of vital proteins accelerates, leading to organ failure and death.</i></div>
<div><i>The amount of excess energy stores available determines how long someone
will survive in starvation.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-1541893259754.jpg"
/><img src="paste-2435246457278.jpg" /></i></div>
1401992066409 1395802358422 How do increased cholesterol levels influence th
e expression of LDL receptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1402011413644 1395802358422 What is the rate limiting enzyme in cholesterol
synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA Reductase}}</div>
1402011452174 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence HMG-CoA Reductase act
ivity in cholesterol synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase via inductio
n}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, Induction = increased expression = incre
ased V<sub>max</sub></i></div>
1402011491725 1395802358422 How does Mevalonate, an intermediate in choleste
rol synthesis, influence HMG CoA Reductase expression?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Repression}}</div>
<br /><div><i>HMG-CoA is converted into Mevalonate</i></
div>
1402011923634 1395802358422 Which enzyme bound to HDL and LDL esterifies 2/3
of plasma cholesterol?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lechitin-Cholesterol Acyltran
sferase (LCAT)}}</div>
1402012081011 1395802358422 {{c1::Statins}} are a class of antihyperlipidemi
c drugs that competitively and reversibly inhibit HMG-CoA Reductase.
<br /><d
iv><i>e.g. Lovastatin</i></div>
1402012556117 1395802358422 {{c1::Farnesyl PPi}} is a byproduct of cholester
ol synthesis that functions as a source of Coenzyme Q. <br /><div><i>Hence, adm
inistration of Statins, which inhibit cholesterol synthesis, can impair function

of the electron transport chain by inhibiting Farnesyl PPi production. This is
part of <b>Statin-induced Rhabdomyolysis</b> as myocytes are particula
rly rich in mitochondria.</i></div>
1402022178378 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipase}} is a pancreatic enzyme that degra
des dietary triglycerides in the small intestine.
te-2250562863813.jpg" /></div>
1402022600834 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipoprotein Lipase (LPL)}} is an enzyme fo
und on the surface of vascular endothelium that degrades triglycerides circulati
ng in chylomicrons and VLDLs. <br /><div><img src="paste-2246267896517.jpg" />
</div>
1402022656036 1395802358422 {{c1::Hepatic Lipase (HL)}} is a hepatic enzyme
that degrades triglycerides that remain in IDL. <br /><div><img src="paste-22462
67896517.jpg" /></div>
1402022687158 1395802358422 How do decreased Insulin levels influence Hormon
e Sensitive Lipase (HSL) activity?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<div><br></div><i>This is very important to remember. <b>Hormone Sensitive Lipas
e detects <u>decreases</u> in Insulin</b>. This contributes to the hyperlip
idemia seen in diabetics. Lower insulin levels causes an increase in HSL activit
y and hence more FFAs in the blood.</i><div><i>Also remember that without Insuli
n, lipids are not stored in adipose tissue and they stay in blood (as VLDL, LDL
and Chylomicrons), thereby contributing to diabetic hyperlipidemia.<br></i><div>
<img src="paste-2246267896517.jpg" /></div></div>
1402022799822 1395802358422 How do increased Insulin levels influence Lipopr
otein Lipase (LPL) activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1402022830108 1395802358422 {{c1::Hormone Sensitive Lipase (HSL)}} is a lipa
se enzyme found in adipocytes that degrades stored triglycerides.
1402022977509 1395802358422 {{c1::Lechitin-cholesterol Acyltransferase (LCAT
)}} is an enzyme found on HDL that catalyzes the esterification of cholesterol,
thereby forming mature HDL.
<br /><div><img src="paste-3534758084974.jpg" />
</div>
1402023608036 1395802358422 {{c1::Cholesterol ester transfer protein (CETP)}
} is an enzyme found in HDL that mediates the transfer of cholesterol esters to
other lipoprotein particles (such as VLDL, IDL, LDL). <div><br /></div><i>As I
DL becomes richer and richer in cholesterol via CETP action, it becomes LDL.</i>
1402023680505 1395802358422 What receptor on hepatocytes binds to HDL, there
by mediating its uptake?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SR-B1}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>aka Scavenger B1 Receptor</i></div><div><i>Remember, <b>HDL brings exposed
or unused cholesterol to the liver from peripheral tissue</b>. </i></div><
div><i>When LDL levels are in excess in the blood, they become oxidized and can
yield a fatty streak on blood vessel walls. HDL also functions to "clean up" thi
s deposited cholesterol.</i></div>
1402023855461 1395802358422 Which GLUT transporter is involved in Insulin-me
diated storage of Glucose?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT4}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>In adipose, the stored glucose is converted to Glycerol and then added to
fatty acids to form fat when there is high energy.</i></div>
1402025701816 1395802358422 Which apolipoprotein functions as a cofactor for
Lipoprotein Lipase (LPL)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoC-II}}</div> <br /><d
1402026445101 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to transport cholest
erol from liver to tissues?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LDL}}</div>
<br /><d
1402026758577 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to transport cholest
erol from peripheral tissue to the liver?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This is why HDL is considered "<b>H</b>ealthy".</i></div><div><i><
img src="paste-7185480286923.jpg" /></i></div>
1402026833181 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to deliver <b>dietar
y</b> <b>triglycerides</b> to peripheral tissue?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Chylomicrons}}</div>
<br /><div><i>It also delivers cholesterol to th
e liver as chylomicron remnants, which are mostly depleted of their triacylglyce
rols.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-7185480286923.jpg" /></i></div>
1402027399022 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to deliver <b>hepati
c cholesterol</b> to peripheral tissue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LDL}}</d
iv>
1402027586977 1395802358422 {{c1::LDL}} is a lipoprotein formed by Hepatic L
ipase modification of IDL in the peripheral tissue.
te-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402027650538 1395802358422 Which receptor does LDL bind to at target cells
for receptor-mediated endocytosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LDL Receptor (ApoB
100 Receptor)}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>The target cell is basically any cel
l that can use cholesterol.</i><br /><div><img src="paste-7185480286923.jpg" /><
/div>
1402027788627 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to mediate <b>revers
e cholesterol transport</b> from peripheral tissue to the liver and steroid
ogenic tissue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div>
1402028786714 1395802358422 Which dyslipidemia is referred to as Type IIa Dy
slipidemia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Familial Hypercholesterolemia}}</div>
1402028822734 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperchylomicronemia (Type I)}} is a famil
ial dyslipidemia that involves elevation of chylomicrons, TGs and cholesterol.
1402029015585 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa)}}
is a familial dyslipidemia that involves elevation of LDL and cholesterol.
1402029099556 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperchylomicronemia (Type I familial
dyslipidemia)}} is a familial dyslipidemia that can be caused by a deficiency o
f Lipoprotein Lipase (LPL).
1402029135973 1395802358422 <div>Which enzyme deficiency can cause Hype
rchylomicronemia (Type I familial dyslipidemia)?</div><div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Lipoprotein Lipase (LPL)}}</div>
1402029179367 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperchylomicronemia (Type I familial
dyslipidemia)}} is a familial dyslipidemia that can be caused by altered ApoC-I
I function.
<br /><div><i>Remember, ApoC-II activates Lipoprotein Lipase.</i
></div>
1402029276024 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Familial Hype
rcholesterolemia (Type IIa familial dyslipidemia)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Au
tosomal dominant}}</div>
1402029452609 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa fa
milial dyslipidemia)}} is a familial dyslipidemia that involves absent or defect
ive LDL receptors.
1402029481789 1395802358422 Which receptors are absent or defective in
Familial Hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa familial dyslipidemia)?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::LDL receptor (aka ApoB-100 receptor)}}</div>
1402029496083 1395802358422 What is the typical blood cholesterol for a pati
ent heterozygous for Familial Hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa familial dysli
pidemia)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::~ 300 mg/dL}}</div>
1402029546051 1395802358422 What is the typical blood cholesterol level for
patients homozygous for Familial Hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa familial dy
slipidemia)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:: 700 mg/dL}}</div>
milial dyslipidemia)}} is a familial dyslipidemia that presents with <b>accelera
ted atherosclerosis</b>.
<br /><div><i>MI is possible before 20 y/o.</i><
/div>
1402029676063 1395802358422 Which tendon is commonly the site of xanthomas i
n Familial Hypercholesterolemia (Type IIa familial dyslipidemia)?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Achilles tendon}}</div>
milial dyslipidemia)}} is a familial dyslipidemia that presents with <b>corneal
arcus</b>.
milial dyslipidemia)}} is a familial dyslipidemia that presents with <b>achilles
tendon xanthomas</b>.
1402029833751 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Familial Hypercholeste
rolemia (Type IIa familial dyslipidemia)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mipomersen}
}</div> <br /><div><i>Mipomersen binds to the mRNA that is translated into ApoB100. The dsRNA molecule is then degraded and ApoB-100 production is inhibited. H
ence <b>VLDL production is inhibited. </b>Remember, Type IIa dyslipidemia involv
es elevated levels of LDL due to defective LDL receptors.</i></div>
1473055801917 1421373138997 <img src="7abe55c66630a4398ae57230b9601b92f6e6ff
50_Q 0.svg" /> <img src="7abe55c66630a4398ae57230b9601b92f6e6ff50_A 0.svg" />
<img src="7abe55c66630a4398ae57230b9601b92f6e6ff50_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="7abe55c66630a4398ae57230b9601b92f6e6ff50_tmpqkwwog.png" />
1473094678549 1421618046184
1473269562288 1421618046184 Katrice and Eric are learning about {{c1::Anki}}
.
1473269598002 1421618046184 {{c1::Katrice}} and {{c2::Eric}} are learning ab
out Anki today.
1473269665017 1421618046184 Shreyas is teaching {{c1::Katrice}} and {{c1::Er
ic}} about Anki.
1473344510296 1421618046187 <img src="paste-49598282334209.jpg" /><div>Name
this base</div> cytosine
1473263012211 1471105979394 What are the following <br>1) Rotenone<br>2) Ant
imycin A<br>3) Carbon Monoxide and Cyanide<br>4) Oligomycin<br>5) Atractyloside
They are all inhibitors of the ETC<br>1) Inhibits complex I (Roman is number 1)<
br>2) Inhibit Complex III, also known as cytochrome B, (A goes to B)<br>3) Inhib
it Complex IV, 4 letters COCN <br>4) Inhibit ATP Synthase (Complex V): The oliga
rch of the ETC<br>5) Inhibit ATP:ADP Translocase, its an attractive slide
1473263012212 1471105979394 Which enzyme of the pentose phosphate pathway re
quires a coenzyme and what is that coenzyme?
Transketolase and requires thiam
ine pyrophosphate
1473263012213 1471105979394 Describe lysosomal storage diseases
Rare her
editary diseases in which there is a deficiency in hydrolase activity which resu
lts in an accumulation of material in the lysosomes. Many involve a failure to h
ydrolase a glycosidic bond.

1473263012214 1471105979394 Define glycoproteins
Proteins that have oligo
saccharide chains covalently attached to their polypeptide chains (typically a s
mall amount of carbohydrate)
1473263012215 1471105979394 How do proteoglycans differ from glycoproteins?
They have considerably more polysaccharide chains than glycoproteins. Usually co
mponents of extracellular matrix. Some have lubricant properties. Heparin is big
example
1473263012216 1471105979394 How is mannose 6 phosphate linked to I-cell dise
ase?
The disease results from an enzyme deficiency in which cells dont acquire
the lysosomal target signal mannose 6 phosphate. This leads to the lysosomes be
coming engorged with indigestible materials.
1473263012217 1471105979394 How are glycoproteins and proteoglycans synthesi
zed? <br>How does it differ for GAG s and O-linkages compared to N-linkages? <br
>How are they all degraded?
The saccharide units are added by nucleoside dip
hosphate derivatives with the exception of sialic acid which is added by CMP-NAN
A. All are added by glycosyl transferases. <br>In O-linkages and GAGs, the synt
hesis is direct. For N-linkages the chain is formed on dolichol pyrophosphate th
en transferred to the protein. <br>All are degraded through hydrolytic enzymes
present in lysosomes on a first one on, last one off basis.
1473263012218 1471105979394 Fatty acids could be derived from:
Dietary
Intake <br>De novo synthesis (mainly by the liver) <br>Adipose Tissue
1473263012219 1471105979394 What is the role of pancreatic lipase? Breaks d
own dietary lipids in the gut lumen <br>Triglycerides become diacylglycerides an
d monoglycerides
1473263012220 1471105979394 Orlistat (Alli) drug function is to:
Prevent
triglyceride absorption and digestion
1473263012221 1471105979394 How does transportation differ between short cha
in, medium chain and long chain fatty acids?
Short chain and medium chain are
directly absorbed into the blood by intestinal capillaries and must be bound to
serum albumin. Long chain fatty acids are packaged into lipoprotein particles w
hich are transported in blood.
1473263012222 1471105979394 De novo synthesis of fatty acids occurs where? A
nd how? Its occurs primarily in cytosol of liver (sometimes adipose tissue). It
requires ATP and NADPH. Requires Acetyl Coa as a source of carbon atoms.
1473263012223 1471105979394 Problem with Acetyl Coa in fatty acid synthesis
is that it s trapped in mitochondria. How is this problematic&nbs
p;and how do we fix it? This is problematic because Acetyl Coa needs to combine
with malonyl Coa and fatty acid synthesis enzymes in the mitochondria. It gets a
cross using the citrate shuttle.<div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><img src=
"paste-3049426781384.jpg" /></div>
1473263012224 1471105979394 Why do we need fatty acid oxidation?
It is th
e principal source of energy for a number of processes including cardiac contrac
tility, diabetic patients for whom glucose levels are low, periods of starvation
/ caloric restriction, periods of extended bioenergetic exertion.
1473263012225 1471105979394 What are the 5 major classes of steroid hormones
derived from cholesterol?
1)Glucocorticoids (C21) <br>2)Mineralocorticoids
(C21) <br>3) Progestagens (C21) <br>4) Androgens (C19) <br>5) Estrogens (C18)
1473263012226 1471105979394 What is the role of Zetia? How does it work?
It inhibits absorption of cholesterol but doesn t block absorption of triglyceri
des or fat soluble vitamins. Acts as an intestinal brush border, doesn t actuall
y enter the blood stream. No side effects. <br>Vytorin is a type of drug that c
ombines ezetimibe with simvastatin
1473263012227 1471105979394 What are the statin side effects?
Muscle p
ain and damage (most common) <br>Liver damage (rare) <br>Hyperglycemia or Type 2
Diabetes (rare) <br>Neurological Side effects (rare)
1473263012228 1471105979394 What is the rate limiting enzyme in Bile Acid fo
rmation? How is it regulated? 7-alpha-hydroxylase, inhibited by cholic acid (p
roduct) and stimulated by cholesterol
1473263012229 1471105979394 Lipoproteins are primarily made up of what?
Lipids- triacylglycerols, cholesterol esters and phospholipids <br>Protein comp

onents- apolipoproteins,
1473263012230 1471105979394 Cholesterol obtained through diet is converted i
nto _____
Chylomicrons
1473263012231 1471105979394 What is the role of apolipoproteins?
They are
important in the release of lipoprotein from cell, activate lipid processing en
zymes (ex: Apo-CII) , mediate uptake of lipoproteins in the cell.
1473263012232 1471105979394 HDL s can be made in _____
Liver and Intest
ine
1473263012233 1471105979394 LDL s can be made in _____
Liver
1473263012234 1471105979394 Chylomicrons are made in _____ Intestine
1473263012235 1471105979394 How would you distinguish HDLs from other lipopr
oteins strictly by their apoproteins? HDLs have Apo- AI and AII
1473263012236 1471105979394 What is Familial Hypercholesterolemia (FH)
Autosomal Dominant <br />Caused by a defect in genes encoding LDL receptor, caus
es excessive amounts of cholesterol to be made because liver cells think there i
sn t enough<div><br /></div><div>(4 classes)</div>
1473263012237 1471105979394 There are 4 classes of LDL binding protein mutat
ions, what are they and how do they work?
Very simple, it stems out from c
reation to function. Class I, the protein isnt made at all, Class II, Receptor i
s made but never gets out to cell surface, Class III, reaches cell surfaces but
lacks normal LDL binding and class IV, Receptors reach surface, bind LDL but are
not clustered in coated pits so they cant be taken in.
1473263012238 1471105979394 What are ACAT and LCAT and how do they differ?
(No its not like the MCAT)
ACAT and LCAT are both responsible forcovertingcho
lesterol into cholesterol esters but ACAT is associated with LDL andCholymicronsin
the cell while LCAT is associated with HDL and LDL in the blood stream.
1473263012239 1471105979394 How do PCSK9 Therapy hope to resolve problems wi
th LDL binding protein? PCSK9 is a normal protein found in human cells that when
binding to LDL (allosterically) signals the cell to endocytose the LDL receptor
and degrade it down. By using antibodies to break down this PCSK9, we can leave
more LDL receptors on the cell surface.
1473263012240 1471105979394 What are two ways glycerol 3 phosphate can be pr
oduced in the body?
In adipocytes, it can be made by reducing DHAP, using NA
DH as a coenzyme. In liver cells, it can be phosphorylated by the action of glyc
erol kinase.
1473263012241 1471105979394 What is phospholipase A2, what does it do?<br> W
hat is it inhibited by?<br> Where is it created?
It acts on phosphatidyli
nositol, releasing arachidonic acid (precursor of prostaglandins). It is rich in
pancreatic secretions where the proenzyme gets activated by trypsin, and requir
es bile salts for activity. Inhibited by glucocorticoids, like cortisol
1473263012242 1471105979394 What is the role of phospholipase C, its the one
he spent like a half hour talking about.
Well first of all it is found in
liver lysosomes. Its action is to separate the glycerophospholipid into two com
ponents, one is diacylglycerol and the other (if the group is right) is to creat
e inositol 1,4,5 trisphosphate. Both of which have a signal function. Diacylglyc
erol will activate protein kinase C, while 1,4,5 trisphosphate will cause the re
lease of sequesteredCa+ ions into the cytosol which also activate protein kinase
C.
1473339464627 1471105979394 <div>What are the ten essential amino acids? Wha
t do you mean they are essential?</div><div><br /></div>
<div><span class
="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>PVT TIM HALL</div><div>Phenyla
lanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, isoleucine, methionine, histidine, argini
ne (some circumstances), leucine, lysine</div><div>They need to be obtained thro
ugh diet </div>
1473339499889 1471105979394 <div>The ubiquitin degradation pathway is not AT
P dependent. T/F?</div><div><br /></div>
False, lysosomes degrade protein
s in an ATP independent manner. They nonselectively degrade both intracellular a
nd extracellular proteins, taken up into the cell by endocytosis.
1473339572328 1471105979394 <div>What do the following enzymes cleave?</div>
<div>Trypsin</div><div>Chymotrypsin</div><div>Elastase</div><div>Carboxypeptidas
e A</div><div>Carboxypeptidase B</div> <div>Trypsin----Carboxy terminal of Arg
and Lys (pos charge)</div><div>Chymotrypsin---- Carboxy terminal of Trp, Tyr, Ph
e, Met, Leu (aromatic and hydrophobic)</div><div>Elastase----Ala, Gly, Ser</div>
<div>Carboxypeptidase A- cleave at the end of the chain, Ala Ile Val Leu</div><d
iv>Carboxypeptidase B same thing but cleaves Arg and Lys (pos) </div>
1473339617630 1471105979394 <div><br /></div><div>How is nutrient digestion
controlled by hormones? Which hormones are involved and what do they do?</div><d
iv><br /></div> Diety lipids and proteins stimulate the endocrine gut cells whic
h stimulates the release of cholecystokinin and secretin. Cholecystokinin inhibi
ts gastric motility and stimulates the pancreas to release the pancreatic enzyme
s (trypsin, chymotrypsin, etc...) and stimulates the gallbladder to release bile
. Secretin stimulates the release of bicarbonate from the pancreas in order to r
aise pH of the small intestine so that the enzymes have a better activity.
1473339630794 1471105979394 What is cystinuria?
A disorder of the proxim
al tubule s reabsoprtion of COAL (cysteine, ornithine, arginine, and lysine). Al
l 4 AA s appear in urine. Cysteine will precipitate in urine forming stones.&nbs
p;
1473339653945 1471105979394 What is kwashiorkor?
It is a protein deficien
cy disease specifically characterized by lack of N balance. Physical symptoms in
clude swelling of the abdomen, hair discoloration, skin discoloration. Fatty liv
ers and anemia, decreased muscle mass. Can be treated with slow reintroduction o
f protein into the diet.
1473339665195 1471105979394 How are amino groups removed from amino acids an
d how are AST and ALT associated with this? Also what is PLP? Amino groups get
removed by using aminotransferases (aka transaminase) with the help of PLP (pyr
idoxal phosphate). AST and ALT are liver enzymes that are two examples of this a
nd they can be used to detect liver diseases because if liver cells are being ly
sed, the serum concentration of these enzymes increases.<div><br /></div><div><i
1473339685898 1471105979394 What is the role of glutamate dehydrogenase? Act
ivated by? Inhibited by?
It is responsible for the oxidative deamination
of glutamate to alpha ketoglutarate with the release of NADH. It is activated by
low energy levels in the cell (ADP) because alpha ketoglutarate is an intermedi
ate in the TCA cycle which produced more energy. Conversely high GTP will inhibi
t the dehydrogenase activity.
1473339707554 1471105979394 Which amino acids are ketogenic? Which are both
ketogenic and glucogenic?
<div>Ketogenic are lysine and leucine.</div><div
>Both are Phenylalanine, Tyrosine, and tryptophan and Isoleucine. </div><di
v>Everything else is glucogenic </div>
1473339759546 1471105979394 <div>What is the essential amino acid asparagine
used for in terms of intermediate creation?</div><div><br /></div>
Well Asp
aragine eventually becomes oxaloacetate. First it is deaminated by aspraginase,
to form aspartate, which then gets deaminated again by aspartate amino transfera
se(DONT FORGET PLP), transferring is amino group to alpha ketoglutarate. This can
be used to treat leukemia patients because leukemia cancer cells have a hard ti
me producing their own asparagine.
1473339787578 1471105979394 How is phenylalanine degraded? It is first conv
erted to L-tyrosine with the help of phenylalanine hydroxylase and tetrahydrobio
pterin which becomes dihydrobiopterin. L-tyrosine then can become fumarate and a
cetoacetate.
1473339802018 1471105979394 What are the three catecholamines? What is their
AA precursor? <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </spa
n>Dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine. </div><div>Tyrosine</div>
1473339818485 1471105979394 What are the enzymes involved the metabolism of
catecholamines? <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </spa
n>Catechol O Methyl Transferase (COMT)</div><div>Monoamine oxidase (MAO), first
antidepressants </div>
1473339829766 1471105979394 What amino acid is involved in the synthesis of
serotonin?
Tryptophan which reacts with the enzyme hydroxylase using the co
factor tetrahydrobiopterin which becomes 5-hydroxy-tryptophan, this then gets co

nverted to serotonin using aromatic amino acid decarboxylase.
1473339837538 1471105979394 What is the importance of tetrahydrobiopterin?
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Its involved i
n catecholamine, tyrosine, and serotonin synthesis, so it deficiency will lead t
o a number of issues. </div><div><br /></div>
1473339878045 1471105979394 <div>What are the two ways in which you could ha
ve PKU?</div><div><br /></div> One (most common?) is to have deficiency in phen
ylalanine hydroxylase, the other is to have deficiency in tetrahydrobiopterin.
1473339886864 1471105979394 What causes maple syrup urine disease? <div><sp
an class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>A deficiency in mitoch
ondrial branched chain alpha keto acid dehydrogenase. Which oxidatively cleaves
Leu, Ile, and Val. These branched chain amino acids and their corresponding alph
a keto acids build up in the blood causing interference with brain function (esp
ecially Leu and alpha ketoisocaproic acid. )</div><div><br /></div>
1473339896924 1471105979394 <div>How do you explain someone with albinism?</
div><div><br /></div> <div><br /></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style
="white-space:pre"> </span>They have a deficiency in tyrosinase which is respons
ible for turning tyrosine eventually into melanin. </div><div><br /></div>
1473339905595 1471105979394 <div>What is homocystinuria, what is it, how do
you get it?</div><div><br /></div>
"white-space:pre"> </span>Its a genetic disorder involving defects in metabolizin
g homocysteine. Homocysteine is derived from methionine. Primary defect is in Cy
stathionine beta synthase which uses PLP as a cofactor. It is characterize
d by high plasma levels of methionine and homocysteine. You can treat it with vi
tamins B6, B12 and folate because these often act as cofactors of the enzymes. L
eg dislocation, skeletal abnormalities, intellecutal disability and increased ri
sk of heart disease. </div><div><br /></div>
1473339914931 1471105979394 <div>What is alkaptonuria?</div><div><br /></div
>
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Rare d
isease caused by deficiency in homogentisic acid oxidase which is an intermediat
e in the degradation of tyrosine. Remember individuals with this should not only
avoid tyrosine but also phenylalanine because that can get converted to tyrosin
e. Urine turns entirely black after two hours because of the build up of homogen
tisic acid. It also forms large deposit in bones and tissues causing a lot of pa
in. </div><div><br /></div>
1473385602432 1471105979394 What is the rate limiting step in cholesterol sy
nthesis?
It is the synthesis of mevalonic acid, using HMG CoA Reductase.
Takes place in the ER and requires 2 NADPH.
1473530759505 1471105979394 T/F, Pyruvate Carboxylase is a cytosolic enzyme.
False!!!! Its mitochondrial
1473530816429 1471105979394 How do insulin and cortisol effect gluconeogenes
is?
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Insuli
n inhibits glucose 6 phosphatase and PEP carboxykinase</div><div>Cortisol activa
tes PEP carboxykinase and glucose 6 phosphatase </div><div><br /></div>
1473530831098 1471105979394 What does iodoacetate inhibit in glycolysis?
<div><br /></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </sp
an>It inhibits glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate dehydrogenase.</div><div><br /></div>
1473530842532 1471105979394 <div>How does glucagon effect glycolysis and glu
coneogenesis? </div><div><br /></div>
Glucagon inhibits Fructose 6 bis
phosphate which inhibits fructose 1 6 bisphosphatase and also activates phosphof
ructokinase 1.Glucagon also inhibits PEP carboxykinase
1473530852434 1471105979394 <div>You say you know the pyruvate dehydrogenase
complex pathway? In that case what does TPP and L stand for?</div><div><br /></
div>
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>TPP- t
hiamine pyrophosphate</div><div>L- Lipoic Acid</div>
1473530867251 1471105979394 How is the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex regula
ted?
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>It is
phosphorylated into its inactive form and dephosphorylated into active form.</di
v><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>ATP, NADH, a
nd Acetyl Coa activate the kinase.</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style=

"white-space:pre"> </span>Pyruvate, NAD and CoA inhibit the kinase</div><div>Cal
cium activates the phosphatase. </div>
1473530879836 1471105979394 What is Leber s hereditary optic neuropathy and
Leigh syndrome? Both are diseases associated with defects with cellular respirat
ion and oxidative phosphorylation. Very rare, tend to result in lactic acidosis
and muscle and nerve pathology.
1473530920212 1471105979394 <div>What are two examples of TCA cycle mutation
s in cancer?</div><div><br /></div>
"white-space:pre"> </span>1) mutations in isocitrate dehydrogenase results in fo
rmation of 2-hydroxyglutarate instead of alpha ketoglutarate. This is a competit
ive inhibitor of Alpha Ketoglutarate dependent dioxygenases. These are crucial f
or demethylation reactions in DNA and histones. This causes hypermethylation in
glioma and acute myelocytic leukemia. </div><div>2) Low activities of fumar
ate hydrolase (fumarase) , this leads to an increased amount of aerobic glycolys
is and therefore enhancing the Warburg effect, where aerobic glycolysis tends to
increase in cancer cells. </div>
1473530931450 1471105979394 <div>What are two ways to get NADH into the mito
chondria? How are they different?</div><div><br /></div>
One way is the D
HAP glycerol 3-phosphate shuttle, which allows NADH to cross into the inner mito
chondrial membrane and uses FAD as the final electron acceptor. Another alternat
ive way is the malate-aspartate shuttle which uses NAD as a final electron accep
tor to get the NADH into the MATRIX.
1473530941081 1471105979394 <div>How do macrophages and neutrophils synthesi
ze reactive oxidative species?</div><div><br /></div> <div><span class="Appletab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>1) In both macrophages and neutrophils
NAPH oxidase will catalyze the reaction of oxygen to superoxide using NADPH.&nb
sp;</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>2) In
neutrophils only, myeloperoxidase will catalyze the reaction of H2O2 into hypoc
hlorite ion. </div><div><br /></div>
1473530981633 1471105979394 <div>How can cells defend against reactive oxida
tion species?</div><div><br /></div>
"white-space:pre"> </span>-alpha-tocopherol (Vitamin E), can break the covalent
links that fatty acid side chains could form with each other in membranes becaus
e of ROS. </div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre">
</span>-uric acid</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"
> </span>- vitamin C</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:p
re"> </span>- beta-carotene</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whitespace:pre"> </span>-bilirubin</div><div>-glutathione </div>
1473530994773 1471105979394 <div>What is an essential function of ROS in the
thyroid?</div><div><br /></div>
"white-space:pre"> </span>In the synthesis of thyroxine, hydrogen peroxide is re
quired to attach iodine to thyroglobulin. </div><div><br /></div>
1473531003989 1471105979394 <div>Describe how the respiratory burst works.</
"> </span>Macrophages and neutrophils engulf bacteria through phagocytosis and f
orm the phagosome which then goes to the lysozyme for degradation. Now the NADPH
oxidase assembles in the lysozyme which catalyzes the conversion of oxygen into
superoxide. This process creates whats called a respiratory burst which is char
acterized by a large consumption of oxygen. This superoxide then gets turned int
o hydrogen peroxide which can be used to kill of bacteria (unless ofcourse they
have catalase activity). In this case, neutrophils can do their thing with myelo
peroxidase and turn H2O2 into hypochlorite. </div><div><br /></div>
1473531013054 1471105979394 What is chronic granulomatous disease? <div><sp
an class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>This is caused by a de
fective subunit of NADPH oxidase. It s especially a problem against cells that p
roduce their own catalase. This is going to effect the bodies ability to fight o
ff bacteria, results in a persistent nest of infected cells called granulomas. T
his is an X linked disease. Commonly seen in men, but in women some of the activ
ated X s might be the ones with the mutation (barr bodies).</div><div><br /></di
v>
1473531023265 1471105979394 <div>What does superoxide dismutase do?</div><di
v><br /></div> <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </spa
n>It catalyzes the conversion of superoxide into hydrogen peroxide. </div><
div><br /></div>
1473531032596 1471105979394 <div>What is thought to cause Amyotrophic Latera
l Sclerosis (ALS)?</div><div><br /></div>
" style="white-space:pre"> </span>It s thought to be a protein misfolding diseas
e, protein aggregation. It is thought to have mutations in the SOD1 gene which p
roduces CuZnSOD. </div><div><br /></div>
1473531043415 1471105979394 <div>What is the sole source of NADPH in the red
blood cell?</div><div><br /></div>
"white-space:pre"> </span>The pentose phosphate pathway obviously.</div><div><br
/></div>
1473531070895 1471105979394 <div>How is the gene for glucose 6 phosphate deh
ydrogenase passed down? Also what is it?</div><div><br /></div> <div>It s passed
down on the X chromosome, it catalyzes the reaction taking glucose 6 phosphate
to 6 phospho-gluconate. </div><div><br /></div>
1473531088733 1471105979394 <div>How does UDP-galactose become UDP-glucose?<
/div><div><br /></div> <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre
"> </span>Through UDP hexose 4 epimerase</div><div><br /></div>
1473531167705 1471105979394 <div>How can glucose 1-P get converted into gluc
ose 6 phosphate?</div><div><br /></div> <div>Phosphoglucomutase</div><div><br />
</div>
1473531180040 1471105979394 <div>Conversion of galactose into galacticol inv
olves?</div><div><br /></div> <div>Aldose reductase and the oxidation of NADPH
into NADP.</div><div><br /></div>
1473531192210 1471105979394 <div>What is the role of glycogenin? </div>
<div><br /></div>
"> </span>Glycogenin acts as a primer for the glycogen structure, the tyrosine O
H group binds to the first UDP glucose. </div><div><br /></div>
1473531200898 1471105979394 <div>How does glucose 1 phosphate get converted
into UDP glucose?</div><div><br /></div>
" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Through the combination of a UTP and UDP-gluco
se pyrophosphorylase.</div><div><br /></div>
1473531210976 1471105979394 <div>How do glycogen phosphorylase and glycogen
debranching enzyme differ?</div><div><br /></div>
<div><span class="Appletab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Glycogen phosphorylase is going to cle
ave the alpha 1,4 bond in glycogen and produce a glucose 1 phosphate. Glycogen d
ebranching enzyme is going to cleave an alpha 1 6 bond and produces free glucose
. Dont forget that it also takes some of the branched glycogen and moves it to th
e longer chain. </div><div><br /></div>
1473531220067 1471105979394 <div>How is glycogen synthase regulated? </
"> </span>It s all regulated through cAMP protein kinase A, this is going to pho
sphorylate glycogen synthase turning it into the inactive form (B). The inactive
form can then be dephosphorylated by a phosphatase turning it into the active f
orm (A) therefore promoting glycogen synthesis. Insulin also promotes glycogen s
ynthesis. </div><div><br /></div>
1473531271354 1471105979394 <div>How is glycogen breakdown regulated?</div><
div><br /></div>
"> </span>Through a cascade pathway, glucagon (or epinephrine) will active cAMP
dependent protein kinase. This activated a glycogen phosphorylase kinase (a). Gl
ycogen phosphorylase is only active in the phosphorylated form. This is why we n
eed a kinase to achieve this. The inactivated form is dephosphorylated. Phosphor
ylase kinase can also be activated by calcium in the muscle leading to glycogen
breakdown. AMP can also activate glycogen phosphorylase B without phosphorylatin
g it. </div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-69020124
45752.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1473687908060 1421618046184
1473693931910 1421618046187 Listen to this slide again.

1473693931910 1421618046187
1473693989003 1421618046187 watch lecture again here
<img src="paste392499881312257.jpg" />
1473693991096 1421618046187 watch lecture again
5102209.jpg" />
1473694013351 1421618046187 watch lecture again here
<img src="paste392714629677057.jpg" />
1473694030835 1421618046187 watch lecture again for tihs
<img src="paste392766169284609.jpg" />
1473694048854 1421618046187 watch lecture of this again
<img src="paste392822003859457.jpg" /><div><br /></div><div>this slide has an error. </div
>
1473257549810 1421618046184
1473686815864 1421618046184 A deficiency of {{c1::Thiamine}} leads to {{c2::
Beri-beri}} and {{c2::Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome}}.
1475688981529 1421373138997 <img src="38f6d7875e3195bdaee448d2cb6917f3ae4994
af_Q 0 (8).svg" />
<img src="38f6d7875e3195bdaee448d2cb6917f3ae4994af_A 0 (
8).svg" />
<img src="38f6d7875e3195bdaee448d2cb6917f3ae4994af_source_svg (8
).svg" />
<img src="38f6d7875e3195bdaee448d2cb6917f3ae4994af_tmphvtwub.png
" />
1475110749661 1471474183240 role of proteins and membranes for gradients
1. membranes keep ions and maintain concentration gradient<div>2. proteins gener
ate asymmetry and establish concentration differences</div>
1475110814676 1471474183240 sodium levels in and out of the cell
1. MORE
outside (145 mM)<div>2. Less inside (~12mM)</div><div><img src="paste-3990024617
985.jpg" /></div>
1475110887870 1471474183240 Potassium levels in and out of cell
1. MORE
INSIDE cell (~140 mM)<div>2. Less outside (4mM)</div><div><br /></div><div><img
src="paste-3985729650689.jpg" /></div>
1475110931934 1471474183240 Chloride levels in and out of cell
1. Cl- h
igher outside (~116 mM)<div><img src="paste-3985729650689.jpg" /></div>
1475110975865 1471474183240 low pH environments inside cell lyosomes, golgi
and endosomes<div><img src="paste-3985729650689.jpg" /></div>
1475111009907 1471474183240 delta variable in diffusion
average displace
ment in time Tau
1475111044274 1471474183240 Diffusion coefficient 1. how fast something is
able to diffuse<div>2. inversely related to time and directly related to displa
cement<br /><div><img src="paste-4715874091009_1471474183240.jpg" /></div></div>
1475111176286 1471474183240 fick s first law of diffusion 1. flux of diffu
sion (rate of movement) magnitude is proportional to diffusion coefficient and c
oncentrations<div>2 Flux= number of moles crossing a plane or unit area per unit
time</div><div>3. Flux is directly proportional to magnitude of concentration g
radient<br /><div><img src="paste-5007931867137.jpg" /></div></div>
1475111282826 1471474183240 diffusion across a membrane equation
flux is
dependent on differences in concentration *permeability<div><br /></div><div><im
1475111320319 1471474183240 einstein/stokes equation
diffusion coeffi
cient is directly related to temperature and inversely related to viscosity and
molecular size<div><img src="paste-5278514806785.jpg" /></div>
1475111388735 1471474183240 speed of diffusion
rapid over small distanc
es and slow over large distances
1475111501299 1471474183240 permeability equation 1. J= -P(Cex-Ccyt)<div>2
. Relevant to biological membranes</div>
1475111608653 1471474183240 Permeability Coefficient
1. Directly prop
ortional to diffusion coefficient and partition coefficient(hydrophobicity)<div>
2. Inversely related to membrane thickness</div>
1475111689259 1471474183240 Partition Coefficient (Kp)
1. Coil/Cwater<d
iv>2. High lipid solubility = high membrane permeability</div><div>3. Measure Kp
by seeing level of molecules dissolved in oil vs water</div>
1475111740291 1471474183240 order of ease of passive diffusion

hydropho
bic molecules>>>smaller uncharged polar molecules>>large uncharge
d polar molecules>>ions
1475111792009 1471474183240 permeability relationship to lipid solubility an
d molecular size
1. permeability is directly related to lipid solubility<
div>2. inversely related with molecular size</div><div><img src="paste-942745321
4721 (1).jpg" /></div>
1475111861486 1471474183240 passive diffusion summary <img src="paste9423158247425.jpg" />
1475111872562 1471474183240 why do ions have difficulty traversing membranes
?
1.tight shell of water forms around them (NOT energetically favorable to
strip off)<div><img src="paste-9423158247425.jpg" /></div>
1475111916311 1471474183240 how can weak acids and bases cross membranes?
1. weak acids can traverse membrane as protonated form<div>2. weak bases c
an traverse membrane as UNprotonated form</div><div>3. Dissociation can occur wi
thin cell to ionized forms</div><div><img src="paste-9861244911617.jpg" /></div>
1475112050033 1471474183240 definition of voltage? separation of charge; am
ount of work required to bring a unit of positive charge from an infinite distan
ce to a particular location
1475112103563 1471474183240 electrical field
gradient of a voltage be
tween a positive and negative charge; must have a fluctuating potential
1475112163801 1471474183240 electroneutrality principle
always must be a
n equal number of positive and negative charges in any macroscopic volume; charg
e separation produces an e- field in biology over small, molecular distances
1475112206896 1471474183240 how are membrane potentials generated? 1. ion c
oncentration gradients<div>2. unequal membrane permeabilities of different ions<
/div><div><img src="paste-12511239733249.jpg" /></div>
1475112863005 1471474183240 what is the chemical potential of a solution? (m
u)
measure or function of components of solution
1475112941521 1471474183240 chemical potential difference and concentrations
1. dependent on concentrations<div>2. if Cin<Cout, mu<0 and and substance
will diffuse spontaneously inward</div><div>3. if C in>Cout, mu>0 active t
ransport is required to move substance inside</div><div>4. if Cin= Cout; mu=0. e
quilibrium states</div><div><img src="paste-14328010899457.jpg" /></div>
1475113127085 1471474183240 chemical potential difference equation <img src
="paste-14362370637825.jpg" /><div>proportional to Cin and inversely proportiona
l to Cout</div>
1475113175845 1471474183240 chemical potential of water
1. affected by p
ressure, temperature and SOLUTES<div>2. solutes decrease mu while pressure and t
emperature increase mu</div><div>3. mu of water is ALWAYS lower than chemical po
tential of pure water </div><div><img src="paste-14568529068033.jpg" /></di
v>
1475113314711 1471474183240 colligative properties 1. properties affected b
y concentrations of dissolved particles<div>2. Reduced vapor pressure, freezing
point depression and osmotic pressure changes</div>
1475113389744 1471474183240 osmotic pressure
1. if across semi-permea
ble membrane, pure H2O on one side and solute-water on inside, water diffuses in
side<div>2. If volume is maintained constant, there is an increase of pressure o
n the inside and cause water to back flow to ultimately establish mu water as 0<
1475113549135 1471474183240 pressure at equlibrium is called...
pi or os
motic pressure
1475113575058 1471474183240 vant Hoff equation
1. pi= RTCsolutes (R= ga
s constant, T= temperature and C = solute concentration)<div>2. NOTE for ionic c
ompounds - osmolarity= all active species so may need to multiply by number of u
nits</div><div>3. units of osmolarity= osmol/L </div><div><img src="paste-1
5195594293249.jpg" /></div>
1475113734364 1471474183240 osmotic coefficient
corrects van t hoff equa
tion for non-ideal behavior of real solutions like how solutes interact with sol
vent
1475113832025 1471474183240 osmolarity

measured via an osmometer to mea
sure colligative properties
1475113849793 1471474183240 osmotic pressure example
take difference
in molarities and multiply by temperature and rate constant <div><img src="
paste-15526306775041 (1).jpg" /></div>
1475113975544 1471474183240 reflection coefficient 1. corrects for degree o
f membrane permeability<div>2. impermeable substances have coefficient of 1</div
><div>3. most solutes have "ineffective osmoles" b/c the <b>coeff<1</b> so on
ly <b>transient effect</b> is exerted</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste
-15732465205249_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1475114065709 1471474183240 two routes for osmotic water movement 1. lipid
bilayer- water can traverse but very slowly <div>2. aquaporins</div>
1475114108377 1471474183240 isotonic solutions
1. osmolarity is same as
blood osmolarity<div>2. <b>Blood osmolarity = ~300mOsm</b></div><div>3. isotoni
c saline of .9% NaCl= 154 mM NaCl</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><b
r /></div>
1475114187350 1471474183240 hypotonic solutions
1. cell volume increases
<div>2. osmolarity is LESS than that of blood ~100mM NaCl or 150 mM of sucrose</
div><div><b>3. hemolysis occurs at osmolarities <200 mOsm of impermeant solut
es</b></div>
1475114271758 1471474183240 hypertonic solutions
1. cells shrink<div>2. o
smolarity is greater than that of blood plasma (~200 mM NaCl or 500 mM sucrose)<
/div>
1475114324994 1471474183240 R constant value
.082
1475114334807 1471474183240 T temperature value
300 K
1475114341585 1471474183240 example of permeable hypertonic solute solution
and water movement
1. urea of 100 mM is added to isotonic saline (154 mM)<d
iv>2. FIRST, water moves out as less water outside than inside -> shrinkage (
temporary)</div><div>3. However, urea is able to enter RBC and so it enters and
water follows suit to restore RBC</div><div><b>4. Urea= ineffective osmole and w
ater moves faster</b></div><div><img src="paste-16935056048129 (1).jpg" /></div>
<div><br /></div>
1475114546079 1471474183240 water movements in presence of solute isotonic s
olution 1. RBC placed in .3 M glycerol solution<div>2. Glycerol being an ineffec
tive osmole diffuses into RBC and water follows suit</div><div>3. Cell swells an
d then bursts</div><div>(Hemolysis occurs as not 200 mM of solute outside...)</d
1475114992738 1471474183240 RBC placed in .6M urea solution 1. water first l
eaves as outside is more concentrated<div>2. but slowly urea diffuses inwards an
d water follows suit to increase RBC size and ultimately it pops</div><div><br /
1475115082189 1471474183240 cellular response to osmotic challenge 1. shrin
kage activates transporters that take up solutes<div>2. Na-K-2Cl co transport, N
a/H exchange, Cl/HCO3- exchange</div><div>3. Regulatory volume decreases- swelli
ng activates channels and transporters that cause loss of solutes (K channels, C
l Channels and K-Cl co-transporters)</div><div><img src="paste-17583596109825.jp
g" /></div><div><img src="paste-17596481011713.jpg" /></div>
1475115187754 1471474183240 response to cell shrinking
<img src="paste17592186044417.jpg" />
1475115196906 1471474183240 response to cell swelling
<img src="paste17733919965185.jpg" />
1475115209185 1471474183240 electric equilibria incorporated in chemical pot
ential 2.3RTlogCi/Co+zF(psi.in-psi.out) = 0 if concentration gradient balances
out electrical gradient<div><img src="paste-18004502904833.jpg" /></div>
1475115475429 1471474183240 Nernst equation 1. change in voltage <div>2
.= 60/z log Cout/Cin</div><div><img src="paste-18167711662081.jpg" /></div>
1475115575041 1471474183240 what is the purpose of the Nernst equation?
to identify the limit of extent a chemical gradient can drive an ion across a me
mbrane for instance...<div>if 100 mM of K+ inside and 10 mM of K+ outside net di
ffusion is out until the inner membrane potential hits -60 mV<br /><div><br /></
div><div><img src="paste-18352395255809.jpg" /></div></div>

1475115750423 1471474183240 ion equilibrium potentials
membrane potenti
al at which ion would be distributed in equilibrium across cell membrane<div><im
1475115858920 1471474183240 ohm s law for membranes current across membrane
is equal to <b>membrance conductance * driving force for that ion</b><div><img s
rc="paste-18670222835713_1471474183240.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1475115941177 1471474183240 voltage and equilibrium potential relationship t
o current
1. if voltage = Ei then driving force =0, so NO current<div>2. i
f Voltage >Ei, then driving force >0 and positive ions would move OUT, neg
ative ions would move IN</div><div>3. If voltage <Ei, then driving force woul
d be <0 and positive ions would move in and negative ions would move OUT</div
>
1475116044704 1471474183240 what is current?
1. defined by direction
of movement of positive charge <div>2. direction of movement is determined
by sign of driving force</div>
1475116076459 1471474183240 outward current is a positive current
1475116098020 1471474183240 inward current 1. is a negative current<div>2.
obtain negative change in voltage and equilibrium potential</div><div>3. cations
move in and anions move out<br /><div><br /></div></div>
1475116105714 1471474183240 ohm law examples
if we assume voltage is
-90 mV then...<div>1. for potassium driving force is positive and so we have an
outward current on potassium</div><div>2. for sodium we have an inward current,
as driving force is negative so Na+ is pushed in</div><div>3. for chloride we ha
ve a negative driving force so an inward current</div><div><img src="paste-19301
583028225.jpg" /></div>
1475116404093 1471474183240 gibbs-donan equlibrium 1. situation where imper
meable ions also exert role on permeable ions<div>2. ions have to redistribute t
o come to equilibrum</div><div><img src="paste-19494856556545.jpg" /></div>
1475117685145 1471474183240 Donnan distribution
052161.jpg" /><div>r= Donnan ratio </div><div><br /></div><div>in/out for a
nions like chloride</div>
1475117714273 1471474183240 gibbs-donnan summary
1. presence of an imperm
eable ion alters distribution of permeable ions<div>2.defined by Donnan ratio: r
=[Co/Ci]^(1/z)</div><div>3. overall psi has same sign as net charge of impermeab
le ion</div><div>4. associated with osmotic pressure differences </div><div
1475117876206 1471474183240 all cells in osmotic equilibrium?
1. not q
uite, as external impermeable solute is required for osmotic solubility<div>2. N
a is effectively impermeable to inside due to Na/K pump</div><div>3. cells are i
n <b>steady state</b> in which ongoing leakage of ions is balanced by energy req
uiring ion pumps to maintain constant concentrations</div><div><img src="paste-2
0164871454721.jpg" /></div>
1475118092167 1471474183240 carrier mediated transport
can engage in ac
tive transport or diffusion<div><img src="paste-20362439950337_1471474183240.jpg
" /></div>
1475120430229 1471474183240 channel translocation 1. diffusion through a s
elective pore<div>2. transient binding of permeant with a fairly rigid structure
1475120466348 1471474183240 carrier or transporter 1. binds to site on prot
ein<div>2. large conformational change in protein carrier</div><div>3. NEVER ope
n to both sides at once</div><div><img src="paste-20568598380545.jpg" /></div>
1475120504120 1471474183240 carriers display enzyme like properties 1. satur
ability of Km and Vm<div>2. Competitive inhibition</div><div>3. Structural speci
ficity and sensitivity to inhibitors</div><div><img src="paste-20727512170497_14
71474183240.jpg" /></div>
1475120566176 1471474183240 molecular characteristics of transporters
1. membrane proteins containing multiple membrane spanning regions<div>2. bindin
g occlusion release- binds and occludes molecule from outside and releases to in
side</div><div>3. cytosolic domains are involved in protein regulation and cytos
keletal interactions for energy coupling</div><div><img src="paste-2091649073152

1.jpg" /></div>
1475120677554 1471474183240 types of transport
077441.jpg" /><div>facilitated diffusion = uniport</div><div>primary active tran
sport= energy coupling</div><div>secondary active transport= coupled to gradient
s like co/counter transport</div>
1475120741043 1471474183240 GLUT4 receptor insulin induces activation and f
usion of GLUT4 receptor into PM and with removal of insulin--> GLUT4 returns
to cytosolic location<div><img src="paste-21225728376833.jpg" /></div>
1475120817790 1471474183240 F class proton pumps
1.bacterial plasma membr
ane<div>2. located in inner mitochondrial membrane and thylakoid membrane</div><
1475158585360 1471474183240 V-class proton pumps
1. acidifies to make ins
ide of lysosome<div>2. only goes in 1 direction</div><div><img src="paste-215306
71054849.jpg" /></div>
1475158645880 1471474183240 P type proton pumps
1. phosphorylated interm
ediate required!! <div>2. found in plasma membrane of plants, fungi and bac
teria</div><div>3. Na/K pump, H/K pump, Ca2+ pump</div><div><img src="past
e-21607980466177.jpg" /></div>
1475158713030 1471474183240 ABC superfamily hydrolyzes ATP and transports mo
lecules like cholesterol, lipophilic drugs etc. <div><img src="paste-216938
79812097.jpg" /></div>
1475158754329 1471474183240 a closer look at F-type ATPases 1. found in mito
chondria, chloroplasts and bacteria<div>2. Responsible for ATP synthesis during
oxidative phosphorylation and photosynthesis</div><div>3. Multiple subunits that
can be used in alternate ways to yield proton gradient or ATP</div><div><img sr
c="paste-21796959027201.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-21809843929089.jpg" />
</div>
1475158935923 1471474183240 a closer look at V type ATPases 1. multiple subu
nits with similarity to F0-F1-ATPases<div>2. Couple ATP hydrolysis to pumping of
protons</div><div>3. Acidify the endosomal network</div><div>4. present in othe
r acid secreting cells like osteoclasts, distal tubule cells in kidney</div><div
1475159058660 1471474183240 F-ATPases vs V-ATPases F-ATPases can work in ei
ther direction<div><img src="paste-22076131901441.jpg" /></div>
1475159105027 1471474183240 Na+/K+ ATPase 1. Couples 1 ATP to move 3 Na+ o
ut and uptake 2 K+<div>2. Electrogenic--> generates a current</div><div>3 Use
gradient for secondary transport and nervous activity</div><div><img src="paste
-22144851378177.jpg" /></div>
1475159178165 1471474183240 inhibitor of Na/K ATPase
1. Cardiac glyco
sides inhibit the pump like ouabain<div>2. Increases force of cardiac contractio
n as disruption of sodium removal reduces level of calcium lost inside cell and
calcium promotes the contractility of the heart</div><div>3. Treatment for conge
stive heart failure</div>
1475159313366 1471474183240 Ca-ATPases
1. SERCA- sarco(endo)plasmic ret
iculum has a calcium efflux system in response to AP --> muscle contractility
<div>2. PMCA- plasma membrane Ca ATPase removes excess calcium</div>
1475159488976 1471474183240 SERCA and PMCA
1. 100 kDa in size<div>2
. hydrophilic domain is site of ATP binding site and phosphorylation</div><div>3
. similar reaction mechanism</div>
1475159576448 1471474183240 ABC Transporters
1. ATP-Binding cassettes
<div>2. organized by two homologous domains</div><div>3. Six membrane spanning s
egments + 1 nucleotide binding domain (NBD)</div><div><br /></div><div><img src=
div>
1475159721190 1471474183240 ABC Transporter Functions
1. found in all
higher organisms along with bacteria and yeast<div>2. Multiple drug resistance pumps out foreign substances like drug</div><div>3. Involved in Cystic fibrosis
as transmembrane regulator</div><div>4. Also involved in ER peptide transport</
1475159835523 1471474183240 Na/H exchanger 1. Sodium diffusion into cell dr

ives H+ out of cell<div>2. Type of secondary antiporting transporter</div><div><
1475159883902 1471474183240 Na/Glucose co-transporter
1. 2 Na+ in for
every glucose in <div>2. Symport system relying on Na gradient to get gluco
se in cell</div><div><img src="paste-26568667693057.jpg" /></div>
1475159980101 1471474183240 Na/Ca Exchange 3 Na+ in for 1 Ca2+ out; antipor
ter <div><img src="paste-26572962660353.jpg" /></div>
1475159981830 1471474183240 cardiac myocyte physiology
1. Na+ rushes in
to the cell upon depolarization<div>2. Ca2+ channels open in response and Ca2+ e
nters cell</div><div>3. Ca2+ binds to Ryr Receptor in SR to open up and promote
Ca2+ release</div><div>4.contraction</div><div>5. Calcium removed from cell with
PMCA or antiporter system with sodium</div><div><img src="paste-28982439313409.
jpg" /></div>
1475160127261 1471474183240 epithelial transport of glucose and sodium
1. 2 Na+ built up outside cell help drive glucose into cell on apical membrane<d
iv>2. Glucose upon entering cell can be removed via GLUT2 on basolateral membran
e</div><div>3. Na-K ATPase establishes this</div><div><img src="paste-2915853297
2545.jpg" /></div>
1475160283327 1471474183240 role of ion channels
1. ability to mediate pe
rmeability and select permeability<div>2. allows an aqueous pathway for charged
particles to diffuse across a membrane to go through fast</div><div><br /></div>
<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-29373281337345.jpg" /></div><div><br /></d
iv><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br
/></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1475160638285 1471474183240 how do ion channels work?
1. mostly by dif
fusion through aqueous pore region<div>2. ions interact with channel at a constr
icted regions called the selectivity filter</div><div>3. selectivity filter dete
rmines which ions pass through</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-293689
86370049.jpg" /></div>
1475160713651 1471474183240 selectivity filter
1. comprises a small por
tion of diffusion pathway<div>2. ultimately determines what ions pass through ch
annel and which do not</div><div><img src="paste-29630979375105.jpg" /></div>
1475160754358 1471474183240 what factors deterimine if channel is open or cl
osed? 1. voltage ones tend to be closed at RP<div>2. Ligand gated channels ope
n in response to a molecule</div>
1475160785652 1471474183240 components of an ion channel
1. channel pore
= allows a pathway for diffusion<div>2. selectivity filter determines which ions
may pass</div><div>3. gating mechanism- opens and closes channels in response t
o a signal </div><div><img src="paste-29768418328577.jpg" /></div>
1475160863396 1471474183240 how can a selectivity filter work for example wi
th potassium? 1. in selectivity filter, the carbonyl oxygen backbones replace
water<div>2. potassium is larger than sodium and can fit more snugly with the ca
rbonyl oxygens as opposed to sodium and so is taken up</div><div><img src="paste
-29961691856897.jpg" /></div>
1475160989851 1471474183240 how do channels conduct ions so rapidly?
1. incoming ions displace ions in selectivity filter through electrostatic repul
sion<div>2. Geometry insures K+ moves from one site to another with very little
energy expenditure--> passage of ions is rapid</div><div><img src="paste-3014
6375450625.jpg" /></div>
1475161182926 1471474183240 voltage gated shaker K+ channels
1. NOT s
ame ones as found in axons<div>2.6 S segments</div><div>3. S4 segment is gating
mechanisms - positively charged residues on S4 lead to conformation change with
electrical potential changes</div><div>4. Attached to S1 in cytosol is ball and
chain of a peptide that can interact with pore to inactivate it so activation is
transient</div><div><img src="paste-30429843292161.jpg" /></div>
1475161324775 1471474183240 voltage gated Na+ and Ca2+ channels
1. four
separate domains with similarity to K+ channel that are linked together to yield
one polypeptide chain<div>2. other regulatory sites on either end of combined p
olypeptide</div><div><img src="paste-30524332572673.jpg" /></div>
1475161420856 1471474183240 ligand-gated channels 1. classic example of Ac

h binding<div>2. permeable to various cations indiscriminately</div><div>3. prom
otes membrane depolarization and AP</div><div>4. Seen with other neurotransmitte
rs as well as cAMP, Ca2+, IP3</div><div><img src="paste-30816390348801.jpg" /></
div>
1475161512457 1471474183240 Ca2+ release channels-IP3
1. IP3 binds to
calcium channels in ER<div>2. Release of stored calcium which can then go on to
activate pkc</div><div><img src="paste-30992484007937.jpg" /></div>
1475161573681 1471474183240 Ryanodine receptor
1. initiates calcium rel
ease from SR<div>2. Opened by increased in calcium, or caffeine or ryanodine</di
1475161676111 1471474183240 patch clamp technique 1. pipette forms a very
tight seal with plasma membrane<div>2. currents in the tiny patch of membrane ar
e recorded by a voltage clamp</div><div><img src="paste-31202937405441.jpg" /></
div>
1475161740473 1471474183240 single K+ channel currents
1. if current go
es up in detected clamp, then potassium must be rushing out into clamp<div>2. po
sitive delta_psi = open state</div><div><img src="paste-31490700214273.jpg" /></
div><div><img src="paste-31503585116161_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1475161975705 1471474183240 Na+ Current Channels
1. depolarization or +de
lta_psi promotes opening of sodium channels<div>2. current goes down as sodium r
ushes into cell</div><div>3. but quickly current is reestablished as these chann
els are inactivated</div><div><img src="paste-31714038513665.jpg" /></div><div><
img src="paste-31881542238209.jpg" /><img src="paste-31877247270913.jpg" /></div
>
1475162163528 1471474183240 Na+ channel inactivation
1. involves bloc
king of pore by loops between domains III and IV<div>2. hinge lid method ~ball a
nd chain model of K+ inactivation</div><div>3. Na+ channel inactivation is essen
tial feature for action potential</div><div><img src="paste-32203664785409.jpg"
1475162251457 1471474183240 goldman-hodgkin-katz equatio
1. useful when m
ultiple ions are permeable each more or less permeable than the other<div>2. Vm=
60 log Pk[Ko]+ Pna[Nao]/(Pk[K]i+ Pna[Na]i)</div><div><img src="paste-3239264334
6433_1471474183240.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1475162433960 1471474183240 GHK equation for negative ions 1. the Cl on ins
ide is on numerator and Cl outside is in denominator<div><br /></div><div><img s
1475162533599 1471474183240 alpha value for GHK equation
ratio of permeab
ilities of ions <div><img src="paste-32581621907457.jpg" /></div>
1475162613458 1471474183240 depolarization Vm becomes more positive or less
negative than resting potential
1475162641216 1471474183240 hyperpolarization
than resting potential
1475162655894 1471474183240 K+ dependence on resting potential
increasi
ng external K+ depolarizes the membrane
1475162673503 1471474183240 action potential initiation
1. passive depol
arizing curret produces graded Vm<div>2. once threshold is reached, one gets an
all or none action potential</div><div><img src="paste-32903744454657.jpg" /></d
1475162745802 1471474183240 sodium channels and action potential initaition
1. depolarization opens Na channels<div>2. Na opening leads to further depolariz
ation and activation of more Na+ channels</div><div>3. Vm increases rapidly and
approaches ENa for sodium</div><div><img src="paste-33101312950273.jpg" /></div>
1475162848127 1471474183240 how is a resting potential reestablished?
1. Na+ channels inactive<div>2. K+ open leading to a fall of Vm below resting po
tential</div>
1475162891874 1471474183240 action potential characteristics <img src
="paste-33255931772929.jpg" />
1475162929519 1471474183240 hodgkin-huxley experiments
1. voltage clamp
studies performed to elucidate action potentials in neurons<div>2. Na+ generate
s inward current and K+ generates an outward current </div><div><img src="p

aste-33728378175489.jpg" /></div>
1475163578320 1471474183240 TTX
1. Sodium blocker used in HH experiments
<div>2. Saw only outward current due to potassium</div><div><img src="paste-3372
4083208193.jpg" /></div>
1475163599872 1471474183240 TEA
1. K+ channel blocker so only saw inward
Na+ current<div>2. inward current is below x-axis</div><div><img src="paste-337
24083208193.jpg" /></div>
1475163631689 1471474183240 HH experiment equations 1. current= conductance
of each ion*driving force or difference of voltages<div>2. model was used to sim
ulate an AP </div><div><img src="paste-34119220199425.jpg" /></div>
1475163764330 1471474183240 accomodation
if a cell is depolarized s
lowly, NO AP develops because Na+ channels inactivate and K+ channels can open-> both will prevent an initation of action potential
1475163806746 1471474183240 refractory periods
1. absolute= impossible
to elicit a second action potential (at peak)<div>2. relative= higher than usual
threshold for eliciting a second action potential (in hyperpolarization stage)<
1475163851866 1471474183240 propagation of action potential 1. depolarizatio
n spread from active region to neighboring inactive regions<div>2. traveling dow
n axon promotes Na+ channels to open</div>
1475163884500 1471474183240 cable properties
1. describes how AP move
s down axon<div>2. large axon= easer to spread down (less resistance)</div
><div>3 myelin- provides barrier to pre-leakage and allows it to initiate downst
ream</div><div><img src="paste-34621731373057.jpg" /></div>
1475163957777 1471474183240 Donnan equilibrium key points 1. product of co
ncentration of diffusible ions on one side of membrane = product of concentratio
n of diffusible ions on other side<div>2. ONLY applies to situations with passiv
e distribution</div><div><br /></div>
1475542323621 1471474183240 OUTWARD CURRENT 1. Get a positive voltage differ
ence<div>2. More positive, extroverted= outward</div><div>3. Typically, in such
a situation positive ions move out and negative ions move in</div>
1475542416115 1471474183240 are cells in equilibrium?
not quite, but r
ather a steady state...<div>1. some leakage and movement of ions across membrane
</div><div>2. however, ion pumps maintain steady state</div>
1475543943861 1471474183240 oubain 1.glycoside that inhibits the Na+K+ pump
from the outside<div>2. increase levels of calcium and so promote extended cont
raction</div><div>3. can counteract drug with increased levels of K+ </div>
1475545673253 1471474183240 calcium pumps 1. SERCA pumps calcium into SR<d
iv>2. PMCA- removes calcium from cell</div>
1475545895168 1471474183240 GLUT2 found on basolateral membrane and transf
ers glucose from columnar cells to inside intestine<div><img src="paste-60722247
630849.jpg" /></div>
1475545984812 1471474183240 functional units of a channel 1. channel pore=
aqueous pathway for diffusion<div>2. selectivity filter- determines which ions
permeate</div><div>3. gating mechanism- opens and closes channels in response to
some signal</div><div><img src="paste-61001420505089.jpg" /></div>
1475546322829 1471474183240 shaker K+ channels
1. P loop forms pore and
selectivity filter<div>2. S4 segment is a gating mechanism with charged r
esidues that leads to conformational changes</div><div>3. inactivation mechanism
= 19 AA N terminal on S1 pops into pore</div><div><img src="paste-62680752717825
.jpg" /></div>
1475546513448 1471474183240 ryanodine receptor
opened by increased card
iac calcium, caffeine, ryanodine
1475546703135 1471474183240 hinged lid method
Na inactivation gates cl
ose in similar method to ball and chain- block of pore by loop of domains III an
d IV (ISO-PHE-ME)<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-62998580297729.jpg" /></d
iv>
1475547479616 1471474183240 why does the peak at membrane potential not skyr
ocket? 1. inactivation gates<div>2. K+ equilibrium needs to be established</div
>
1475679519080 1471474183240 catabolic factors increase levels of glucose
1. glucagon<div>2. epinephrine</div><div>3. cortisol</div><div>4. growth hormone
s</div>
1475679625019 1471474183240 anabolic factors decrease glucose serum levels
1. insulin
1475679639776 1471474183240 tight control of glucose regulation
1. insul
in production decreases above 80 mg/dL<div>2. at lower blood glucose levels, epi
nephrine, and glucagon production increases</div><div><img src="paste-4973572128
769_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1475679761437 1471474183240 low glucose consequences (need for tight control
)
1. adrenergic symptoms result: anxiety, tremors, sweating<div>2. more se
vere neuroglycopenia- headache, confusion, slurred speech, seizures</div>
1475679813511 1471474183240 levels of sugar in diabetics
1. >126 mg/dL
in fasting <div>2. >200 mg/dL random </div><div><br /></div><div><
1475679867064 1471474183240 insulin/glucagon ratio 1. ratios of insulin and
other hormones (glucagon) regulate tissue specific metabolism <div>2
. dependent on various nutritional states</div>
1475679933221 1471474183240 glucose consumption pancreatic effect stimulat
es insulin production from beta cells of pancreas<div><img src="paste-5643587026
945.jpg" /></div>
1475680020964 1471474183240 functions of liver in glucose metabolism
1. synthesizes glycogen, FAs, ketone bodies<div>2. takes up glucose after a meal
</div><div>3. degrades glycogen </div><div>4. undergoes gluconeogenesis dur
ing fasting</div>
1475680099706 1471474183240 activated liver pathways in response to glucose
1. increase in glycogen synthesis (glycogen synthase)<div>2. increase in g
lycolysis (Pyruvate DH) </div><div>3. increase in pentose phosphate pathway
(HMP- G-6-P DH) </div><div>4. increase in FAS (ACC)</div><div><img src="pa
ste-6335076761601.jpg" /></div>
1475680570142 1471474183240 downregulated liver pathways in response to an i
ncrease in glucose
1. reduced gluconeogenesis<div>2. reduced glycogenolysis
</div><div>3. reduced fat breakdown</div>
1475680614635 1471474183240 role of muscle in glucose metabolism
1. synth
esizes glycogen and protein<div>2. takes up glucose after a meal</div><div>3. us
es FAs and ketone bodies as energy source</div><div>4. Releases AA during fastin
g</div>
1475680661649 1471474183240 activated pathways in resting skeletal muscle&nb
sp;
1. increase in glycolysis<div>2. increase in glycogen synthesis</div><di
v>3. increase in protein synthesis</div><div><img src="paste-6721623818241.jpg"
/></div>
1475680720660 1471474183240 repressed pathway in resting skeletal muscle whe
n increase in glucose <b><u> decrease in glycogen breakdown</u></b>
1475680782844 1471474183240 role of adipose tissue in response to glucose
1. synthesizes TAGs<div>2. takes up glucose after a meal </div><div>3. hydr
olyzes TAGs during fasting</div>
1475680824706 1471474183240 activated pathways in adipose tissue
1. incre
ase in GLUT4 receptors to uptake glucose<div>2. increase in pentose phosphate pa
thway</div><div>3. increase in glycolysis (PFK, pyruvate DH)</div><div><img src=
"paste-7340099108865.jpg" /></div>
1475680915927 1471474183240 repressed pathway in adipose tissue in response
to glucose
decrease in glycogen breakdown
1475680939139 1471474183240 brain and glucose
1. primarily relies on g
lucose when fed<div>2. after starving for 2-3 weeks, converts source to ketone b
odies</div><div><img src="paste-7494717931521.jpg" /></div>
1475680984531 1471474183240 receptor structure and function 1. selec
tive extracellular domain = ligand binding domain<div>2. hydrophobic transmembra
ne domain = anchor for receptor in membrane and couples LBD to intracellular dom
ain</div><div>3. cytoplasmi/intracellular domain= effector domain</div><div><img
src="paste-7687991459841.jpg" /></div>
1475681078682 1471474183240 insulin activity on receptor tyrosine kinase&nbs
p;
1. insulin dimer binds to RTK inactive dimer<div>2. activates dimer to p
romote<b> intrinsic</b> phosphorylation of tyrosines</div><div>3. recruits adapt
or proteins for downstream effect</div><div><img src="paste-7975754268673.jpg" /
></div>
1475681228660 1471474183240 intrinsic enzyme
substrate is receptor or
part of it as in RTK
1475681267841 1471474183240 Roles of RTK in the cell
1. carbohydrate
utilization and protein synthesis<div>2. regulation of cell growth and survival<
/div><div>3. angiogenesis</div>
1475681309981 1471474183240 how do adaptors relay and activate subsequent pa
thways? monomeric G-proteins
1475681394706 1471474183240 RTK-activated adapter protein cascade 1. RAS G
-protein is activated with substituion of GTP<div>2. Ras activates Kinase I (MAP
KKK/RAF)</div><div>3. MAPKKK phosphorylates kinase II (MAPKK/MEK) to activate it
</div><div>4. MAPKK phosphorylates kinase III (MAPK/ERK) to activate it</div><di
v>5. MAPK activates downstream proteins and transcription factors via phosphoryl
ation</div><div><img src="paste-8422430867457_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1475681546996 1471474183240 enzymes with intrinsic activity besides RTK...
1. TGF-B - serine kinases and involved with BMPs<div>2. Receptor guanylyl cyclas
es- create 2nd messenger cGMP</div>
1475681610978 1471474183240 starvation and post meal summary of hormone
effects
<div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-111926847
73377.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /
1475681674835 1471474183240 liver activity during fasting 1. increase in g
lycogen breakdown (glycogen phosphorylase)<div>2. increase in gluconeogenesis (f
ructose 1,6-bisphosphatase, PEP carboxykinase, pyruvate carboxylase)</div><div>3
. increase in FAO (CPT-1)</div><div>4. increase in ketone body synthesis</div><d
iv><br /></div><div><img src="paste-11733850652673.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div
>
1475681819878 1471474183240 starvation effects on adipose tissue
1. incre
ased TAG degradation<div>2. increased fatty acid and glycerol release</div><div>
3. decrease in fatty acid uptake</div><div><img src="paste-11845519802369.jpg" /
></div>
1475681888183 1471474183240 starvation effects on muscles 1. use of fatty
acids and ketone bodies<div>2. protein breakdown --> AA for liver gluconeoges
is </div><div><img src="paste-11931419148289.jpg" /></div>
1475681936020 1471474183240 kidney and starvation 1. kidney produces 40% o
f glucose during starvation state<div><img src="paste-12013023526913.jpg" /></di
v>
1475681990958 1471474183240 differences between diabetes and starvation
1. diabetes has high glucose levels vs starvation= low glucose levels<div>2. dia
betes- absent or normal insulin vs starvation = low insulin</div><div>3. diabete
s- increased hunger, thirst, and urination vs starvation= increase in hunger</di
v>
1. polyphagia- i
1475682060842 1471474183240 the three P s of diabetes
ncrease in hunger<div>2. polydypsia - increase in thirst</div><div>3. polyuria increase in urination</div>
1475682097793 1471474183240 similarities between starvation and diabetes
both increase fatty acid oxiation, inc formation of ketone bodies, decrease prot
ein synthesis and increase gluconeogenesis in liver
1475682132576 1471474183240 type I diabetes 1. Deficiency in insulin<div>2.
leads to hyperglycemia</div><div>3. increase in ketone bodies as cells cannot ta
ke in glucose as energy</div><div><img src="paste-12524124635137.jpg" /></div>
1475682214086 1471474183240 type II diabetes
1. decreased response to
insulin <div>2. insulin is PRODUCED</div><div>3. less glycogenesis, more g
luconeogenesis, less muscle and fat glucose uptake, insulin resistance</div><div
1475682321142 1471474183240 increased risk of developing type II diabetes

1. central or abdominal obesity<div>2. high fasting blood triglycerides</div><di
v>3. low blood HDL</div><div>4. high BP</div><div>5. High but not diabetic fasti
ng glucose</div><div><br /></div>
1475682382292 1471474183240 genetic diabetes (maturity onset diabetes of the
young) 1. TFs that control expression of metabolism genes<div>2. metabolic enzy
me changes</div><div>3. signaling defects</div><div>*DIFFERENT FROM TYPE 1 OR 2<
/div>
1475682555643 1471474183240 role of metformin in diabetes 1. metformin act
ivates AMPK<div>2. AMPK promotes glycolysis in liver and glucose uptake in muscl
e</div><div><img src="paste-13035225743361.jpg" /></div>
1475682603357 1471474183240 HbA1C levels
1. HBA1C can be glycosylated by
free glucose<div>2. BUT this reaction is irreversible so can stay in system for
awhile</div><div>3. good way to check compliance of diabetics with diet...</div>
1475682663749 1471474183240 signatures of DM1
1. childhood or puberty
onset<div>2. normal weight </div><div>3. moderate genetic predispostion</di
v><div>4. Beta cells destroyed, no insulin produced</div><div>5. Insulin replace
ment </div>
1475682723813 1471474183240 DM II signatures
1. usually affects those
beyond age of 35<div>2. associated with obesity</div><div>3. very strong geneti
c predisposition</div><div>4. insulin resistance with abnormal insulin levels</d
iv><div>5. treat with diet, exercise, oral hypoglycemic drugs</div>
1475682874080 1471474183240 what directly inhibits glucose production in liv
er cell?
1. alcohol<div>2. promotes anerobic pathway to yield NADH to inh
ibit glucose production</div>
1475682919045 1471474183240 what is main substrate for RTK? cytoplasmic doma
in
1475684137763 1471474183240 hormone classification by receptors
1. intri
nsic enzyme activity<div>2. associated enzyme activity</div><div>3. G-protein co
upled receptors </div><div>4. receptors that stimulate intracellular protei
n cleavage</div>
1475684188386 1471474183240 cytokine receptors
1. shows associated enzy
me activity<div>2. small and similarly structured cytokines</div><div>3. EPO--&g
t; increases erythrocyte production</div><div>4. inteferons- increase virus resi
stance</div><div>5. GMCSF - increase granulocytes and macrophage production</div
><div>6. interleukins control T and B cell differentiation</div><div><img src="p
aste-13984413515777.jpg" /></div>
1475684282682 1471474183240 interferons and cytokine receptors
increase
virus resistance<div><br /></div>
1475684299178 1471474183240 erythropoietin (epo) and cytokine receptors
promote increased production of erythtrocytes<div><br /></div>
1475684318279 1471474183240 GMSCF and cytokine receptors
promote increase
s in granulocytes and macrophage production
1475684338521 1471474183240 interleukins
control T and B cell differentia
tion
1475684351836 1471474183240 cytokine receptor mode of action
cytokine
binding activates associated kinases that bind to intracellular domain
1475684391425 1471474183240 a closer look at cytokine binding 1. ligan
d binding activates JAK kinase to phosphorylate receptor and JAK kinase<div>2. S
TAT binds and is phosphorylated to become active</div><div>3. active STAT dimer
forms that has exposed nuclear localization signals</div><div>4. activated phosp
ho-STAT enters nucleus to induce transcription</div><div><img src="paste-1449980
9591297.jpg" /></div>
1475684492199 1471474183240 receptors that lack enzyme activity
1. G-pro
tein coupled receptors - transmembrane receptors- glucagon, ACTH, TSH, LH, FSH<d
iv>2. Receptors that stimulate intracellular protein cleaves (TNF, IL-1)</div>
1475684554222 1471474183240 molecular switches
1. phosphorylation- phos
phorylated intermediate is active while unphosphorylated intermediate is off<div
>2. G-proteins- typically GTP bound protein is active and hydrolyzed GDP protein
in inactive</div><div><img src="paste-14731737825281.jpg" /></div>
1475684636271 1471474183240 glucagon cellular activity

1. heterotrimer
activity<div>2. glucagon binding promotes separation of alpha unit from beta and
gamma subunit</div><div>3. alpha unit binds to GTP to become activated --> t
urns on adenylyl cyclase</div><div>4. adenylyl cyclase creates cAMP</div><div>5.
cAMP activates pKA</div><div><img src="paste-14916421419009.jpg" /></div>
1475684755754 1471474183240 roles of cAMP 1. fuel metabolism = glycogen an
d fat breakdown and halts glycogen synthesis<div>2. mineral metabolism- PTH incr
eases cAMP to promote bone resorption and increase calcium uptake in kidney</div
>
1475684844359 1471474183240 abnormal PTH signaling in G-protein
leads to
obesity, PTH resistance, hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, short stature and sex
ual immaturity<div><img src="paste-15178414424065_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1475684922334 1471474183240 albright hereditary osteodystrophy- pseudohypopa
rathyroidism (PHP)
1. subcutaneous ossification<div>2. PTH normally increas
es cAMP in urine but NOT in PHP</div><div>3. Target tissue is unresponsive due t
o defect in G-protein</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-15328738279425.
jpg" /></div>
1475685017264 1471474183240 Major G-protein activated path with Ach, vasopre
ssin or thrombin
1. Ach/vasopressin or thrombin bind<div>2. alpha subunit
activated with GTP to activate PLP-C</div><div>3. PLP-C cleaves to yield IP3 an
d DAG</div><div>4. IP3 promotes calcium release by ER and DAG activates PKC</div
1475685112765 1471474183240 roles of calcium ions 1. stimulates muscle con
tractions<div>2. secretion of gastric enzymes, hormones or neurotransmitters</di
v>
1475685161892 1471474183240 reversible changes in pathways 1. phosphatases
counteract kinases<div>2. 2nd messenger elevation is fleeting</div><div>3. GTP h
ydrolysis by intrinsic GTPase activity inactivates G proteins</div>
1475685211589 1471474183240 inflammatory cytokines and protein cleavage
1. TNF-alpha or IL-1 bind to receptors <div>2. I-kBa normally inactivates N
F-k-Beta but ligand binding promotes phosphorylation and ubiquitylation of I-kBa
so it can be degraded by proteosome </div><div>3. NF-k-B is active and can
turn on genes in nucleus</div><div><img src="paste-15861314224129.jpg" /></div>
1475685336325 1471474183240 TNF-alpha roles 1. can activate NF-kB<div>2. pro
mote activity DISC to activate caspase protease cascade to ultimately lead to ce
ll death</div><div><img src="paste-15938623635457.jpg" /></div>
1475685397484 1471474183240 other important receptors that cause protein cle
avage 1.Wnt receptors<div>2. hedgehog receptors</div><div>3. notch receptors</
div>
1475685417354 1471474183240 End-pathway inactivation
1. rapid removal
of 2nd messengers - like cAMP phosphodiesterase and continuous pumping of Ca2+<
div>2. phosphatases</div><div>3. GTP hydrolysis</div>
1475685535129 1471474183240 end pathway adaptation 1. receptor sequestratio
n<div>2. degradation of receptor</div><div>3. receptor inactivation</div><div>4.
inactivation of signaling protein</div><div>5. production of inhibitory protein
s</div><div><img src="paste-16260746182657.jpg" /></div>
1475685587262 1471474183240 malformation
1. defect that results from intr
insically abnormal developmental process <div>2. caused by genetic factors<
/div>
1475685680491 1471474183240 deformation
1. abnormal form, shape or posit
ion of a part of the body<div>2. results from mechanical forces</div><div><br />
</div>
1475685702690 1471474183240 disruption
1. morphological defect that res
ults from interference with normal development<div>2. caused by teratogens like
drugs and viruses</div><div>3. not inherited but susceptibility can be inherited
</div>
1475685765404 1471474183240 syndrome
1. group of anomalies that occur
together with a specific common cause <div>2. specific diagnoses</div>
1475685807069 1471474183240 association
two or more anomalies that occur
together more often than by chance but with an unknown cause
1475685827380 1471474183240 rubinstein taybi sydrome

1. disruption of
common developmental processes<div>2. mutation of CREB binding protein </d
iv>
1475685914024 1471474183240 fetal alcohol syndrome 1. result from genetic a
nd environmental factors<div>2. craniofacial anomalies- microcephaly, short nose
</div><div>3. congential heart disease</div>
1475685961377 1471474183240 why does alcohol lead to CHD? 1. alcohol can a
ffect neural crest cells<div>2. disruptions in nerves, bones, and cardiovascular
system</div>
1475686005967 1471474183240 key point of syndromes disruption of many struc
tures through a common developmental process
1475686026891 1471474183240 teratogen
disrupt development at defined c
ritical stages<div><img src="paste-17162689314817.jpg" /></div>
1475686070340 1471474183240 principles of teratology
1. dose/duration
response- a defined dose exists below which teratogen does not cause anomalies,
increase dose, increase severity<div>2. critical periods for development</div><
div>3. biologic plausibility- does it disrupt a known developmental process</div
><div>4. genotype influences susceptibility</div>
1475686137240 1471474183240 zika virus a teratogen? YES<div>1. Affects criti
cal periods of development</div><div>2. biologic plausibility</div>
1475686180660 1471474183240 role of retinol (vitamin A) as teratogen
1. Deficiency can increase cancer risk, blindness, reproductive issues<div>2. us
ed as isotretinonin in acne</div><div>3. TOO much is teratogenic</div>
1475686254251 1471474183240 retinoids are dangerous...
activate develop
m. gene expression via nuclear hormone receptors<div><br /></div>
1475686302056 1471474183240 categories of teratogens
1. recreational
drugs<div>2. legal drugs</div><div>3. radiation</div><div>4. maternal infections
</div><div>5. environmental contaminants</div><div>6. maternal disease states</d
iv>
1475686345967 1471474183240 determining if baby will be harmed by teratogen
1. what was nature of exposure?<div>2. what is agent identified as?</div><div>3.
when did exposure occur?</div><div>4. what was the exposure (above or below kno
wn threshold)</div><div>5. were there any other signficant medical problems</div
><div>6. what is the medical and reproductive history of the mom and family</div
>
1475686416901 1471474183240 splotch mutation 1. Waardenburg syndrom i
n human (heterozygotes)<div>2. white spotting of ventral structures due to neura
l crest migration defects</div>
1475686483682 1471474183240 mutant Pax3 homozygotes 1. neural tube defects d
ue to neural plate fusion<div>2. congenital heart defects due to cranial neural
crest migration defects</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-1831374055014
5.jpg" /></div>
1475690675821 1471474183240 negative interaction between environment and gen
es
1. severity of Splotch or Pax3 is exacerbated by retinoids or alcohol co
nsumption
1475690733643 1471474183240 positive interaction of environment and genotype
folic acid prevents neural tube defects in splotch embryos
1475690753763 1471474183240 background on HOX
1. encode proteins that
regulate transcription<div>2. HOX=homeobox</div><div>3. encodes homeodomain that
binds enhancer elements</div><div>4. EXPRESSION CORRESPONDS TO ORDER ON CHROMOS
OME</div>
1475690832992 1471474183240 HOX gene arrangement
1. highly conserved<div>
2. going from left to right for Hox1 to Hox7 (anterior to posterior)</div><div><
1475690906865 1471474183240 invertebrates HOX genes 1.flies have homologs to
Hox and replications in middle<div><img src="paste-18906446036993.jpg" /></div>
1475690966913 1471474183240 pattern of HOX protein is a code indicating...
relative anterior-posterior positioning
1475691002551 1471474183240 if move Hox gene to another position then...
it will express that region in distinctive position<div><img src="paste-19121194
401793.jpg" /></div>
1475691091843 1471474183240 what happens if Hox gene is deleted?
prior ad
jacent left hox gene will replace it and form its corresponding structure
1475691117000 1471474183240 myostatin
muscle growth inhibitor; loss of
which leads to super muscular infants
1475691176068 1471474183240 holoprosencephaly
developmental defect tha
t may be related to environmental factors including Vitamin A excess or genetic
factors
1475691201096 1471474183240 sonic hedgehog gene mutation
can lead to a wi
de variety of symptoms in terms of holoprosenchepaly
1475691242686 1471474183240 what is a hormone?
1. chemical messengers<d
iv>2. produced in one organ and typically exerts its effect to another</div><div
>3. activated by external signal</div>
1475691593281 1471474183240 cortisol basics 1. 21 C<div>2. Synthesized in ad
renal gland</div><div>3. Affects liver by promoting gluconeogenesis enzymes</div
><div><img src="cortisol.jpg" /></div>
1475691704243 1471474183240 aldosterone basics
1. 21C <div>2. synt
hesized in adrenal glands</div><div>3. affects the kidney </div><div>4. Pro
motes Na+ reabsorption and K+ excretion</div><div>5. carbonyl at C18</div><div><
img src="2000px-Aldosterone-2D-skeletal.svg.png" /></div>
1475691777665 1471474183240 testosterone basics
1. 19C <div>2. made
in testes and adrenal glands</div><div>3. increases muscle mass</div><div><img
src="TestosteroneJPG.jpg" /></div>
1475691853894 1471474183240 estradiol basics
1. 18C<div>2. Made in ov
ary and some in adrenal</div><div>3. affects uterus by increasing uterine mass&n
bsp;</div><div><img src="1669.jpg" /></div>
1475691935242 1471474183240 basal structure of cholesterol 1. 4 fused rings
<div>2. No side chains of hydrocarbon</div><div><img src="Cholesterol.gif"
/></div>
1475691978695 1471474183240 cholesterol numbering scheme
<img src="ballgo
b-fig17_013.jpg" />
1475692019990 1471474183240 cortisol structure
1. 3 OH groups<d
iv>2.C21, C17 and C11 are position of groups</div><div><img src="pict343.gif" />
</div><div>3. essential for gluconeogenic activity</div>
1475692172750 1471474183240 aldosterone structure 1. OH at C11 and C21<div
><b>2. Unique feature of aldehyde at C18</b></div><div><img src="Aldosterone.gif
" /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><d
iv><br /></div>
1475692281445 1471474183240 Estradiol structure
1. C17 has OH<div>2. ARO
MATIC phenolic ring in bottom left six membered ring group</div><div><br /></div
><div><img src="800px-Estradiol.png" /></div>
1475692397962 1471474183240 testosterone structure 1. C17 has OH group<div>
2. ring structure has one double bond compared to phenolic estradiol</div><div><
img src="TestosteroneJPG.jpg" /></div>
1475692456559 1471474183240 synthesis of cortisol 1. stress activates hypo
thalamus<div>2. hypothalamus releases corticotropin releasing factor (CRF)</div>
<div>3. CRF acts on pituitary to activate it</div><div>4. Pituitary releases ACT
H which acts on adrenal gland to release cortisol</div><div><img src="paste-2260
4412878849.jpg" /></div>
1475692560530 1471474183240 a closer look at role of ACTH 1. ACTH = peptid
e hormone<div>2. when stimulated by pituitary it activates desmolase</div><div>3
. desmolase splits side chain of cholesterol to yield unit needed</div>
1475692679209 1471474183240 overproduction of ACTH 1. First 13 AA of
ACTH ~melanocyte stimulating hormone<div>2. overproduction of ACTH--><b> skin
darkening</b> as the similarity is strong enough for ACTH to bind to melanocyte
receptors</div><div>3. Addison s disease results</div><div><br /></div><div><im
1475692789430 1471474183240 hydroxyl groups on cortisol
C17, C21, C11<di
v><img src="Cortisol (1).jpg" /></div>
1475692816031 1471474183240 hydroxyl groups on aldosterone C21, C11<d
iv><img src="Aldosterone.gif" /></div>

1475692834631 1471474183240 hydroxyl groups on estradiol and testosterone
C17
1475692847459 1471474183240 testosterone and estradiol transport
bind to
sex hormone-binding globulin to trigger activity
1475692890026 1471474183240 cortisol means of transport
binds to cortico
steroid binding globulin
1475692912522 1471474183240 how are steroids specific to target?
high aff
inity for specific intracellular receptors
1475692941240 1471474183240 steroid hormone receptor
1. DNA BD<div>2.
hormone binding domain</div><div>3. may also have coactivators adjacent</div><d
1475693012488 1471474183240 coactivators on steroid receptors
1. may b
e HATS<div>2. may affect RNA poly II</div><div><img src="paste-23557895618561.jp
g" /></div>
1475693044419 1471474183240 breast tumors ER+
Respond to hormone
ablative therapy
1475693077184 1471474183240 hormone therapy for breast tumors
1. tamox
ifen- premenopausal-> inhibit estrogen from binding<div>2. aromatase inhibito
rs= in post-menopausal women to prevent synthesis of estrogen ( can have side ef
fects)</div>
1475693142992 1471474183240 peptides vs steroid hormones
1. peptides much
heavier<div>2. peptides= membrane receptors vs steroids= cytoplasmic/nuclear re
ceptors</div><div>3.peptides act in minutes vs steroid= act within hours</div><d
iv>4. peptides = activate enzymes vs steroids = affect transcription</div>
1475693206024 1471474183240 what does calcium even do?
1. important for
skeletal formations<div>2. important in muscle contractions</div><div>3. good f
or nerve pulse transmission</div><div>4. secretion of hormones</div><div>5. inte
racts with calmodulin to activate ATPase</div>
1475693648514 1471474183240 normal serum level of calcium 10 mg/100 mL
1475693698655 1471474183240 what 3 tissues maintain normal calcium levels?
1. kidney<div>2. bone</div><div>3. intestines</div>
1475693719776 1471474183240 PTH role on serum calcium
1. increases it<
div>2. PTH is synthesized in the PT gland by chief cells</div><div>3. low calciu
m levels turns on transcription, translation and synthesis of PTH in gland vs HI
GH calcium--> low activity of PT gland</div><div><img src="paste-251169687470
09.jpg" /><br /><div><br /></div></div>
1475693867060 1471474183240 form of PTH
1. Pre Pro PTH<div>2. Pro PTH</d
iv><div>3. PTH</div>
1475693877305 1471474183240 mode of action of PTH on bone 1. PTH binds to
receptor on osteoblast<div>2. osteoblasts are induced to secrete <b>osteoclast d
ifferentiating factors RANKL </b>that interacts with <b>preosteoclasts </b>to yi
eld high osteoclasts in bone</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-25293062
406145.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br
/></div>
1475693984132 1471474183240 mode of PTH action on kidney
1. increases cal
cium reabsorption at distal tubule<div>2. decreases phosphate reabsorption on pr
oximal and distal tubule</div>
1475694036235 1471474183240 parathyroid hormone gene related peptide (PTHrP)
1. can be found in lung or kidney tumors<div>2. responsible for hypercalcemia</d
iv>
1475694082285 1471474183240 PTH effect on intestines?
1. NO direct eff
ect<div>2. do observe increases in intestinal Ca2+ absorption due to PTH acting
on kidney to increase synthesis of Vitamin D</div>
1475694132065 1471474183240 calcitonin background 1. produced in C cells o
f thyroid<div>2. 3000 mw</div><div>3. mainly affects bone</div>
1475694182113 1471474183240 calcitonin effect on bone
1. inhibits oste
oclastic bone resorption<div>2. does so by shrinking osteoclasts-> lowers ser
um Ca2+</div>
1475694247331 1471474183240 calcitonin effects on kidney
1. Increases Ca2
+ excretion <div>2. ONLY at supra-physiological concentrations</div>

1475694288788 1471474183240 calcitonin effect on intestine? 1. no effect for
calcium<div>2. inhibits gastrin secretion</div>
1475694308605 1471474183240 vitamin D metabolism
1. 7-dehydrocholesterol
with UV yields vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) also derived from diet<div>2. Vitami
n D binding protein at liver hydroxylates at position 25</div><div>3. goes to ki
dney to get hydroxylated at 1C--> 1,25 OH2 D3 or calciferol or active Vitamin
D </div><div><img src="paste-26147760898049.jpg" /></div>
1475694460466 1471474183240 PTH role with vitamin D 1.. PTH increases activi
ty of 1 hydroxylase in kidney<div>2. Promotes more active Vitamin D formation</d
iv>
1475694505161 1471474183240 vitamin D3 role on intestine
1.binds to intra
cellular receptor and turns on genes<div>2. activates Ca2+ binding protein genes
3. activates TRPV6 Ca2+ channel gene for intestinal Ca2+ transport</div><div>4.
Also promotes increased calcium and phosphorous absorption</div>
1475694603606 1471474183240 vitamin D effect on bone
1. stimulates in
crease in number of osteoclasts<div>2. intracellular receptors for Vitamin D in
OSTEOBLASTS turns on genes for RANKL--> promote increase in in osteoclasts</d
iv>
1475694667724 1471474183240 vitamin D effect on kidney
enhances action
of PTH at distal tubule to increase calcium reabsorption
1475694694710 1471474183240 summary of calcium metabolism
<img src
="paste-26663156973569.jpg" />
1475781388941 1471474183240 drug nomenclature
1. chemical name= scient
ific naming<div>2. generic name = developed by drug company- no set rules and is
universal</div><div>3. trade name- each company chooses name to sell on market<
/div><div><br /></div><div>*FOCUS on generic names</div>
1475781487878 1471474183240 defining a class of drugs
defined by mode
of action
1475781507998 1471474183240 impetus for creation of FDA
1. No regulation
and kids dying from sulfanilamide antibiotic ethylene glycol solvent<div>2. 193
8 FDA established</div>
1475781566521 1471474183240 efficacious by FDA standards
drug must empirc
ally demonstrate the role researchers claim it has
1475781593282 1471474183240 safety of drug as per FDA regulation
determin
ed by risk-benefit analysis; if no other drug like it on the market that targets
a previously untreated/uncured disease, less strict standards
1475781640741 1471474183240 features of pharmacokinetics
1. absorption<di
v>2. distribution</div><div>3. biotransformation</div><div>4. excretion</div><di
1475781684603 1471474183240 features of pharmacodynamics
1. drug effects<
div>2. mechanisms of action</div><div><img src="paste-84344567758849.jpg" /></di
v>
1475781697647 1471474183240 drug receptor any biological macromolecules th
at a drug interact where interaction initiates reactions leading to a response i
n an organism
1475781740068 1471474183240 classical/physiological drug receptors 1. ion c
hannels<div>2. G-protein</div><div>3. Ligand gated</div><div>4 intracellul
ar receptors</div>
1475781803373 1471474183240 local anasthetic effect on voltage gated Na+ cha
nnels 1. unionized form of anaesthetic must diffuse into membrane and become i
onized in cell<div>2. ionized form can enter channel and block it from working</
1475781884938 1471474183240 drugs acting at steroid receptor 1. take
several hours <div>2. affects transcription and so protein levels will chan
ge more slowly</div>
1475781914993 1471474183240 warfarin example as non-classical receptor drug
target 1. Warfarin disrupts blood clotting by inhibiting activity of vitamin K
reductase<div>2. descarboxyprothrombin is converted to prothrombin via carboxyla
tion in an oxidation reduction step of reduced vitamin K to Vitamin K epoxide</d
iv><div>3. Vitamin K epoxide reductase recycles reduced vitamin K for cycle by o

xidizing NADH</div><div>4. WARFARIN INHIBITS vitamin K epoxide reductase</div><d
1475782074114 1471474183240 dopamine transporter system -NON classical recep
tor system
1. DAT pumps dopamine back into neuron from synapse<div>2. AMPH
causes transport to run in reverse to promote dopamine release</div><div>3. DAT=
drug receptor</div><div><img src="paste-85070417231873.jpg" /></div>
1475782183305 1471474183240 non-receptor mediated actions of drugs 1. neutr
alization of stomach acid via bicarbonate<div>2. metal chelators recruit heavy m
etals to excrete like lead</div><div><img src="paste-85203561218049.jpg" /></div
1475782274397 1471474183240 assumptions in receptor binding kinetics
1. binding is reversible<div>2. all drug is either bound or free</div><div>3. al
l receptors have equal affinity for drug</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-85315230367745.jpg" /></div>
1475782324586 1471474183240 LR equilibrium equation 1. Total receptor*ligand
concentration/ (Kd + Ligand concentration)<div>2. Kd= binding affinity = k<sub>
-1</sub>/k<sub>1</sub></div><div>3. Produces a rectangular hyperbola</div><div><
sub><br /></sub></div><div><sub><img src="paste-85843511345153.jpg" /></sub></di
v>
1475782513096 1471474183240 Kd
1. measure of binding affinity (k<sub>-1
</sub>/k<sub>1</sub>)<div>2. level where 50% is [LR] state</div><div>3. Lower Kd
, the higher the affinity as k1 would be larger as it the association constant</
div>
1475782604390 1471474183240 graded dose response relationships
1. quant
ifies magnitude of response as function of dose<div>2. can be done with single p
erson or population</div><div>3. Response = (Emax*dose)/ (EC50+dose) </div>
<div>4. Get rectangular hyperbola - characterized by how much drug is bound to r
eceptor</div><div><img src="paste-86273008074753.jpg" /></div>
1475782738574 1471474183240 comparison of Kd vs EC50
1. Kd determined
by structures of drug and receptor<div>2. EC50- determined by structures of dru
g and receptor and by pharmacokinetics</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1475782787107 1471474183240 comparison of R<sub>t</sub> AND E<sub>max</sub>
1. Rt = determined by total number of receptors<div>2. Emax- determined by total
number of receptors and drug pharmacokinetics</div>
1475782858826 1471474183240 potency vs efficacy
1. potency = one drug ha
s a lower EC50 than another- able to reach Emax faster<div>2. efficacy one drug
has higher Emax than the other</div><div><img src="paste-86736864542721.jpg" /><
/div>
1475782983101 1471474183240 full agonist
1. A on curve<div>2. hits 100% r
esponse</div><div><img src="paste-86839943757825.jpg" /></div>
1475783040196 1471474183240 partial agonists
able to elicit response
but not 100% or full response (B+C)<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-8693443
3038337.jpg" /></div>
1475783074150 1471474183240 antagonist
no response elicited- acts to bl
ock normal response (D)<div><img src="paste-86930138071041.jpg" /></div>
1475783093468 1471474183240 how can drug acting at same receptor have differ
ent efficacies? 1. different models of interactions<div>2. Induced fit (99% of d
rugs)</div><div>3. Conformation selected model</div>
1475783176847 1471474183240 induced fit model
1. when drug binds to re
ceptor--> conformation changes to elicit a biological effect<div><img src="pa
ste-87205015977985.jpg" /></div>
1475783222310 1471474183240 tamoxifen role in induced fit for estrogen recep
tors in 1. mimics estradiol and bind to ER --> causes it to dimerize and ente
rs nucleus<div>2. NO coregulators (acetylases) are able to bind--> so no tran
scription of estrogen gene--> estrogen dependent breast cancer cells die</div
><div><img src="paste-87449829113857.jpg" /></div><div>3. at uterine lining it i
s a partial agonist so much lower activity as it doesnt bind as well</div>
1475783397312 1471474183240 conformation selected model
1. constitutive
(basal) receptor activity<div>2. receptor without ligand can exist in two forms:
closed (R) or open (R ) that are in constant equilibrium</div><div><img src="pa

ste-87703232184321.jpg" /></div>
1475783532088 1471474183240 constituent activity
small number of receptor
s open without ligand
1475783594615 1471474183240 agonist role in constituent activity
1. agoni
st binds to R open state to stabilize it<div>2. Pulls it out of the equilibrium
system to drive the system to the right to yield more R </div><div>3. Full agon
ist would therefore stabilize LR state</div><div><img src="paste-90215788052481
.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1475783706029 1471474183240 partial agonist in two state conformational sele
cted model
1. binds not only to R but also to R<div>2. Elicits both LR and
LR formation but mainly LR </div><div><img src="paste-90301687398401.jpg" /></
div>
1475783745731 1471474183240 Neutral antagonists in two state model
1. binds to both R and R <div>2. Inhibits activity but is even: LR to LR=
R to R</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-90297392431105.jpg" /></div>
1475783857019 1471474183240 partial inverse antagonists
1.only bind to R
closed receptor but moderately<div>2. increases LR</div><div><img src="paste-90
297392431105.jpg" /></div>
1475783902667 1471474183240 full inverse agonist on two state conformation
1. strongly binds to R closed state <div>2. Promotes high increase in LR st
ate and so shift equilibrium to more LR</div><div><img src="paste-90297392431105
.jpg" /></div>
1475784163084 1471474183240 histamine example demonstrating full and inverse
agonist
<img src="paste-90902982819841.jpg" />
1475784300136 1471474183240 antagonist mechanism
1. competitive antagonis
t= orthosteric binding<div>2. noncompetitive antagonists = allosteric binding</d
1475784336788 1471474183240 effect of competitive antagonists
1. incre
ases EC50<div>2. can bombard with normal agonist to outcompete</div><div><img sr
c="paste-91053306675201.jpg" /></div>
1475784407253 1471474183240 how can partial agonists act as competitive anta
gonists?
1.partial agonists dont have same effiacy as full agonist<div>2.
so an increase in partial agonist and a decrease in full agonist can lead to an
overall decrease in response or maximal effect</div><div><img src="paste-912938
24843777.jpg" /></div>
1475784475381 1471474183240 non-competitive antagonists
1. NMDA receptor
s- bind glycine and glutamate<div>2. with an inhibitor like ketamine--> effic
acy is decreased -> less effective </div><div>3. Decrease in efficacy</d
1475784543732 1471474183240 positive allosteric modulator 1. benzodiazapen
e drug uses in GABA receptor (reduces anxiety)<div>2. promotes GABA binding and
promotes Cl- uptake into cells</div><div><img src="paste-91611652423681.jpg" /><
/div>
1475784622205 1471474183240 tolerance
defined as diminished response t
o a drug when given repeatedly to subject
1475784652156 1471474183240 pharmacokinetic tolerance
1. an increase i
n drug after initial dose promotes more drug elimination.<div>2. leads to a righ
t ward, parallel shift- need more drug to elicit same effect (Emax is same, but
EC50 is higher)</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-91830695755777.jpg" /
></div>
1475784730561 1471474183240 pharmacodynamic tolerance
1. EMAX decrease
s with developed tolerance<div>2. due to desensitization and/or disappearance of
receptors</div><div><img src="paste-91976724643841.jpg" /></div>
1475784806660 1471474183240 possible mechanisms of pharmacodynamic tolerance
1. GRKs can phosphorylate intracellular component or receptor--> desensitize
receptor<div>2. B-arrestin can bind to inner part or receptor and internalize it
--> subsequent degradation</div>
1475784879534 1471474183240 drugs can exhibit both pharmacokinetic and pharm
acodynamic tolerance!!! <img src="paste-92217242812417.jpg" />
1475784914517 1471474183240 super-sensitivity 1. when receptors are bl

ocked by antagonists, cells compensate by over-producing receptors<div>2. over-p
roduced receptors show no effect as long as antagonist present</div><div>3. but
if antagonist suddenly removed, HUGE response for endogenous hormones (more sens
itive)</div><div><img src="paste-92401926406145.jpg" /></div>
1475785019890 1471474183240 spare receptors some drugs can give maximum resp
onse when not 100% bound because of downstream amplification in cells; some down
stream rate limiting step eliminates the value of some of the receptors<div><br
/></div><div>seen in insulin </div><div><img src="paste-92543660326913.jpg"
/></div>
1475785095675 1471474183240 quantal dose response 1. MUST BE DONE IN POPUL
ATION<div>2. determine what percent of population respond to drugs</div><div>3.
take cumulative % responding to derive sigmoidal curve</div><div><br /></div><di
1475785145425 1471474183240 ED50
dose effective for 50% of population!
1475785168883 1471474183240 what is value of quantal dose response curves?
1. can determine the risk-benefit<div>2. see therapeutic effect and adverse effe
cts of drug</div><div>3. if overlap, between two curves, not a great drug</div><
1475785228624 1471474183240 therapeutic index
1. ideal measure if ther
apeutic plot and adverse effect plots are parallel and non-overlapping<div>2. TI
= TD50/ED50; the larger the number, the more spread out the two are and the bet
ter the drug</div><div><img src="paste-92938797318145.jpg" /></div>
1475785303575 1471474183240 TD
toxicity dose= percent of population tha
t will show adverse effects if given drug
1475785325256 1471474183240 CSF (certain safety factor)
1. better measur
e if overlap between therapeutic effect and adverse effects<div>2. CSF= TD1/ED99
; again a higher value is better as it means a higher TD1 and/or a lower ED99</d
1475785404138 1471474183240 adverse and therapeutic effects of various drugs
1. warfarin - has overlap so more monitoring is required<div>2. penicilin shows
no overlap so it is very safe (if not allergic)</div><div><img src="paste-932738
04767233.jpg" /></div>
1475785458588 1471474183240 basic tenet of pharmacology
effects of drug
are directly prop. to active forms
1475785522922 1471474183240 factors controlling concentration of active form
of a drug at its receptor
1. dose<div>2. pharmacokinetics: absorption, dis
tribution, excretion and biotransformation</div>
1475785570118 1471474183240 how do drugs traverse membrane <b>1. Passive Di
ffusion (MAIN mode)</b><div>2. Specialized transport = less common</div>
1475785608485 1471474183240 drug passive diffusion systems 1. paracellularbetween cells- tend to be cells with open space like skeletal, muscles or kidne
y cells<div>2. transcellular- go through cells</div><div><img src="paste-9364317
1954689.jpg" /></div>
1475785669182 1471474183240 characteristics of drugs undergoing passive diff
usion 1. neutral drugs - undergo passive diffusion <div>2. charged drugs
like acids or bases must be unionized state to cross</div><div><img src="paste-9
3737661235201.jpg" /></div>
1475785741828 1471474183240 degree of ionization is controlled by 1. pKa<d
iv>2. pH of surrounding solution</div><div>3. whether drug is weak acid or base<
/div>
1475785798445 1471474183240 HH equation for pH
pH= pka + log A-/HA<div>
unionized forms can diffuse faster</div>
1475785835426 1471474183240 specialized transport for drugs 1. MUCH less com
mon than passive diffusion<div>2. <b>Most common is primary active transport</b>
but also some facilitated and secondary transport</div>
1475785885393 1471474183240 drug absorption movement of drug from site of ap
plication to blood stream
1475785902076 1471474183240 most drugs need to be absorbed for effect but no
t all...
local anaesthetics need to stay in the area and not spread out
1475785940639 1471474183240 oral drug administration

1. very little a
bsorption in mouth due to low SA; possibly sublingual drugs - MUST be VERY LIPID
soluble <div>2. Stomach= very little absorption due to low SA but some wea
k acids and neutral compounds are absorbed</div><div>3. Main absorption occurs i
n SI due to microvilli providing large SA</div><div>4. Even charged molecules ca
n undergo diffusion as equilibrium shifts to unionized form as uncharged forms a
re taken up</div><div><img src="paste-94429150969857.jpg" /></div>
1475786056972 1471474183240 drug absorption in small intestine
1. mainl
y passive diffusion<div>2. some transporters</div><div>3. Takes up a lot of unch
arged form to shift equilibrium to left as shown below</div><div><img src="paste
-94424856002561.jpg" /></div>
1475786088146 1471474183240 factors affecting absorption of drug
1. faste
r gastric emptying time (faster when starving)--> easier to release substance
s<div>2. drug formulation- other chemicals like binders and lubricants are used
to maintain drugs need to disintegrate and dissolve actual drug to allow it to b
e absorbed</div><div>3. blood flow can maintain steep concentration gradient--&g
t; increase absorption of drugs - high blood flow can carry away drugs </di
1475786285254 1471474183240 drug formulation and drug absorption
1. drug
outercoating and chemical needs to disintegrate<div>2. drug needs to dissolve in
to solution</div><div>3. absorption can then occur</div><div><img src="paste-947
81338288129.jpg" /></div>
1475786336877 1471474183240 blood flow and drug absorption 1. higher blood
flow can more easily carry drug away and distribute<div>2. when administering an
algesic, tend to reduce blood flow to reduce concentration gradient--> prolon
g effect </div>
1475786380777 1471474183240 subcutaneous route of admission of drugs
1. safe as superficial<div>2. no penentration of any blood vessels</div><div>3.
done for insulin</div><div><img src="paste-95008971554817.jpg" /></div>
1475786447234 1471474183240 intramuscular 1. can hit major blood vessels s
o more dangerous<div>2. faster response as it hits muscles to allow paracellular
diffusion </div><div>3. done for water soluble molecules </div><div><
1475786500394 1471474183240 intravenous drug admission
1. aim is to not
even have absorption<div>2. goes straight to blood</div><div><img src="paste-95
176475279361.jpg" /></div>
1475786530926 1471474183240 transdermal drug admission
1. band aid on s
kin almost<div>2. promotes diffusion of super lipid soluble drugs like steroids
-estrogen</div><div><img src="paste-95253784690689.jpg" /></div>
1475786566470 1471474183240 implantation
1. inject subcutaneous wax form
of drug subcutaneously<div><img src="paste-95326799134721.jpg" /></div><div><br
/></div>
1475786608458 1471474183240 pulmonary absorption
1. drop out of airstream
and ensure alveoli interact<div>2. important for gaseous anasthetics </div
1475883110431 1471474183240 drug distribution
movement of drug between
blood and tissue (vice-versa)
1475883189629 1471474183240 major factors contributing to drug distribution
1. rate of delivery to tissue= blood flow<div>2. capillary permeability</div>
1475883217688 1471474183240 thiopental example of drug distribution 1. &nbsp
;used in past to induce surgical anesthesia<div>2. very lipid soluble--> pass
es right through capillary</div><div>3. PERFUSION limited distribution- higher b
lood flow will increase distribution of thiopental</div><div><img src="paste-377
0981285889_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1475883388947 1471474183240 penicilin and drug distribution 1. pencillin is
water soluble weak acid<div>2. Rate limited by capillary permeability</div><div>
3. DIFFUSION limited permeability</div><div><img src="paste-4002909519873.jpg" /
></div>
1475883511930 1471474183240 comparisons of thiopental and penicillin
<div>1. Thiopental = high lipid solubility so main problem is perfusion limited<
/div><div>2. pencillin = high water solubility so issue in diffusion</div><div><

br /></div><img src="paste-4084513898497.jpg" /><div><br /></div><div><br /></di
v>
1475883646456 1471474183240 binding of drugs to proteins
1. binding to al
bumin or other protein can inhibit activity of drug <div>2. Bound and unbou
nd drugs are in equilibrium so as more free drug is used up or excreted rightwar
d shift to release more bound drugs</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-8
061653614593.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1475883732522 1471474183240 hepatic first pass effect
1. in liver, the
drug is turned to a metabolite<div>2. when drug is absorbed from small intestin
e, much is shunted over to liver</div><div>3. large proportion of drug is metabo
lized in liver and only a percent leaves</div><div><img src="paste-8284991913985
_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1475883986553 1471474183240 bioavailability percent of fraction of the dose
reaching the systemic circulation
1475884003280 1471474183240 enterohepatic cycling 1. some of drug may be p
umped into canaliculus with bile acids via active transport pumps<div>2. Bile ma
y be sent to SI and then drug can be returned to liver or continually be recycle
d in such a system</div><div><img src="paste-8529805049857.jpg" /></div>
1475884121429 1471474183240 drug excretion removal of drug from body to ext
ernal environment
1475884169224 1471474183240 renal excetion of drug 1. glomerulus filters by
size and so drugs bound by albumin will NOT cross<div>2. water soluble drugs wi
ll less readily escape from tubules are will therefore be excreted</div><div>3.
fat soluble drugs can more easily diffuse out and be reabosrbed </div><div>
<img src="paste-8804682956801 (1).jpg" /></div>
1475884294087 1471474183240 tubular secretion
1. 2 transproters for we
ak acids and bases in proximal tubule<div>2. those in charged form will then be
excreted </div><div><img src="paste-8903467204609.jpg" /></div>
1475884345580 1471474183240 fat soluble drugs in kidney
can undergo tubu
lar reabsorption <div><img src="paste-8976481648641_1471474183240.jpg" /></
div>
1475884386030 1471474183240 drug interaction to reduce excretion
1. some
water soluble drugs like pencilin are excreted out super fast<div>2. by adding a
nother water soluble drug like probenecid -> there is a competition for the t
ransporters for excretion of penicilin </div><div>3. More pencillin is main
tained</div><div><img src="paste-9156870275073_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1475884490355 1471474183240 drug-drug interactions with probenecid 1. probe
necid can act as competitor for pump in terms of drug secretion in proxima
l tubule<div>2. therefore with probenecid, less drug of interest will be excrete
d from system lik Tamiflu</div><div><img src="paste-9221294784513_1471474183240.
jpg" /></div>
1475884624719 1471474183240 biotransformation
1. conversion of drug to
metabolite<div>2. USUALLY, made more water-soluble to promote excretion<br /><d
iv>3. VERY general process that looks at functional groups</div></div>
1475884724415 1471474183240 most detoxified drug is...
most water solub
le so less of it can escape from kidney
1475884747414 1471474183240 why aren t drugs developed to become activated b
y liver?
hard to control for dose response as much variability in each st
ep along the way
1475884774249 1471474183240 how are many carcinogens formed?
1. many
carcinogens are formed by metabolic activation in liver<div>2. liver enzymes ind
iscriminately try to increase water solubilty and may inadvertenly produce toxic
compounds</div>
1475884837665 1471474183240 synthetic biotransformation reactions 1. Conju
gation/Phase II reactions<div>2. may add glucuronic acid or sulfate group to enh
ance water solubility</div><div><img src="paste-9985798963201.jpg" /></div>
1475884970027 1471474183240 enzymes for synthetic reactions 1. glucuronyl tr
ansferase (add glucuronic acid)<div>2. sulfotransferase (adds sulfate)</div><div
>3. glutathione conjugation</div><div>4. ALL tend to target less sterically hind
ered group for replacement</div>

1475885046949 1471474183240 gluathione conjugation 1. another synthetic pat
hway that promotes detoxification <div>2. Defense mechanism that inactivate
s highly reactive metabolites like Napthalene arene oxide</div><div><img src="pa
ste-12537009537025.jpg" /></div>
1475885088276 1471474183240 napthalene arene oxide carcinogenic compound du
e to the presence of its epoxide ring; can interact with DNA to disrupt structur
e and function<div><img src="paste-12652973654017.jpg" /></div>
1475885198147 1471474183240 non-synthetic metabolizing reactions
oxidatio
n, reductions(not too common) and hydrolysis
1475885235256 1471474183240 oxidation non-synthetic reaction
1. typic
ally found with CYT P450s<div>2. catalyzes carcinogenic formation of Napthalene
arene oxide from napthalene (P450 2F2)</div><div>3. ethinyl estradiol converts t
o 2-hydroxy ethinyl estradiol with p450 3A4</div><div><img src="paste-1293644149
5553.jpg" /></div>
1475885372310 1471474183240 reduction non-synthetic reactions
1. naltr
exone is converted into 6B-Naltrexol<div>2. Occurs via aldo-keto reductase
</div><div>3. reduce proportion of O2 (mainly detox)</div><div><img src="paste-1
3048110645249.jpg" /></div>
1475885438692 1471474183240 hydrolyses non-synthetic reactions
1. ester
ases and amidases are found in not only liver but also blood stream<div>2. aspir
in is activated to salicylic acid and acetic acid via esterase and water a
ddition </div><div><img src="paste-13215614369793.jpg" /></div>
1475885534508 1471474183240 acetaminophen biotransformation 1. initially it
is metabolized via conjugation to sulfylated form<div>2. Once sulfate runs out,
the rest is conjugated to glucuronic acid form</div><div>3. once all has been co
njugated, remaining interacts with CYP2E1to yield NAPQI</div><div>4. Glutathione
conjugates NAPQI to inactivate it, BUT any remaining NAPQI starts binding to ce
ll macromolecules in liver--> CELL DEATH!!</div><div><img src="paste-13460427
505665.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1475885843956 1471474183240 toxicity of acetaminophen
1. 4g or greater
puts your at risk<div>2. MUST be used in children as aspirin can cause Reyes sy
ndrome</div><div>3. Symptoms present in ~48 hrs (liver failure and death X_X)</d
iv>
1475885886147 1471474183240 factors affecting biotransformation
1. age:
newborns and elderly are more severely affected<div>2. nutrition- dietary defici
encies can decrease drug metabolizing activities</div><div>3.genetic polymorphis
ms - less drug metabolization -> warfarin hypersensitivity</div><div>4. disea
se and drug metabolism</div><div>5. exposure to other chemicals</div>
1475885991097 1471474183240 how can two drugs interact to affect biotransfor
mation 1. one drug can affect PXR or RXR TFs that regulate the activity of a CY
T necessary for the metabolism of the other drug<div>2. can lead to over-express
ion/under-expression of CYT--> alters levels of elimination of other drug.</d
iv><div>3. Phenobarbital acts to increase elimination of dicoumaral to ree
stablish low blood clotting times</div><div><img src="paste-13804024889345_14714
74183240.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1475886095380 1471474183240 why are some individuals hypersensitive to aceta
minophen?
1. CYP2E1 promotes an active form <div>2. EtOH activates CY
P2E1 to increase its levels</div>
1475886165321 1471474183240 quantitative pharmacokinetics measurement and
analyses of drug levels over time<div><img src="paste-14027363188737.jpg" /></di
v><div>MEC- min effective concentration- need more than this and less than maxim
um tolerated concentration for therapeutic effect</div>
1475886238225 1471474183240 first order elimination kinetics for drug blood
concentrations 1. assuming an IV, start off with high levels of drug blood leve
l<div>2. rate of elimination is proportional to amount of drug in system</div><d
iv>3. if S<<<Km, then Vm~ (Vm/Km)*S (directly proportional to substrate
) so low concentrations follow first order</div><div><img src="paste-14302241095
681.jpg" /></div>
1475886448175 1471474183240 zero order elimination of drugs 1. rate of elimi
nation is independent of drug concentration<div>2. if S>>>Km than V~Vm

and so it is zero order as substrate level is irrelevant so at high enough
concentrations, you will hit zero order<br /><div><img src="paste-1875612218163
1475886517981 1471474183240 what determines if it is zero or 1st order?
dose; EXTREMELY HIGH dose- zero order but as dose decreases- first order
1475886564413 1471474183240 why is first order preferred? can better predi
ct how tissue level will respond to change in dose
1475886591969 1471474183240 compartmental modeling initial distribution of
drug from blood to tissue occurs rapidly; treat body as one system<div><img src=
"paste-19035295055873.jpg" /></div>
1475886640936 1471474183240 a closer look at zero order elimination kinetics
1. Co is y-intercept and theoretical starting concentration of drug in blood<div
>2. equation is Ct= Co-ke*t</div><div>3. ke = zero order rate constant (-ke=slop
e)</div><div>4. t= time</div><div><img src="paste-19125489369089.jpg" /></div>
1475886735915 1471474183240 first order elimination kinetics (assuming IV sy
stem) 1. Ct= Co*e<sup>-ke*t </sup>but can be rewritten in linear form by takin
g log of all<div>ln Ct= lnCo- ke*t</div><div><img src="paste-19567871000577.jpg"
/></div>
1475886979857 1471474183240 first order elimination after oral administratio
n
1. because it is not IV, drug concentration in blood needs time to build
up<div>2. But will ultimately follow a linear pattern on a log scale</div><div>
1475887055780 1471474183240 half-life
1. time require for 50% of drug
concentration in blood to drop<div>2. <b>.693/ke</b><br /><div><br /></div></div
>
1475887092292 1471474183240 half-life equation
.693/ke<div><img src="pa
ste-22419729285121.jpg" /></div>
1475887117457 1471474183240 when is a drug considered eliminated? after 45 half-lives have progressed
1475887147989 1471474183240 apparent volume distribution
1. volume in whi
ch drugs appears to distribute at a concentration equal to that in blood<div>2.
proportionality constant that relates concentration of a drug in blood to amount
of drug in rest of body</div><div>3. aVd= Dose/Co</div><div><img src="paste-226
34477649921.jpg" /></div>
1475887272298 1471474183240 what does aVd demonstrate?
1. high aVd= sug
gests low Co so most drug is not in blood and must be sequestered else-where (po
ssibly lipid soluble drugs)<div>2. low aVd- suggests all drug is in blood and Co
is high</div><div>3. gives idea if drug is more present in blood or body tissue
s</div>
1475887400620 1471474183240 clearance
1. volume of blood (aVd) that ap
pears to be cleared per unit time<div>2. Clearance = ke*aVd</div>
1475887432327 1471474183240 drug infusion and repeated administration
1. Drug concentration in blood rises steadily to hit CSS<div>2. CSS= concentrati
on of drug to hit steady state and therapeutic window</div>
1475887715132 1471474183240 CSS
1. concentration steady state<div>2. rat
e of elimination= rate of administration </div><div>3. requires 4-5 half-li
ves to hit steady state</div><div><img src="paste-23119808954369.jpg" /></div>
1475887751808 1471474183240 infusion rate Clearance*CSS
1475887768996 1471474183240 loading dose
1.dose immediately added to obta
in steady state quickly<div>2. loading dose= aVd*CSS</div><div>3. Combine the lo
ading dose with the infusion rate to obtain a rectangular shape</div><div>4. As
loading dose goes down from CSS, the infusion rate works its way up to CSS (effe
ctively replacement)</div><div><img src="paste-23334557319169 (1).jpg" /></div>
1475887909718 1471474183240 why is oral administration CSS different from in
fusion 1. see a lot of peaks and troughs<div>2. 1st dose given and eliminated b
ut not entirely when 2nd dose is given so see a spike</div><div>3. D*F/T = maint
enance dose (demonstrated independently by dotted lines)</div><div>4. Loading do
se is demonstrated in conjunction with maintenance dose in solid line</div><div>
1475888033496 1471474183240 maintenance dose

1. can also be termed in
fusion rate<div>2. for oral administration Cl*Css = (D*F)/T, where d=dose, F= fr
action absorbed and T= dosage interval</div>
1475888103865 1471474183240 loading dose for oral administration
(aVd*Css
)/ F
1475888127074 1471474183240 summary of pharmacokinetics
<img src="paste23875723198465.jpg" />
1475888152086 1471474183240 T in oral administration
dosage intervaltry to minimize as much as possible and should not be more than 4-5 half-lives
otherwise no drug accumulates
1475888209393 1471474183240 if no gaps between dosages it must be an...
infusion
1476030254081 1471474183240 nACHR receptors responsible for depolarization a
nd usually allow cations to go through but not ions
1476031337077 1471474183240 types of genetic diabetes
1. Tfs that cont
rol expression of metabolic genes<div>2. metabolic enzymes</div><div>3. signalin
g defects</div>
1476033942336 1471474183240 protein cleavage receptors
1. Wnt<div>2. No
tch</div><div>3. Hedgehog</div>
1476241886179 1471474183240 somatic synapse 1.targets volunary skeletal musc
le<div>2. myelinated</div><div>3. 1 axon/1 cell</div><div>4. excitatory transmis
sion</div><div>5. 1 receptor and 1 transmitter (releases Ach)</div><div><img src
="paste-136713103998977.jpg" /></div>
1476242105291 1471474183240 autonomic synapses
1. targets involuntary s
mooth muscle<div>2. 1 axon/ many cells</div><div>3. excitatory and inhibitory</d
iv><div>4.. multiple transmitters and receptors</div><div><img src="paste-138212
047585281.jpg" /></div>
1476242173988 1471474183240 intro to reflex arcs in urinary bladder 1. senso
ry afferent fibers stem off of mechanoreceptors in bladder<div>2. synapse into s
pinal chord at the IML</div><div>3. relay signal to higher center in micturition
center and then sends downward signal promoting urination</div><div>4. inhibit
sympathetic response and promote parasympathetic response</div><div><img src="pa
ste-138379551309825.jpg" /></div>
1476242293102 1471474183240 somatic nervous system 1. ONE LONG axon<div>2.
nicotinic receptor = binds Ach</div><div><img src="paste-138469745623041.jpg" />
</div>
1476242359569 1471474183240 autonomic nervous system: parasympathetic
1. LONG pre-synaptic neuron<div>2. Releases Ach for nicotinic receptor in gangli
a</div><div>3. Ach binding triggers activity of post-synaptic short neurons</div
><div>4. Activates effector organ that contains muscarinic muscle</div><div><img
src="paste-138663019151361.jpg" /></div>
1476242470016 1471474183240 autonomic sympathetic division neuron types
1. Pre-synaptic neuron synapes with post-synaptic neuron at ganglia via nicotini
c receptor<div>2. Post-synaptic neuron activates effector organ by norepinephrin
e release to the adrenergic receptor</div><div><br /></div><div>OR</div><div><br
/></div><div><br /></div><div>one neutron activates adrenal gland via Ach relea
se--> epinephrine is released into blood stream and can acti independently of
nerve on effector organs with adrenergic receptors</div><div><br /></div><div><
1476242632023 1471474183240 location of cell bodies in parasympathetic syste
m
1. craniosacral<div>2. cranial III= oculomotor; cranial VII= facial; cra
nial IX=glossopharyngeal and cranial X= vagus nerve</div><div>3. sacral C2-4--&g
t; sphlanchnic nerve->rectum, bladder and reproductive organs</div><div><img
src="paste-139182710194177.jpg" /></div>
1476243087397 1471474183240 other features of parasympathetic nervous system
1. ganglia contained OUTSIDE of spinal chord close to effector organs -->long
pre-synaptic and short post-synaptic neurons<div>2. All reliant on Ach but rece
ptor on post-synaptic neuron is nicotinic and on effector organ- muscarinic</div
><div>3. Pre-ganglionic neuron is MYELINATED</div><div>4. NO skin or skeletal in
nervation</div>
1476243209614 1471474183240 sympathetic ganglia chain

1. paravertebral
ganglia<div>2. brain neurons synapse in IML of T1-L3: send out fibers than syna
pse in sympathetic chain ganglia to innervate blood vessels and sweat glands in
smooth muscles</div><div>3.from ganglion, can go up or down, does not always hav
e to affect laterally</div><div><img src="paste-139552077381633.jpg" /></div>
1476243443257 1471474183240 pre-vertebral sympathetic ganglia
1. 3 gan
gli that pass through the paravertebral ganglion w/o synapsing<div>2. celiac, su
perior mesenteric and inferior mesenteric ganglia</div><div><img src="paste-1437
91210102785.jpg" /></div>
1476243658034 1471474183240 path of conduction for paravertebral ganglion
1. sympathetic preganglionic neuron forms white rami before synapsing in paraver
tebral ganglion<div>2. synapses in paravertrbral ganglion</div><div>3. post-syna
ptic ganglionic neuron leaves within gray ramus</div><div><img src="paste-143855
634612225.jpg" /></div>
1476243802029 1471474183240 summary of sympathetic system 1. thoracolumbar
- paravertebral and prevertebral ganglia<div>2. short pre-ganglionic and long p
ost-ganglionic</div><div>3. ACH= transmitter between pre- and post and between p
ost and effect= norepinephrine</div><div>4. innervate skin, skeletomuscular syst
em</div>
1476243944162 1471474183240 adrenal medulla and the sympathetic system
1. pre-synaptic neuron hits the adrenal gland directly<div>2.induces epinephrine
and norepinephrine release into blood stream with no nerve release or innervati
on</div><div>3. interacts with adrenergic receptors in body </div><div><img
src="paste-144220706832385.jpg" /></div>
1476244061939 1471474183240 epinephrine and NE levels
epinephrines is
more of a circulating hormone and NE occurs at synpase unless extreme exercise o
r drug problem<div><img src="paste-144328081014785.jpg" /></div>
1476244133149 1471474183240 steps in neurotransmission
1. pre-synaptic
action potential goes to terminal bud<div>2. increases Ca2+ permeability and inf
lux--> neurotransmitter release</div><div>3. transmitters are released via ex
ocytosis</div><div>4. reaction of transmitter with post-synaptic receptor</div><
div>5. activation of synaptic channels-> post-synaptic action potential</div>
1476244248382 1471474183240 how are neuorotransmitters cleared from the syna
pse?
1. diffusion<div>2. enzymatic breakdwon</div><div>3. reuptake into pre-s
ynaptic terminal</div>
1476244274690 1471474183240 acetylcholine neuorotransmitter 1. synthesized f
rom acetyl CoA and choline<div>2. degraded in cleft by acetylcholinesterase (Ach
E) to choline and acetate</div><div>3. choline is uptaken again</div><div>**musc
arinic receptors are en passant</div><div><img src="paste-144748987809793.jpg" /
></div>
1476244377160 1471474183240 norepinephrine properties
1. synthesized f
rom tyrosine--> DOPA-->Dopamine->NE-> epinephrine<div>2. dopamine-&g
t;NE via dopamine beta hydroxylase</div><div>3. NE--> epinephrine via phenyet
hanoamine methyltransferase</div><div>4. Most NE is reuptaken and degraded
by monoamine oxidase and catcechol-O-methyltransferase</div><div><img src="past
e-145045340553217.jpg" /></div>
1476244626997 1471474183240 fast synaptic transmission
1. fast onset an
d brief duration potentials (inc. permeability to all cations)<div><div>2. ligan
d gated</div><div>3. nicotinic ach receptor</div><div><img src="paste-1476652706
03777.jpg" /></div></div>
1476244794810 1471474183240 slow synaptic transmission
1. slow onset an
d long duration<div>2. G-protein coupled (metabotrophic receptor)</div><div>3. m
uscarinic Ach receptor</div><div><img src="paste-149520696475649.jpg" /></div>
1476244957961 1471474183240 EPSP
1. membrane potential more likely to hit
threshold<div>2. increased permeability to cations like Na and K OR Na, K and C
a2+</div><div>3. found in ligand gated system</div>
1476245005329 1471474183240 IPSP
1. membrane potential less likely to hit
threshold<div>2. due to increases permeability to EITHER K+ or Cl-</div><div><b
r /></div><div><br /></div>
1476245035781 1471474183240 G-protein coupled receptors (muscarinic)

1. signal transduction pathways like with cAMP<div>2. slow ion channel mediated
EPSP, or IPSP</div><div>3. change in gene expression and protein function</div>
1476245089413 1471474183240 nicotinic receptor types
1. NON-selective
cation channel, excitator<div>2. skeltal muscles, ANS ganglia and adrenal medul
la</div>
1476245133125 1471474183240 Muscarinic-2
1. coupled, <b>inhibitory</b>, p
ost-synaptic and autoreceptors<div>2. cardiac muscle - slowed heart rate, decrea
sed atrial force and AV conduction</div><div>3. relaxed sphincters</div>
1476245190921 1471474183240 Muscarinic 3 receptor 1. coupled and excitator
y<div>2. contracted smooth muscles in walls of viscera</div><div>3. glands= secr
etion and sweating</div>
1476245238609 1471474183240 adrenergic alpha 1
1. usually excitatory<di
v>2. contraction of vascular and genitourinary smooth muscle</div>
1. usually inhibitory by
decreasing cAMP levels<div>2. can be pre or post-synaptic</div><div>3. decrease
s insulin production or inhibits NE release</div><div><b>EXCEPTION ON vascular s
mooth muscles - excitatory and promotes contractions</b></div>
1476245371860 1471474183240 beta 1 adrenergic receptor
1. usually excit
atory with epinephrine and norepinephrine having same effect<div>2. positive ino
tropic and chronotropic effects on heart</div><div><br /></div>
1476245417882 1471474183240 B2 adrenergic receptor 1. Inhibitory; Epinephri
ne more dominant to NE<div>2. Relaxes vascular, bronchial, GI and genitourinary
smooth muscle and causes vasodilation in specific vascular beds</div><div>3. als
o promotes glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis</div>
1476245503728 1471474183240 Beta 3 receptor 1.usually excitatory<div>2. prom
otes lipolysis in adipose tissue</div><div>Epi>Ne</div>
1476245531689 1471474183240 autoreceptor role
1. negative feedback sys
tem on neuron<div>2. detects high levels of neuortransmitter in cleft--> sign
als shut down of producttion and release</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-151586575745025.jpg" /></div>
1476245583549 1471474183240 roles of hypothalamus 1. blood pressure and el
ectrolyte composition<div>2. body temperature</div><div>3. energy metabolism</di
v><div>4. reproduction</div><div>5. emergency response to stress</div>
1476245650780 1471474183240 autonomic (brain stem) reflexes 1. regulation of
BP<div>2. respiration control</div><div>3. salivary secretion</div><div>4. vomi
ting</div><div>5. swallowing</div><div>6. eye reflexes</div>
1476245702220 1471474183240 autonomic (pelvic organ) reflexes
1. predo
minantly spinal cord reflexes which are affected by higher centers<div>2. sympat
hetic provides inhibitory tone by contracting sphincters and relaxing the walls&
nbsp;</div><div>3. parasympathetic execute by doing the converse: emptying urina
ry bladder or rectum= contracting muscles (alpha 1) and relaxing sphincters</div
>
1476245823111 1471474183240 erection and ejaculation reflex 1. parasympathet
ic= erection reflex (dilation of blood vessels in tissue)<div>2. sympathetic eja
culation reflex- emission of semen and orgasmic response</div>
1476245871411 1471474183240 micturition
<div>sympathetic innervation giv
es tone and keeps urine inside bladder</div><div><br /></div>1. mechanoreceptors
are excited by strech in bladder wall<div>2. bladder afferents excite neurons t
o mictrition center</div><div>3.descending projections inhibit the sympathetic p
re-ganglionic neurons </div><div>4. micturition signal is triggered a
nd parasympathetic projections are stimulated leading to bladder contraction</di
v><div>5. contraction->strong excitation of mechanoreceptors that reinforces
the loop</div><div><img src="paste-152174986264577.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div
>
1476246364368 1471474183240 opposing actions of SNS and PNS on the heart...
1. sympathetic nerves innervate the entire myocardium<div>2. beta-1 receptors in
crease HR, contractile force, conduction speed</div><div><br /></div><div>3. par
asympathetic- mediated by vagus nerve</div><div>4 innervate the SA, AV nodes and
atria</div><div>5. muscarinic receptors decrease heart rate conduction velocity
and atrial contractile force</div><div><br /></div><div>*Vagal tone has greater

influence on resting heart rate than sympathetic tone</div><div><img src="paste
-152363964825601.jpg" /></div>
1476246512052 1471474183240 blood vessels under sympathetic domain*<div><br
/></div>
1. only sympathetic innervation on vascular smooth muscle<div>2.
all vascular smooth muscles have alpha-1 receptors --> vasoconstriction with
increased sympathetic tone</div><div>3. BUT Beta-2Rs are present in some vascul
ar beds--> circulating epinephrine binds and causes vasodilation (important d
uring exercise)</div><div>4. Control macrodistribution </div><div>5. cardio
vascular control center in medulla oblongata- establishes sympathetic tone
</div><div><br /></div><div>* parasympathetic technically does regulate the male
and female erectile tissue</div>
1476246696013 1471474183240 tone
1. sympathetic tone= low level of neural
activity<div>2. constriction- increases tone but dilation- decreases tone</div>
<div>3. decreased sympathetic activity--> passive dilation</div><div>4. activ
ate dilation requires additional circulating and local factors</div><div><img sr
c="paste-152638842732545.jpg" /></div>
1476246817131 1471474183240 NO activity
1. ACH from local surroundings o
f endothelial cells<div>2. binds and triggers Ca2+ release from ER</div><div>3.
Activation of eNOS </div><div>4. NO forms and diffuses to smooth muscle cel
ls</div><div>5. promotes sGC and ultimately increased cGMP and decreased MLCK--&
gt; relaxation</div><div><img src="paste-152853591097345.jpg" /></div>
1476246926197 1471474183240 opposing action of SNS and PNS on lungs 1. sympa
thetic- upper thoracic ganglia and bronchiole dilation via Beta-2R (no sympathet
ic fibers to bronchi)<div>2. Parasympathetic- vagus promotes bronchiolar smooth
muscle contraction via muscarinic receptor</div><div>3. ANS regulationcan be ove
rrided by cytokines</div>
1476247109950 1471474183240 complementary CNS and PNS function with saliva
1. parasympathetic maintains constant saliva secretion <div>2. sympathetic=
upper thoracic that has stimulatory effects on fluid secretion to produce thick
viscous saliva--> contraction of myoepithelial cells</div><div>3. parasympat
hetic - all salivary glands are innerved by muscarinic 3 or muscarinic 2 recepto
r; responsible for MOST of salivary fluid secretion</div>
1476247264373 1471474183240 synergistic/cooperative of CNS and PNS in eye
1. pupil diameter is controlled by oculomotor complex near cranial nerve III<div
>2. receive light stimuli from retina via optic nerve and adjust pupil diameter->coordinate sympathetic and parasympathetic outflow simulataneously</div><di
v>3. sympathetic - contracts radial muscle to dilate eye and parasympathetic con
tracts the spinchter muscle to constrict the pupil </div><div><br /></div>
1476247390319 1471474183240 mydriasis
wide pupil due to contract
ion of radial muscle (dilator muscle) at same time that sphincter relaxes
1476247413562 1471474183240 miosis 1. narrow pupil<div>2. results from cont
raction of sphincter muscle while radial muscle relaxes</div>
1476247437402 1471474183240 sweat glands controlled by sympathetic 1. neuro
ns innervating the glands are CHOLINERGIC and releases Ach which interacts
at muscarinic receptors<div>2. hypothalamus= thermosensitive neurons--&gt
; hot--> cholinergic neurons stimulate eccrine glands to sweat</div><div>3. c
old sweat or adrenergic sweating= eccrine gland has alpha 1 R --> response to
epinephrine--> pallor and vasoconstriction (blue and clammy)</div><div><br /
></div>
1476247634288 1471474183240 pancreas metabolism and ANS<div><br /></div>
<div>1. NE from sympathetic binds to alpha 2--| insulin secretion</div><div>2. e
pinephrine binds to B2-> glucagon secretion from pancrease</div><div>3. epine
phrine also binds to alpha 2 to inhibit insulin secretion</div><div>4. vagus ner
ve promotes insulin secretion</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><img src="p
aste-153875793313793.jpg" />
1476247788703 1471474183240 adipocyte metabolism and ANS
Epi and NE
both bind to beta receptor to trigger lipolysis<div><img src="paste-15387149834
6497.jpg" /></div>
1476247827508 1471474183240 hepatocyte metabolism and ANS epinephrine and
NE bind to alpha to promote increased glucose in blood

1476247884556 1471474183240 sympathic nervous system take-aways
1. inhib
its micturition and defecation<div>2. increases heart rate and contractility</di
v><div>3. increases BP</div><div>4. dilates the bronchioles</div><div>5. stimula
tes sweat and piloerection</div><div>6. increases fuel mobilization</div><div><b
r /></div>
1476247964030 1471474183240 parasympathetic nervous system 1. facilitates m
icroturition/defection<div>2. decreases heart rate</div><div>3. constricts bronc
hi</div><div>4. constricts pupil</div><div>5. increase in fuel storage</div>
1476248021026 1471474183240 stress integration
1. initial phase: act of
symp. system-->catecholamine release from medulla<div>2. ACTH stim. glucocor
ticoid release from cortex--> increased cardiac output, oxygen uptake and ene
rgy metabolism</div><div>4. long term inhibition of growth, reproduction and imm
une suppression</div><div><img src="paste-155159988535297.jpg" /></div>
1476248134388 1471474183240 pesticides and nerve gas
induce toxicity
by affecting autonomic nervous system<div><br /></div>
1476284756174 1471474183240 autonomic nervous system organization 1. aim i
s to maintain homeostasis<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-155443456376833.j
pg" /></div>
1476284800085 1471474183240 ANS homeostasis example with blood pressure
1. when you stand, all blood has tendency to rush to legs (gravity)<div>2. stret
ch receptors (baroreceptors) -> can lead to arteries and arteriole constricti
on, and an increase in heart rate</div><div>3. without an increase in blood flow
, orthostatic hypotension can result- lack of blood flow to brain</div><div><img
src="paste-155623845003265.jpg" /></div>
1476284950701 1471474183240 where do most drugs work in the nervous system?
1. autonomic sympathetic and parapsympathetic (efferent)<div>2. USUALLY NEVER AF
FERENT</div>
1476284999826 1471474183240 in normal state is body dominantly under sympath
etic or parasympathetic control?
1. mostly parasympathetic control: vagus
nerve can reduce heart rate<div><div>2. when scared--> sympathetic becomes d
ominant system</div></div>
1476285093651 1471474183240 where is epinephrine synthesized?
made in
adrenal glands and so no traversing BBB
1476285137452 1471474183240 sympathetic control vs parasympathetic control i
n uniformity
1. when sympathetic tone increases, it increases everywhere<div>
2. parasympathetic tone is NOT uniform, but rather discrete- affects one organ w
ithout altering others</div>
1476285195176 1471474183240 sympathetic arrangement of ANS 1. pre-ganglioni
c neuron/cholinergic fiber<div>2. sends signal to nicotinc receptors on ganglion
</div><div>3. post-ganglionic neuron (noradrenergic fiber) - sends NE to a1, b2
and b2 receptors on effector cell</div><div><img src="paste-156242320293889.jpg"
/></div>
1476285267568 1471474183240 parasympathetic arrangement of ANS
1. pre-g
anglionic neuron (cholinergic fiber)<div>2. Synapsis occurs with nicotinic recep
tor in ganglion</div><div>3. sends out postganglionic neuron (cholinergic fiber)
--> activate muscarinic receptor on effector cell</div><div><br /></div><div>
<img src="paste-156418413953025.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1476285343511 1471474183240 ach receptor types
1. nicotinic<div>2. musc
uronic</div>
1476285375294 1471474183240 en passant signaling
terminal varicosities of
neuron release NE<div><img src="paste-156555852906497.jpg" /></div>
1476285405094 1471474183240 constrictor muscle in eye
1. under parasym
pathetic control via muscuronic receptor<div>2. contracts with Ach--> miosis
or pupil contraction</div><div><img src="paste-158243775053825.jpg" /></div>
1476285489531 1471474183240 dilator muscle in eye 1. Controlled by sympath
etic division<div>2. has alpha 1 receptors </div><div>3. when NE/Epinephrin
e binds--> pupil dilates (mydriasis)</div><div><img src="paste-15932181184512
1.jpg" /></div>
1476285515784 1471474183240 in normal conditions is pupil more dilated or co
nstricted?
more constricted as constrictor muscle under parasympathetic con
trol
1476285615229 1471474183240 vision ciliary muscle 1. ciliary muscle connec
ts to lens via ligament<div>2. Under parasympathetic control!</div><div>3. when
relaxed--> ciliary muscle hole opens--> tension on ligaments of lens-->
stretches lens--> see things clearly >20 ft</div><div>4. when ciliary mus
cles contract-> relieves tension on ligament and lens gets fatter and moves f
orward to promote close up vision</div><div><img src="paste-159317516877825.jpg"
/></div>
1476289120561 1471474183240 longitudinal muscle of eye
1. when radial c
iliary muscle contacts--> longitudinal muscle contracts<div>2. contraction of
longitudinal muscle-> pulls on tissue of canal of schlemm (drains out aqueou
s humor)</div><div>3. facilitates drainage by opening of schlemm</div><div>SO OC
CURS when looking at something near because ciliary muscle is contracting!!</div
><div><img src="paste-161808597909505.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1476289443845 1471474183240 class of drugs that promote ciliary muscle contr
action 1. promote aqueous drainage for glaucomas <div>2. BUT also locks ci
liary muscle into contracted form--> trouble seeing far away objects</div><di
v>3. also constrictor muscle has muscuronic receptor and will contract to cause
miosis </div>
1476289561967 1471474183240 heart sympathetic control
1. beta 1 recept
ors increase in rate/force<div>2. Lead to an increase in systolic blood pressure
</div><div>3. increase in force of contraction--> increase in amount ejected
(SV)--> increased cardiac output</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-1
62160785227777.jpg" /></div>
1476289704541 1471474183240 heart parasympathetic control 1. muscarinic re
ceptor--> decrease in rate and force of contraction to lower systolic BP<div>
2. Decrease in force of contraction-> decreased ejected (low SV)--> decrea
se cardiac output</div>
1476289821824 1471474183240 cardiac output = rate*stroke volume
1476289830639 1471474183240 systolic pressure is primarily controlled by...
heart
1476289840077 1471474183240 diastolic pressure is primarily controlled by..
vasoconstriction in blood vessels
1476289864022 1471474183240 blood vessel sympathetic control
1. alpha
1 receptor- constriction of vascular smooth muscle<div>2. beta 2 receptor= rela
xation of vascular smooth muscle</div><div>3. <b>alpha 1 is DOMINANT </b>when bo
th act</div><div><br /></div>
1476289953728 1471474183240 parasympathetic blood vessel regulation 1. musca
rinic receptor on vascular endothelium<div>2. no innervation so only binds to fr
ee Ach... (very unusual as free concentration of Ach is very low in blood)</div>
<div>3. promotes vasodilation</div>
1476289998960 1471474183240 vasodilator durgs
1. dilate veins<div>2. i
ncrease fraction of blood in veins to 75-80%</div><div>3. decrease blood returni
ng to heart--> decreases cardiac output</div><div>4. ultimate decrease in sys
tolic BP</div>
1476323278684 1471474183240 Beta 1 receptor effect 1. increase heart rate<d
iv>2. effectively increases systolic pressure - by increasing stroke volume and
cardiac output</div><div><img src="Beta 1.jpg" /></div>
1476323502344 1471474183240 beta 2 receptor effect 1. relaxation of vascula
r smooth muscle --> vasodilationto increase fraction of blood in veins-->
cardiac output--> systolic pressure<div>2. in lungs: promote bronchial dilati
on</div><div>3. relaxes smooth muscle in GI tract</div><div>4. relaxes detrusor
muscle in bladder</div><div>5. decreases uterine contractions</div><div>6.increa
ses viscous salivary secretions</div>
1476323792772 1471474183240 alpha 1 receptor effects
1. blood vesselconstriction<div>2. sphincter contraction in GI tract</div><div>3. urethral sph
incter contraction</div><div>4. increase uterine contractions</div><div>5. incre
ase viscous secretions of saliva</div>
1476323889543 1471474183240 parasympathetic muscaranic receptor
1. ALWAY
S muscarinic for parasympathetic<div>2. in heart--> decreases rate and force

of contraction</div><div>3. in blood vessels= dilation without innervation</div>
<div>4. in lungs- constriction</div><div>5. in GI smooth muscle and detrusor mus
cle- contraction</div><div>6. in GI sphincters and urethral sphincters= relaxati
on</div><div><br /></div>
1476324087831 1471474183240 parasympathetic muscarinic receptor on blood ves
sel anomaly
1.muscaranic receptor on vascular endothelium--> no nerve inn
ervation<div>2. only causes vasodilation when it binds Ach from blood freely</di
v><div>3. VERY rare as free Ach in blood is not common at all</div>
1476324237950 1471474183240 sympathetic system in lungs
<div>1. Beta 2 p
romotes relaxation of bronchiole smooth muscle</div><div>bronchiole dilation --&
gt; promote activity for asthmatics</div><div><br /></div><div>2. use beta 2 ago
nists or muscarinic ANTagonist to induce dilation</div><div><br /></div><div><im
1476324454538 1471474183240 lungs parasympathetic system
muscuranic
receptor promotes constriction and also produces mucus
1476324481483 1471474183240 if a patient has both glaucoma and asthma, what
should be administered? (beta2 agonist or muscarinic antagonist)
1. ONLY
beta2 agonist<div>2. NO muscarinic antagonist as then longitudinal muscle promot
ing draininage will be blocked </div>
1476324631119 1471474183240 GI Sympathetic activity 1. beta 2 receptor promo
tes relaxation of smooth muscle<div>2. alpha 1 promote contraction of sphincters
</div>
1476324744450 1471474183240 parasympathetic GI effect
1. smooth muscle
contraction via muscarinic receptors<div>2. sphincters relax via muscarinic rec
eptor</div>
1476324788023 1471474183240 general sympathetic input for GI and bladder
1.suppresses digestion, defecation and urination<div><div>2. sphincters contract
via alpha 1 receptor</div></div><div>3. muscles relax via beta 2 receptors</div
>
1476324807705 1471474183240 general parasympathetic input for GI and bladder
promotes digestion, defecation, and urination
1476324861456 1471474183240 sympathetic response in bladder 1. detrusor musc
le is stimulated to relax via Beta2 receptor<div>2. internal sphincter is induce
d to contract via alpha 1 receptor</div>
1476325000805 1471474183240 parasympathetic activity on bladder
1. musca
rinic - promotes contraction of detrusor muscle<div>2. muscarinic promotes contr
action of internal sphincter</div>
1476325041490 1471474183240 why do we pee more when anxious?
sy
mpathetic system activated --> increased cardiac output--> increased glome
rular filtration rate-->increase in urine production
1476325100653 1471474183240 why do we urinate/defecate when extremely terrif
ied
1. MASSIVE output of sympathetic and PARASYMPATHETIC system<div>2. Incre
ases urination</div>
1476325158567 1471474183240 uterus sympathetic control
1. alpha 1 recep
tor promotes uterine contraction<div>2. beta 2 receptor inhibits contractions in
uterus</div>
1476325260292 1471474183240 sympathetic system in salivary glands a1 and b
2 --> increase in viscous secretions
1476325286861 1471474183240 parasympathetic salivary gland activity 1. musca
rinic receptors-> increase watery secretions <div>2. DOMINANT form</div>
1476325313450 1471474183240 adrenergic pharmacology <div>1. dopamine is conv
erted to NE inside/outside vesicle and gets to vesicle via vesicular monoamine t
ransporter</div><div>2. vesicle fuses at membrane to release contents</div><div>
3. NE binds to alpha 1 and beta1/2 receptors</div><div>4. most is reuptaken by n
euron (95%)</div><div>5. some can uptaken by extraneuronal uptake (5%)</div><div
>6. MAO can breakdown NE and in receptor COMT and MAO can break it down</div><di
v><br /></div><img src="paste-171970490531841.jpg" />
1476325776837 1471474183240 COMT and MAO
break-down of NE/dopamine/epinep
hrine in receptor neuron
1476325798432 1471474183240 direct acting adrenergic agonists

agonists
that act at adrenorgic receptor
1476325873517 1471474183240 indirect acting adrenergic agonist
affect l
evel of NE in synapse and overall production
1476325914487 1471474183240 epinephrine characterization as an agonist
1. direct acting adrenergic <div>2. non-selective</div><div>3. targets alph
a1, alpha2, beta1 and beta2 receptors</div>
1476326022261 1471474183240 why is epinephrine not effective orally?
MAO rapidly breaks it down when given orally, so must be injected intramuscularl
y or via IV
1476326072913 1471474183240 cardiovascular impact of epinephrine at LOW leve
ls
1. binds to beta2 receptors on blood vessels to promote vasodilation<div
>2. decreases diastolic</div><div>3. BUT also acts on beta 1 to increase systole
</div><div>overall slight increase in systole and slight decrease in diastole</d
iv>
1476326174780 1471474183240 cardiovascular effects at higher to moderate lev
els of epinephrine
1. as epinephrine increases, alpha1 is bound <div>2
. Increase in blood vessel contraction and increase in blood pressure (raised di
astole and systole)</div>
1476326466238 1471474183240 pulmonary effect of epinephrine 1. bind to beta2
receptor<div>2. promotes bronchiodilation</div>
1476326491737 1471474183240 metabolic effect of epinephrine on hepatocytes
binds to beta2 receptors--> stimulates release of glucose in blood
1476326563233 1471474183240 indications for epinephrine
1. stimulate the
heart in cardiac emergencies (activate B1 and alpha 1 receptors) to increase he
art rate (delivered IV/intramus)<div>2. treat allergic reactions (anaphylaxis) hits B2 receptor to promote bronchiole dilation to reverse massive histamine rel
ease from reaction</div><div>3.asthma- use epinephrine to dilate bronchioles but
can increase HR, so not preferred</div><div>4. coadminister with local anaesthe
tic --> epinephrine causes vasconstriction to limit anaesthetic from spreadin
g--> contraindicated for those with heart issues</div>
1476326764775 1471474183240 NE characterizes as a ___ agonist
1. selec
tive agonist<div>2. targets alpha1, alpha2 and beta1 receptor</div>
1476326861370 1471474183240 NE properties as specific adrenergic agonist<div
><br /></div> 1. does NOT bind to beta2<div>2. most common use is local anaest
hetic</div><div>3. NOT used to stimulate heart as exogenous NE slows heart down
for an unknown reason...</div>
1476326920488 1471474183240 dopamine is specific agonist for...
alpha1<d
iv>beta1</div>
1476326952290 1471474183240 dopamine properties as specific agonist (a1, b1)
1. possible drug for cardiac emergency<div>2.<b>causes dilation of renal kidney
to provide healthy dose of nutrients, </b>so, dopamine may be better alternative
in long run to reduce consequences</div>
1476327097610 1471474183240 dobutamine is specific agonist for... alpha 1<
div>beta 1</div><div>AND </div><div>beta2</div><div><br /></div><div>ALSO h
as + and - isomer</div>
1476327122869 1471474183240 dobutamine overall role 1. acts as B1 agonist &n
bsp;that can be used in emergency situations<div>2. + isomer has a1 antagonist e
ffect and (-)isomer has alpha agonist effect that cancels so overall B1 effect</
1476327203381 1471474183240 + isomer of dobutamine 1. B1 agonist<div>2. Wea
k B2 agonist</div><div>3. a1 antagonist</div>
1476327220902 1471474183240 - isomer of dobutamine 1.a1 agonist (impaired b
y + isomer)<div>2. weak B1 and B2 agonist</div>
1476327253216 1471474183240 phenylephrine 1 specific alpha 1 agonist
<div>2. used to increase diastolic pressure for hypotension</div><div>3. MOST co
mmonly found in OTC as nasal decongestant, treating blood shot eyes and hemorrho
ids by promoting constriction of blood vessels</div><div><br /></div><div>NOT TO
BE USED IN HYPERTENSIVE PATIENT!!!</div>
1476327396781 1471474183240 clonidine
1. alpha2 specific receptor<div>
2. mainly affect CNS, but also lower sympathetic tone ALL OVER body--> treat
hypertension</div><div>3. override effects of alpha2 in periphery</div><div>4. 2
nd line drug tho</div>
1476327470496 1471474183240 treating withdrawal symptoms with clonidine
1. during withdrawal symptoms--> increase sympathetic output and tone<div>2.
clonidine reduces it so it is effective treatment for those quitting</div><div><
br /></div>
1476327563518 1471474183240 clonidine (alpha2 agonist) and glaucoma 1. can r
educe glaucoma by reducing ocular pressure in eye<div>2. decreases fluid synthes
is in eye</div>
1476327613511 1471474183240 brimonidine (alpha 2) 1. specific for alpha 2<
div>2. mainly used to target and treat glaucoma</div><div>3. decreases synthesis
of fluid and doesn t irritate eye when applied topically = better</div>
1476327866986 1471474183240 isoproterenol 1. beta1/beta2 agonistic activit
y<div>2. can treat asthma but again raises HR and BP</div>
1476327948900 1471474183240 albuterol
1. specific B2 agonist<div>2. se
lective for B2 but NOT specific as it can act on B1 receptor if high enough conc
entration</div>
1476328007541 1471474183240 problem with B2 agonists?
1. cause recepto
r downregulation and desensitization<div>2. leads to pharmacodynamic tolerance e
specially when used too frequently </div>
1476328048115 1471474183240 terabutaline
1. beta 2 agonist<div>2.
use to treat asthma </div><div>3. inhibits uterine contractions</div>
1476328095191 1471474183240 AMPH background 1. indirect acting adrenergic ag
onists<div>2. treats ADHD, narcolepsy, and chronic fatigue syndrome</div>
1476328164942 1471474183240 what does AMPH do in periphery? 1. promotes rele
ases of NE from pre-junctional uptake transporter<div>2. pumps NE out to synpase
via reversal of transporter direction</div><div>3. Elevation in NE levels</div>
1476328230364 1471474183240 AMPH effect on receptors
1. B1 receptor i
n heart is stimulated to increase HR<div>2. Alpha1 receptor in blood vessels inc
reases diasolic pressure</div><div>3. build-up of catecholamines may cause arrhh
ytmias (ventricular arrhythmias)</div><div><img src="paste-177648437297153.jpg"
/></div>
1476328318405 1471474183240 ritalin (methylphenidate)
1. used to treat
ADHD<div>2. elevates NE levels but NOT to same level as AMPH</div><div>3. lower
s risk of arrhytmias </div>
1476328408677 1471474183240 tyramine 1. NOT a drug, just a natu
ral degradatory product of tyrosine<div>2. found at high levels in processed foo
ds, meats and cheeses</div><div>3.very potent releaser of epinephrine but usuall
y MAO can break it down</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><b>problem a
rises when consumed heavily with MAO inhibitors (anti-depressants)--> increas
e in tyramine--> increase in heart attack and stroke</b></div>
1476328515580 1471474183240 anti-depressants
1.tend to be MAO inhibit
ors<div>2. need to monitor tyramine levels as tyramine build-up releases too muc
h epinephrine-- increase in heart attacks and stroke</div>
1476328565508 1471474183240 cocaine 1. uptake inhibitor<div>2. acting at tra
nsporter to inhibit reuptake so more NE stays in synapse</div><div>3. leads to i
ncreased HR, force of contraction, vasoconstriction, and increased systolic/dias
tolic pressure</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-178215372980225.jpg" /
></div>
1476328686121 1471474183240 other roles of cocaine 1. local anaesthetic &nb
sp;that blocks Na+ channel (must not adminster with vasoconstrictor)<div>2.CNS e
ffect- unrelated to ANS</div>
1476328749818 1471474183240 ephenedrine
1. mixed adrenergic agonist<div>
2. acts like epinephrine as it binds to alpha and beta receptors BUT also like A
MPH as increases epinephrine release</div><div>3. used in hypotensive crisis but
also appears in food stores </div><div>4. up until recently, it was OTC be
fore a widespread occurence of ephendrine related heart attacks/strokes were obs
erved in the population</div>
1476328973008 1471474183240 phentolamine is what type of antagonist 1. alpha
adrenergic antagonist<div>2 alpha1 and alpha 2 antagonist<div>3. NON-selective<

/div></div>
1476329065943 1471474183240 phentolamine properties 1. causes vasodilation i
n arteries and <b>VEINS--> lowers diastolic and systolic (fast way to lower b
p)</b><div>2. not used chronically as it causes orthostatic hypotension</d
iv>
1476329166569 1471474183240 prazosin basic overview 1. selective adrenergic
antagonist<div>2. binds only to alpha 1</div>
1476329196398 1471474183240 prazosin properties
1. binds to only alpha 1
to lower systolic and diastolic<div>2. first dose effect =only see orthostatic
hypotension at first dose and then it goes away</div><div>3. epinephrine r
eversal- because so many alpha 1 spots are blocked epinephrine will bind to B2 t
o promote vasodilation; so MUST use NE/dopamine instead to act on alpha 1 as the
y are more selective for alpha 1 in terms of emergency</div><div>4. 2nd line dru
g for hypertension</div>
1476329543096 1471474183240 epinephrine reversal
in prazosin, because so
many alpha 1 spots are blocked epinephrine will bind to B2 to promote vasodilati
on; so MUST use NE/dopamine instead to act on alpha 1 as they are more selective
for alpha 1 for emergency situation
1476329563199 1471474183240 tamsulosin overview
alpha 1A antagonist rece
ptor located on smooth muscle capsule of prostate<div><br /></div>
1476329738758 1471474183240 tamsulosin activity
<div> 1. in benign
hyperplasia on prostate:prostate grows and compresses muscular capsule-->incr
eases pressure on capsule->increases pressure on urethra--> trouble urinat
ing</div><div>2. tamsulosin -> blocks alpha1A receptor--> causes muscle re
laxation for hyperplasia</div>
1476329776915 1471474183240 beta-adrenergic antagonist overview
1. used
chronically for hypertension<div>2. lowers systolic and diastolic</div>
1476330107594 1471474183240 propranolol
1. non-selective (first generati
on) beta blocker <div>2. targets beta 1 and 2</div><div>3. by blocking B1 i
t decreases heart rate and contractions </div><div>4. lowers systolic and d
iastolic</div>
1476330197653 1471474183240 but how do non-selective beta blockers targeting
B2 WORK to reduce hypertension???
1. NOT entirely sure<div>Theories:</div>
<div>1. beta blockers act in CNS</div><div>2. Beta blockers block release of ren
in</div>
1476330314305 1471474183240 beta blocker treatments include 1. hypertension<
div>2. angina</div><div>3. arrhytmias</div><div>4. myocardial infarction </
div><div>5. glaucoma- reduce formation of aqueous humor (specifically via timolo
l)</div><div>6. migraines</div>
1476330373459 1471474183240 timolol 1. non-selective beta blocker (b1 an b2)
<div>2. treats glaucoma by reducing aqueous humor in eye</div>
1476330469420 1471474183240 asthmatic complications with beta blockers
1. need bronchiole dilation!<div>2. beta-blockers inhibit this so need more spec
ific ones</div>
1476330523861 1471474183240 complications for insuin dependent diabetics wit
h beta blockers 1. block activity of epinephrine and low glucagon<div>2. Reduces
glucose in blood</div><div>3. need non-selective beta blockers</div>
1476330579113 1471474183240 sudden withdrawal and beta blocker complications
1. when abruptly stops taking beta blocker--> INCREASE in receptors<div>2. in
crease in HR and contraction</div><div>3. need a slow tapering off of beta block
ers for normal heart rate to be maintained</div>
1476330642720 1471474183240 metoprolol
1. selective beta1 antagonist (2
nd generation)<div>2. great for diabetics and asthmatics</div><div>3. lowers sys
tolic and diastolic</div><div><br /></div><div>**still in asthmatics and diabeti
cs- condition need be under control --> as metoprolol is selective but NOT sp
ecific so it can still bind to b2 under high enough levels</div>
1476330730864 1471474183240 labetalol overview
beta blocker with additi
onal actions (3rd generation)
1476330759292 1471474183240 labetalol properties
1. alpha antagonist and
Beta receptor partial agonist<div>2. because it is a partial agonist--> acts

as a competitive inhibitor for Beta 1 and beta 2 receptor--> lowers systolic
and diastolic BP</div>
1476331118284 1471474183240 indirect antagonist reserpine 1. reserpine blo
cks catecholamines entry into storage vesicles<div>2.over time... ends up gettin
g NE build up outside vesicles but inside neuron--> increased degradation by
MAO</div><div>3. decreases diastolic and systolic pressure to treat hypertension
</div><div><br /></div><div>NOT COMMONLY USED AS MANY SIDE EFFECTS</div><div><im
1476375470466 1471474183240 why does phentolamine increase heart rate when i
t decreases systolic pressure 1. inhibits alpha 1 and alpha 2 receptor<div>2.
Leads to a build-up of NE in synapse due to less negative feedback (i
nhibition of alpha2)</div><div>3. in heart, binds to beta 1 receptors to increas
e heart rate</div><div>4. systolic pressure does not increase due to beta2 recep
tor binding (vasodilation ->decrease in venous return)</div>
1476375741350 1471474183240 cholinergic pharmacology overview
1. Ach s
ynthesized from choline and AcCoA via choline acetyltransferase<div>2. Tak
e up in cholinergic storage vesicles</div><div>3. Fusion with cell membrane for
release -> acts on muscarinic receptor</div><div>4. also has muscarinic autor
egulator receptor on original cell to control levels </div><div><img src="p
aste-13262859010049.jpg" /></div>
1476375883485 1471474183240 what is big difference between parasympathetic a
nd sympathetic junction 1. TERMINATION<div>2. Ach is degraded by acetylcholinest
erase</div><div>3. NE is usually just reuptaken</div>
1476375939665 1471474183240 botulinum toxin 1. prevents cholinergic vesicle
from fusing with cell membrane<div>2. paralyzes muscle as no Ach is released</di
v><div>3. used to treat cerebral palsy</div>
1476375985934 1471474183240 black widow spider venom
1. MASSIVE
release of Ach <div>2. more fusion with cell membrane to release it</div><
div><img src="paste-13619341295617_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1476376062254 1471474183240 nicotinic receptor properties 1. activated by
nicotine <div>2. sodium channels</div><div>3. neuronal and muscle types (Nn
and Nm)</div>
1476376094985 1471474183240 muscarinic receptor properties 1. can be activa
ted by muscarine<div>2. coupled through G-proteins</div><div>3. M1-M5</div>
1476376115462 1471474183240 functional arrangment of ANS
<img src="paste13812614823937 (1).jpg" />
1476376150575 1471474183240 cholinergic stimulation for nicotinic receptor
1. Increases Ach everywhere<div>2. act at neuromuscular junction to increase mus
cle contractions</div><div>3. ganglia is more complex...</div>
1476376220202 1471474183240 effect of cholinergic stimulation of muscarinic
receptor on iris
promotes contraction of constrictor muscle -->miosis
receptor on ciliary muscle
accomodation via contraction of ciliary muscle
receptor on exocrine glands
increased mucous secretions; not good for asthma
tics
receptor on bronchi
increased bronchioconstriction; not good for asthmatics
receptor on bladder
increased constriction
receptor on heart
decreased rate and force of contraction as parasympathet
ic tone is even more dominant
receptor on blood vessels
promotes vasodilation (though rarely seen as nee
d free concentration)
1476376383257 1471474183240 in blood vessels, ach is
produced and rel
eased on the endothelial cells and activation can lead to NO production--> va
sodilation<div><br /></div><div>some alpha2 receptors cause vasodilation via NO<
br /><div><img src="paste-17433272254465.jpg" /></div></div>

1476376434993 1471474183240 cholinergic inhibition on nicotinic receptor
neuromuscular endplate paralysis= used for general anesthesia to limit muscle mo
vement
1476376476527 1471474183240 cholinergic blockade of muscarinic receptor affe
cts iris by... increasing mydriasis--> less contraction of constrictor muscl
e and sympathetic dilator muscle is dominant
cts ciliary muscle by 1. promoting far sighted vision- less contraction of cil
iary muscle--> less accomodation and more ability to see far away objects
cts exocrine glands
decrease secretion of mucus; good for asthmatics<div><br
/></div>
cts bronchi by...
promoting relaxation and bronchiodilation
cts GI tract
relaxation to suppress digestion
cts bladder by...
relax--> less likely to urinate
cts on heart by..
increases rate and force of pumping as sympathetic tone
is dominant!!
cts on blood vessels
NO effect
1476376750437 1471474183240 acetylcholine as directly acting cholinergic ago
nists 1. Horrible drug choice<div>2. Very rapidly degraded by acetycholinester
ases and acts on both muscuranic and nicotinic receptors</div><div>3. some optha
lmologists apply it topically to eye for very short duration to promote accomoda
tion</div><div><img src="paste-19576460935169.jpg" /></div>
1476376880200 1471474183240 types of acetylcholinesterases 1. acetylcholine
sterase - found in RBC at high levels<div>2. pseudocholinesterase - found at hig
h levels in plasma</div><div>3. Keeps endogenous Ach very low and <font color="#
0000ff"><b>has a very fast </b></font>reacting time</div>
1476376962943 1471474183240 carbachol
1.acts as directly acting cholin
ergic agonist<div>2. still has muscarinic and nicotinic activity</div><div>3. ap
plied topically to eye for glaucoma and can be administed in asthmatics but they
must take it via eye drop on eye...</div><div><img src="paste-19709604921345.jp
g" /></div>
1476377035590 1471474183240 bethanechol
1. directly acting cholinergic a
gonist administered orally<div>2. has only muscarinic activity so it is optimal<
/div><div>3. treats paralytic ileus and bladder atony</div>
1476377084426 1471474183240 paralytic ileus 1.inhibition of peristalsis due
to infections, age or surgery<div>2. bethanechol and neostigmine can treat via j
umpstarting peristalsis</div>
1476377128026 1471474183240 bladder atony 1. loss of destrusor muscle cont
raction b/c age or infections<div>2. use bethanechol and neostigmine to increase
level of Ach binding to jumpstart destrusor muscles</div>
1476377185813 1471474183240 pilocarpine
1. alkaloid agonist of Ach with
only muscarinic activity<div>2.can be orally or topically administerd to eye to
treat glaucoma </div><div>3. MOST frequently used to treat xerostomia (dry
mouth)</div><div><img src="paste-20246475833345.jpg" /></div>
1476377291185 1471474183240 xerostomia
dry mouth that can lead to ulcer
s and tooth loss if not treated; <div><br /></div><div>pilocarpine alkaloid
ach agonist can treat</div>
1476377353340 1471474183240 off-label use 1. drug used for some purpose th
at is NOT FDA approved<div>2. only permitted when consensus is found in literatu
re</div><div>3. okay to use drug for that purpose</div><div><br /></div><div>4.
bethanechol and pilocarpine are theoretically interchangeable, but never really
tested...</div>
1476377428493 1471474183240 cholinergic crisis
1. increase in Ach in pe
riphery<div>2. characterized by SLUD</div><div>3. also may feel burning sensatio

n in chest due to bronchiole smooth muscle contraction</div><div><br /></div><di
v><b>S</b>alivation</div><div><b>L</b>acrimation</div><div><b>U</b>rination&nbsp
;</div><div><b>D</b>efecation</div>
1476377559548 1471474183240 SLUD
acronym for symptoms of cholinergic cris
is<div><b>S</b>alivation</div><div><b>L</b>acrimation</div><div><b>U</b>rination
</div><div><b>D</b>efecation</div><div><br /></div><div>all uncontrolled</div>
1476377656740 1471474183240 acetylcholinesterases 1. cholinesterase has se
rine OH group that interacts with acetylcholine<div>2. intermediate forms betwee
n enzyme and Ach and choline breaks off</div><div>3. Water is added to break off
acetate component of Ach and recycle enzyme</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Produ
ct: Achase, acetate and choline</b></div><div><b><img src="paste-22527103467521.
jpg" /></b></div>
1476377758749 1471474183240 donepezil
1. rapidly reversible, non-coval
ent inhibitor<div>2. Binds reversibly to site <b>proximate </b>to serine OH site
</div><div>3. sterically blocks acetylcholinesterase to promote increased level
of Ach temporarily.</div><div>4. effective for treating early Alzheimer s</div><
1476377881547 1471474183240 carbamates
covalent inhibitors that bind to
acetylcholinesterase
1476377912591 1471474183240 physostigmine 1. class of covalent inhibitor b
inding to acetylcholinesterase<div>2. if taken orally, penetrates BBB (so oral a
dministration is avoided)</div><div>3. used topically in eye for glaucoma</div>
1476377978491 1471474183240 carbamate and acetylcholinesterase interaction
1.carbamate carbamylates serine group and competes with Ach for binding<div>2. h
ydrolysis by water takes much longer for carbamate attached group as opposed to
an acetate group (minutes to hours vs <1 sec!!)</div><div><img src="paste-231
71348561921.jpg" /></div>
1476378067802 1471474183240 neostigamine
1. CANNOT cross BBB so given sys
temically<div>2. treat paralytic ileus or bladder atony with betanechol</div><di
v>3. also can treat myasthenia gravis by increasing Ach to outcompete Ab binding
to nicotinic receptors</div>
1476378150079 1471474183240 myasthenia gravis
1. autoimmune disease<di
v>2. antibodies compete with Ach to bind to nicotinic receptor--> muscle weak
ness</div><div>3. treat with neostigamine to increase Ach to reduce competition
and decrease incidence of muscle weakness</div>
1476378201567 1471474183240 carbaryl
1. NOT a drug but a pesticide<di
v>2. can be bought anywhere in fertilizer</div><div>3. induces cholinergic crisi
s to kill insects</div>
1476378248695 1471474183240 organophosphates
1. slowly reversible inh
ibitors <div>2. phosphorylate oxygen on serine of acetylcholinesterase</div
><div>3. can be hydrolyzed by water (several hours to days!!!)</div><div>4. can
also undego aging and be permanently inactivated...</div><div><img src="paste-25
250112733185_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1476378462020 1471474183240 aging
1. some organophosphates when bo
und to acetylcholinesterase spontaneously lose alkyl side chains<div>2. leads to
irreversible binding and subsequent inactivation in acetylcholinesterase <
1476378541635 1471474183240 echothiopate
1. organophosphate inhibitor of
acetylcholinesterase<div>2.topically applied to eye for glaucoma every 4 days</d
iv>
1476378588929 1471474183240 parathion
1. super dangeous pesticide not
for public use<div>2. represented as organophosphate</div>
1476378653013 1471474183240 2-PAM 1. pulls off PO4 group off Ach-ase enzym
e faster than H2O<div>2.Unable to work with aging compounds</div><div>3. Should
not be used with carbamate--> more damage...</div>
1476378697516 1471474183240 soman properties
1.organophosphate used a
s chemical warfare agent<div>2. VERY potent- can block all acetycholinesterase a
t low concentrations</div><div>3.volatile- exposed via inhalation</div><div>4. a
ging occurs instantaneously</div>
1476378772642 1471474183240 how to protect against nerve gas (soman)

1. soldiers administer carbamate in autoinjector<div>2. carbamate bind to Achase
so nerve gas will not be able to</div><div>3. carbamate will more readily disso
ciate after some time and is safer alternative</div>
1476378822612 1471474183240 atropine
1. natural alkaloid<div>2. musca
rinic blocker</div>
1476378840829 1471474183240 cholinergic blocker atropine effect on the heart
1. decreases parasympathetic tone<div>2. sympathetic tone becomes more dom
inant so heart rate is increased</div><div>3. can be given in emergencies for lo
w heart rates</div>
1476378919649 1471474183240 cholinergic blocker atropine effect on eye
1. dilator muscle is dominant (sympathetic)<div>2. also promote cyclopegia - far
away vision</div>
1476378959009 1471474183240 cholinergic blocker atropine effect on salivary
glands 1. decrease in saliva<div>2. used in oral surgeries</div>
1476378975613 1471474183240 cholinergic blocker atropine effect on respirato
ry system
1. decrease in mucus production<div>2.increase in bronchiole dil
ation</div><div>3. treats asthma</div>
1476379003738 1471474183240 cholinergic blocker atropine effect on intestine
s
reduces peristalsis = anti-spasmatic agent
1476379024420 1471474183240 cholinergic blocker atropine effect on bladder
1. relaxes destrusor muscle<div>2. helps those with urinary urge incontinence th
at can t hold it in</div>
1476379061105 1471474183240 antidote for cholinergic crisis?
atropine
; can also adminster atropine for someone poisoned with carbamyate
1476379121700 1471474183240 scopolamine
1. alkaloid muscarinic inhibitor
<div>2. suppresses motion sickness</div><div>3. administered transdermally</div>
1476379153510 1471474183240 synthetic quaternary amines
muscarinic block
er used to treat asthma
1476379186091 1471474183240 ipratropium
1. synthetic quaternary amine mu
scarinic blocker<div>2. used to treat asthma by causing bronchiodilation</div>
1476379214843 1471474183240 synthetic tertiary amines
1.muscarinic blo
cker<div>2. benztropine to treat Parkinson s disease associated tremors</div>
1476379233575 1471474183240 benzotropine
1. synthetic tertiary amine musc
arinic blocker<div>2. treats parkinson s disease--> suppresses tremors</div>
1476379260169 1471474183240 ganglionic blockers
1.activates system oppos
ite of dominant effect (so usually activates sympathetic system)<div>2. decrease
s blood pressure by vasodilation - decrease venous return to heart (decreases sy
stolic and diastolic)</div><div>3. heart rate increases becase sympathetic syste
m is activated</div>
1476379479038 1471474183240 mecamyline
1. ganglionic blocker<div>2. dec
reases blood pressure</div><div>3. problem is orthostatic hypotension </div
>
1476392603152 1471474183240 ganglia in sympathetic system 1. paravertebral
<div>2. prevertebral- celiac, superior mes. and inferior mes.</div>
1476392640903 1471474183240 properties of sympathetic system
1. short
pre-ganglionic (myelinated) releases Ach at nicotinic receptor in ganglia<div>2
. long post-ganglionic--> adrenergic</div><div>3. innervates skin and skeleta
l muscle</div>
1476393203948 1471474183240 slow G-protein coupled transmission examples
1 Muscarinic receptor<div>2.catecholamine receptors </div><div><img src="pa
ste-32495722561537.jpg" /></div>
1476396319336 1471474183240 selectivity vs specificity
drug can be sele
ctive for certain receptor but when high enough drug level it is not neccessaril
y specific for that receptor <div><br /></div><div>e.g. albuterol -typicall
y for Beta 2 but can bind to beta 1 if floods system</div>
1476400671877 1471474183240 build up of catecholamines can cause... ventricu
lar arrhytmias
1476400818192 1471474183240 high tyramine levels along with anti-depressants
1. anti-depressants = MAO inhibitors <div>2. More tyramine builds up to det
rimental levels</div><div>3. Increases in epinephrine --> increased risk of h

eart attack and stroke</div>
1476408166875 1471474183240 piloerector
sympathetic contraction of smoot
h muscle in skin-->piloerection
1476323502344 1471474183240 beta 2 receptor effect 1. relaxation of vascula
r smooth muscle --> vasodilationto increase fraction of blood in veins-->
cardiac output--> systolic pressure<div>2. in lungs: promote bronchial dilati
on</div><div>3. relaxes smooth muscle in GI tract</div><div>4. relaxes detrusor
muscle in bladder</div><div>5. decreases uterine contractions</div><div>6.increa
ses viscous salivary secretions</div>
1475680824706 1471474183240 activated pathways in adipose tissue
1. incre
ase in GLUT4 receptors to uptake glucose<div>2. increase in pentose phosphate pa
thway</div><div>3. increase in glycolysis (PFK, pyruvate DH)</div><div><img src=
"paste-7340099108865.jpg" /></div>
1475784806660 1471474183240 possible mechanisms of pharmacodynamic tolerance
1. GRKs can phosphorylate intracellular component or receptor--> desensitize
receptor<div>2. B-arrestin can bind to inner part or receptor and internalize it
--> subsequent degradation</div>
stimulate the he
art in cardiac emergencies (activates b1 in heart, a1 in vessels, increase BP)<d
iv>treat serious hypersensitivity reactions to other drugs and allergens (anaphy
laxis) (histamine release causes bronchoconstriction and vasodilation, epi hits
b2 in lungs and b1 in heart, a1 in blood vessels to reverse)</div><div>asthma (b
2 receptors in lungs, but can see increase in heartrate from b1)</div><div>co-ad
minister with local anesthetics (vasoconstrictino to prevent absorption of the a
nesthetic. can see slight increase in systolic pressure, bad for people with CV
issues)</div>
1476310572419 1471364886851 Afferent or Efferent, which is more used for dru
gs?
Efferent
1476310595218 1471364886851 Orthostatic Hypotension Stand up too fast, blood
drains to feet. Stretch and barrel receptors in aortic arch and carotid sense t
his, send signal to brain, brain to major arteries and arterials to vasoconstric
t, causing heart rate and blood pressure to increase. If this does not work prop
erly, you get dizzy and faint, called orthostatic hypotension
1476310679383 1471364886851 Where in your body does epinephrine come from? W
here does it go?
Adrenals. Stays in the periphery since it cannot cross b
lood-brain barrier
1476310759368 1471364886851 How does the pupil constrict? What is it called?
Sympathetic: dilator (radial) muscles with a1 receptors relax<div>Parasympatheti
c: constrictor (sphinctor) muscles with mAchR receptors constrict</div><div>Mios
is</div>
1476310933658 1471364886851 How do pupils dilate? What is it called?
Sympathetic: dilator (radial) muscles with a1 receptors constrict<div>Parasympat
hetic: constrictor (sphinctor) muscles with mAchR receptors relax</div><div>Myad
riasis</div>
1476310976223 1471364886851 What causes tension in the lens? What does this
do to your vision?
Radial ciliary muscles are relaxed, putting tension on t
he lens, making it thin and fixed in place.You can see 20 ft or further.
1476311046764 1471364886851 What is lens accommodation? What type of control
is it? Under parasympathetic control, ciliary muscles contract in reponse to mu
scarinic receptor activity. This releases tension on the lens, causing it to thi
cken and shift forward, allowing the eyes to focus on closer objects. At the sam
e time, longitudinal ciliary muscles contract, pulling on the Canal of Schlemm,
releasing aqueous humor.
1476311323403 1471364886851 Glaucoma treatment based on longitudinal ciliary
muscle Agonize muscarinic receptors. Cause accomidation, contraction of ciliary
muscles, draining canal of schlemm vitreous humor. Agonizing muscarinic recepto
rs also causes pupil constriction. This makes night vision poor, as well as far
vision.
1476311556472 1471364886851 What receptor increases rate and force of heart
contraction?
b1, sympathetic
1476311583371 1471364886851 What receptor decreases rate and force of heart
contraction?
muscarinic, parasympathetic
1476311596142 1471364886851 What is cardiac output? rate times stroke colume
1476311719945 1471364886851 What receptor activity constricts blood vessels?
a1, sympathetic
1476311750135 1471364886851 What receptor activity relaxes blood vessels?
b2, sympathetic<div>muscarinic, parasympathetic (not innervated, only acted on b
y drugs)</div>
1476311800087 1471364886851 What is systolic pressure?
maximum pressure
in major arteries. Depends on rate and force of contraction.
1476311835065 1471364886851 What is diastolic pressure?
Standing pressur
e. Depends on vasoconstriction/dilation
1476311876472 1471364886851 What receptor activity relaxes bronchial smooth
muscle? b2, sympathetic
1476311899557 1471364886851 What receptor activity constricts bronchial smoo
th muscle?
1476311910370 1471364886851 Why can t you give someone with glaucoma and ast
hma a muscarinic agonist?
It will constrict the bronchial smooth muscle, c
ausing asthma attacks
1476311942520 1471364886851 What receptor activity causes smooth muscle rela
xation in GI and GU tract?
b2, sympathetic
1476312076973 1471364886851 What receptor activity causes smooth muscle cont
raction in GI and GU tract?
1476312091465 1471364886851 What receptor activity causes sphincter contract
ion in GI and GU tract? a1, sympathetic
1476312117735 1471364886851 What receptor activity causes sphincter relaxati
on in GI and GU tract? muscarinic, parasympathetic
1476312129021 1471364886851 What muscle contracts/relaxes in the bladder?
Detrusor muscle
1476312149847 1471364886851 What sphincter is controlled by the ANS?
Internal urethral sphincter
1476312172249 1471364886851 What receptor activity causes contraction of the
uterus?
a1, sympathetic
1476312196336 1471364886851 What receptor activity decreases contraction of
the uterus?
b2, sympathetic
1476312206562 1471364886851 What receptor activity causes activity of the sa
livary glands? What kind of saliva?
a1, b2, sympathetic, increases viscous s
ecretions<div>muscarinic, parasympathetic, increases watery secretions</div>
1476383227255 1471364886851 How does acetylcholine get made?
acetyl c
oa + choline --(choline acetyl transferase)--> acetylcholine
1476383283231 1471364886851 types of nicotinic receptors
sodium channel<d
iv>muscle type (N<sub>m</sub>)</div><div>neuronal type (N<sub>n</sub>)</div>
1476383396584 1471364886843 Muscarinic receptors are coupled through {{c1::G
proteins}}
1476383650525 1471105979394 Cholinergic Stimulation causes Nicotinic:<div>N
M endplate: contraction</div><div>Ganglia: complex</div><div><br /></div><div>Mu
scarinic:</div><div>iris: miosis</div><div>ciliary: accomodation</div><div>Exocr
ine glands: secretion</div><div>bronchi: constriction</div><div>GI Tract: contra
ction and peristalsis</div><div>bladder: constriction (detrusor muscle)</div><di
v>heart: decrease rate and force</div><div>blood vessels: vasodilation</div>
1476383652368 1471105979394 Cholinergic blockade
Nicotinic:<div>NM endpla
te: paralysis</div><div>Ganglia: complex</div><div><br /></div><div>Muscarinic:<
/div><div>iris: mydriasis</div><div>ciliary: cycloplegia</div><div>Exocrine glan
ds: decreased secretion</div><div>bronchi: relaxation</div><div>GI Tract: relaxa
tion</div><div>bladder: relaxation</div><div>heart: increase rate and force</div
><div>blood vessels: no effect</div>
1476383712841 1471105979394 Cholinergic crisis
<div>DUMBBELS</div><div>
D - defecation </div><div>U - urination</div><div>M - miosis</div><div>B bronchoconstriction/bronchorrhea</div><div>B - bradycardia</div><div>E - emesis
(GI disturbances)</div><div>L - lacrimation </div><div>S - salivation</div>

1476385524542 1471105979394 how does acetylcholinesterase work? what is the
turnover rate? it has an OH group, where acetylcholine acetylates, causing chol
ine to split off. very quickly, water comes in and pulls the acetyl group off th
e enzyme, resulting in a reactivated enzyme and acetate<div>25,000 molecules per
second</div><div>second most effective enzyme in the body</div>
1476385767875 1471105979394 How do carbamates react with acetylcholinesteras
es?
carbamates are structurally analogous to Ach. comes in contact with AchE
, carbamates the O of the serine OH. removal takes minutes to hours, inhibiting
the enzyme<div>2-PAM and other reactivators makes it worse</div>
1476389888674 1471105979394 Organophosphate effect on AchE. How do you rever
se it? phosphates the -OH of AchE, takes hours to days to reverse with water<di
v>2-PAM removes the phosphate from the serine side chain. does not work on aging
occurs. does not work on carbamates (makes it worse)</div>
1476390084475 1471105979394 Aging <div>Loss of ethyl group makes the phosp
hate bond stronger. When aging occurs, you cannot undo the bond.</div>
1476390958452 1471105979394 where is atropine found naturally?
jimsonwe
ed. smoked in nj by teens, causes death
1476313070180 1471364886851 Epinephrine mechanism, receptor, administrtation
, result, uses nonselective direct agonist<div>a1, a2, b1, b2</div><div>IV or I
M</div><div>lower/maintain/raise diastolic, increase systolic. Bronchodilation b
y binding on b2 in broncho. Increased gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis by bind
ing b2 on hepatocytes</div><div>used to stimulate heart in cardiac emergency (be
st drug for this), treat serious hypersensitivity reacrtions to drugs and allerg
ens (anaphylaxis) (revereses histamine-induced broncioconstriction and vasodilat
ion), asthma (affects heart rate, not desirable), and co-administer with local a
nesthetics (vasorestriction, not for use in those with CV issues because of incr
eased systolic pressure)</div>
1476313401002 1471364886851 Norepinephrine mechanism, receptor, administrtat
ion, result, uses
selective a, b agonist<div>a1, a2, b1</div><div>IV or IM
</div><div>vasoconstriction, increases systolic and diastolic</div><div>used wit
h local anesthetic as a vasoconstrictor. can be used to stimulate heart, but too
much exogenous slows the heart (bradycardia). NOT USED in emergencies</div>
1476313836512 1471364886851 Dopamine mechanism, receptor, administrtation, r
esult, uses
selective agonist<div>a1, b1</div><div>IV or IM</div><div>increa
se systolic and diastolic, dilates renal arteries</div><div>used when there is a
conern about vasoconstriction in the kidneys. Used in cardiac emergency.</div>
1476313900706 1471364886851 Dobutamine mechanism, receptor, administration,
result, uses
selective agonist<div>IV or IM</div><div>net b1 agonist (+ isome
r is b1 agonist, weak b2 agonist, a1 antagonist. -isomer is a1 agonist, weak b1
and b2 agonist)</div><div>increase HR and force of contraction (increase systoli
c)</div><div>Used in emergency situations</div>
1476314073634 1471364886851 phenylephrine mechanism, receptor, administratio
n, result, uses selective a agonist<div>direct</div><div>a1</div><div>oral or in
jection or mist or topical</div><div>increase diastolic pressure. vasoconstricts
</div><div>used in hypotensive emergencies, OTC drugs (nasal decongestants, clea
r redness of eyes, henorrhoid treatment). DO NOT USE in hypertensive patients</d
iv>
1476315803978 1471364886851 clonodine mechanism, receptor, administrati
on, result, uses
specific a agonist<div>a2</div><div>oral</div><div>lower
s sympathetic tone in body, systolic and diastolic</div><div>used to treat chron
ic hypertension, withdrawal symptoms in drug addiction (opiates and alcohol). Si
de effect is dry mouth, sedation. Treatment for glaucoma Second-line drugs
for treatment of hypertension. (first line is first choice, second line is when
first choice is not working or patient has trouble tolerating first line) <
/div>
1476316207579 1471364886851 brimonidine mechanism, receptor, administra
tion, result, uses
selective a agonist<div>a2</div><div>topical</div><div>l
owers intraocular pressure</div><div>glaucoma treatment, decreases aqueary humor
. does not go into circulation much.</div>
1476316394797 1471364886851 isoproterenol mechanism, receptor, administ

ration, result, uses
nonselective b agonist<div>direct</div><div>b1, b2</div>
<div>aerosolized</div><div>Broncodilater, increases HR and force of contraction<
/div><div>Inhaler for asthma, but patients dont like pounding heart sensation</di
v>
1476320114507 1471364886851 albuterol mechanism, receptor, administrati
on, result, uses
selective b agonist<div>direct</div><div>b1</div><div>ae
rosolized</div><div>bronchodilator</div><div>Asthma treatment. If you take too m
uch, it can activate B1 and increase HR.</div>
1476320148166 1471364886851 terbutaline mechanism, receptor, administra
tion, result, uses
selective b agonist<div>direct</div><div>b2</div><div>ae
rosolized or IV</div><div>Bronchodilater, inhibits uterine cramps</div><div>Asth
ma treatment. If you take too often, you can downregulate b2 receptors, pharmaco
dynamic tolerance. Used to stop premature labor</div>
1476320536214 1471364886851 amphetamine mechanism, receptor, administra
tion, result, uses
indirect<div>releaser</div><div>DAT, VMAT<br />Oral</div
><div>Revereses DAT and VMAT, pumps norepinephrine out of presynaptic and out of
storage vesicle. Increases NE, increases systolic and diastolic</div><div>Adder
all, used to treat ADHD, narcolepsy, chronic fatigue syndrome. High risk of arrh
ythmia and ventricular arrhythmia (fatal) when catecholamines are in the heart</
div>
1476320669721 1471364886851 methylphenidate mechanism, receptor, admini
stration, result, uses indirect<div>releaser</div><div>oral</div><div>Increases
norepinephrine, increases systolic and diastolic, less than amphetamine</div><d
iv>Ritalin, used to treat ADHD. Not as much of an effect as amphetamine, lower r
isk of arrhythmia</div>
1476320765208 1471364886851 tyramine mechanism, receptor, administratio
n, result, uses indirect<div>releaser</div><div>Increases release of norepinephr
ine</div><div>Found in processed and smoked meat, cheeses, nuts, and fruits. Nat
ural breakdown product of tyrosine. Normally degraded by MAO, but people on MAO
inhibitors can have strokes and heart attacks (if they eat foods high in tyramin
e, they absorb it, and have a high release of norepinephrine)</div><div><br /></
div>
1476320901068 1471364886851 Cocaine mechanism, receptor, administration
, result, uses uptake inhibitor<div>indirect</div><div>DAT, sodium channels</di
v><div>Inhibits DAT, blocks sodium channels, increases norepinephrine, systolic,
diastolic</div><div>Local anesthetic by blocking sodium channels, vasoconstrict
s by increasing free norepinephrine. CNS effects have abuse potential. Sudden de
ath syndrome from ventricular arrhythmia</div>
1476321000321 1471364886851 tricyclic antidipressants mechanism, recept
or, administration, result, uses
uptake inhibitor<div>indirect</div><div>
DAT</div><div>inhibits DAT</div><div>More free catecholamines. like cocaine</div
>
1476321044602 1471364886851 MAO inhibitors mechanism, receptor, adminis
tration, result, uses inhibitor of metabolism<div>oral</div><div>decreases deg
radation of calecholamines</div><div>Antidepressant</div>
1476321071436 1471364886851 ephedrine mechanism, receptor, administrati
on, result, uses
mixed adrenergic antagonist<div>indirect and direct</div
><div>a1, a2, b1, b2</div><div>oral</div><div>Increase release of norepinephrine
, and binds to receptors. Bronchodilator, elevates systolic, diastolic, heart ra
te</div><div>People with CVD have heart attacks or strokes. Need a prescription<
/div><div>sometimes used in hypotensive crisis</div>
1476321157522 1471364886851 phentolamine mechanism, receptor, administr
ation, result, uses
nonselective a antagonist<div>direct</div><div>a1, a2</d
iv><div>oral or injection</div><div>Lowers diastolic and systolic</div><div>More
blood in venous than arterial, causes drop in systolic pressure. Used in emerge
ncy hypertensive situations, not used chronically because it causes orthostatic
hypertension (a1 receptor is in charge of maintaining blood pressure)</div><div>
increases heart rate, epinephrine binds to free b1 instead of blocked a1 and a2.
a2 blocked, more norepinephrine, no effect in blood vessels because a1 blocked
(vasodilation), heart pumps faster (not harder)</div>

1476321597016 1471364886851 prazosin mechanism, receptor, administratio
n, result, uses selective a antagonist<div>direct</div><div>a1</div><div>oral</d
iv><div>lowers diastolic and systolic</div><div>Like phentolamine (blood stays o
n venous side, not arterial), but can be used for chronic hypertension. Causes o
rthostatic hypertension after first dose only. Epinephrine has opposite effect w
hen taking prazosin, because it binds to free b2 instead of a1, causing vasodila
tion. Use norepinephrine or dopamine instead.</div><div>A1 antagonists are secon
d line drugs for hypertension</div>
1476321598713 1471364886851 tamsulosin mechanism, receptor, administrat
ion, result, uses
selective a angtagonist<div>direct<br /><div>a1a</div></
div><div>oral</div><div>relaxes smooth muscle capsule around the prostate</div><
div>releaves pressure on the urethra that results from prostate growth. a1a is m
ostly on the capsule of the prostate gland, so there is not much effect on the b
lood vessels</div>
1476321657390 1471364886851 propanolol mechanism, receptor, administrat
ion, result, uses
nonselective beta blocker/first generation<div>direct</d
iv><div>b1, b2</div><div>oral</div><div>Lowers diastolic and systolic, reduces o
xygen requirement of heart</div><div>treats hypertension (not sure how b2 blocki
ng works), angina (decreases work needed to be done by heart, oxygen requirement
), arrhythmia (need large dose), MI (most effective when given during MI, but wo
rks when given 6-7 hours after), glaucoma (reduces aqueous humor production), mi
graines (not sure how, but reduces intensity and frequency). Cannot be used for
asthmatics or insulin-dependent diabetics (blocks b2). Can have sudden withdrawa
l syndrome</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div>treating Hypertension, Gl
aucoma, MI, Arrhytmia, Migraines, Angina. Hot GranMAMA -- that s PROposter
ous LOL </div>
1476322135382 1471364886851 metoprolol mechanism, receptor, administrat
ion, result, uses
selective b antagonist/second generation<div>direct</div
><div>b1</div><div>oral</div><div>Reduces systolic and diastolic</div><div>Safer
to use for asthmatics and insulin-dependent diabetics (stable, no hospital visi
ts related to asthma or IDD in the past year). Need to monitor, since too high a
dose can bind to b2 and cause asthma attacks (bronchoconstriction) or reduction
of repsonse to epinephrine (no gluconeogenesis or glycogenolysis)</div>
1476322281581 1471364886851 labetalol
beta blocker with additional act
ions/third generation<div>a1 antagonist, b partial agonist (acts like competitiv
e antagonist of full agonist (norepi or epi))</div><div>lowers systolic and dias
tolic</div><div>Blocks b receptor a little, but much lower than nor or epi</div>
1476322390673 1471364886851 reserpine
indirect antagonist<div>depletor
</div><div>VMAT</div><div>oral</div><div>Blocks entry of any chatecolamine into
storage vesicles in varicosities</div><div>Old drug to treat hypertension. Catec
holamines are degraded by MAO. Side effects: sleep disruption, headaches, nausea
. Can cause Parkinsons by depleting dopamine in the substantia nigra</div>
1476323921728 1471364886851 timolol mechanism, receptor, administration
, result, uses <div>nonselective b antagonist/first generation</div>direct<div>
b1, b2</div><div>topical</div><div>Reduces formation of aqueous humor in eye</di
v><div>Glaucoma treatment<br /><div><br /></div></div>
1476324054881 1471364886851 How are catecholamines cleared from the junction
al space? What happens to them? 95% prejunctional neuronal takeup. Degraded by M
AO or recycled into storage vesicle<div>5% extraneural uptake, degraded by COMT
and MAO</div>
1476392300524 1471105979394 botulinim toxin prevents cholinergic storage ves
icle from fusing with the cell membrane<div>No release of Ach, used in neuromusc
ular junction, causes paralysis. Used in cerebral palsy patients to reduce spast
icity and give more control of movement. Used as Botox to smoothen wrinkles by p
aralyzing muscles</div>
explosive releas
e of Ach, all cholinergic storage vesicles fuse to the membrane<div>Cholinergic
crisis (DUMBBELS)</div>
1476392460460 1471105979394 acetylcholine cholinergic agonist, ester<div>d
irect</div><div>topical</div><div>induce accomodation for eye exam</div><div>is

cleared quickly from blood by acetylcholinesterase and pseudocholinesterase, act
s on nAchR and mAchR, will act on ganglia and neuromuscular junction. not a good
systematic drug.</div>
1476392525748 1471105979394 Carbachol
cholinergic agonist, ester<div>d
irect</div><div>topical</div><div>glaucoma treatment</div><div>not broken down b
y cholinesterases, still acts on nAchR. Not given systematically. Muscarinic ago
nist, given CAUTIOUSLY to asthma patients as long as they know how to use them r
ight</div>
1476392557429 1471105979394 bethanechol
cholinergic agonist, ester<div>d
irect</div><div>oral/iv</div><div>used to treat paralytic ileus and bladder aton
y</div><div>paralytic ileus: occurs when intestines (usually small), peristalsis
stops in the small intestines. . Infection in peritoneal cavity, surgery where
small intestines are manipulated, or no known reason. Risk is greater in infants
and old people. Bladder atony: detrusor muscle cannot contract. Similar to para
lytic ileus. Drug is used to kickstart peristalsis in a few days or weeks</div>
1476392699675 1471105979394 pilocarpine
cholinergic agonist, alkaloid<di
v>direct</div><div>oral, injection, topical</div><div>Glaucoma treatment topical
ly. Most used to treat xerostomia</div><div>Xerostomia: dry mouth, can lead to t
ooth loss, ulcers, sores. Sailvary glands are activated through muscarinic recep
tors</div>
1476393103282 1471105979394 donepezil
rapidly reversible inhibitor<div
>binds near -OH on AchE, prevents Ach degradation</div><div>Alzheimer s patients
are deficient in cholinesterases, meaning they are deficient in choline. Donepe
zil shows the best results in early stages, and might have some effect in the mi
ddle stages. Represses symptoms, but does not cure disease. Donepezil will be re
moved quickly, but there another comes in and replaces it.</div>
1476393231004 1471105979394 Physostigmine covalent inhibitor, carbamate<di
v>topical, oral</div><div>blocks Ach from AchE active site by carbamating, react
ivated by water after minutes or hours</div><div>taken orally, penetrates bloodbrain barrier, affects AchE in brain. Topical eye treatment for glaucoma</div>
1476393267032 1471105979394 neostigmine
covalent inhibitor, carbamate<di
v>blocks Ach from AchE active site by carbamating, reactivated by water after mi
nutes or hours</div><div>does not cross blood-brain barrier, can be used systema
tically. Used in conjunction with bethanechol to treat paralytic ileus or bladde
r atony. Also used to treat myasthenia gravis (collection of autoimmune disorder
s, antibodies produced to different parts of nAchR at neuromuscular junction. Mo
st common form involve antibody binding to nAchR receptor, preventing Ach from b
inding to receptor. Start with muscle weakness, eyelids droop, lose control of e
ye movements. Left untreated, very serious). AchE is blocked in a different loca
tion, increasing Ach levels, so it can outcompete the antibodies for nAchR at ne
uromuscular junction</div>
1476393301502 1471105979394 carbaryl
covalent inhibitor, carbamate<di
v>pesticide</div><div>blocks Ach from AchE active site by carbamating, reactivat
ed by water after minutes or hours</div><div>do not need a lisence to buy. 10,00
0s yearly in ER from poisoning. Causes cholinergic crisis when accidentally cons
umed, inhaled, or dermally exposed. Kill pests by inhibiting AchE</div>
1476393372606 1471105979394 echothophate
slowly reversible inhibitors, or
ganophosphate<div>phosphorylates OH on AchE, reactivated by water after hours or
days.</div><div>used to treat glaucoma. Taken once every four days since thats h
ow long it takes to remove it from AchE</div>
1476393402040 1471105979394 parathion
slowly reversible inhibitors, or
ganophosphate<div>pesticide</div><div>need a license and training to use. Causes
10,000s of ER visits. Treat with 2-PAM unless there is aging. Can work at the f
irst stages of aging. </div><div><br /></div>
1476393426821 1471105979394 soman slowly reversible inhibitors, organophos
phate<div>chemical warfare agent</div><div>nerve gas, one of 5 we know of. Very
potent, inhibits all AchE with small aerosolized dose. Inhaled, widespread expos
ure</div><div>no antidote or reactivator. Soliders protected by auto-injecting c
arbamate when there is a suspected threat. Many of AchE are then occupied by car
bamate temporarily. Some symptoms of cholinergic crisis, but better than soman</
div>
1476393465911 1471105979394 atropine
muscarinic blockers, alkaloid<di
v>all routes of administration</div><div>blocks muscarinic receptors on heart, d
ecreases parasympathetic tone, heart rate and force of contraction goes up.</div
><div>given in certain cardiac emergencies in the ER in place of epinephrine.</d
iv><div>In eye, blocks muscarinic receptors causing dilation, and causes cyclope
gia by stopping ciliary contraction which is bad for glaucoma.</div><div>Respira
tory system: bronchodilation, decreased mucus production, used to be used for as
thma. intestines: anti-spasmodic agent that reduces peristalsis (which can be ac
ute, painful).</div><div>Bladder: treats urinary urge incontinence by relaxing t
he detrusor muscle.</div><div>Is an antidote for cholinergic chrisis, treats org
anophosphate poisoning when taken with a reactivator, used in carbamate poisonin
g without reactivator</div>
1476393598003 1471105979394 Scopolamine
muscarinic blocker<div>transderm
al<br /><div>suppresses motion sickness</div></div>
1476393637598 1471105979394 ipatropium
synthetic quaternary amine<div>a
erosolized</div><div>muscarinic antagonist to treat asthma</div><div>bronchodila
tion, less mucus secretion</div>
1476393664695 1471105979394 benztropine
synthetic tertiary amine<div>mus
carinic antagonist</div><div>used to treat parkinson s in early stages. Suppress
ions of tremors associated with movement disorder. Not a cure</div>
1476393690361 1471105979394 mecamylamine
ganglionic blocker<div>old drug
used to treat hypertension, not a first line drug. Overrides the dominant input
(parasympathetic or sympathetic). Severe orthostatic hypotension.</div>
1475110749661 1471474183240 role of proteins and membranes for gradients
1. membranes keep ions and maintain concentration gradient<div>2. proteins gener
ate asymmetry and establish concentration differences</div>
1475110814676 1471474183240 sodium levels in and out of the cell
1. MORE
outside (145 mM)<div>2. Less inside (~12mM)</div><div><img src="paste-3990024617
985.jpg" /></div>
1475110887870 1471474183240 Potassium levels in and out of cell
1. MORE
INSIDE cell (~140 mM)<div>2. Less outside (4mM)</div><div><br /></div><div><img
src="paste-3985729650689.jpg" /></div>
1475110931934 1471474183240 Chloride levels in and out of cell
1. Cl- h
igher outside (~116 mM)<div><img src="paste-3985729650689.jpg" /></div>
1475110975865 1471474183240 low pH environments inside cell lyosomes, golgi
and endosomes<div><img src="paste-3985729650689.jpg" /></div>
1475111009907 1471474183240 delta variable in diffusion
average displace
ment in time Tau
1475111044274 1471474183240 Diffusion coefficient 1. how fast something is
able to diffuse<div>2. inversely related to time and directly related to displa
cement<br /><div><img src="paste-4715874091009_1471474183240.jpg" /></div></div>
1475111176286 1471474183240 fick s first law of diffusion 1. flux of diffu
sion (rate of movement) magnitude is proportional to diffusion coefficient and c
oncentrations<div>2 Flux= number of moles crossing a plane or unit area per unit
time</div><div>3. Flux is directly proportional to magnitude of concentration g
radient<br /><div><img src="paste-5007931867137.jpg" /></div></div>
1475111282826 1471474183240 diffusion across a membrane equation
flux is
dependent on differences in concentration *permeability<div><br /></div><div><im
1475111320319 1471474183240 einstein/stokes equation
diffusion coeffi
cient is directly related to temperature and inversely related to viscosity and
molecular size<div><img src="paste-5278514806785.jpg" /></div>
1475111388735 1471474183240 speed of diffusion
rapid over small distanc
es and slow over large distances
1475111501299 1471474183240 permeability equation 1. J= -P(Cex-Ccyt)<div>2
. Relevant to biological membranes</div>
1475111608653 1471474183240 Permeability Coefficient
1. Directly prop
ortional to diffusion coefficient and partition coefficient(hydrophobicity)<div>
2. Inversely related to membrane thickness</div>

1475111689259 1471474183240 Partition Coefficient (Kp)
1. Coil/Cwater<d
iv>2. High lipid solubility = high membrane permeability</div><div>3. Measure Kp
by seeing level of molecules dissolved in oil vs water</div>
1475111740291 1471474183240 order of ease of passive diffusion
hydropho
bic molecules>>>smaller uncharged polar molecules>>large uncharge
d polar molecules>>ions
1475111792009 1471474183240 permeability relationship to lipid solubility an
d molecular size
1. permeability is directly related to lipid solubility<
div>2. inversely related with molecular size</div><div><img src="paste-942745321
4721 (1).jpg" /></div>
1475111861486 1471474183240 passive diffusion summary <img src="paste9423158247425.jpg" />
1475111872562 1471474183240 why do ions have difficulty traversing membranes
?
1.tight shell of water forms around them (NOT energetically favorable to
strip off)<div><img src="paste-9423158247425.jpg" /></div>
1475111916311 1471474183240 how can weak acids and bases cross membranes?
1. weak acids can traverse membrane as protonated form<div>2. weak bases c
an traverse membrane as UNprotonated form</div><div>3. Dissociation can occur wi
thin cell to ionized forms</div><div><img src="paste-9861244911617.jpg" /></div>
1475112050033 1471474183240 definition of voltage? separation of charge; am
ount of work required to bring a unit of positive charge from an infinite distan
ce to a particular location
1475112103563 1471474183240 electrical field
gradient of a voltage be
tween a positive and negative charge; must have a fluctuating potential
1475112163801 1471474183240 electroneutrality principle
always must be a
n equal number of positive and negative charges in any macroscopic volume; charg
e separation produces an e- field in biology over small, molecular distances
1475112206896 1471474183240 how are membrane potentials generated? 1. ion c
oncentration gradients<div>2. unequal membrane permeabilities of different ions<
1475112863005 1471474183240 what is the chemical potential of a solution? (m
u)
measure or function of components of solution
1475112941521 1471474183240 chemical potential difference and concentrations
1. dependent on concentrations<div>2. if Cin<Cout, mu<0 and and substance
will diffuse spontaneously inward</div><div>3. if C in>Cout, mu>0 active t
ransport is required to move substance inside</div><div>4. if Cin= Cout; mu=0. e
quilibrium states</div><div><img src="paste-14328010899457.jpg" /></div>
1475113127085 1471474183240 chemical potential difference equation <img src
="paste-14362370637825.jpg" /><div>proportional to Cin and inversely proportiona
l to Cout</div>
1475113175845 1471474183240 chemical potential of water
1. affected by p
ressure, temperature and SOLUTES<div>2. solutes decrease mu while pressure and t
emperature increase mu</div><div>3. mu of water is ALWAYS lower than chemical po
tential of pure water </div><div><img src="paste-14568529068033.jpg" /></di
v>
1475113314711 1471474183240 colligative properties 1. properties affected b
y concentrations of dissolved particles<div>2. Reduced vapor pressure, freezing
point depression and osmotic pressure changes</div>
1475113389744 1471474183240 osmotic pressure
1. if across semi-permea
ble membrane, pure H2O on one side and solute-water on inside, water diffuses in
side<div>2. If volume is maintained constant, there is an increase of pressure o
n the inside and cause water to back flow to ultimately establish mu water as 0<
1475113549135 1471474183240 pressure at equlibrium is called...
pi or os
motic pressure
1475113575058 1471474183240 vant Hoff equation
1. pi= RTCsolutes (R= ga
s constant, T= temperature and C = solute concentration)<div>2. NOTE for ionic c
ompounds - osmolarity= all active species so may need to multiply by number of u
nits</div><div>3. units of osmolarity= osmol/L </div><div><img src="paste-1
5195594293249.jpg" /></div>
1475113734364 1471474183240 osmotic coefficient
corrects van t hoff equa
tion for non-ideal behavior of real solutions like how solutes interact with sol
vent
1475113832025 1471474183240 osmolarity
measured via an osmometer to mea
sure colligative properties
1475113849793 1471474183240 osmotic pressure example
take difference
in molarities and multiply by temperature and rate constant <div><img src="
paste-15526306775041 (1).jpg" /></div>
1475113975544 1471474183240 reflection coefficient 1. corrects for degree o
f membrane permeability<div>2. impermeable substances have coefficient of 1</div
><div>3. most solutes have "ineffective osmoles" b/c the <b>coeff<1</b> so on
ly <b>transient effect</b> is exerted</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste
-15732465205249_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1475114065709 1471474183240 two routes for osmotic water movement 1. lipid
bilayer- water can traverse but very slowly <div>2. aquaporins</div>
1475114108377 1471474183240 isotonic solutions
1. osmolarity is same as
blood osmolarity<div>2. <b>Blood osmolarity = ~300mOsm</b></div><div>3. isotoni
c saline of .9% NaCl= 154 mM NaCl</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><b
r /></div>
1475114187350 1471474183240 hypotonic solutions
1. cell volume increases
<div>2. osmolarity is LESS than that of blood ~100mM NaCl or 150 mM of sucrose</
div><div><b>3. hemolysis occurs at osmolarities <200 mOsm of impermeant solut
es</b></div>
1475114271758 1471474183240 hypertonic solutions
1. cells shrink<div>2. o
smolarity is greater than that of blood plasma (~200 mM NaCl or 500 mM sucrose)<
/div>
1475114324994 1471474183240 R constant value
.082
1475114334807 1471474183240 T temperature value
300 K
1475114341585 1471474183240 example of permeable hypertonic solute solution
and water movement
1. urea of 100 mM is added to isotonic saline (154 mM)<d
iv>2. FIRST, water moves out as less water outside than inside -> shrinkage (
temporary)</div><div>3. However, urea is able to enter RBC and so it enters and
water follows suit to restore RBC</div><div><b>4. Urea= ineffective osmole and w
ater moves faster</b></div><div><img src="paste-16935056048129 (1).jpg" /></div>
<div><br /></div>
1475114546079 1471474183240 water movements in presence of solute isotonic s
olution 1. RBC placed in .3 M glycerol solution<div>2. Glycerol being an ineffec
tive osmole diffuses into RBC and water follows suit</div><div>3. Cell swells an
d then bursts</div><div>(Hemolysis occurs as not 200 mM of solute outside...)</d
1475114992738 1471474183240 RBC placed in .6M urea solution 1. water first l
eaves as outside is more concentrated<div>2. but slowly urea diffuses inwards an
d water follows suit to increase RBC size and ultimately it pops</div><div><br /
1475115082189 1471474183240 cellular response to osmotic challenge 1. shrin
kage activates transporters that take up solutes<div>2. Na-K-2Cl co transport, N
a/H exchange, Cl/HCO3- exchange</div><div>3. Regulatory volume decreases- swelli
ng activates channels and transporters that cause loss of solutes (K channels, C
l Channels and K-Cl co-transporters)</div><div><img src="paste-17583596109825.jp
g" /></div><div><img src="paste-17596481011713.jpg" /></div>
1475115187754 1471474183240 response to cell shrinking
<img src="paste17592186044417.jpg" />
1475115196906 1471474183240 response to cell swelling
<img src="paste17733919965185.jpg" />
1475115209185 1471474183240 electric equilibria incorporated in chemical pot
ential 2.3RTlogCi/Co+zF(psi.in-psi.out) = 0 if concentration gradient balances
out electrical gradient<div><img src="paste-18004502904833.jpg" /></div>
1475115475429 1471474183240 Nernst equation 1. change in voltage <div>2
.= 60/z log Cout/Cin</div><div><img src="paste-18167711662081.jpg" /></div>
1475115575041 1471474183240 what is the purpose of the Nernst equation?

to identify the limit of extent a chemical gradient can drive an ion across a me
mbrane for instance...<div>if 100 mM of K+ inside and 10 mM of K+ outside net di
ffusion is out until the inner membrane potential hits -60 mV<br /><div><br /></
div><div><img src="paste-18352395255809.jpg" /></div></div>
1475115750423 1471474183240 ion equilibrium potentials
membrane potenti
al at which ion would be distributed in equilibrium across cell membrane<div><im
1475115858920 1471474183240 ohm s law for membranes current across membrane
is equal to <b>membrance conductance * driving force for that ion</b><div><img s
rc="paste-18670222835713_1471474183240.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1475115941177 1471474183240 voltage and equilibrium potential relationship t
o current
1. if voltage = Ei then driving force =0, so NO current<div>2. i
f Voltage >Ei, then driving force >0 and positive ions would move OUT, neg
ative ions would move IN</div><div>3. If voltage <Ei, then driving force woul
d be <0 and positive ions would move in and negative ions would move OUT</div
>
1475116044704 1471474183240 what is current?
1. defined by direction
of movement of positive charge <div>2. direction of movement is determined
by sign of driving force</div>
1475116076459 1471474183240 outward current is a positive current
1475116098020 1471474183240 inward current 1. is a negative current<div>2.
obtain negative change in voltage and equilibrium potential</div><div>3. cations
move in and anions move out<br /><div><br /></div></div>
1475116105714 1471474183240 ohm law examples
if we assume voltage is
-90 mV then...<div>1. for potassium driving force is positive and so we have an
outward current on potassium</div><div>2. for sodium we have an inward current,
as driving force is negative so Na+ is pushed in</div><div>3. for chloride we ha
ve a negative driving force so an inward current</div><div><img src="paste-19301
583028225.jpg" /></div>
1475116404093 1471474183240 gibbs-donan equlibrium 1. situation where imper
meable ions also exert role on permeable ions<div>2. ions have to redistribute t
o come to equilibrum</div><div><img src="paste-19494856556545.jpg" /></div>
1475117685145 1471474183240 Donnan distribution
052161.jpg" /><div>r= Donnan ratio </div><div><br /></div><div>in/out for a
nions like chloride</div>
1475117714273 1471474183240 gibbs-donnan summary
1. presence of an imperm
eable ion alters distribution of permeable ions<div>2.defined by Donnan ratio: r
=[Co/Ci]^(1/z)</div><div>3. overall psi has same sign as net charge of impermeab
le ion</div><div>4. associated with osmotic pressure differences </div><div
1475117876206 1471474183240 all cells in osmotic equilibrium?
1. not q
uite, as external impermeable solute is required for osmotic solubility<div>2. N
a is effectively impermeable to inside due to Na/K pump</div><div>3. cells are i
n <b>steady state</b> in which ongoing leakage of ions is balanced by energy req
uiring ion pumps to maintain constant concentrations</div><div><img src="paste-2
0164871454721.jpg" /></div>
1475118092167 1471474183240 carrier mediated transport
can engage in ac
tive transport or diffusion<div><img src="paste-20362439950337_1471474183240.jpg
" /></div>
1475120430229 1471474183240 channel translocation 1. diffusion through a s
elective pore<div>2. transient binding of permeant with a fairly rigid structure
1475120466348 1471474183240 carrier or transporter 1. binds to site on prot
ein<div>2. large conformational change in protein carrier</div><div>3. NEVER ope
n to both sides at once</div><div><img src="paste-20568598380545.jpg" /></div>
1475120504120 1471474183240 carriers display enzyme like properties 1. satur
ability of Km and Vm<div>2. Competitive inhibition</div><div>3. Structural speci
ficity and sensitivity to inhibitors</div><div><img src="paste-20727512170497_14
71474183240.jpg" /></div>
1475120566176 1471474183240 molecular characteristics of transporters

1. membrane proteins containing multiple membrane spanning regions<div>2. bindin
g occlusion release- binds and occludes molecule from outside and releases to in
side</div><div>3. cytosolic domains are involved in protein regulation and cytos
keletal interactions for energy coupling</div><div><img src="paste-2091649073152
1.jpg" /></div>
1475120677554 1471474183240 types of transport
077441.jpg" /><div>facilitated diffusion = uniport</div><div>primary active tran
sport= energy coupling</div><div>secondary active transport= coupled to gradient
s like co/counter transport</div>
1475120741043 1471474183240 GLUT4 receptor insulin induces activation and f
usion of GLUT4 receptor into PM and with removal of insulin--> GLUT4 returns
to cytosolic location<div><img src="paste-21225728376833.jpg" /></div>
1475120817790 1471474183240 F class proton pumps
1.bacterial plasma membr
ane<div>2. located in inner mitochondrial membrane and thylakoid membrane</div><
1475158585360 1471474183240 V-class proton pumps
1. acidifies to make ins
ide of lysosome<div>2. only goes in 1 direction</div><div><img src="paste-215306
71054849.jpg" /></div>
1475158645880 1471474183240 P type proton pumps
1. phosphorylated interm
ediate required!! <div>2. found in plasma membrane of plants, fungi and bac
teria</div><div>3. Na/K pump, H/K pump, Ca2+ pump</div><div><img src="past
e-21607980466177.jpg" /></div>
1475158713030 1471474183240 ABC superfamily hydrolyzes ATP and transports mo
lecules like cholesterol, lipophilic drugs etc. <div><img src="paste-216938
79812097.jpg" /></div>
1475158754329 1471474183240 a closer look at F-type ATPases 1. found in mito
chondria, chloroplasts and bacteria<div>2. Responsible for ATP synthesis during
oxidative phosphorylation and photosynthesis</div><div>3. Multiple subunits that
can be used in alternate ways to yield proton gradient or ATP</div><div><img sr
c="paste-21796959027201.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-21809843929089.jpg" />
</div>
1475158935923 1471474183240 a closer look at V type ATPases 1. multiple subu
nits with similarity to F0-F1-ATPases<div>2. Couple ATP hydrolysis to pumping of
protons</div><div>3. Acidify the endosomal network</div><div>4. present in othe
r acid secreting cells like osteoclasts, distal tubule cells in kidney</div><div
1475159058660 1471474183240 F-ATPases vs V-ATPases F-ATPases can work in ei
ther direction<div><img src="paste-22076131901441.jpg" /></div>
1475159105027 1471474183240 Na+/K+ ATPase 1. Couples 1 ATP to move 3 Na+ o
ut and uptake 2 K+<div>2. Electrogenic--> generates a current</div><div>3 Use
gradient for secondary transport and nervous activity</div><div><img src="paste
-22144851378177.jpg" /></div>
1475159178165 1471474183240 inhibitor of Na/K ATPase
1. Cardiac glyco
sides inhibit the pump like ouabain<div>2. Increases force of cardiac contractio
n as disruption of sodium removal reduces level of calcium lost inside cell and
calcium promotes the contractility of the heart</div><div>3. Treatment for conge
stive heart failure</div>
1475159313366 1471474183240 Ca-ATPases
1. SERCA- sarco(endo)plasmic ret
iculum has a calcium efflux system in response to AP --> muscle contractility
<div>2. PMCA- plasma membrane Ca ATPase removes excess calcium</div>
1475159488976 1471474183240 SERCA and PMCA
1. 100 kDa in size<div>2
. hydrophilic domain is site of ATP binding site and phosphorylation</div><div>3
. similar reaction mechanism</div>
1475159576448 1471474183240 ABC Transporters
1. ATP-Binding cassettes
<div>2. organized by two homologous domains</div><div>3. Six membrane spanning s
egments + 1 nucleotide binding domain (NBD)</div><div><br /></div><div><img src=
div>
1475159721190 1471474183240 ABC Transporter Functions
1. found in all
higher organisms along with bacteria and yeast<div>2. Multiple drug resistance pumps out foreign substances like drug</div><div>3. Involved in Cystic fibrosis
as transmembrane regulator</div><div>4. Also involved in ER peptide transport</
1475159835523 1471474183240 Na/H exchanger 1. Sodium diffusion into cell dr
ives H+ out of cell<div>2. Type of secondary antiporting transporter</div><div><
1475159883902 1471474183240 Na/Glucose co-transporter
1. 2 Na+ in for
every glucose in <div>2. Symport system relying on Na gradient to get gluco
se in cell</div><div><img src="paste-26568667693057.jpg" /></div>
1475159980101 1471474183240 Na/Ca Exchange 3 Na+ in for 1 Ca2+ out; antipor
ter <div><img src="paste-26572962660353.jpg" /></div>
1475159981830 1471474183240 cardiac myocyte physiology
1. Na+ rushes in
to the cell upon depolarization<div>2. Ca2+ channels open in response and Ca2+ e
nters cell</div><div>3. Ca2+ binds to Ryr Receptor in SR to open up and promote
Ca2+ release</div><div>4.contraction</div><div>5. Calcium removed from cell with
PMCA or antiporter system with sodium</div><div><img src="paste-28982439313409.
jpg" /></div>
1475160127261 1471474183240 epithelial transport of glucose and sodium
1. 2 Na+ built up outside cell help drive glucose into cell on apical membrane<d
iv>2. Glucose upon entering cell can be removed via GLUT2 on basolateral membran
e</div><div>3. Na-K ATPase establishes this</div><div><img src="paste-2915853297
2545.jpg" /></div>
1475160283327 1471474183240 role of ion channels
1. ability to mediate pe
rmeability and select permeability<div>2. allows an aqueous pathway for charged
particles to diffuse across a membrane to go through fast</div><div><br /></div>
<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-29373281337345.jpg" /></div><div><br /></d
iv><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br
/></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1475160638285 1471474183240 how do ion channels work?
1. mostly by dif
fusion through aqueous pore region<div>2. ions interact with channel at a constr
icted regions called the selectivity filter</div><div>3. selectivity filter dete
rmines which ions pass through</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-293689
86370049.jpg" /></div>
1475160713651 1471474183240 selectivity filter
1. comprises a small por
tion of diffusion pathway<div>2. ultimately determines what ions pass through ch
annel and which do not</div><div><img src="paste-29630979375105.jpg" /></div>
1475160754358 1471474183240 what factors deterimine if channel is open or cl
osed? 1. voltage ones tend to be closed at RP<div>2. Ligand gated channels ope
n in response to a molecule</div>
1475160785652 1471474183240 components of an ion channel
1. channel pore
= allows a pathway for diffusion<div>2. selectivity filter determines which ions
may pass</div><div>3. gating mechanism- opens and closes channels in response t
o a signal </div><div><img src="paste-29768418328577.jpg" /></div>
1475160863396 1471474183240 how can a selectivity filter work for example wi
th potassium? 1. in selectivity filter, the carbonyl oxygen backbones replace
water<div>2. potassium is larger than sodium and can fit more snugly with the ca
rbonyl oxygens as opposed to sodium and so is taken up</div><div><img src="paste
-29961691856897.jpg" /></div>
1475160989851 1471474183240 how do channels conduct ions so rapidly?
1. incoming ions displace ions in selectivity filter through electrostatic repul
sion<div>2. Geometry insures K+ moves from one site to another with very little
energy expenditure--> passage of ions is rapid</div><div><img src="paste-3014
6375450625.jpg" /></div>
1475161182926 1471474183240 voltage gated shaker K+ channels
1. NOT s
ame ones as found in axons<div>2.6 S segments</div><div>3. S4 segment is gating
mechanisms - positively charged residues on S4 lead to conformation change with
electrical potential changes</div><div>4. Attached to S1 in cytosol is ball and
chain of a peptide that can interact with pore to inactivate it so activation is
transient</div><div><img src="paste-30429843292161.jpg" /></div>
1475161324775 1471474183240 voltage gated Na+ and Ca2+ channels

1. four
separate domains with similarity to K+ channel that are linked together to yield
one polypeptide chain<div>2. other regulatory sites on either end of combined p
olypeptide</div><div><img src="paste-30524332572673.jpg" /></div>
1475161420856 1471474183240 ligand-gated channels 1. classic example of Ac
h binding<div>2. permeable to various cations indiscriminately</div><div>3. prom
otes membrane depolarization and AP</div><div>4. Seen with other neurotransmitte
rs as well as cAMP, Ca2+, IP3</div><div><img src="paste-30816390348801.jpg" /></
div>
1475161512457 1471474183240 Ca2+ release channels-IP3
1. IP3 binds to
calcium channels in ER<div>2. Release of stored calcium which can then go on to
activate pkc</div><div><img src="paste-30992484007937.jpg" /></div>
1475161573681 1471474183240 Ryanodine receptor
1. initiates calcium rel
ease from SR<div>2. Opened by increased in calcium, or caffeine or ryanodine</di
1475161676111 1471474183240 patch clamp technique 1. pipette forms a very
tight seal with plasma membrane<div>2. currents in the tiny patch of membrane ar
e recorded by a voltage clamp</div><div><img src="paste-31202937405441.jpg" /></
div>
1475161740473 1471474183240 single K+ channel currents
1. if current go
es up in detected clamp, then potassium must be rushing out into clamp<div>2. po
sitive delta_psi = open state</div><div><img src="paste-31490700214273.jpg" /></
div><div><img src="paste-31503585116161_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1475161975705 1471474183240 Na+ Current Channels
1. depolarization or +de
lta_psi promotes opening of sodium channels<div>2. current goes down as sodium r
ushes into cell</div><div>3. but quickly current is reestablished as these chann
els are inactivated</div><div><img src="paste-31714038513665.jpg" /></div><div><
>
1475162163528 1471474183240 Na+ channel inactivation
1. involves bloc
king of pore by loops between domains III and IV<div>2. hinge lid method ~ball a
nd chain model of K+ inactivation</div><div>3. Na+ channel inactivation is essen
tial feature for action potential</div><div><img src="paste-32203664785409.jpg"
1475162251457 1471474183240 goldman-hodgkin-katz equatio
1. useful when m
ultiple ions are permeable each more or less permeable than the other<div>2. Vm=
60 log Pk[Ko]+ Pna[Nao]/(Pk[K]i+ Pna[Na]i)</div><div><img src="paste-3239264334
6433_1471474183240.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1475162433960 1471474183240 GHK equation for negative ions 1. the Cl on ins
ide is on numerator and Cl outside is in denominator<div><br /></div><div><img s
1475162533599 1471474183240 alpha value for GHK equation
ratio of permeab
ilities of ions <div><img src="paste-32581621907457.jpg" /></div>
1475162613458 1471474183240 depolarization Vm becomes more positive or less
negative than resting potential
1475162641216 1471474183240 hyperpolarization
than resting potential
1475162655894 1471474183240 K+ dependence on resting potential
increasi
ng external K+ depolarizes the membrane
1475162673503 1471474183240 action potential initiation
1. passive depol
arizing curret produces graded Vm<div>2. once threshold is reached, one gets an
all or none action potential</div><div><img src="paste-32903744454657.jpg" /></d
1475162745802 1471474183240 sodium channels and action potential initaition
1. depolarization opens Na channels<div>2. Na opening leads to further depolariz
ation and activation of more Na+ channels</div><div>3. Vm increases rapidly and
approaches ENa for sodium</div><div><img src="paste-33101312950273.jpg" /></div>
1475162848127 1471474183240 how is a resting potential reestablished?
1. Na+ channels inactive<div>2. K+ open leading to a fall of Vm below resting po
tential</div>
1475162891874 1471474183240 action potential characteristics <img src

="paste-33255931772929.jpg" />
1475162929519 1471474183240 hodgkin-huxley experiments
1. voltage clamp
studies performed to elucidate action potentials in neurons<div>2. Na+ generate
s inward current and K+ generates an outward current </div><div><img src="p
aste-33728378175489.jpg" /></div>
1475163578320 1471474183240 TTX
1. Sodium blocker used in HH experiments
<div>2. Saw only outward current due to potassium</div><div><img src="paste-3372
4083208193.jpg" /></div>
1475163599872 1471474183240 TEA
1. K+ channel blocker so only saw inward
Na+ current<div>2. inward current is below x-axis</div><div><img src="paste-337
24083208193.jpg" /></div>
1475163631689 1471474183240 HH experiment equations 1. current= conductance
of each ion*driving force or difference of voltages<div>2. model was used to sim
ulate an AP </div><div><img src="paste-34119220199425.jpg" /></div>
1475163764330 1471474183240 accomodation
if a cell is depolarized s
lowly, NO AP develops because Na+ channels inactivate and K+ channels can open-> both will prevent an initation of action potential
1475163806746 1471474183240 refractory periods
1. absolute= impossible
to elicit a second action potential (at peak)<div>2. relative= higher than usual
threshold for eliciting a second action potential (in hyperpolarization stage)<
1475163851866 1471474183240 propagation of action potential 1. depolarizatio
n spread from active region to neighboring inactive regions<div>2. traveling dow
n axon promotes Na+ channels to open</div>
1475163884500 1471474183240 cable properties
1. describes how AP move
s down axon<div>2. large axon= easer to spread down (less resistance)</div
><div>3 myelin- provides barrier to pre-leakage and allows it to initiate downst
ream</div><div><img src="paste-34621731373057.jpg" /></div>
1475163957777 1471474183240 Donnan equilibrium key points 1. product of co
ncentration of diffusible ions on one side of membrane = product of concentratio
n of diffusible ions on other side<div>2. ONLY applies to situations with passiv
e distribution</div><div><br /></div>
1475542323621 1471474183240 OUTWARD CURRENT 1. Get a positive voltage differ
ence<div>2. More positive, extroverted= outward</div><div>3. Typically, in such
a situation positive ions move out and negative ions move in</div>
1475542416115 1471474183240 are cells in equilibrium?
not quite, but r
ather a steady state...<div>1. some leakage and movement of ions across membrane
</div><div>2. however, ion pumps maintain steady state</div>
1475543943861 1471474183240 oubain 1.glycoside that inhibits the Na+K+ pump
from the outside<div>2. increase levels of calcium and so promote extended cont
raction</div><div>3. can counteract drug with increased levels of K+ </div>
1475545673253 1471474183240 calcium pumps 1. SERCA pumps calcium into SR<d
iv>2. PMCA- removes calcium from cell</div>
1475545895168 1471474183240 GLUT2 found on basolateral membrane and transf
ers glucose from columnar cells to inside intestine<div><img src="paste-60722247
630849.jpg" /></div>
1475545984812 1471474183240 functional units of a channel 1. channel pore=
aqueous pathway for diffusion<div>2. selectivity filter- determines which ions
permeate</div><div>3. gating mechanism- opens and closes channels in response to
some signal</div><div><img src="paste-61001420505089.jpg" /></div>
1475546322829 1471474183240 shaker K+ channels
1. P loop forms pore and
selectivity filter<div>2. S4 segment is a gating mechanism with charged r
esidues that leads to conformational changes</div><div>3. inactivation mechanism
= 19 AA N terminal on S1 pops into pore</div><div><img src="paste-62680752717825
.jpg" /></div>
1475546513448 1471474183240 ryanodine receptor
opened by increased card
iac calcium, caffeine, ryanodine
1475546703135 1471474183240 hinged lid method
Na inactivation gates cl
ose in similar method to ball and chain- block of pore by loop of domains III an
d IV (ISO-PHE-ME)<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-62998580297729.jpg" /></d

iv>
1475547479616 1471474183240 why does the peak at membrane potential not skyr
ocket? 1. inactivation gates<div>2. K+ equilibrium needs to be established</div
>
1475679519080 1471474183240 catabolic factors increase levels of glucose
1. glucagon<div>2. epinephrine</div><div>3. cortisol</div><div>4. growth hormone
s</div>
1475679625019 1471474183240 anabolic factors decrease glucose serum levels
1. insulin
1475679639776 1471474183240 tight control of glucose regulation
1. insul
in production decreases above 80 mg/dL<div>2. at lower blood glucose levels, epi
nephrine, and glucagon production increases</div><div><img src="paste-4973572128
769_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1475679761437 1471474183240 low glucose consequences (need for tight control
)
1. adrenergic symptoms result: anxiety, tremors, sweating<div>2. more se
vere neuroglycopenia- headache, confusion, slurred speech, seizures</div>
1475679813511 1471474183240 levels of sugar in diabetics
1. >126 mg/dL
in fasting <div>2. >200 mg/dL random </div><div><br /></div><div><
1475679867064 1471474183240 insulin/glucagon ratio 1. ratios of insulin and
other hormones (glucagon) regulate tissue specific metabolism <div>2
. dependent on various nutritional states</div>
1475679933221 1471474183240 glucose consumption pancreatic effect stimulat
es insulin production from beta cells of pancreas<div><img src="paste-5643587026
945.jpg" /></div>
1475680020964 1471474183240 functions of liver in glucose metabolism
1. synthesizes glycogen, FAs, ketone bodies<div>2. takes up glucose after a meal
</div><div>3. degrades glycogen </div><div>4. undergoes gluconeogenesis dur
ing fasting</div>
1475680099706 1471474183240 activated liver pathways in response to glucose
1. increase in glycogen synthesis (glycogen synthase)<div>2. increase in g
lycolysis (Pyruvate DH) </div><div>3. increase in pentose phosphate pathway
(HMP- G-6-P DH) </div><div>4. increase in FAS (ACC)</div><div><img src="pa
ste-6335076761601.jpg" /></div>
1475680570142 1471474183240 downregulated liver pathways in response to an i
ncrease in glucose
1. reduced gluconeogenesis<div>2. reduced glycogenolysis
</div><div>3. reduced fat breakdown</div>
1475680614635 1471474183240 role of muscle in glucose metabolism
1. synth
esizes glycogen and protein<div>2. takes up glucose after a meal</div><div>3. us
es FAs and ketone bodies as energy source</div><div>4. Releases AA during fastin
g</div>
1475680661649 1471474183240 activated pathways in resting skeletal muscle&nb
sp;
1. increase in glycolysis<div>2. increase in glycogen synthesis</div><di
v>3. increase in protein synthesis</div><div><img src="paste-6721623818241.jpg"
/></div>
1475680720660 1471474183240 repressed pathway in resting skeletal muscle whe
n increase in glucose <b><u> decrease in glycogen breakdown</u></b>
1475680782844 1471474183240 role of adipose tissue in response to glucose
1. synthesizes TAGs<div>2. takes up glucose after a meal </div><div>3. hydr
olyzes TAGs during fasting</div>
1475680915927 1471474183240 repressed pathway in adipose tissue in response
to glucose
decrease in glycogen breakdown
1475680939139 1471474183240 brain and glucose
1. primarily relies on g
lucose when fed<div>2. after starving for 2-3 weeks, converts source to ketone b
odies</div><div><img src="paste-7494717931521.jpg" /></div>
1475680984531 1471474183240 receptor structure and function 1. selec
tive extracellular domain = ligand binding domain<div>2. hydrophobic transmembra
ne domain = anchor for receptor in membrane and couples LBD to intracellular dom
ain</div><div>3. cytoplasmi/intracellular domain= effector domain</div><div><img
src="paste-7687991459841.jpg" /></div>
1475681078682 1471474183240 insulin activity on receptor tyrosine kinase&nbs
p;
1. insulin dimer binds to RTK inactive dimer<div>2. activates dimer to p
romote<b> intrinsic</b> phosphorylation of tyrosines</div><div>3. recruits adapt
or proteins for downstream effect</div><div><img src="paste-7975754268673.jpg" /
></div>
1475681228660 1471474183240 intrinsic enzyme
substrate is receptor or
part of it as in RTK
1475681267841 1471474183240 Roles of RTK in the cell
1. carbohydrate
utilization and protein synthesis<div>2. regulation of cell growth and survival<
/div><div>3. angiogenesis</div>
1475681309981 1471474183240 how do adaptors relay and activate subsequent pa
thways? monomeric G-proteins
1475681394706 1471474183240 RTK-activated adapter protein cascade 1. RAS G
-protein is activated with substituion of GTP<div>2. Ras activates Kinase I (MAP
KKK/RAF)</div><div>3. MAPKKK phosphorylates kinase II (MAPKK/MEK) to activate it
</div><div>4. MAPKK phosphorylates kinase III (MAPK/ERK) to activate it</div><di
v>5. MAPK activates downstream proteins and transcription factors via phosphoryl
ation</div><div><img src="paste-8422430867457_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1475681546996 1471474183240 enzymes with intrinsic activity besides RTK...
1. TGF-B - serine kinases and involved with BMPs<div>2. Receptor guanylyl cyclas
es- create 2nd messenger cGMP</div>
1475681610978 1471474183240 starvation and post meal summary of hormone
effects
<div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-111926847
73377.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /
1475681674835 1471474183240 liver activity during fasting 1. increase in g
lycogen breakdown (glycogen phosphorylase)<div>2. increase in gluconeogenesis (f
ructose 1,6-bisphosphatase, PEP carboxykinase, pyruvate carboxylase)</div><div>3
. increase in FAO (CPT-1)</div><div>4. increase in ketone body synthesis</div><d
iv><br /></div><div><img src="paste-11733850652673.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div
>
1475681819878 1471474183240 starvation effects on adipose tissue
1. incre
ased TAG degradation<div>2. increased fatty acid and glycerol release</div><div>
3. decrease in fatty acid uptake</div><div><img src="paste-11845519802369.jpg" /
></div>
1475681888183 1471474183240 starvation effects on muscles 1. use of fatty
acids and ketone bodies<div>2. protein breakdown --> AA for liver gluconeoges
is </div><div><img src="paste-11931419148289.jpg" /></div>
1475681936020 1471474183240 kidney and starvation 1. kidney produces 40% o
f glucose during starvation state<div><img src="paste-12013023526913.jpg" /></di
v>
1475681990958 1471474183240 differences between diabetes and starvation
1. diabetes has high glucose levels vs starvation= low glucose levels<div>2. dia
betes- absent or normal insulin vs starvation = low insulin</div><div>3. diabete
s- increased hunger, thirst, and urination vs starvation= increase in hunger</di
v>
1. polyphagia- i
1475682060842 1471474183240 the three P s of diabetes
ncrease in hunger<div>2. polydypsia - increase in thirst</div><div>3. polyuria increase in urination</div>
1475682097793 1471474183240 similarities between starvation and diabetes
both increase fatty acid oxiation, inc formation of ketone bodies, decrease prot
ein synthesis and increase gluconeogenesis in liver
1475682132576 1471474183240 type I diabetes 1. Deficiency in insulin<div>2.
leads to hyperglycemia</div><div>3. increase in ketone bodies as cells cannot ta
ke in glucose as energy</div><div><img src="paste-12524124635137.jpg" /></div>
1475682214086 1471474183240 type II diabetes
1. decreased response to
insulin <div>2. insulin is PRODUCED</div><div>3. less glycogenesis, more g
luconeogenesis, less muscle and fat glucose uptake, insulin resistance</div><div
1475682321142 1471474183240 increased risk of developing type II diabetes

1. central or abdominal obesity<div>2. high fasting blood triglycerides</div><di
v>3. low blood HDL</div><div>4. high BP</div><div>5. High but not diabetic fasti
ng glucose</div><div><br /></div>
1475682382292 1471474183240 genetic diabetes (maturity onset diabetes of the
young) 1. TFs that control expression of metabolism genes<div>2. metabolic enzy
me changes</div><div>3. signaling defects</div><div>*DIFFERENT FROM TYPE 1 OR 2<
/div>
1475682555643 1471474183240 role of metformin in diabetes 1. metformin act
ivates AMPK<div>2. AMPK promotes glycolysis in liver and glucose uptake in muscl
e</div><div><img src="paste-13035225743361.jpg" /></div>
1475682603357 1471474183240 HbA1C levels
1. HBA1C can be glycosylated by
free glucose<div>2. BUT this reaction is irreversible so can stay in system for
awhile</div><div>3. good way to check compliance of diabetics with diet...</div>
1475682663749 1471474183240 signatures of DM1
1. childhood or puberty
onset<div>2. normal weight </div><div>3. moderate genetic predispostion</di
v><div>4. Beta cells destroyed, no insulin produced</div><div>5. Insulin replace
ment </div>
1475682723813 1471474183240 DM II signatures
1. usually affects those
beyond age of 35<div>2. associated with obesity</div><div>3. very strong geneti
c predisposition</div><div>4. insulin resistance with abnormal insulin levels</d
iv><div>5. treat with diet, exercise, oral hypoglycemic drugs</div>
1475682874080 1471474183240 what directly inhibits glucose production in liv
er cell?
1. alcohol<div>2. promotes anerobic pathway to yield NADH to inh
ibit glucose production</div>
1475682919045 1471474183240 what is main substrate for RTK? cytoplasmic doma
in
1475684137763 1471474183240 hormone classification by receptors
1. intri
nsic enzyme activity<div>2. associated enzyme activity</div><div>3. G-protein co
upled receptors </div><div>4. receptors that stimulate intracellular protei
n cleavage</div>
1475684188386 1471474183240 cytokine receptors
1. shows associated enzy
me activity<div>2. small and similarly structured cytokines</div><div>3. EPO--&g
t; increases erythrocyte production</div><div>4. inteferons- increase virus resi
stance</div><div>5. GMCSF - increase granulocytes and macrophage production</div
><div>6. interleukins control T and B cell differentiation</div><div><img src="p
aste-13984413515777.jpg" /></div>
1475684282682 1471474183240 interferons and cytokine receptors
increase
virus resistance<div><br /></div>
1475684299178 1471474183240 erythropoietin (epo) and cytokine receptors
promote increased production of erythtrocytes<div><br /></div>
1475684318279 1471474183240 GMSCF and cytokine receptors
promote increase
s in granulocytes and macrophage production
1475684338521 1471474183240 interleukins
control T and B cell differentia
tion
1475684351836 1471474183240 cytokine receptor mode of action
cytokine
binding activates associated kinases that bind to intracellular domain
1475684391425 1471474183240 a closer look at cytokine binding 1. ligan
d binding activates JAK kinase to phosphorylate receptor and JAK kinase<div>2. S
TAT binds and is phosphorylated to become active</div><div>3. active STAT dimer
forms that has exposed nuclear localization signals</div><div>4. activated phosp
ho-STAT enters nucleus to induce transcription</div><div><img src="paste-1449980
9591297.jpg" /></div>
1475684492199 1471474183240 receptors that lack enzyme activity
1. G-pro
tein coupled receptors - transmembrane receptors- glucagon, ACTH, TSH, LH, FSH<d
iv>2. Receptors that stimulate intracellular protein cleaves (TNF, IL-1)</div>
1475684554222 1471474183240 molecular switches
1. phosphorylation- phos
phorylated intermediate is active while unphosphorylated intermediate is off<div
>2. G-proteins- typically GTP bound protein is active and hydrolyzed GDP protein
in inactive</div><div><img src="paste-14731737825281.jpg" /></div>
1475684636271 1471474183240 glucagon cellular activity

1. heterotrimer
activity<div>2. glucagon binding promotes separation of alpha unit from beta and
gamma subunit</div><div>3. alpha unit binds to GTP to become activated --> t
urns on adenylyl cyclase</div><div>4. adenylyl cyclase creates cAMP</div><div>5.
cAMP activates pKA</div><div><img src="paste-14916421419009.jpg" /></div>
1475684755754 1471474183240 roles of cAMP 1. fuel metabolism = glycogen an
d fat breakdown and halts glycogen synthesis<div>2. mineral metabolism- PTH incr
eases cAMP to promote bone resorption and increase calcium uptake in kidney</div
>
1475684844359 1471474183240 abnormal PTH signaling in G-protein
leads to
obesity, PTH resistance, hypocalcemia, hyperphosphatemia, short stature and sex
ual immaturity<div><img src="paste-15178414424065_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1475684922334 1471474183240 albright hereditary osteodystrophy- pseudohypopa
rathyroidism (PHP)
1. subcutaneous ossification<div>2. PTH normally increas
es cAMP in urine but NOT in PHP</div><div>3. Target tissue is unresponsive due t
o defect in G-protein</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-15328738279425.
jpg" /></div>
1475685017264 1471474183240 Major G-protein activated path with Ach, vasopre
ssin or thrombin
1. Ach/vasopressin or thrombin bind<div>2. alpha subunit
activated with GTP to activate PLP-C</div><div>3. PLP-C cleaves to yield IP3 an
d DAG</div><div>4. IP3 promotes calcium release by ER and DAG activates PKC</div
1475685112765 1471474183240 roles of calcium ions 1. stimulates muscle con
tractions<div>2. secretion of gastric enzymes, hormones or neurotransmitters</di
v>
1475685161892 1471474183240 reversible changes in pathways 1. phosphatases
counteract kinases<div>2. 2nd messenger elevation is fleeting</div><div>3. GTP h
ydrolysis by intrinsic GTPase activity inactivates G proteins</div>
1475685211589 1471474183240 inflammatory cytokines and protein cleavage
1. TNF-alpha or IL-1 bind to receptors <div>2. I-kBa normally inactivates N
F-k-Beta but ligand binding promotes phosphorylation and ubiquitylation of I-kBa
so it can be degraded by proteosome </div><div>3. NF-k-B is active and can
turn on genes in nucleus</div><div><img src="paste-15861314224129.jpg" /></div>
1475685336325 1471474183240 TNF-alpha roles 1. can activate NF-kB<div>2. pro
mote activity DISC to activate caspase protease cascade to ultimately lead to ce
ll death</div><div><img src="paste-15938623635457.jpg" /></div>
1475685397484 1471474183240 other important receptors that cause protein cle
avage 1.Wnt receptors<div>2. hedgehog receptors</div><div>3. notch receptors</
div>
1475685417354 1471474183240 End-pathway inactivation
1. rapid removal
of 2nd messengers - like cAMP phosphodiesterase and continuous pumping of Ca2+<
div>2. phosphatases</div><div>3. GTP hydrolysis</div>
1475685535129 1471474183240 end pathway adaptation 1. receptor sequestratio
n<div>2. degradation of receptor</div><div>3. receptor inactivation</div><div>4.
inactivation of signaling protein</div><div>5. production of inhibitory protein
s</div><div><img src="paste-16260746182657.jpg" /></div>
1475685587262 1471474183240 malformation
1. defect that results from intr
insically abnormal developmental process <div>2. caused by genetic factors<
/div>
1475685680491 1471474183240 deformation
1. abnormal form, shape or posit
ion of a part of the body<div>2. results from mechanical forces</div><div><br />
</div>
1475685702690 1471474183240 disruption
1. morphological defect that res
ults from interference with normal development<div>2. caused by teratogens like
drugs and viruses</div><div>3. not inherited but susceptibility can be inherited
</div>
1475685765404 1471474183240 syndrome
1. group of anomalies that occur
together with a specific common cause <div>2. specific diagnoses</div>
1475685807069 1471474183240 association
two or more anomalies that occur
together more often than by chance but with an unknown cause
1475685827380 1471474183240 rubinstein taybi sydrome

1. disruption of
common developmental processes<div>2. mutation of CREB binding protein </d
iv>
1475685914024 1471474183240 fetal alcohol syndrome 1. result from genetic a
nd environmental factors<div>2. craniofacial anomalies- microcephaly, short nose
</div><div>3. congential heart disease</div>
1475685961377 1471474183240 why does alcohol lead to CHD? 1. alcohol can a
ffect neural crest cells<div>2. disruptions in nerves, bones, and cardiovascular
system</div>
1475686005967 1471474183240 key point of syndromes disruption of many struc
tures through a common developmental process
1475686026891 1471474183240 teratogen
disrupt development at defined c
ritical stages<div><img src="paste-17162689314817.jpg" /></div>
1475686070340 1471474183240 principles of teratology
1. dose/duration
response- a defined dose exists below which teratogen does not cause anomalies,
increase dose, increase severity<div>2. critical periods for development</div><
div>3. biologic plausibility- does it disrupt a known developmental process</div
><div>4. genotype influences susceptibility</div>
1475686137240 1471474183240 zika virus a teratogen? YES<div>1. Affects criti
cal periods of development</div><div>2. biologic plausibility</div>
1475686180660 1471474183240 role of retinol (vitamin A) as teratogen
1. Deficiency can increase cancer risk, blindness, reproductive issues<div>2. us
ed as isotretinonin in acne</div><div>3. TOO much is teratogenic</div>
1475686254251 1471474183240 retinoids are dangerous...
activate develop
m. gene expression via nuclear hormone receptors<div><br /></div>
1475686302056 1471474183240 categories of teratogens
1. recreational
drugs<div>2. legal drugs</div><div>3. radiation</div><div>4. maternal infections
</div><div>5. environmental contaminants</div><div>6. maternal disease states</d
iv>
1475686345967 1471474183240 determining if baby will be harmed by teratogen
1. what was nature of exposure?<div>2. what is agent identified as?</div><div>3.
when did exposure occur?</div><div>4. what was the exposure (above or below kno
wn threshold)</div><div>5. were there any other signficant medical problems</div
><div>6. what is the medical and reproductive history of the mom and family</div
>
1475686416901 1471474183240 splotch mutation 1. Waardenburg syndrom i
n human (heterozygotes)<div>2. white spotting of ventral structures due to neura
l crest migration defects</div>
1475686483682 1471474183240 mutant Pax3 homozygotes 1. neural tube defects d
ue to neural plate fusion<div>2. congenital heart defects due to cranial neural
crest migration defects</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-1831374055014
5.jpg" /></div>
1475690675821 1471474183240 negative interaction between environment and gen
es
1. severity of Splotch or Pax3 is exacerbated by retinoids or alcohol co
nsumption
1475690733643 1471474183240 positive interaction of environment and genotype
folic acid prevents neural tube defects in splotch embryos
1475690753763 1471474183240 background on HOX
1. encode proteins that
regulate transcription<div>2. HOX=homeobox</div><div>3. encodes homeodomain that
binds enhancer elements</div><div>4. EXPRESSION CORRESPONDS TO ORDER ON CHROMOS
OME</div>
1475690832992 1471474183240 HOX gene arrangement
1. highly conserved<div>
2. going from left to right for Hox1 to Hox7 (anterior to posterior)</div><div><
1475690906865 1471474183240 invertebrates HOX genes 1.flies have homologs to
Hox and replications in middle<div><img src="paste-18906446036993.jpg" /></div>
1475690966913 1471474183240 pattern of HOX protein is a code indicating...
relative anterior-posterior positioning
1475691002551 1471474183240 if move Hox gene to another position then...
it will express that region in distinctive position<div><img src="paste-19121194
401793.jpg" /></div>
1475691091843 1471474183240 what happens if Hox gene is deleted?
prior ad
jacent left hox gene will replace it and form its corresponding structure
1475691117000 1471474183240 myostatin
muscle growth inhibitor; loss of
which leads to super muscular infants
1475691176068 1471474183240 holoprosencephaly
developmental defect tha
t may be related to environmental factors including Vitamin A excess or genetic
factors
1475691201096 1471474183240 sonic hedgehog gene mutation
can lead to a wi
de variety of symptoms in terms of holoprosenchepaly
1475691242686 1471474183240 what is a hormone?
1. chemical messengers<d
iv>2. produced in one organ and typically exerts its effect to another</div><div
>3. activated by external signal</div>
1475691593281 1471474183240 cortisol basics 1. 21 C<div>2. Synthesized in ad
renal gland</div><div>3. Affects liver by promoting gluconeogenesis enzymes</div
><div><img src="cortisol.jpg" /></div>
1475691704243 1471474183240 aldosterone basics
1. 21C <div>2. synt
hesized in adrenal glands</div><div>3. affects the kidney </div><div>4. Pro
motes Na+ reabsorption and K+ excretion</div><div>5. carbonyl at C18</div><div><
img src="2000px-Aldosterone-2D-skeletal.svg.png" /></div>
1475691777665 1471474183240 testosterone basics
1. 19C <div>2. made
in testes and adrenal glands</div><div>3. increases muscle mass</div><div><img
src="TestosteroneJPG.jpg" /></div>
1475691853894 1471474183240 estradiol basics
1. 18C<div>2. Made in ov
ary and some in adrenal</div><div>3. affects uterus by increasing uterine mass&n
bsp;</div><div><img src="1669.jpg" /></div>
1475691935242 1471474183240 basal structure of cholesterol 1. 4 fused rings
<div>2. No side chains of hydrocarbon</div><div><img src="Cholesterol.gif"
/></div>
1475691978695 1471474183240 cholesterol numbering scheme
<img src="ballgo
b-fig17_013.jpg" />
1475692019990 1471474183240 cortisol structure
1. 3 OH groups<d
iv>2.C21, C17 and C11 are position of groups</div><div><img src="pict343.gif" />
</div><div>3. essential for gluconeogenic activity</div>
1475692172750 1471474183240 aldosterone structure 1. OH at C11 and C21<div
><b>2. Unique feature of aldehyde at C18</b></div><div><img src="Aldosterone.gif
" /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><d
iv><br /></div>
1475692281445 1471474183240 Estradiol structure
1. C17 has OH<div>2. ARO
MATIC phenolic ring in bottom left six membered ring group</div><div><br /></div
><div><img src="800px-Estradiol.png" /></div>
1475692397962 1471474183240 testosterone structure 1. C17 has OH group<div>
2. ring structure has one double bond compared to phenolic estradiol</div><div><
img src="TestosteroneJPG.jpg" /></div>
1475692456559 1471474183240 synthesis of cortisol 1. stress activates hypo
thalamus<div>2. hypothalamus releases corticotropin releasing factor (CRF)</div>
<div>3. CRF acts on pituitary to activate it</div><div>4. Pituitary releases ACT
H which acts on adrenal gland to release cortisol</div><div><img src="paste-2260
4412878849.jpg" /></div>
1475692560530 1471474183240 a closer look at role of ACTH 1. ACTH = peptid
e hormone<div>2. when stimulated by pituitary it activates desmolase</div><div>3
. desmolase splits side chain of cholesterol to yield unit needed</div>
1475692679209 1471474183240 overproduction of ACTH 1. First 13 AA of
ACTH ~melanocyte stimulating hormone<div>2. overproduction of ACTH--><b> skin
darkening</b> as the similarity is strong enough for ACTH to bind to melanocyte
receptors</div><div>3. Addison s disease results</div><div><br /></div><div><im
1475692789430 1471474183240 hydroxyl groups on cortisol
C17, C21, C11<di
v><img src="Cortisol (1).jpg" /></div>
1475692816031 1471474183240 hydroxyl groups on aldosterone C21, C11<d
iv><img src="Aldosterone.gif" /></div>

1475692834631 1471474183240 hydroxyl groups on estradiol and testosterone
C17
1475692847459 1471474183240 testosterone and estradiol transport
bind to
sex hormone-binding globulin to trigger activity
1475692890026 1471474183240 cortisol means of transport
binds to cortico
steroid binding globulin
1475692912522 1471474183240 how are steroids specific to target?
high aff
inity for specific intracellular receptors
1475692941240 1471474183240 steroid hormone receptor
1. DNA BD<div>2.
hormone binding domain</div><div>3. may also have coactivators adjacent</div><d
1475693012488 1471474183240 coactivators on steroid receptors
1. may b
e HATS<div>2. may affect RNA poly II</div><div><img src="paste-23557895618561.jp
g" /></div>
1475693044419 1471474183240 breast tumors ER+
Respond to hormone
ablative therapy
1475693077184 1471474183240 hormone therapy for breast tumors
1. tamox
ifen- premenopausal-> inhibit estrogen from binding<div>2. aromatase inhibito
rs= in post-menopausal women to prevent synthesis of estrogen ( can have side ef
fects)</div>
1475693142992 1471474183240 peptides vs steroid hormones
1. peptides much
heavier<div>2. peptides= membrane receptors vs steroids= cytoplasmic/nuclear re
ceptors</div><div>3.peptides act in minutes vs steroid= act within hours</div><d
iv>4. peptides = activate enzymes vs steroids = affect transcription</div>
1475693206024 1471474183240 what does calcium even do?
1. important for
skeletal formations<div>2. important in muscle contractions</div><div>3. good f
or nerve pulse transmission</div><div>4. secretion of hormones</div><div>5. inte
racts with calmodulin to activate ATPase</div>
1475693648514 1471474183240 normal serum level of calcium 10 mg/100 mL
1475693698655 1471474183240 what 3 tissues maintain normal calcium levels?
1. kidney<div>2. bone</div><div>3. intestines</div>
1475693719776 1471474183240 PTH role on serum calcium
1. increases it<
div>2. PTH is synthesized in the PT gland by chief cells</div><div>3. low calciu
m levels turns on transcription, translation and synthesis of PTH in gland vs HI
GH calcium--> low activity of PT gland</div><div><img src="paste-251169687470
1475693867060 1471474183240 form of PTH
1. Pre Pro PTH<div>2. Pro PTH</d
iv><div>3. PTH</div>
1475693877305 1471474183240 mode of action of PTH on bone 1. PTH binds to
receptor on osteoblast<div>2. osteoblasts are induced to secrete <b>osteoclast d
ifferentiating factors RANKL </b>that interacts with <b>preosteoclasts </b>to yi
eld high osteoclasts in bone</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-25293062
406145.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><br
/></div>
1475693984132 1471474183240 mode of PTH action on kidney
1. increases cal
cium reabsorption at distal tubule<div>2. decreases phosphate reabsorption on pr
oximal and distal tubule</div>
1475694036235 1471474183240 parathyroid hormone gene related peptide (PTHrP)
1. can be found in lung or kidney tumors<div>2. responsible for hypercalcemia</d
iv>
1475694082285 1471474183240 PTH effect on intestines?
1. NO direct eff
ect<div>2. do observe increases in intestinal Ca2+ absorption due to PTH acting
on kidney to increase synthesis of Vitamin D</div>
1475694132065 1471474183240 calcitonin background 1. produced in C cells o
f thyroid<div>2. 3000 mw</div><div>3. mainly affects bone</div>
1475694182113 1471474183240 calcitonin effect on bone
1. inhibits oste
oclastic bone resorption<div>2. does so by shrinking osteoclasts-> lowers ser
um Ca2+</div>
1475694247331 1471474183240 calcitonin effects on kidney
1. Increases Ca2
+ excretion <div>2. ONLY at supra-physiological concentrations</div>

1475694288788 1471474183240 calcitonin effect on intestine? 1. no effect for
calcium<div>2. inhibits gastrin secretion</div>
1475694308605 1471474183240 vitamin D metabolism
1. 7-dehydrocholesterol
with UV yields vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) also derived from diet<div>2. Vitami
n D binding protein at liver hydroxylates at position 25</div><div>3. goes to ki
dney to get hydroxylated at 1C--> 1,25 OH2 D3 or calciferol or active Vitamin
D </div><div><img src="paste-26147760898049.jpg" /></div>
1475694460466 1471474183240 PTH role with vitamin D 1.. PTH increases activi
ty of 1 hydroxylase in kidney<div>2. Promotes more active Vitamin D formation</d
iv>
1475694505161 1471474183240 vitamin D3 role on intestine
1.binds to intra
cellular receptor and turns on genes<div>2. activates Ca2+ binding protein genes
3. activates TRPV6 Ca2+ channel gene for intestinal Ca2+ transport</div><div>4.
Also promotes increased calcium and phosphorous absorption</div>
1475694603606 1471474183240 vitamin D effect on bone
1. stimulates in
crease in number of osteoclasts<div>2. intracellular receptors for Vitamin D in
OSTEOBLASTS turns on genes for RANKL--> promote increase in in osteoclasts</d
iv>
1475694667724 1471474183240 vitamin D effect on kidney
enhances action
of PTH at distal tubule to increase calcium reabsorption
1475694694710 1471474183240 summary of calcium metabolism
<img src
="paste-26663156973569.jpg" />
1475781388941 1471474183240 drug nomenclature
1. chemical name= scient
ific naming<div>2. generic name = developed by drug company- no set rules and is
universal</div><div>3. trade name- each company chooses name to sell on market<
/div><div><br /></div><div>*FOCUS on generic names</div>
1475781487878 1471474183240 defining a class of drugs
defined by mode
of action
1475781507998 1471474183240 impetus for creation of FDA
1. No regulation
and kids dying from sulfanilamide antibiotic ethylene glycol solvent<div>2. 193
8 FDA established</div>
1475781566521 1471474183240 efficacious by FDA standards
drug must empirc
ally demonstrate the role researchers claim it has
1475781593282 1471474183240 safety of drug as per FDA regulation
determin
ed by risk-benefit analysis; if no other drug like it on the market that targets
a previously untreated/uncured disease, less strict standards
1475781640741 1471474183240 features of pharmacokinetics
1. absorption<di
v>2. distribution</div><div>3. biotransformation</div><div>4. excretion</div><di
1475781684603 1471474183240 features of pharmacodynamics
1. drug effects<
div>2. mechanisms of action</div><div><img src="paste-84344567758849.jpg" /></di
v>
1475781697647 1471474183240 drug receptor any biological macromolecules th
at a drug interact where interaction initiates reactions leading to a response i
n an organism
1475781740068 1471474183240 classical/physiological drug receptors 1. ion c
hannels<div>2. G-protein</div><div>3. Ligand gated</div><div>4 intracellul
ar receptors</div>
1475781803373 1471474183240 local anasthetic effect on voltage gated Na+ cha
nnels 1. unionized form of anaesthetic must diffuse into membrane and become i
onized in cell<div>2. ionized form can enter channel and block it from working</
1475781884938 1471474183240 drugs acting at steroid receptor 1. take
several hours <div>2. affects transcription and so protein levels will chan
ge more slowly</div>
1475781914993 1471474183240 warfarin example as non-classical receptor drug
target 1. Warfarin disrupts blood clotting by inhibiting activity of vitamin K
reductase<div>2. descarboxyprothrombin is converted to prothrombin via carboxyla
tion in an oxidation reduction step of reduced vitamin K to Vitamin K epoxide</d
iv><div>3. Vitamin K epoxide reductase recycles reduced vitamin K for cycle by o

xidizing NADH</div><div>4. WARFARIN INHIBITS vitamin K epoxide reductase</div><d
1475782074114 1471474183240 dopamine transporter system -NON classical recep
tor system
1. DAT pumps dopamine back into neuron from synapse<div>2. AMPH
causes transport to run in reverse to promote dopamine release</div><div>3. DAT=
drug receptor</div><div><img src="paste-85070417231873.jpg" /></div>
1475782183305 1471474183240 non-receptor mediated actions of drugs 1. neutr
alization of stomach acid via bicarbonate<div>2. metal chelators recruit heavy m
etals to excrete like lead</div><div><img src="paste-85203561218049.jpg" /></div
1475782274397 1471474183240 assumptions in receptor binding kinetics
1. binding is reversible<div>2. all drug is either bound or free</div><div>3. al
l receptors have equal affinity for drug</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-85315230367745.jpg" /></div>
1475782324586 1471474183240 LR equilibrium equation 1. Total receptor*ligand
concentration/ (Kd + Ligand concentration)<div>2. Kd= binding affinity = k<sub>
-1</sub>/k<sub>1</sub></div><div>3. Produces a rectangular hyperbola</div><div><
sub><br /></sub></div><div><sub><img src="paste-85843511345153.jpg" /></sub></di
v>
1475782513096 1471474183240 Kd
1. measure of binding affinity (k<sub>-1
</sub>/k<sub>1</sub>)<div>2. level where 50% is [LR] state</div><div>3. Lower Kd
, the higher the affinity as k1 would be larger as it the association constant</
div>
1475782604390 1471474183240 graded dose response relationships
1. quant
ifies magnitude of response as function of dose<div>2. can be done with single p
erson or population</div><div>3. Response = (Emax*dose)/ (EC50+dose) </div>
<div>4. Get rectangular hyperbola - characterized by how much drug is bound to r
eceptor</div><div><img src="paste-86273008074753.jpg" /></div>
1475782738574 1471474183240 comparison of Kd vs EC50
1. Kd determined
by structures of drug and receptor<div>2. EC50- determined by structures of dru
g and receptor and by pharmacokinetics</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1475782787107 1471474183240 comparison of R<sub>t</sub> AND E<sub>max</sub>
1. Rt = determined by total number of receptors<div>2. Emax- determined by total
number of receptors and drug pharmacokinetics</div>
1475782858826 1471474183240 potency vs efficacy
1. potency = one drug ha
s a lower EC50 than another- able to reach Emax faster<div>2. efficacy one drug
has higher Emax than the other</div><div><img src="paste-86736864542721.jpg" /><
/div>
1475782983101 1471474183240 full agonist
1. A on curve<div>2. hits 100% r
esponse</div><div><img src="paste-86839943757825.jpg" /></div>
1475783040196 1471474183240 partial agonists
able to elicit response
but not 100% or full response (B+C)<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-8693443
3038337.jpg" /></div>
1475783074150 1471474183240 antagonist
no response elicited- acts to bl
ock normal response (D)<div><img src="paste-86930138071041.jpg" /></div>
1475783093468 1471474183240 how can drug acting at same receptor have differ
ent efficacies? 1. different models of interactions<div>2. Induced fit (99% of d
rugs)</div><div>3. Conformation selected model</div>
1475783176847 1471474183240 induced fit model
1. when drug binds to re
ceptor--> conformation changes to elicit a biological effect<div><img src="pa
ste-87205015977985.jpg" /></div>
1475783222310 1471474183240 tamoxifen role in induced fit for estrogen recep
tors in 1. mimics estradiol and bind to ER --> causes it to dimerize and ente
rs nucleus<div>2. NO coregulators (acetylases) are able to bind--> so no tran
scription of estrogen gene--> estrogen dependent breast cancer cells die</div
><div><img src="paste-87449829113857.jpg" /></div><div>3. at uterine lining it i
s a partial agonist so much lower activity as it doesnt bind as well</div>
1475783397312 1471474183240 conformation selected model
1. constitutive
(basal) receptor activity<div>2. receptor without ligand can exist in two forms:
closed (R) or open (R ) that are in constant equilibrium</div><div><img src="pa

ste-87703232184321.jpg" /></div>
1475783532088 1471474183240 constituent activity
small number of receptor
s open without ligand
1475783594615 1471474183240 agonist role in constituent activity
1. agoni
st binds to R open state to stabilize it<div>2. Pulls it out of the equilibrium
system to drive the system to the right to yield more R </div><div>3. Full agon
ist would therefore stabilize LR state</div><div><img src="paste-90215788052481
.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1475783706029 1471474183240 partial agonist in two state conformational sele
cted model
1. binds not only to R but also to R<div>2. Elicits both LR and
LR formation but mainly LR </div><div><img src="paste-90301687398401.jpg" /></
div>
1475783745731 1471474183240 Neutral antagonists in two state model
1. binds to both R and R <div>2. Inhibits activity but is even: LR to LR=
R to R</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-90297392431105.jpg" /></div>
1475783857019 1471474183240 partial inverse antagonists
1.only bind to R
closed receptor but moderately<div>2. increases LR</div><div><img src="paste-90
297392431105.jpg" /></div>
1475783902667 1471474183240 full inverse agonist on two state conformation
1. strongly binds to R closed state <div>2. Promotes high increase in LR st
ate and so shift equilibrium to more LR</div><div><img src="paste-90297392431105
.jpg" /></div>
1475784163084 1471474183240 histamine example demonstrating full and inverse
agonist
<img src="paste-90902982819841.jpg" />
1475784300136 1471474183240 antagonist mechanism
1. competitive antagonis
t= orthosteric binding<div>2. noncompetitive antagonists = allosteric binding</d
1475784336788 1471474183240 effect of competitive antagonists
1. incre
ases EC50<div>2. can bombard with normal agonist to outcompete</div><div><img sr
c="paste-91053306675201.jpg" /></div>
1475784407253 1471474183240 how can partial agonists act as competitive anta
gonists?
1.partial agonists dont have same effiacy as full agonist<div>2.
so an increase in partial agonist and a decrease in full agonist can lead to an
overall decrease in response or maximal effect</div><div><img src="paste-912938
24843777.jpg" /></div>
1475784475381 1471474183240 non-competitive antagonists
1. NMDA receptor
s- bind glycine and glutamate<div>2. with an inhibitor like ketamine--> effic
acy is decreased -> less effective </div><div>3. Decrease in efficacy</d
1475784543732 1471474183240 positive allosteric modulator 1. benzodiazapen
e drug uses in GABA receptor (reduces anxiety)<div>2. promotes GABA binding and
promotes Cl- uptake into cells</div><div><img src="paste-91611652423681.jpg" /><
/div>
1475784622205 1471474183240 tolerance
defined as diminished response t
o a drug when given repeatedly to subject
1475784652156 1471474183240 pharmacokinetic tolerance
1. an increase i
n drug after initial dose promotes more drug elimination.<div>2. leads to a righ
t ward, parallel shift- need more drug to elicit same effect (Emax is same, but
EC50 is higher)</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-91830695755777.jpg" /
></div>
1475784730561 1471474183240 pharmacodynamic tolerance
1. EMAX decrease
s with developed tolerance<div>2. due to desensitization and/or disappearance of
receptors</div><div><img src="paste-91976724643841.jpg" /></div>
1475784879534 1471474183240 drugs can exhibit both pharmacokinetic and pharm
acodynamic tolerance!!! <img src="paste-92217242812417.jpg" />
1475784914517 1471474183240 super-sensitivity 1. when receptors are bl
ocked by antagonists, cells compensate by over-producing receptors<div>2. over-p
roduced receptors show no effect as long as antagonist present</div><div>3. but
if antagonist suddenly removed, HUGE response for endogenous hormones (more sens
itive)</div><div><img src="paste-92401926406145.jpg" /></div>

1475785019890 1471474183240 spare receptors some drugs can give maximum resp
onse when not 100% bound because of downstream amplification in cells; some down
stream rate limiting step eliminates the value of some of the receptors<div><br
/></div><div>seen in insulin </div><div><img src="paste-92543660326913.jpg"
/></div>
1475785095675 1471474183240 quantal dose response 1. MUST BE DONE IN POPUL
ATION<div>2. determine what percent of population respond to drugs</div><div>3.
take cumulative % responding to derive sigmoidal curve</div><div><br /></div><di
1475785145425 1471474183240 ED50
dose effective for 50% of population!
1475785168883 1471474183240 what is value of quantal dose response curves?
1. can determine the risk-benefit<div>2. see therapeutic effect and adverse effe
cts of drug</div><div>3. if overlap, between two curves, not a great drug</div><
1475785228624 1471474183240 therapeutic index
1. ideal measure if ther
apeutic plot and adverse effect plots are parallel and non-overlapping<div>2. TI
= TD50/ED50; the larger the number, the more spread out the two are and the bet
ter the drug</div><div><img src="paste-92938797318145.jpg" /></div>
1475785303575 1471474183240 TD
toxicity dose= percent of population tha
t will show adverse effects if given drug
1475785325256 1471474183240 CSF (certain safety factor)
1. better measur
e if overlap between therapeutic effect and adverse effects<div>2. CSF= TD1/ED99
; again a higher value is better as it means a higher TD1 and/or a lower ED99</d
1475785404138 1471474183240 adverse and therapeutic effects of various drugs
1. warfarin - has overlap so more monitoring is required<div>2. penicilin shows
no overlap so it is very safe (if not allergic)</div><div><img src="paste-932738
04767233.jpg" /></div>
1475785458588 1471474183240 basic tenet of pharmacology
effects of drug
are directly prop. to active forms
1475785522922 1471474183240 factors controlling concentration of active form
of a drug at its receptor
1. dose<div>2. pharmacokinetics: absorption, dis
tribution, excretion and biotransformation</div>
1475785570118 1471474183240 how do drugs traverse membrane <b>1. Passive Di
ffusion (MAIN mode)</b><div>2. Specialized transport = less common</div>
1475785608485 1471474183240 drug passive diffusion systems 1. paracellularbetween cells- tend to be cells with open space like skeletal, muscles or kidne
y cells<div>2. transcellular- go through cells</div><div><img src="paste-9364317
1954689.jpg" /></div>
1475785669182 1471474183240 characteristics of drugs undergoing passive diff
usion 1. neutral drugs - undergo passive diffusion <div>2. charged drugs
like acids or bases must be unionized state to cross</div><div><img src="paste-9
3737661235201.jpg" /></div>
1475785741828 1471474183240 degree of ionization is controlled by 1. pKa<d
iv>2. pH of surrounding solution</div><div>3. whether drug is weak acid or base<
/div>
1475785798445 1471474183240 HH equation for pH
pH= pka + log A-/HA<div>
unionized forms can diffuse faster</div>
1475785835426 1471474183240 specialized transport for drugs 1. MUCH less com
mon than passive diffusion<div>2. <b>Most common is primary active transport</b>
but also some facilitated and secondary transport</div>
1475785885393 1471474183240 drug absorption movement of drug from site of ap
plication to blood stream
1475785902076 1471474183240 most drugs need to be absorbed for effect but no
t all...
local anaesthetics need to stay in the area and not spread out
1475785940639 1471474183240 oral drug administration
1. very little a
bsorption in mouth due to low SA; possibly sublingual drugs - MUST be VERY LIPID
soluble <div>2. Stomach= very little absorption due to low SA but some wea
k acids and neutral compounds are absorbed</div><div>3. Main absorption occurs i
n SI due to microvilli providing large SA</div><div>4. Even charged molecules ca

n undergo diffusion as equilibrium shifts to unionized form as uncharged forms a
re taken up</div><div><img src="paste-94429150969857.jpg" /></div>
1475786056972 1471474183240 drug absorption in small intestine
1. mainl
y passive diffusion<div>2. some transporters</div><div>3. Takes up a lot of unch
arged form to shift equilibrium to left as shown below</div><div><img src="paste
-94424856002561.jpg" /></div>
1475786088146 1471474183240 factors affecting absorption of drug
1. faste
r gastric emptying time (faster when starving)--> easier to release substance
s<div>2. drug formulation- other chemicals like binders and lubricants are used
to maintain drugs need to disintegrate and dissolve actual drug to allow it to b
e absorbed</div><div>3. blood flow can maintain steep concentration gradient--&g
t; increase absorption of drugs - high blood flow can carry away drugs </di
1475786285254 1471474183240 drug formulation and drug absorption
1. drug
outercoating and chemical needs to disintegrate<div>2. drug needs to dissolve in
to solution</div><div>3. absorption can then occur</div><div><img src="paste-947
81338288129.jpg" /></div>
1475786336877 1471474183240 blood flow and drug absorption 1. higher blood
flow can more easily carry drug away and distribute<div>2. when administering an
algesic, tend to reduce blood flow to reduce concentration gradient--> prolon
g effect </div>
1475786380777 1471474183240 subcutaneous route of admission of drugs
1. safe as superficial<div>2. no penentration of any blood vessels</div><div>3.
done for insulin</div><div><img src="paste-95008971554817.jpg" /></div>
1475786447234 1471474183240 intramuscular 1. can hit major blood vessels s
o more dangerous<div>2. faster response as it hits muscles to allow paracellular
diffusion </div><div>3. done for water soluble molecules </div><div><
1475786500394 1471474183240 intravenous drug admission
1. aim is to not
even have absorption<div>2. goes straight to blood</div><div><img src="paste-95
176475279361.jpg" /></div>
1475786530926 1471474183240 transdermal drug admission
1. band aid on s
kin almost<div>2. promotes diffusion of super lipid soluble drugs like steroids
-estrogen</div><div><img src="paste-95253784690689.jpg" /></div>
1475786566470 1471474183240 implantation
1. inject subcutaneous wax form
of drug subcutaneously<div><img src="paste-95326799134721.jpg" /></div><div><br
/></div>
1475786608458 1471474183240 pulmonary absorption
1. drop out of airstream
and ensure alveoli interact<div>2. important for gaseous anasthetics </div
1475883110431 1471474183240 drug distribution
movement of drug between
blood and tissue (vice-versa)
1475883189629 1471474183240 major factors contributing to drug distribution
1. rate of delivery to tissue= blood flow<div>2. capillary permeability</div>
1475883217688 1471474183240 thiopental example of drug distribution 1. &nbsp
;used in past to induce surgical anesthesia<div>2. very lipid soluble--> pass
es right through capillary</div><div>3. PERFUSION limited distribution- higher b
lood flow will increase distribution of thiopental</div><div><img src="paste-377
0981285889_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1475883388947 1471474183240 penicilin and drug distribution 1. pencillin is
water soluble weak acid<div>2. Rate limited by capillary permeability</div><div>
3. DIFFUSION limited permeability</div><div><img src="paste-4002909519873.jpg" /
></div>
1475883511930 1471474183240 comparisons of thiopental and penicillin
<div>1. Thiopental = high lipid solubility so main problem is perfusion limited<
/div><div>2. pencillin = high water solubility so issue in diffusion</div><div><
br /></div><img src="paste-4084513898497.jpg" /><div><br /></div><div><br /></di
v>
1475883646456 1471474183240 binding of drugs to proteins
1. binding to al
bumin or other protein can inhibit activity of drug <div>2. Bound and unbou
nd drugs are in equilibrium so as more free drug is used up or excreted rightwar
d shift to release more bound drugs</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-8
061653614593.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1475883732522 1471474183240 hepatic first pass effect
1. in liver, the
drug is turned to a metabolite<div>2. when drug is absorbed from small intestin
e, much is shunted over to liver</div><div>3. large proportion of drug is metabo
lized in liver and only a percent leaves</div><div><img src="paste-8284991913985
_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1475883986553 1471474183240 bioavailability percent of fraction of the dose
reaching the systemic circulation
1475884003280 1471474183240 enterohepatic cycling 1. some of drug may be p
umped into canaliculus with bile acids via active transport pumps<div>2. Bile ma
y be sent to SI and then drug can be returned to liver or continually be recycle
d in such a system</div><div><img src="paste-8529805049857.jpg" /></div>
1475884121429 1471474183240 drug excretion removal of drug from body to ext
ernal environment
1475884169224 1471474183240 renal excetion of drug 1. glomerulus filters by
size and so drugs bound by albumin will NOT cross<div>2. water soluble drugs wi
ll less readily escape from tubules are will therefore be excreted</div><div>3.
fat soluble drugs can more easily diffuse out and be reabosrbed </div><div>
<img src="paste-8804682956801 (1).jpg" /></div>
1475884294087 1471474183240 tubular secretion
1. 2 transproters for we
ak acids and bases in proximal tubule<div>2. those in charged form will then be
excreted </div><div><img src="paste-8903467204609.jpg" /></div>
1475884345580 1471474183240 fat soluble drugs in kidney
can undergo tubu
lar reabsorption <div><img src="paste-8976481648641_1471474183240.jpg" /></
div>
1475884386030 1471474183240 drug interaction to reduce excretion
1. some
water soluble drugs like pencilin are excreted out super fast<div>2. by adding a
nother water soluble drug like probenecid -> there is a competition for the t
ransporters for excretion of penicilin </div><div>3. More pencillin is main
tained</div><div><img src="paste-9156870275073_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1475884490355 1471474183240 drug-drug interactions with probenecid 1. probe
necid can act as competitor for pump in terms of drug secretion in proxima
l tubule<div>2. therefore with probenecid, less drug of interest will be excrete
d from system lik Tamiflu</div><div><img src="paste-9221294784513_1471474183240.
jpg" /></div>
1475884624719 1471474183240 biotransformation
1. conversion of drug to
metabolite<div>2. USUALLY, made more water-soluble to promote excretion<br /><d
iv>3. VERY general process that looks at functional groups</div></div>
1475884724415 1471474183240 most detoxified drug is...
most water solub
le so less of it can escape from kidney
1475884747414 1471474183240 why aren t drugs developed to become activated b
y liver?
hard to control for dose response as much variability in each st
ep along the way
1475884774249 1471474183240 how are many carcinogens formed?
1. many
carcinogens are formed by metabolic activation in liver<div>2. liver enzymes ind
iscriminately try to increase water solubilty and may inadvertenly produce toxic
compounds</div>
1475884837665 1471474183240 synthetic biotransformation reactions 1. Conju
gation/Phase II reactions<div>2. may add glucuronic acid or sulfate group to enh
ance water solubility</div><div><img src="paste-9985798963201.jpg" /></div>
1475884970027 1471474183240 enzymes for synthetic reactions 1. glucuronyl tr
ansferase (add glucuronic acid)<div>2. sulfotransferase (adds sulfate)</div><div
>3. glutathione conjugation</div><div>4. ALL tend to target less sterically hind
ered group for replacement</div>
1475885046949 1471474183240 gluathione conjugation 1. another synthetic pat
hway that promotes detoxification <div>2. Defense mechanism that inactivate
s highly reactive metabolites like Napthalene arene oxide</div><div><img src="pa
ste-12537009537025.jpg" /></div>
1475885088276 1471474183240 napthalene arene oxide carcinogenic compound du
e to the presence of its epoxide ring; can interact with DNA to disrupt structur
e and function<div><img src="paste-12652973654017.jpg" /></div>
1475885198147 1471474183240 non-synthetic metabolizing reactions
oxidatio
n, reductions(not too common) and hydrolysis
1475885235256 1471474183240 oxidation non-synthetic reaction
1. typic
ally found with CYT P450s<div>2. catalyzes carcinogenic formation of Napthalene
arene oxide from napthalene (P450 2F2)</div><div>3. ethinyl estradiol converts t
o 2-hydroxy ethinyl estradiol with p450 3A4</div><div><img src="paste-1293644149
5553.jpg" /></div>
1475885372310 1471474183240 reduction non-synthetic reactions
1. naltr
exone is converted into 6B-Naltrexol<div>2. Occurs via aldo-keto reductase
</div><div>3. reduce proportion of O2 (mainly detox)</div><div><img src="paste-1
3048110645249.jpg" /></div>
1475885438692 1471474183240 hydrolyses non-synthetic reactions
1. ester
ases and amidases are found in not only liver but also blood stream<div>2. aspir
in is activated to salicylic acid and acetic acid via esterase and water a
ddition </div><div><img src="paste-13215614369793.jpg" /></div>
1475885534508 1471474183240 acetaminophen biotransformation 1. initially it
is metabolized via conjugation to sulfylated form<div>2. Once sulfate runs out,
the rest is conjugated to glucuronic acid form</div><div>3. once all has been co
njugated, remaining interacts with CYP2E1to yield NAPQI</div><div>4. Glutathione
conjugates NAPQI to inactivate it, BUT any remaining NAPQI starts binding to ce
ll macromolecules in liver--> CELL DEATH!!</div><div><img src="paste-13460427
505665.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1475885843956 1471474183240 toxicity of acetaminophen
1. 4g or greater
puts your at risk<div>2. MUST be used in children as aspirin can cause Reyes sy
ndrome</div><div>3. Symptoms present in ~48 hrs (liver failure and death X_X)</d
iv>
1475885886147 1471474183240 factors affecting biotransformation
1. age:
newborns and elderly are more severely affected<div>2. nutrition- dietary defici
encies can decrease drug metabolizing activities</div><div>3.genetic polymorphis
ms - less drug metabolization -> warfarin hypersensitivity</div><div>4. disea
se and drug metabolism</div><div>5. exposure to other chemicals</div>
1475885991097 1471474183240 how can two drugs interact to affect biotransfor
mation 1. one drug can affect PXR or RXR TFs that regulate the activity of a CY
T necessary for the metabolism of the other drug<div>2. can lead to over-express
ion/under-expression of CYT--> alters levels of elimination of other drug.</d
iv><div>3. Phenobarbital acts to increase elimination of dicoumaral to ree
stablish low blood clotting times</div><div><img src="paste-13804024889345_14714
74183240.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1475886095380 1471474183240 why are some individuals hypersensitive to aceta
minophen?
1. CYP2E1 promotes an active form <div>2. EtOH activates CY
P2E1 to increase its levels</div>
1475886165321 1471474183240 quantitative pharmacokinetics measurement and
analyses of drug levels over time<div><img src="paste-14027363188737.jpg" /></di
v><div>MEC- min effective concentration- need more than this and less than maxim
um tolerated concentration for therapeutic effect</div>
1475886238225 1471474183240 first order elimination kinetics for drug blood
concentrations 1. assuming an IV, start off with high levels of drug blood leve
l<div>2. rate of elimination is proportional to amount of drug in system</div><d
iv>3. if S<<<Km, then Vm~ (Vm/Km)*S (directly proportional to substrate
) so low concentrations follow first order</div><div><img src="paste-14302241095
681.jpg" /></div>
1475886448175 1471474183240 zero order elimination of drugs 1. rate of elimi
nation is independent of drug concentration<div>2. if S>>>Km than V~Vm
and so it is zero order as substrate level is irrelevant so at high enough
concentrations, you will hit zero order<br /><div><img src="paste-1875612218163
1475886517981 1471474183240 what determines if it is zero or 1st order?

dose; EXTREMELY HIGH dose- zero order but as dose decreases- first order
1475886564413 1471474183240 why is first order preferred? can better predi
ct how tissue level will respond to change in dose
1475886591969 1471474183240 compartmental modeling initial distribution of
drug from blood to tissue occurs rapidly; treat body as one system<div><img src=
"paste-19035295055873.jpg" /></div>
1475886640936 1471474183240 a closer look at zero order elimination kinetics
1. Co is y-intercept and theoretical starting concentration of drug in blood<div
>2. equation is Ct= Co-ke*t</div><div>3. ke = zero order rate constant (-ke=slop
e)</div><div>4. t= time</div><div><img src="paste-19125489369089.jpg" /></div>
1475886735915 1471474183240 first order elimination kinetics (assuming IV sy
stem) 1. Ct= Co*e<sup>-ke*t </sup>but can be rewritten in linear form by takin
g log of all<div>ln Ct= lnCo- ke*t</div><div><img src="paste-19567871000577.jpg"
/></div>
1475886979857 1471474183240 first order elimination after oral administratio
n
1. because it is not IV, drug concentration in blood needs time to build
up<div>2. But will ultimately follow a linear pattern on a log scale</div><div>
1475887055780 1471474183240 half-life
1. time require for 50% of drug
concentration in blood to drop<div>2. <b>.693/ke</b><br /><div><br /></div></div
>
1475887092292 1471474183240 half-life equation
.693/ke<div><img src="pa
ste-22419729285121.jpg" /></div>
1475887117457 1471474183240 when is a drug considered eliminated? after 45 half-lives have progressed
1475887147989 1471474183240 apparent volume distribution
1. volume in whi
ch drugs appears to distribute at a concentration equal to that in blood<div>2.
proportionality constant that relates concentration of a drug in blood to amount
of drug in rest of body</div><div>3. aVd= Dose/Co</div><div><img src="paste-226
34477649921.jpg" /></div>
1475887272298 1471474183240 what does aVd demonstrate?
1. high aVd= sug
gests low Co so most drug is not in blood and must be sequestered else-where (po
ssibly lipid soluble drugs)<div>2. low aVd- suggests all drug is in blood and Co
is high</div><div>3. gives idea if drug is more present in blood or body tissue
s</div>
1475887400620 1471474183240 clearance
1. volume of blood (aVd) that ap
pears to be cleared per unit time<div>2. Clearance = ke*aVd</div>
1475887432327 1471474183240 drug infusion and repeated administration
1. Drug concentration in blood rises steadily to hit CSS<div>2. CSS= concentrati
on of drug to hit steady state and therapeutic window</div>
1475887715132 1471474183240 CSS
1. concentration steady state<div>2. rat
e of elimination= rate of administration </div><div>3. requires 4-5 half-li
ves to hit steady state</div><div><img src="paste-23119808954369.jpg" /></div>
1475887751808 1471474183240 infusion rate Clearance*CSS
1475887768996 1471474183240 loading dose
1.dose immediately added to obta
in steady state quickly<div>2. loading dose= aVd*CSS</div><div>3. Combine the lo
ading dose with the infusion rate to obtain a rectangular shape</div><div>4. As
loading dose goes down from CSS, the infusion rate works its way up to CSS (effe
ctively replacement)</div><div><img src="paste-23334557319169 (1).jpg" /></div>
1475887909718 1471474183240 why is oral administration CSS different from in
fusion 1. see a lot of peaks and troughs<div>2. 1st dose given and eliminated b
ut not entirely when 2nd dose is given so see a spike</div><div>3. D*F/T = maint
enance dose (demonstrated independently by dotted lines)</div><div>4. Loading do
se is demonstrated in conjunction with maintenance dose in solid line</div><div>
1475888033496 1471474183240 maintenance dose
1. can also be termed in
fusion rate<div>2. for oral administration Cl*Css = (D*F)/T, where d=dose, F= fr
action absorbed and T= dosage interval</div>
1475888103865 1471474183240 loading dose for oral administration
(aVd*Css
)/ F
1475888127074 1471474183240 summary of pharmacokinetics
<img src="paste23875723198465.jpg" />
1475888152086 1471474183240 T in oral administration
dosage intervaltry to minimize as much as possible and should not be more than 4-5 half-lives
otherwise no drug accumulates
1475888209393 1471474183240 if no gaps between dosages it must be an...
infusion
1476030254081 1471474183240 nACHR receptors responsible for depolarization a
nd usually allow cations to go through but not ions
1476031337077 1471474183240 types of genetic diabetes
1. Tfs that cont
rol expression of metabolic genes<div>2. metabolic enzymes</div><div>3. signalin
g defects</div>
1476033942336 1471474183240 protein cleavage receptors
1. Wnt<div>2. No
tch</div><div>3. Hedgehog</div>
1476241886179 1471474183240 somatic synapse 1.targets volunary skeletal musc
le<div>2. myelinated</div><div>3. 1 axon/1 cell</div><div>4. excitatory transmis
sion</div><div>5. 1 receptor and 1 transmitter (releases Ach)</div><div><img src
="paste-136713103998977.jpg" /></div>
1476242105291 1471474183240 autonomic synapses
1. targets involuntary s
mooth muscle<div>2. 1 axon/ many cells</div><div>3. excitatory and inhibitory</d
iv><div>4.. multiple transmitters and receptors</div><div><img src="paste-138212
047585281.jpg" /></div>
1476242173988 1471474183240 intro to reflex arcs in urinary bladder 1. senso
ry afferent fibers stem off of mechanoreceptors in bladder<div>2. synapse into s
pinal chord at the IML</div><div>3. relay signal to higher center in micturition
center and then sends downward signal promoting urination</div><div>4. inhibit
sympathetic response and promote parasympathetic response</div><div><img src="pa
ste-138379551309825.jpg" /></div>
1476242293102 1471474183240 somatic nervous system 1. ONE LONG axon<div>2.
nicotinic receptor = binds Ach</div><div><img src="paste-138469745623041.jpg" />
</div>
1476242359569 1471474183240 autonomic nervous system: parasympathetic
1. LONG pre-synaptic neuron<div>2. Releases Ach for nicotinic receptor in gangli
a</div><div>3. Ach binding triggers activity of post-synaptic short neurons</div
><div>4. Activates effector organ that contains muscarinic muscle</div><div><img
src="paste-138663019151361.jpg" /></div>
1476242470016 1471474183240 autonomic sympathetic division neuron types
1. Pre-synaptic neuron synapes with post-synaptic neuron at ganglia via nicotini
c receptor<div>2. Post-synaptic neuron activates effector organ by norepinephrin
e release to the adrenergic receptor</div><div><br /></div><div>OR</div><div><br
/></div><div><br /></div><div>one neutron activates adrenal gland via Ach relea
se--> epinephrine is released into blood stream and can acti independently of
nerve on effector organs with adrenergic receptors</div><div><br /></div><div><
1476242632023 1471474183240 location of cell bodies in parasympathetic syste
m
1. craniosacral<div>2. cranial III= oculomotor; cranial VII= facial; cra
nial IX=glossopharyngeal and cranial X= vagus nerve</div><div>3. sacral C2-4--&g
t; sphlanchnic nerve->rectum, bladder and reproductive organs</div><div><img
src="paste-139182710194177.jpg" /></div>
1476243087397 1471474183240 other features of parasympathetic nervous system
1. ganglia contained OUTSIDE of spinal chord close to effector organs -->long
pre-synaptic and short post-synaptic neurons<div>2. All reliant on Ach but rece
ptor on post-synaptic neuron is nicotinic and on effector organ- muscarinic</div
><div>3. Pre-ganglionic neuron is MYELINATED</div><div>4. NO skin or skeletal in
nervation</div>
1476243209614 1471474183240 sympathetic ganglia chain
1. paravertebral
ganglia<div>2. brain neurons synapse in IML of T1-L3: send out fibers than syna
pse in sympathetic chain ganglia to innervate blood vessels and sweat glands in
smooth muscles</div><div>3.from ganglion, can go up or down, does not always hav
e to affect laterally</div><div><img src="paste-139552077381633.jpg" /></div>

1476243443257 1471474183240 pre-vertebral sympathetic ganglia
1. 3 gan
gli that pass through the paravertebral ganglion w/o synapsing<div>2. celiac, su
perior mesenteric and inferior mesenteric ganglia</div><div><img src="paste-1437
91210102785.jpg" /></div>
1476243658034 1471474183240 path of conduction for paravertebral ganglion
1. sympathetic preganglionic neuron forms white rami before synapsing in paraver
tebral ganglion<div>2. synapses in paravertrbral ganglion</div><div>3. post-syna
ptic ganglionic neuron leaves within gray ramus</div><div><img src="paste-143855
634612225.jpg" /></div>
1476243802029 1471474183240 summary of sympathetic system 1. thoracolumbar
- paravertebral and prevertebral ganglia<div>2. short pre-ganglionic and long p
ost-ganglionic</div><div>3. ACH= transmitter between pre- and post and between p
ost and effect= norepinephrine</div><div>4. innervate skin, skeletomuscular syst
em</div>
1476243944162 1471474183240 adrenal medulla and the sympathetic system
1. pre-synaptic neuron hits the adrenal gland directly<div>2.induces epinephrine
and norepinephrine release into blood stream with no nerve release or innervati
on</div><div>3. interacts with adrenergic receptors in body </div><div><img
src="paste-144220706832385.jpg" /></div>
1476244061939 1471474183240 epinephrine and NE levels
epinephrines is
more of a circulating hormone and NE occurs at synpase unless extreme exercise o
r drug problem<div><img src="paste-144328081014785.jpg" /></div>
1476244133149 1471474183240 steps in neurotransmission
1. pre-synaptic
action potential goes to terminal bud<div>2. increases Ca2+ permeability and inf
lux--> neurotransmitter release</div><div>3. transmitters are released via ex
ocytosis</div><div>4. reaction of transmitter with post-synaptic receptor</div><
div>5. activation of synaptic channels-> post-synaptic action potential</div>
1476244248382 1471474183240 how are neuorotransmitters cleared from the syna
pse?
1. diffusion<div>2. enzymatic breakdwon</div><div>3. reuptake into pre-s
ynaptic terminal</div>
1476244274690 1471474183240 acetylcholine neuorotransmitter 1. synthesized f
rom acetyl CoA and choline<div>2. degraded in cleft by acetylcholinesterase (Ach
E) to choline and acetate</div><div>3. choline is uptaken again</div><div>**musc
arinic receptors are en passant</div><div><img src="paste-144748987809793.jpg" /
></div>
1476244377160 1471474183240 norepinephrine properties
1. synthesized f
rom tyrosine--> DOPA-->Dopamine->NE-> epinephrine<div>2. dopamine-&g
t;NE via dopamine beta hydroxylase</div><div>3. NE--> epinephrine via phenyet
hanoamine methyltransferase</div><div>4. Most NE is reuptaken and degraded
by monoamine oxidase and catcechol-O-methyltransferase</div><div><img src="past
e-145045340553217.jpg" /></div>
1476244626997 1471474183240 fast synaptic transmission
1. fast onset an
d brief duration potentials (inc. permeability to all cations)<div><div>2. ligan
d gated</div><div>3. nicotinic ach receptor</div><div><img src="paste-1476652706
03777.jpg" /></div></div>
1476244794810 1471474183240 slow synaptic transmission
1. slow onset an
d long duration<div>2. G-protein coupled (metabotrophic receptor)</div><div>3. m
uscarinic Ach receptor</div><div><img src="paste-149520696475649.jpg" /></div>
1476244957961 1471474183240 EPSP
1. membrane potential more likely to hit
threshold<div>2. increased permeability to cations like Na and K OR Na, K and C
a2+</div><div>3. found in ligand gated system</div>
1476245005329 1471474183240 IPSP
1. membrane potential less likely to hit
threshold<div>2. due to increases permeability to EITHER K+ or Cl-</div><div><b
r /></div><div><br /></div>
1476245035781 1471474183240 G-protein coupled receptors (muscarinic)
1. signal transduction pathways like with cAMP<div>2. slow ion channel mediated
EPSP, or IPSP</div><div>3. change in gene expression and protein function</div>
1476245089413 1471474183240 nicotinic receptor types
1. NON-selective
cation channel, excitator<div>2. skeltal muscles, ANS ganglia and adrenal medul
la</div>
1476245133125 1471474183240 Muscarinic-2
1. coupled, <b>inhibitory</b>, p
ost-synaptic and autoreceptors<div>2. cardiac muscle - slowed heart rate, decrea
sed atrial force and AV conduction</div><div>3. relaxed sphincters</div>
1476245190921 1471474183240 Muscarinic 3 receptor 1. coupled and excitator
y<div>2. contracted smooth muscles in walls of viscera</div><div>3. glands= secr
etion and sweating</div>
1. usually excitatory<di
v>2. contraction of vascular and genitourinary smooth muscle</div>
1. usually inhibitory by
decreasing cAMP levels<div>2. can be pre or post-synaptic</div><div>3. decrease
s insulin production or inhibits NE release</div><div><b>EXCEPTION ON vascular s
mooth muscles - excitatory and promotes contractions</b></div>
1476245371860 1471474183240 beta 1 adrenergic receptor
1. usually excit
atory with epinephrine and norepinephrine having same effect<div>2. positive ino
tropic and chronotropic effects on heart</div><div><br /></div>
1476245417882 1471474183240 B2 adrenergic receptor 1. Inhibitory; Epinephri
ne more dominant to NE<div>2. Relaxes vascular, bronchial, GI and genitourinary
smooth muscle and causes vasodilation in specific vascular beds</div><div>3. als
o promotes glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis</div>
1476245503728 1471474183240 Beta 3 receptor 1.usually excitatory<div>2. prom
otes lipolysis in adipose tissue</div><div>Epi>Ne</div>
1476245531689 1471474183240 autoreceptor role
1. negative feedback sys
tem on neuron<div>2. detects high levels of neuortransmitter in cleft--> sign
als shut down of producttion and release</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-151586575745025.jpg" /></div>
1476245583549 1471474183240 roles of hypothalamus 1. blood pressure and el
ectrolyte composition<div>2. body temperature</div><div>3. energy metabolism</di
v><div>4. reproduction</div><div>5. emergency response to stress</div>
1476245650780 1471474183240 autonomic (brain stem) reflexes 1. regulation of
BP<div>2. respiration control</div><div>3. salivary secretion</div><div>4. vomi
ting</div><div>5. swallowing</div><div>6. eye reflexes</div>
1476245702220 1471474183240 autonomic (pelvic organ) reflexes
1. predo
minantly spinal cord reflexes which are affected by higher centers<div>2. sympat
hetic provides inhibitory tone by contracting sphincters and relaxing the walls&
nbsp;</div><div>3. parasympathetic execute by doing the converse: emptying urina
ry bladder or rectum= contracting muscles (alpha 1) and relaxing sphincters</div
>
1476245823111 1471474183240 erection and ejaculation reflex 1. parasympathet
ic= erection reflex (dilation of blood vessels in tissue)<div>2. sympathetic eja
culation reflex- emission of semen and orgasmic response</div>
1476245871411 1471474183240 micturition
<div>sympathetic innervation giv
es tone and keeps urine inside bladder</div><div><br /></div>1. mechanoreceptors
are excited by strech in bladder wall<div>2. bladder afferents excite neurons t
o mictrition center</div><div>3.descending projections inhibit the sympathetic p
re-ganglionic neurons </div><div>4. micturition signal is triggered a
nd parasympathetic projections are stimulated leading to bladder contraction</di
v><div>5. contraction->strong excitation of mechanoreceptors that reinforces
the loop</div><div><img src="paste-152174986264577.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div
>
1476246364368 1471474183240 opposing actions of SNS and PNS on the heart...
1. sympathetic nerves innervate the entire myocardium<div>2. beta-1 receptors in
crease HR, contractile force, conduction speed</div><div><br /></div><div>3. par
asympathetic- mediated by vagus nerve</div><div>4 innervate the SA, AV nodes and
atria</div><div>5. muscarinic receptors decrease heart rate conduction velocity
and atrial contractile force</div><div><br /></div><div>*Vagal tone has greater
influence on resting heart rate than sympathetic tone</div><div><img src="paste
-152363964825601.jpg" /></div>
1476246512052 1471474183240 blood vessels under sympathetic domain*<div><br
/></div>
1. only sympathetic innervation on vascular smooth muscle<div>2.
all vascular smooth muscles have alpha-1 receptors --> vasoconstriction with
increased sympathetic tone</div><div>3. BUT Beta-2Rs are present in some vascul
ar beds--> circulating epinephrine binds and causes vasodilation (important d
uring exercise)</div><div>4. Control macrodistribution </div><div>5. cardio
vascular control center in medulla oblongata- establishes sympathetic tone
</div><div><br /></div><div>* parasympathetic technically does regulate the male
and female erectile tissue</div>
1476246696013 1471474183240 tone
1. sympathetic tone= low level of neural
activity<div>2. constriction- increases tone but dilation- decreases tone</div>
<div>3. decreased sympathetic activity--> passive dilation</div><div>4. activ
ate dilation requires additional circulating and local factors</div><div><img sr
c="paste-152638842732545.jpg" /></div>
1476246817131 1471474183240 NO activity
1. ACH from local surroundings o
f endothelial cells<div>2. binds and triggers Ca2+ release from ER</div><div>3.
Activation of eNOS </div><div>4. NO forms and diffuses to smooth muscle cel
ls</div><div>5. promotes sGC and ultimately increased cGMP and decreased MLCK--&
gt; relaxation</div><div><img src="paste-152853591097345.jpg" /></div>
1476246926197 1471474183240 opposing action of SNS and PNS on lungs 1. sympa
thetic- upper thoracic ganglia and bronchiole dilation via Beta-2R (no sympathet
ic fibers to bronchi)<div>2. Parasympathetic- vagus promotes bronchiolar smooth
muscle contraction via muscarinic receptor</div><div>3. ANS regulationcan be ove
rrided by cytokines</div>
1476247109950 1471474183240 complementary CNS and PNS function with saliva
1. parasympathetic maintains constant saliva secretion <div>2. sympathetic=
upper thoracic that has stimulatory effects on fluid secretion to produce thick
viscous saliva--> contraction of myoepithelial cells</div><div>3. parasympat
hetic - all salivary glands are innerved by muscarinic 3 or muscarinic 2 recepto
r; responsible for MOST of salivary fluid secretion</div>
1476247264373 1471474183240 synergistic/cooperative of CNS and PNS in eye
1. pupil diameter is controlled by oculomotor complex near cranial nerve III<div
>2. receive light stimuli from retina via optic nerve and adjust pupil diameter->coordinate sympathetic and parasympathetic outflow simulataneously</div><di
v>3. sympathetic - contracts radial muscle to dilate eye and parasympathetic con
tracts the spinchter muscle to constrict the pupil </div><div><br /></div>
1476247390319 1471474183240 mydriasis
wide pupil due to contract
ion of radial muscle (dilator muscle) at same time that sphincter relaxes
1476247413562 1471474183240 miosis 1. narrow pupil<div>2. results from cont
raction of sphincter muscle while radial muscle relaxes</div>
1476247437402 1471474183240 sweat glands controlled by sympathetic 1. neuro
ns innervating the glands are CHOLINERGIC and releases Ach which interacts
at muscarinic receptors<div>2. hypothalamus= thermosensitive neurons--&gt
; hot--> cholinergic neurons stimulate eccrine glands to sweat</div><div>3. c
old sweat or adrenergic sweating= eccrine gland has alpha 1 R --> response to
epinephrine--> pallor and vasoconstriction (blue and clammy)</div><div><br /
></div>
1476247634288 1471474183240 pancreas metabolism and ANS<div><br /></div>
<div>1. NE from sympathetic binds to alpha 2--| insulin secretion</div><div>2. e
pinephrine binds to B2-> glucagon secretion from pancrease</div><div>3. epine
phrine also binds to alpha 2 to inhibit insulin secretion</div><div>4. vagus ner
ve promotes insulin secretion</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><img src="p
aste-153875793313793.jpg" />
1476247788703 1471474183240 adipocyte metabolism and ANS
Epi and NE
both bind to beta receptor to trigger lipolysis<div><img src="paste-15387149834
6497.jpg" /></div>
1476247827508 1471474183240 hepatocyte metabolism and ANS epinephrine and
NE bind to alpha to promote increased glucose in blood
1476247884556 1471474183240 sympathic nervous system take-aways
1. inhib
its micturition and defecation<div>2. increases heart rate and contractility</di
v><div>3. increases BP</div><div>4. dilates the bronchioles</div><div>5. stimula
tes sweat and piloerection</div><div>6. increases fuel mobilization</div><div><b

r /></div>
1476247964030 1471474183240 parasympathetic nervous system 1. facilitates m
icroturition/defection<div>2. decreases heart rate</div><div>3. constricts bronc
hi</div><div>4. constricts pupil</div><div>5. increase in fuel storage</div>
1476248021026 1471474183240 stress integration
1. initial phase: act of
symp. system-->catecholamine release from medulla<div>2. ACTH stim. glucocor
ticoid release from cortex--> increased cardiac output, oxygen uptake and ene
rgy metabolism</div><div>4. long term inhibition of growth, reproduction and imm
une suppression</div><div><img src="paste-155159988535297.jpg" /></div>
1476248134388 1471474183240 pesticides and nerve gas
induce toxicity
by affecting autonomic nervous system<div><br /></div>
1476284756174 1471474183240 autonomic nervous system organization 1. aim i
s to maintain homeostasis<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-155443456376833.j
pg" /></div>
1476284800085 1471474183240 ANS homeostasis example with blood pressure
1. when you stand, all blood has tendency to rush to legs (gravity)<div>2. stret
ch receptors (baroreceptors) -> can lead to arteries and arteriole constricti
on, and an increase in heart rate</div><div>3. without an increase in blood flow
, orthostatic hypotension can result- lack of blood flow to brain</div><div><img
src="paste-155623845003265.jpg" /></div>
1476284950701 1471474183240 where do most drugs work in the nervous system?
1. autonomic sympathetic and parapsympathetic (efferent)<div>2. USUALLY NEVER AF
FERENT</div>
1476284999826 1471474183240 in normal state is body dominantly under sympath
etic or parasympathetic control?
1. mostly parasympathetic control: vagus
nerve can reduce heart rate<div><div>2. when scared--> sympathetic becomes d
ominant system</div></div>
1476285093651 1471474183240 where is epinephrine synthesized?
made in
adrenal glands and so no traversing BBB
1476285137452 1471474183240 sympathetic control vs parasympathetic control i
n uniformity
1. when sympathetic tone increases, it increases everywhere<div>
2. parasympathetic tone is NOT uniform, but rather discrete- affects one organ w
ithout altering others</div>
1476285195176 1471474183240 sympathetic arrangement of ANS 1. pre-ganglioni
c neuron/cholinergic fiber<div>2. sends signal to nicotinc receptors on ganglion
</div><div>3. post-ganglionic neuron (noradrenergic fiber) - sends NE to a1, b2
and b2 receptors on effector cell</div><div><img src="paste-156242320293889.jpg"
/></div>
1476285267568 1471474183240 parasympathetic arrangement of ANS
1. pre-g
anglionic neuron (cholinergic fiber)<div>2. Synapsis occurs with nicotinic recep
tor in ganglion</div><div>3. sends out postganglionic neuron (cholinergic fiber)
--> activate muscarinic receptor on effector cell</div><div><br /></div><div>
<img src="paste-156418413953025.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1476285343511 1471474183240 ach receptor types
1. nicotinic<div>2. musc
uronic</div>
1476285375294 1471474183240 en passant signaling
terminal varicosities of
neuron release NE<div><img src="paste-156555852906497.jpg" /></div>
1476285405094 1471474183240 constrictor muscle in eye
1. under parasym
pathetic control via muscuronic receptor<div>2. contracts with Ach--> miosis
or pupil contraction</div><div><img src="paste-158243775053825.jpg" /></div>
1476285489531 1471474183240 dilator muscle in eye 1. Controlled by sympath
etic division<div>2. has alpha 1 receptors </div><div>3. when NE/Epinephrin
e binds--> pupil dilates (mydriasis)</div><div><img src="paste-15932181184512
1.jpg" /></div>
1476285515784 1471474183240 in normal conditions is pupil more dilated or co
nstricted?
more constricted as constrictor muscle under parasympathetic con
trol
1476285615229 1471474183240 vision ciliary muscle 1. ciliary muscle connec
ts to lens via ligament<div>2. Under parasympathetic control!</div><div>3. when
relaxed--> ciliary muscle hole opens--> tension on ligaments of lens-->

stretches lens--> see things clearly >20 ft</div><div>4. when ciliary mus
cles contract-> relieves tension on ligament and lens gets fatter and moves f
orward to promote close up vision</div><div><img src="paste-159317516877825.jpg"
/></div>
1476289120561 1471474183240 longitudinal muscle of eye
1. when radial c
iliary muscle contacts--> longitudinal muscle contracts<div>2. contraction of
longitudinal muscle-> pulls on tissue of canal of schlemm (drains out aqueou
s humor)</div><div>3. facilitates drainage by opening of schlemm</div><div>SO OC
CURS when looking at something near because ciliary muscle is contracting!!</div
><div><img src="paste-161808597909505.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1476289443845 1471474183240 class of drugs that promote ciliary muscle contr
action 1. promote aqueous drainage for glaucomas <div>2. BUT also locks ci
liary muscle into contracted form--> trouble seeing far away objects</div><di
v>3. also constrictor muscle has muscuronic receptor and will contract to cause
miosis </div>
1476289561967 1471474183240 heart sympathetic control
1. beta 1 recept
ors increase in rate/force<div>2. Lead to an increase in systolic blood pressure
</div><div>3. increase in force of contraction--> increase in amount ejected
(SV)--> increased cardiac output</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-1
62160785227777.jpg" /></div>
1476289704541 1471474183240 heart parasympathetic control 1. muscarinic re
ceptor--> decrease in rate and force of contraction to lower systolic BP<div>
2. Decrease in force of contraction-> decreased ejected (low SV)--> decrea
se cardiac output</div>
1476289821824 1471474183240 cardiac output = rate*stroke volume
1476289830639 1471474183240 systolic pressure is primarily controlled by...
heart
1476289840077 1471474183240 diastolic pressure is primarily controlled by..
vasoconstriction in blood vessels
1476289864022 1471474183240 blood vessel sympathetic control
1. alpha
1 receptor- constriction of vascular smooth muscle<div>2. beta 2 receptor= rela
xation of vascular smooth muscle</div><div>3. <b>alpha 1 is DOMINANT </b>when bo
th act</div><div><br /></div>
1476289953728 1471474183240 parasympathetic blood vessel regulation 1. musca
rinic receptor on vascular endothelium<div>2. no innervation so only binds to fr
ee Ach... (very unusual as free concentration of Ach is very low in blood)</div>
<div>3. promotes vasodilation</div>
1476289998960 1471474183240 vasodilator durgs
1. dilate veins<div>2. i
ncrease fraction of blood in veins to 75-80%</div><div>3. decrease blood returni
ng to heart--> decreases cardiac output</div><div>4. ultimate decrease in sys
tolic BP</div>
1476323278684 1471474183240 Beta 1 receptor effect 1. increase heart rate<d
iv>2. effectively increases systolic pressure - by increasing stroke volume and
cardiac output</div><div><img src="Beta 1.jpg" /></div>
1476323792772 1471474183240 alpha 1 receptor effects
1. blood vesselconstriction<div>2. sphincter contraction in GI tract</div><div>3. urethral sph
incter contraction</div><div>4. increase uterine contractions</div><div>5. incre
ase viscous secretions of saliva</div>
1476323889543 1471474183240 parasympathetic muscaranic receptor
1. ALWAY
S muscarinic for parasympathetic<div>2. in heart--> decreases rate and force
of contraction</div><div>3. in blood vessels= dilation without innervation</div>
<div>4. in lungs- constriction</div><div>5. in GI smooth muscle and detrusor mus
cle- contraction</div><div>6. in GI sphincters and urethral sphincters= relaxati
on</div><div><br /></div>
1476324087831 1471474183240 parasympathetic muscarinic receptor on blood ves
sel anomaly
1.muscaranic receptor on vascular endothelium--> no nerve inn
ervation<div>2. only causes vasodilation when it binds Ach from blood freely</di
v><div>3. VERY rare as free Ach in blood is not common at all</div>
1476324237950 1471474183240 sympathetic system in lungs
<div>1. Beta 2 p
romotes relaxation of bronchiole smooth muscle</div><div>bronchiole dilation --&

gt; promote activity for asthmatics</div><div><br /></div><div>2. use beta 2 ago
nists or muscarinic ANTagonist to induce dilation</div><div><br /></div><div><im
1476324454538 1471474183240 lungs parasympathetic system
muscuranic
receptor promotes constriction and also produces mucus
1476324481483 1471474183240 if a patient has both glaucoma and asthma, what
should be administered? (beta2 agonist or muscarinic antagonist)
1. ONLY
beta2 agonist<div>2. NO muscarinic antagonist as then longitudinal muscle promot
ing draininage will be blocked </div>
1476324631119 1471474183240 GI Sympathetic activity 1. beta 2 receptor promo
tes relaxation of smooth muscle<div>2. alpha 1 promote contraction of sphincters
</div>
1476324744450 1471474183240 parasympathetic GI effect
1. smooth muscle
contraction via muscarinic receptors<div>2. sphincters relax via muscarinic rec
eptor</div>
1476324788023 1471474183240 general sympathetic input for GI and bladder
1.suppresses digestion, defecation and urination<div><div>2. sphincters contract
via alpha 1 receptor</div></div><div>3. muscles relax via beta 2 receptors</div
>
1476324807705 1471474183240 general parasympathetic input for GI and bladder
promotes digestion, defecation, and urination
1476324861456 1471474183240 sympathetic response in bladder 1. detrusor musc
le is stimulated to relax via Beta2 receptor<div>2. internal sphincter is induce
d to contract via alpha 1 receptor</div>
1476325000805 1471474183240 parasympathetic activity on bladder
1. musca
rinic - promotes contraction of detrusor muscle<div>2. muscarinic promotes contr
action of internal sphincter</div>
1476325041490 1471474183240 why do we pee more when anxious?
sy
mpathetic system activated --> increased cardiac output--> increased glome
rular filtration rate-->increase in urine production
1476325100653 1471474183240 why do we urinate/defecate when extremely terrif
ied
1. MASSIVE output of sympathetic and PARASYMPATHETIC system<div>2. Incre
ases urination</div>
1476325158567 1471474183240 uterus sympathetic control
1. alpha 1 recep
tor promotes uterine contraction<div>2. beta 2 receptor inhibits contractions in
uterus</div>
1476325260292 1471474183240 sympathetic system in salivary glands a1 and b
2 --> increase in viscous secretions
1476325286861 1471474183240 parasympathetic salivary gland activity 1. musca
rinic receptors-> increase watery secretions <div>2. DOMINANT form</div>
1476325313450 1471474183240 adrenergic pharmacology <div>1. dopamine is conv
erted to NE inside/outside vesicle and gets to vesicle via vesicular monoamine t
ransporter</div><div>2. vesicle fuses at membrane to release contents</div><div>
3. NE binds to alpha 1 and beta1/2 receptors</div><div>4. most is reuptaken by n
euron (95%)</div><div>5. some can uptaken by extraneuronal uptake (5%)</div><div
>6. MAO can breakdown NE and in receptor COMT and MAO can break it down</div><di
v><br /></div><img src="paste-171970490531841.jpg" />
1476325776837 1471474183240 COMT and MAO
break-down of NE/dopamine/epinep
hrine in receptor neuron
1476325798432 1471474183240 direct acting adrenergic agonists
agonists
that act at adrenorgic receptor
1476325873517 1471474183240 indirect acting adrenergic agonist
affect l
evel of NE in synapse and overall production
1476325914487 1471474183240 epinephrine characterization as an agonist
1. direct acting adrenergic <div>2. non-selective</div><div>3. targets alph
a1, alpha2, beta1 and beta2 receptors</div>
1476326022261 1471474183240 why is epinephrine not effective orally?
MAO rapidly breaks it down when given orally, so must be injected intramuscularl
y or via IV
1476326072913 1471474183240 cardiovascular impact of epinephrine at LOW leve

ls
1. binds to beta2 receptors on blood vessels to promote vasodilation<div
>2. decreases diastolic</div><div>3. BUT also acts on beta 1 to increase systole
</div><div>overall slight increase in systole and slight decrease in diastole</d
iv>
1476326174780 1471474183240 cardiovascular effects at higher to moderate lev
els of epinephrine
1. as epinephrine increases, alpha1 is bound <div>2
. Increase in blood vessel contraction and increase in blood pressure (raised di
astole and systole)</div>
1476326466238 1471474183240 pulmonary effect of epinephrine 1. bind to beta2
receptor<div>2. promotes bronchiodilation</div>
1476326491737 1471474183240 metabolic effect of epinephrine on hepatocytes
binds to beta2 receptors--> stimulates release of glucose in blood
1. stimulate the
heart in cardiac emergencies (activate B1 and alpha 1 receptors) to increase he
art rate (delivered IV/intramus)<div>2. treat allergic reactions (anaphylaxis) hits B2 receptor to promote bronchiole dilation to reverse massive histamine rel
ease from reaction</div><div>3.asthma- use epinephrine to dilate bronchioles but
can increase HR, so not preferred</div><div>4. coadminister with local anaesthe
tic --> epinephrine causes vasconstriction to limit anaesthetic from spreadin
g--> contraindicated for those with heart issues</div>
1476326764775 1471474183240 NE characterizes as a ___ agonist
1. selec
tive agonist<div>2. targets alpha1, alpha2 and beta1 receptor</div>
1476326861370 1471474183240 NE properties as specific adrenergic agonist<div
><br /></div> 1. does NOT bind to beta2<div>2. most common use is local anaest
hetic</div><div>3. NOT used to stimulate heart as exogenous NE slows heart down
for an unknown reason...</div>
1476326920488 1471474183240 dopamine is specific agonist for...
alpha1<d
iv>beta1</div>
1476326952290 1471474183240 dopamine properties as specific agonist (a1, b1)
1. possible drug for cardiac emergency<div>2.<b>causes dilation of renal kidney
to provide healthy dose of nutrients, </b>so, dopamine may be better alternative
in long run to reduce consequences</div>
1476327097610 1471474183240 dobutamine is specific agonist for... alpha 1<
div>beta 1</div><div>AND </div><div>beta2</div><div><br /></div><div>ALSO h
as + and - isomer</div>
1476327122869 1471474183240 dobutamine overall role 1. acts as B1 agonist &n
bsp;that can be used in emergency situations<div>2. + isomer has a1 antagonist e
ffect and (-)isomer has alpha agonist effect that cancels so overall B1 effect</
1476327203381 1471474183240 + isomer of dobutamine 1. B1 agonist<div>2. Wea
k B2 agonist</div><div>3. a1 antagonist</div>
1476327220902 1471474183240 - isomer of dobutamine 1.a1 agonist (impaired b
y + isomer)<div>2. weak B1 and B2 agonist</div>
1476327253216 1471474183240 phenylephrine 1 specific alpha 1 agonist
<div>2. used to increase diastolic pressure for hypotension</div><div>3. MOST co
mmonly found in OTC as nasal decongestant, treating blood shot eyes and hemorrho
ids by promoting constriction of blood vessels</div><div><br /></div><div>NOT TO
BE USED IN HYPERTENSIVE PATIENT!!!</div>
1476327396781 1471474183240 clonidine
1. alpha2 specific receptor<div>
2. mainly affect CNS, but also lower sympathetic tone ALL OVER body--> treat
hypertension</div><div>3. override effects of alpha2 in periphery</div><div>4. 2
nd line drug tho</div>
1476327470496 1471474183240 treating withdrawal symptoms with clonidine
1. during withdrawal symptoms--> increase sympathetic output and tone<div>2.
clonidine reduces it so it is effective treatment for those quitting</div><div><
br /></div>
1476327563518 1471474183240 clonidine (alpha2 agonist) and glaucoma 1. can r
educe glaucoma by reducing ocular pressure in eye<div>2. decreases fluid synthes
is in eye</div>
1476327613511 1471474183240 brimonidine (alpha 2) 1. specific for alpha 2<

div>2. mainly used to target and treat glaucoma</div><div>3. decreases synthesis
of fluid and doesn t irritate eye when applied topically = better</div>
1476327866986 1471474183240 isoproterenol 1. beta1/beta2 agonistic activit
y<div>2. can treat asthma but again raises HR and BP</div>
1476327948900 1471474183240 albuterol
1. specific B2 agonist<div>2. se
lective for B2 but NOT specific as it can act on B1 receptor if high enough conc
entration</div>
1476328007541 1471474183240 problem with B2 agonists?
1. cause recepto
r downregulation and desensitization<div>2. leads to pharmacodynamic tolerance e
specially when used too frequently </div>
1476328048115 1471474183240 terabutaline
1. beta 2 agonist<div>2.
use to treat asthma </div><div>3. inhibits uterine contractions</div>
1476328095191 1471474183240 AMPH background 1. indirect acting adrenergic ag
onists<div>2. treats ADHD, narcolepsy, and chronic fatigue syndrome</div>
1476328164942 1471474183240 what does AMPH do in periphery? 1. promotes rele
ases of NE from pre-junctional uptake transporter<div>2. pumps NE out to synpase
via reversal of transporter direction</div><div>3. Elevation in NE levels</div>
1476328230364 1471474183240 AMPH effect on receptors
1. B1 receptor i
n heart is stimulated to increase HR<div>2. Alpha1 receptor in blood vessels inc
reases diasolic pressure</div><div>3. build-up of catecholamines may cause arrhh
ytmias (ventricular arrhythmias)</div><div><img src="paste-177648437297153.jpg"
/></div>
1476328318405 1471474183240 ritalin (methylphenidate)
1. used to treat
ADHD<div>2. elevates NE levels but NOT to same level as AMPH</div><div>3. lower
s risk of arrhytmias </div>
1476328408677 1471474183240 tyramine 1. NOT a drug, just a natu
ral degradatory product of tyrosine<div>2. found at high levels in processed foo
ds, meats and cheeses</div><div>3.very potent releaser of epinephrine but usuall
y MAO can break it down</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><b>problem a
rises when consumed heavily with MAO inhibitors (anti-depressants)--> increas
e in tyramine--> increase in heart attack and stroke</b></div>
1476328515580 1471474183240 anti-depressants
1.tend to be MAO inhibit
ors<div>2. need to monitor tyramine levels as tyramine build-up releases too muc
h epinephrine-- increase in heart attacks and stroke</div>
1476328565508 1471474183240 cocaine 1. uptake inhibitor<div>2. acting at tra
nsporter to inhibit reuptake so more NE stays in synapse</div><div>3. leads to i
ncreased HR, force of contraction, vasoconstriction, and increased systolic/dias
tolic pressure</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-178215372980225.jpg" /
></div>
1476328686121 1471474183240 other roles of cocaine 1. local anaesthetic &nb
sp;that blocks Na+ channel (must not adminster with vasoconstrictor)<div>2.CNS e
ffect- unrelated to ANS</div>
1476328749818 1471474183240 ephenedrine
1. mixed adrenergic agonist<div>
2. acts like epinephrine as it binds to alpha and beta receptors BUT also like A
MPH as increases epinephrine release</div><div>3. used in hypotensive crisis but
also appears in food stores </div><div>4. up until recently, it was OTC be
fore a widespread occurence of ephendrine related heart attacks/strokes were obs
erved in the population</div>
1476328973008 1471474183240 phentolamine is what type of antagonist 1. alpha
adrenergic antagonist<div>2 alpha1 and alpha 2 antagonist<div>3. NON-selective<
/div></div>
1476329065943 1471474183240 phentolamine properties 1. causes vasodilation i
n arteries and <b>VEINS--> lowers diastolic and systolic (fast way to lower b
p)</b><div>2. not used chronically as it causes orthostatic hypotension</d
iv>
1476329166569 1471474183240 prazosin basic overview 1. selective adrenergic
antagonist<div>2. binds only to alpha 1</div>
1476329196398 1471474183240 prazosin properties
1. binds to only alpha 1
to lower systolic and diastolic<div>2. first dose effect =only see orthostatic
hypotension at first dose and then it goes away</div><div>3. epinephrine r

eversal- because so many alpha 1 spots are blocked epinephrine will bind to B2 t
o promote vasodilation; so MUST use NE/dopamine instead to act on alpha 1 as the
y are more selective for alpha 1 in terms of emergency</div><div>4. 2nd line dru
g for hypertension</div>
1476329543096 1471474183240 epinephrine reversal
in prazosin, because so
many alpha 1 spots are blocked epinephrine will bind to B2 to promote vasodilati
on; so MUST use NE/dopamine instead to act on alpha 1 as they are more selective
for alpha 1 for emergency situation
1476329563199 1471474183240 tamsulosin overview
alpha 1A antagonist rece
ptor located on smooth muscle capsule of prostate<div><br /></div>
1476329738758 1471474183240 tamsulosin activity
<div> 1. in benign
hyperplasia on prostate:prostate grows and compresses muscular capsule-->incr
eases pressure on capsule->increases pressure on urethra--> trouble urinat
ing</div><div>2. tamsulosin -> blocks alpha1A receptor--> causes muscle re
laxation for hyperplasia</div>
1476329776915 1471474183240 beta-adrenergic antagonist overview
1. used
chronically for hypertension<div>2. lowers systolic and diastolic</div>
1476330107594 1471474183240 propranolol
1. non-selective (first generati
on) beta blocker <div>2. targets beta 1 and 2</div><div>3. by blocking B1 i
t decreases heart rate and contractions </div><div>4. lowers systolic and d
iastolic</div>
1476330197653 1471474183240 but how do non-selective beta blockers targeting
B2 WORK to reduce hypertension???
1. NOT entirely sure<div>Theories:</div>
<div>1. beta blockers act in CNS</div><div>2. Beta blockers block release of ren
in</div>
1476330314305 1471474183240 beta blocker treatments include 1. hypertension<
div>2. angina</div><div>3. arrhytmias</div><div>4. myocardial infarction </
div><div>5. glaucoma- reduce formation of aqueous humor (specifically via timolo
l)</div><div>6. migraines</div>
1476330373459 1471474183240 timolol 1. non-selective beta blocker (b1 an b2)
<div>2. treats glaucoma by reducing aqueous humor in eye</div>
1476330469420 1471474183240 asthmatic complications with beta blockers
1. need bronchiole dilation!<div>2. beta-blockers inhibit this so need more spec
ific ones</div>
1476330523861 1471474183240 complications for insuin dependent diabetics wit
h beta blockers 1. block activity of epinephrine and low glucagon<div>2. Reduces
glucose in blood</div><div>3. need non-selective beta blockers</div>
1476330579113 1471474183240 sudden withdrawal and beta blocker complications
1. when abruptly stops taking beta blocker--> INCREASE in receptors<div>2. in
crease in HR and contraction</div><div>3. need a slow tapering off of beta block
ers for normal heart rate to be maintained</div>
1476330642720 1471474183240 metoprolol
1. selective beta1 antagonist (2
nd generation)<div>2. great for diabetics and asthmatics</div><div>3. lowers sys
tolic and diastolic</div><div><br /></div><div>**still in asthmatics and diabeti
cs- condition need be under control --> as metoprolol is selective but NOT sp
ecific so it can still bind to b2 under high enough levels</div>
1476330730864 1471474183240 labetalol overview
beta blocker with additi
onal actions (3rd generation)
1476330759292 1471474183240 labetalol properties
1. alpha antagonist and
Beta receptor partial agonist<div>2. because it is a partial agonist--> acts
as a competitive inhibitor for Beta 1 and beta 2 receptor--> lowers systolic
and diastolic BP</div>
1476331118284 1471474183240 indirect antagonist reserpine 1. reserpine blo
cks catecholamines entry into storage vesicles<div>2.over time... ends up gettin
g NE build up outside vesicles but inside neuron--> increased degradation by
MAO</div><div>3. decreases diastolic and systolic pressure to treat hypertension
</div><div><br /></div><div>NOT COMMONLY USED AS MANY SIDE EFFECTS</div><div><im
1476375470466 1471474183240 why does phentolamine increase heart rate when i
t decreases systolic pressure 1. inhibits alpha 1 and alpha 2 receptor<div>2.

Leads to a build-up of NE in synapse due to less negative feedback (i
nhibition of alpha2)</div><div>3. in heart, binds to beta 1 receptors to increas
e heart rate</div><div>4. systolic pressure does not increase due to beta2 recep
tor binding (vasodilation ->decrease in venous return)</div>
1476375741350 1471474183240 cholinergic pharmacology overview
1. Ach s
ynthesized from choline and AcCoA via choline acetyltransferase<div>2. Tak
e up in cholinergic storage vesicles</div><div>3. Fusion with cell membrane for
release -> acts on muscarinic receptor</div><div>4. also has muscarinic autor
egulator receptor on original cell to control levels </div><div><img src="p
aste-13262859010049.jpg" /></div>
1476375883485 1471474183240 what is big difference between parasympathetic a
nd sympathetic junction 1. TERMINATION<div>2. Ach is degraded by acetylcholinest
erase</div><div>3. NE is usually just reuptaken</div>
1476375939665 1471474183240 botulinum toxin 1. prevents cholinergic vesicle
from fusing with cell membrane<div>2. paralyzes muscle as no Ach is released</di
v><div>3. used to treat cerebral palsy</div>
1. MASSIVE
release of Ach <div>2. more fusion with cell membrane to release it</div><
div><img src="paste-13619341295617_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1476376062254 1471474183240 nicotinic receptor properties 1. activated by
nicotine <div>2. sodium channels</div><div>3. neuronal and muscle types (Nn
and Nm)</div>
1476376094985 1471474183240 muscarinic receptor properties 1. can be activa
ted by muscarine<div>2. coupled through G-proteins</div><div>3. M1-M5</div>
1476376115462 1471474183240 functional arrangment of ANS
<img src="paste13812614823937 (1).jpg" />
1476376150575 1471474183240 cholinergic stimulation for nicotinic receptor
1. Increases Ach everywhere<div>2. act at neuromuscular junction to increase mus
cle contractions</div><div>3. ganglia is more complex...</div>
receptor on iris
promotes contraction of constrictor muscle -->miosis
receptor on ciliary muscle
accomodation via contraction of ciliary muscle
receptor on exocrine glands
increased mucous secretions; not good for asthma
tics
receptor on bronchi
increased bronchioconstriction; not good for asthmatics
receptor on bladder
increased constriction
receptor on heart
decreased rate and force of contraction as parasympathet
ic tone is even more dominant
receptor on blood vessels
promotes vasodilation (though rarely seen as nee
d free concentration)
1476376383257 1471474183240 in blood vessels, ach is
produced and rel
eased on the endothelial cells and activation can lead to NO production--> va
sodilation<div><br /></div><div>some alpha2 receptors cause vasodilation via NO<
br /><div><img src="paste-17433272254465.jpg" /></div></div>
1476376434993 1471474183240 cholinergic inhibition on nicotinic receptor
neuromuscular endplate paralysis= used for general anesthesia to limit muscle mo
vement
cts iris by... increasing mydriasis--> less contraction of constrictor muscl
e and sympathetic dilator muscle is dominant
cts ciliary muscle by 1. promoting far sighted vision- less contraction of cil
iary muscle--> less accomodation and more ability to see far away objects

cts exocrine glands
decrease secretion of mucus; good for asthmatics<div><br
/></div>
cts bronchi by...
promoting relaxation and bronchiodilation
cts GI tract
relaxation to suppress digestion
cts bladder by...
relax--> less likely to urinate
cts on heart by..
increases rate and force of pumping as sympathetic tone
is dominant!!
cts on blood vessels
NO effect
1476376750437 1471474183240 acetylcholine as directly acting cholinergic ago
nists 1. Horrible drug choice<div>2. Very rapidly degraded by acetycholinester
ases and acts on both muscuranic and nicotinic receptors</div><div>3. some optha
lmologists apply it topically to eye for very short duration to promote accomoda
tion</div><div><img src="paste-19576460935169.jpg" /></div>
1476376880200 1471474183240 types of acetylcholinesterases 1. acetylcholine
sterase - found in RBC at high levels<div>2. pseudocholinesterase - found at hig
h levels in plasma</div><div>3. Keeps endogenous Ach very low and <font color="#
0000ff"><b>has a very fast </b></font>reacting time</div>
1476376962943 1471474183240 carbachol
1.acts as directly acting cholin
ergic agonist<div>2. still has muscarinic and nicotinic activity</div><div>3. ap
plied topically to eye for glaucoma and can be administed in asthmatics but they
must take it via eye drop on eye...</div><div><img src="paste-19709604921345.jp
g" /></div>
1476377035590 1471474183240 bethanechol
1. directly acting cholinergic a
gonist administered orally<div>2. has only muscarinic activity so it is optimal<
/div><div>3. treats paralytic ileus and bladder atony</div>
1476377084426 1471474183240 paralytic ileus 1.inhibition of peristalsis due
to infections, age or surgery<div>2. bethanechol and neostigmine can treat via j
umpstarting peristalsis</div>
1476377128026 1471474183240 bladder atony 1. loss of destrusor muscle cont
raction b/c age or infections<div>2. use bethanechol and neostigmine to increase
level of Ach binding to jumpstart destrusor muscles</div>
1476377185813 1471474183240 pilocarpine
1. alkaloid agonist of Ach with
only muscarinic activity<div>2.can be orally or topically administerd to eye to
treat glaucoma </div><div>3. MOST frequently used to treat xerostomia (dry
mouth)</div><div><img src="paste-20246475833345.jpg" /></div>
1476377291185 1471474183240 xerostomia
dry mouth that can lead to ulcer
s and tooth loss if not treated; <div><br /></div><div>pilocarpine alkaloid
ach agonist can treat</div>
1476377353340 1471474183240 off-label use 1. drug used for some purpose th
at is NOT FDA approved<div>2. only permitted when consensus is found in literatu
re</div><div>3. okay to use drug for that purpose</div><div><br /></div><div>4.
bethanechol and pilocarpine are theoretically interchangeable, but never really
tested...</div>
1476377428493 1471474183240 cholinergic crisis
1. increase in Ach in pe
riphery<div>2. characterized by SLUD</div><div>3. also may feel burning sensatio
n in chest due to bronchiole smooth muscle contraction</div><div><br /></div><di
v><b>S</b>alivation</div><div><b>L</b>acrimation</div><div><b>U</b>rination&nbsp
;</div><div><b>D</b>efecation</div>
1476377559548 1471474183240 SLUD
acronym for symptoms of cholinergic cris
is<div><b>S</b>alivation</div><div><b>L</b>acrimation</div><div><b>U</b>rination
</div><div><b>D</b>efecation</div><div><br /></div><div>all uncontrolled</div>
1476377656740 1471474183240 acetylcholinesterases 1. cholinesterase has se
rine OH group that interacts with acetylcholine<div>2. intermediate forms betwee
n enzyme and Ach and choline breaks off</div><div>3. Water is added to break off
acetate component of Ach and recycle enzyme</div><div><br /></div><div><b>Produ

ct: Achase, acetate and choline</b></div><div><b><img src="paste-22527103467521.
jpg" /></b></div>
1476377758749 1471474183240 donepezil
1. rapidly reversible, non-coval
ent inhibitor<div>2. Binds reversibly to site <b>proximate </b>to serine OH site
</div><div>3. sterically blocks acetylcholinesterase to promote increased level
of Ach temporarily.</div><div>4. effective for treating early Alzheimer s</div><
1476377881547 1471474183240 carbamates
covalent inhibitors that bind to
acetylcholinesterase
1476377912591 1471474183240 physostigmine 1. class of covalent inhibitor b
inding to acetylcholinesterase<div>2. if taken orally, penetrates BBB (so oral a
dministration is avoided)</div><div>3. used topically in eye for glaucoma</div>
1476377978491 1471474183240 carbamate and acetylcholinesterase interaction
1.carbamate carbamylates serine group and competes with Ach for binding<div>2. h
ydrolysis by water takes much longer for carbamate attached group as opposed to
an acetate group (minutes to hours vs <1 sec!!)</div><div><img src="paste-231
71348561921.jpg" /></div>
1476378067802 1471474183240 neostigamine
1. CANNOT cross BBB so given sys
temically<div>2. treat paralytic ileus or bladder atony with betanechol</div><di
v>3. also can treat myasthenia gravis by increasing Ach to outcompete Ab binding
to nicotinic receptors</div>
1476378150079 1471474183240 myasthenia gravis
1. autoimmune disease<di
v>2. antibodies compete with Ach to bind to nicotinic receptor--> muscle weak
ness</div><div>3. treat with neostigamine to increase Ach to reduce competition
and decrease incidence of muscle weakness</div>
1476378201567 1471474183240 carbaryl
1. NOT a drug but a pesticide<di
v>2. can be bought anywhere in fertilizer</div><div>3. induces cholinergic crisi
s to kill insects</div>
1476378248695 1471474183240 organophosphates
1. slowly reversible inh
ibitors <div>2. phosphorylate oxygen on serine of acetylcholinesterase</div
><div>3. can be hydrolyzed by water (several hours to days!!!)</div><div>4. can
also undego aging and be permanently inactivated...</div><div><img src="paste-25
250112733185_1471474183240.jpg" /></div>
1476378462020 1471474183240 aging
1. some organophosphates when bo
und to acetylcholinesterase spontaneously lose alkyl side chains<div>2. leads to
irreversible binding and subsequent inactivation in acetylcholinesterase <
1476378541635 1471474183240 echothiopate
1. organophosphate inhibitor of
acetylcholinesterase<div>2.topically applied to eye for glaucoma every 4 days</d
iv>
1476378588929 1471474183240 parathion
1. super dangeous pesticide not
for public use<div>2. represented as organophosphate</div>
1476378653013 1471474183240 2-PAM 1. pulls off PO4 group off Ach-ase enzym
e faster than H2O<div>2.Unable to work with aging compounds</div><div>3. Should
not be used with carbamate--> more damage...</div>
1476378697516 1471474183240 soman properties
1.organophosphate used a
s chemical warfare agent<div>2. VERY potent- can block all acetycholinesterase a
t low concentrations</div><div>3.volatile- exposed via inhalation</div><div>4. a
ging occurs instantaneously</div>
1476378772642 1471474183240 how to protect against nerve gas (soman)
1. soldiers administer carbamate in autoinjector<div>2. carbamate bind to Achase
so nerve gas will not be able to</div><div>3. carbamate will more readily disso
ciate after some time and is safer alternative</div>
1476378822612 1471474183240 atropine
1. natural alkaloid<div>2. musca
rinic blocker</div>
1476378840829 1471474183240 cholinergic blocker atropine effect on the heart
1. decreases parasympathetic tone<div>2. sympathetic tone becomes more dom
inant so heart rate is increased</div><div>3. can be given in emergencies for lo
w heart rates</div>
1476378919649 1471474183240 cholinergic blocker atropine effect on eye

1. dilator muscle is dominant (sympathetic)<div>2. also promote cyclopegia - far
away vision</div>
1476378959009 1471474183240 cholinergic blocker atropine effect on salivary
glands 1. decrease in saliva<div>2. used in oral surgeries</div>
1476378975613 1471474183240 cholinergic blocker atropine effect on respirato
ry system
1. decrease in mucus production<div>2.increase in bronchiole dil
ation</div><div>3. treats asthma</div>
1476379003738 1471474183240 cholinergic blocker atropine effect on intestine
s
reduces peristalsis = anti-spasmatic agent
1476379024420 1471474183240 cholinergic blocker atropine effect on bladder
1. relaxes destrusor muscle<div>2. helps those with urinary urge incontinence th
at can t hold it in</div>
1476379061105 1471474183240 antidote for cholinergic crisis?
atropine
; can also adminster atropine for someone poisoned with carbamyate
1476379121700 1471474183240 scopolamine
1. alkaloid muscarinic inhibitor
<div>2. suppresses motion sickness</div><div>3. administered transdermally</div>
1476379153510 1471474183240 synthetic quaternary amines
muscarinic block
er used to treat asthma
1476379186091 1471474183240 ipratropium
1. synthetic quaternary amine mu
scarinic blocker<div>2. used to treat asthma by causing bronchiodilation</div>
1476379214843 1471474183240 synthetic tertiary amines
1.muscarinic blo
cker<div>2. benztropine to treat Parkinson s disease associated tremors</div>
1476379233575 1471474183240 benzotropine
1. synthetic tertiary amine musc
arinic blocker<div>2. treats parkinson s disease--> suppresses tremors</div>
1476379260169 1471474183240 ganglionic blockers
1.activates system oppos
ite of dominant effect (so usually activates sympathetic system)<div>2. decrease
s blood pressure by vasodilation - decrease venous return to heart (decreases sy
stolic and diastolic)</div><div>3. heart rate increases becase sympathetic syste
m is activated</div>
1476379479038 1471474183240 mecamyline
1. ganglionic blocker<div>2. dec
reases blood pressure</div><div>3. problem is orthostatic hypotension </div
>
1476392603152 1471474183240 ganglia in sympathetic system 1. paravertebral
<div>2. prevertebral- celiac, superior mes. and inferior mes.</div>
1476392640903 1471474183240 properties of sympathetic system
1. short
pre-ganglionic (myelinated) releases Ach at nicotinic receptor in ganglia<div>2
. long post-ganglionic--> adrenergic</div><div>3. innervates skin and skeleta
l muscle</div>
1476393203948 1471474183240 slow G-protein coupled transmission examples
1 Muscarinic receptor<div>2.catecholamine receptors </div><div><img src="pa
ste-32495722561537.jpg" /></div>
1476396319336 1471474183240 selectivity vs specificity
drug can be sele
ctive for certain receptor but when high enough drug level it is not neccessaril
y specific for that receptor <div><br /></div><div>e.g. albuterol -typicall
y for Beta 2 but can bind to beta 1 if floods system</div>
1476400671877 1471474183240 build up of catecholamines can cause... ventricu
lar arrhytmias
1476400818192 1471474183240 high tyramine levels along with anti-depressants
1. anti-depressants = MAO inhibitors <div>2. More tyramine builds up to det
rimental levels</div><div>3. Increases in epinephrine --> increased risk of h
eart attack and stroke</div>
1476408166875 1471474183240 piloerector
sympathetic contraction of smoot
h muscle in skin-->piloerection
1475959178168 1421618046184 The central nervous system (CNS) includes {{c1::
the brain and spinal cord}}; and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes th
e {{c1::cranial nerves, spinal nerves, ganglia, and autonomic nerves }}
<img src="paste-128634270515203.jpg" />
1475959210836 1421618046184 the caudal (inferior) region indicates something
is {{c1::nearer to the feet}} and cranial (superior) designations indicates tha
t something is {{c1::nearer to the head.}}

<img src="paste-128870493716481.
jpg" /><div><img src="paste-128883378618369.jpg" /></div>
1475959368964 1421618046184 The posterior (dorsal) is closer to {{c1::t
he back}} and anterior (ventral) is closer to {{c1::the front of the body}}
<img src="paste-128964982996993.jpg" />
1475959421411 1421618046184 Excitable, conductive nerve cells are either {{c
1::multipolar}} or {{c1::pseudounipolar}} neurons.
<img src="paste130378027237377.jpg" />
1475959526701 1421618046184 The single short stem of the pseudounipolar neur
on divides into {{c1::central}} and {{c1::peripheral}} axons
<img src="paste130446746714113.jpg" />
1475959568039 1421618046184 The long peripheral axon conveys sensations of {
{c1::touch}}, {{c1::pain}}, and {{c`::temperature}} from the {{c1::muscles}}, {{
c1::bones}}, and {{c1::skin of the body (soma) wall and extremities}} toward the
{{c1::pseudounipolar}} neuron residing in the {{c1::spinal ganglion (aka dorsal
root ganglion or DRG).}}
<img src="paste-130524056125441.jpg" />
1475959794464 1421618046184 Sensory impulses pass directly from the {{c1::pe
ripheral axon}} onto the {{c1::central axon}} in the {{c1::DRG (dorsal root gang
lion)}} <img src="paste-130794639065089.jpg" />
1475959856608 1421618046184 The central axon from the DRG (dorsal root gangl
ion) forms the {{c1::posterior root}} of the {{c1::spinal nerve}} that conducts
the impulses into the {{c1::CNS}}; thus, the peripheral and central axons are {{
c1::somatic afferent (aka sensory) axons}}
<img src="paste-130871948476417.
jpg" />
1475959955229 1421618046184 In the {{c1::spinal cord}}, the axon of the mult
ipolar neuron forms the {{c1::anterior root of the spinal nerve}} that conducts
impulses away from the {{c1::CNS}}; thus, the axon is a {{c1::somatic efferent (
aka motor) axon}} that voluntarily activates {{c1::skeletal muscles of the body
wall and extremities.}}
1475960121607 1421618046184 The cranial nerves provide {{c1::somatic afferen
t}} and {{c1::efferent}} axons to {{c2::the skin, skeletal muscles, and bones of
the head and neck.}}
1475960181473 1421618046187 Which neurons are affected by amyotrophic latera
l sclerosis (ALS) and why is the disease ultimately fatal?
<div>Neu
rons Affected: Motor Neurons</div><div>Ultimately Fatal because respiratory musc
les affected, which leads to inability to breathe</div><div><br /></div><div><br
/></div><img src="paste-131348689846275.jpg" />
1475960264279 1421618046184 Autonomic nerves consist of a {{c1::multipolar p
resynaptic neuron}} in the CNS and a {{c1::multipolar postsynaptic neuron}} in {
{c1::autonomic ganglia}} of the PNS
<img src="paste-131576323112963.jpg" />
1475960306525 1421618046184 The autonomic nerves contain {{c1::visceral effe
rent axons}} that involuntarily regulate the {{c1::internal organs (aka viscera)
, glands, and smooth muscle.}} <img src="paste-131640747622403.jpg" />
1475960364332 1421618046184 the ANS consists of a {{c1::sympathetic}} divisi
on (depicted in Figure I.42, pp. 57) and a {{c1::parasympathetic}} division that
involuntarily regulate the {{c2::viscera, glands, and smooth muscle}} in a cont
rasting, yet coordinated manner <img src="paste-133036611993603.jpg" /><img src=
"paste-133049496895491.jpg" />
1475960456718 1421618046184 {{c1::Pseudounipolar}} neurons occupy the DRG an
d observe the neurons are enclosed by {{c1::continuous rings of satellite cells}
}. Note {{c1::dense connective tissue}} forms the protective capsule. <img src
="paste-133135396241409.jpg" />
1475960558679 1421618046184 Neurons in {{c1::sympathetic ganglia}} of the AN
S lack complete investment by the {{c2::satellite cells}}
<img src="paste133504763428865.jpg" />
1475960702692 1421618046184 {{c1::Incomplete cellular investment}} all
ows presynaptic sympathetic fibers to synapse with the postsynaptic neurons of t
he {{c1::sympathetic ganglia}}. Note: axons and fibers are synonyms<div><br
1475960771314 1421618046184 In week {{c1::3}}, the CNS originates as a {{c1:
:slipper-shaped thickening of ectoderm}} called the {{c2::neural plate}}

<img src="paste-133672267153411.jpg" />
1475960822363 1421618046184 The neural plate is indented by the {{c1::neural
groove}} to create {{c1::bilateral neural folds}}.
<img src="paste134097468915715.jpg" />
1475960861261 1421618046184 After the neural folds fuse to form the {{c1::ne
ural tube}}, the free edges of the folds form {{c1::neural crest cells}} that {{
c1::migrate laterally}} <img src="paste-134157598457857.jpg" />
1476034590442 1421618046184 The migrating neural crest cells form {{c1::neur
oblasts}} that differentiate into the {{c1::postsynaptic neurons of the sympathe
tic ganglia}} and the {{c1::sensory neurons of the DRG.}}
<img src="paste147063975182337.jpg" />
1476034878044 1421618046184 The {{c1::ectoderm}} forms neuroepithelium to li
ne the {{c2::lumen of the neural tube}} <img src="paste-148197846548483.jpg" />
1476034934041 1421618046184 the neuroepithelium forms {{c1::neuroblasts}} th
at differentiate into the {{c1::somatic motor neurons}}, the {{c1::presynaptic s
ympathetic neurons}}, and {{c1::interneurons}} (assessed below) during {{c1::tra
nsformation of the neural tube into the spinal cord}}.
<img src="paste148253681123331.jpg" />
<div>They lose their abi
lity to divide when the neuroblasts form</div><div><br /></div><div><u style="fo
nt-weight: bold; ">CLINICAL CONSEQUENCE</u>: Has implications in the treatm
ent of CNS disorders b/c can t regenerate neurons after injury to brain or cell
loss</div><div><br /></div><img src="paste-148369645240323.jpg" />
1476037028375 1421618046184 The gray matter of the spinal cord includes the
{{c1::bilateral anterior and posterior horns}} <img src="paste-150779121893379.
jpg" />
1476037034710 1421618046184 {{c1::Multipolar}} neurons reside in the gray ma
tter and the surrounding white matter includes the {{c2::anterior and posterior
roots of the spinal nerves. }}
<img src="paste-150856431304707.jpg" />
1476037077781 1421618046184 The {{c1::8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, and
5 sacral segments}} of the spinal cord associate with the {{c1::respective vert
ebrae of the vertebral column.}}
<img src="paste-151109834375171.jpg" />
1476037242670 1421618046184 The conus medullaris ({{c1::inferior}} end of th
e spinal cord) is positioned between {{c1::vertebrae L1-L2. }}
<img src
="paste-151431956922371.jpg" />
1476037305744 1421618046184 Envision at birth, the conus medullaris is betwe
en {{c1::vertebrae L3-L4}} and with {{c1::vertebral column elongation}} and the
{{c1::onset of erect posture}}, it ascends to {{c1::L1-L2}} by age five.
<img src="paste-151775554306051.jpg" />
1476037400151 1421618046184 Ascension of the conus medullaris accounts for t
he {{c1::long roots of the lumbar and sacral spinal nerves}} that constitute the
{{c1::cauda equina}}
1476037502372 1421618046184 The closely apposed dura and arachnoid consist o
f {{c1::dense and loose connective tissue}}, respectively.
<img src
="paste-152235115806723.jpg" />
1476037583210 1421618046184 The meningeal pia consists of {{c1::2-3 cell lay
ers}} that closely follow the {{c1::surface contours of the spinal cord}}
<img src="paste-152303835283459.jpg" />
1476037617198 1421618046184 Cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) fills the {{c1::suba
rachnoid space}} and presses {{c1::the arachnoid against the dura. }}
<img src="paste-152359669858307.jpg" />
af_Q 0 (9).svg" />
9).svg" />
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<img src="38f6d7875e3195bdaee448d2cb6917f3ae4994af_tmpsik4og.png
" />
af_Q 1 (6).svg" />
9).svg" />
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1476038706850 1421618046187 Why is lumbar spinal puncture an important diagn
ostic tool, and<i><u><b> why are different vertebral levels used for infants and
adults?   </b></u></i>
<div>Lumbar Spinal Puncture is an import
ant diagnostic tool for CNS disorders because diseases may alter the cells in th
e Cerebral Spinal Fluid</div><div><br /></div><img src="paste-21981642620931.jpg
" />
1476038794223 1421618046184 the anterior spinal artery and bilateral posteri
or spinal arteries supply the {{c1::superior part}} of the spinal cord only
1476038862786 1421618046184 the anterior and posterior segmental medullary a
rteries, which arise from {{c1::arteries adjacent to the vertebral column}}, ana
stomose with the {{c1::spinal arteries.}}
1476410674216 1476408997299 Epinephrine
{{c1::Direct Acting Adrenergic A
{{c1::Cardiac Emergency<div>Alle
gonist}}
{{c1::1 2 1&nsp;2&nsp;}}
rgic Reaction (anaphylaxis)</div><div>Asthma</div><div>Used with local anestheti
cs</div>}}
<>{{c1::</><>Cardiovascular: </>Increases heart rate and for
ce of contraction y acting on&nsp;1 and also increase in lood pressure y acti
ng on&nsp;1<div><b>Metbolic:</b> Stimultes glycogenolysis nd gluconeogen
esis 2</div><div><>Local Anesthetic</>: decreases asorption y vasoconstrictio
n y inding 2&nsp;&nsp;</div><div><>Pulmonary effects:</>&nsp;Binds to 2 rec
eptor and causes ronchodilation</div>}}
{{c1::N/A}}
Injected intramu
scular/intravenously&nsp;
1476411758409 1476408997299 Norepinephrine {{c1::Direct Acting Adrenergic A
gonist}}
{{c1::1 2 1}} {{c1::Can e used with local anesthetic<div>Not
usually used to stimulate heart and vasoconstriction although it can e done</di
v><div>lowers heart rate (we don't know why)</div>}}
<div>{{c1::<div>Activate
s&nsp;1 on rteries nd rterioles= vsoconstriction</div><div>Activtes 1 i
n the heart, increase heart rate and force</div>lowers heart rate (we don't know
why)}}</div> {{c1::Unpredictale, can slow down heart, so we don't want to us
e it in emergency}}
Give intravenously&nsp;<div>Its selective&nsp;</div>
1476412152402 1476408997299 Dopamine
gonist}}
{{c1::1 1}} {{c1::Possile choice for cardiac emergency}}
{{c1::1 leds to increse vsoconstriction<div>1 leads to increase HR and contract
ile force</div><div>Increase lood flow to kidney (dilation of renal arteries)</
div>}} {{c1::N/A}}
Give through IV or IM
1476412487884 1476408997299 Doutamine
gonist}}
{{c1::1 1 2<div><r /></div><div><>Used as a 1 agonist</><div>It h
as two isoforms:</div><div>(+) isomer is a 1 agonist, a weak 2 agonist and&nsp;1
ntgonist</div><div>(-) isomer is 1 gonist, wek 1 and 2 agonist&nsp;</div><

div>The effects cancel each other out</div></div>}}
{{c1::Cardiac Prolems (
emergency)}}
<div>{{c1::Therefore it increases heart rate and force of contra
ction&nsp;}}</div>
{{c1::N/A}}
Intravenously and Intramuscular&nsp;<di
v><r /></div>
1476412783500 1476408997299 Phenylephrine {{c1::Direct Acting Adrenergic A
gonist}}
{{c1::1 }}
{{c1::hypotensive emergency<div>nsl decongest
nt (found in OTC drugs)</div><div>clers red eyes</div>}}
{{c1::Vsoconstr
iction<div>Cuses nsl mucos to shrink in order to decongest</div><div>Also c
uses eye vsoconstriction</div>}}
{{c1::N/A}}
1476413033461 1476408997299 Clonidine {{c1::Direct Acting Adrenergic A
gonist}}
{{c1::2 }}
{{c1::High blood pressure}}
<div>{{c1::<div>
Lows sympthetic tone</div>Ends up lowering systolic nd distolic blood pressur
e <div>Used to tret withdrwl in ddiction</div><div>Possible tretment fo
r glucom in ptients who re hypertensive </div>}}</div> <div>{{c1::Dry m
outh <div>Sedtion</div><div></div>}}</div>
Cn be tken orlly, int
rvenously or
1476413330159 1476408997299 Brimodine
gonist}}
{{c1::2}}
{{c1::Preffered tretment for Glucom}}
{{c1::Lowers introculr pressure<div>Doesn't irritte eye s much s the other
ones</div>}}
{{c1::N/A}}
Applied Topiclly
1476413514445 1476408997299 Isoproterenol {{c1::Direct Acting Adrenergic A
gonist}}
{{c1::1 2}} {{c1::Sometimes used for ashtma}}
{{c1::Br
onchodilation}} {{c1::Patients may not like the feeling of heart rate increasing
&nsp;}}
Inhaler
1476414151712 1476408997299 Aluterol
gonist}}
{{c1::2}}
{{c1::Used for asthma}} {{c1::Bronchodilation}}
{{c1::Too much will act on&nsp;1 and increase HR and contractile force}}
Inhaler&nsp;
1476414235828 1476408997299 Terutaline
gonist}}
{{c1::2}}
{{c1::Premature Uterine Contractions<div>Can als
o e taken for asthma</div>}} {{c1::Suppresses premature uterine contractions&
nsp;}} {{c1::too much of any&nsp;2 agonist can cause receptor down regulation a
nd then if you take more and more, it will start to take its effect on the heart
}}
Aersolized or IV
1476414420676 1476408997299 Amphetamine
{{c1::Indirect Acting Adrenergic
Agonist (releaser)}} {{c1::Acts on prejunctional uptake transporter and also
on the storage vesicle inside the sympathetic neuronal varisocity, it makes them
{{c1::Used to treat ADHD
oth work in reverese to release more epinephrine}}
<div>Narcolepsy</div><div>Chronic Fatigue Syndrome</div>}}
{{c1::Increase i
n Norepinephrine which will lead to activation of&nsp;1 receptors in the heart (
increased HR, systolic BP and force of contraction)<div>And gonna activate alpha
1 recetors to see a rise in diastolic pressure&nsp;</div>}} {{c1::All catech
olamines at high levels can cause an increased risk of arrhythmia}}
<img src
="paste-15311558410587.jpg" />
1476415325313 1476408997299 Methylphenidate {{c1::Indirect acting adrenergic
agonist, releaser}}
{{c1::Increase norepinephrine in junction ut to a lesse
r extent than amphetamine}}
{{c1::ADHD (ridalin)}} {{c1::Less of a risk for
arrythmia}}
{{c1::N/A}}
RIDALIN
1476415529847 1476408997299 Tyramine
{{c1::Indirect acting adrenergic
agonist, releaser}}
{{c1::none}}
{{c1::none}}
{{c1::If it makes it int
o the system, it will cause massive release of norepineprhine}} {{c1::If a patie
nt is taking a MAO inhiitor, then foods with tyramine are potentially dangerous
&nsp;}}
this is a natural reak down product from tyrosine<div>Its found
in certain foods at high levels</div><div>Broken down y MAO in GI tract and li
ver</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15680925597936.jpg" /></div>
1476415831967 1476408997299 Cocaine {{c1::Indirect Acting Adrenergic Agonist
(Uptake Inhiitor)}} {{c1::1 1&nsp;2}}
{{c1::Local Anesthetic<div>CNS E
ffects</div>}} {{c1::Blocks reuptake of NE from junction<div>Can lead to increa
se in HR, Force of contraction, increase in systolic pressure</div>}} {{c1::Ca
n potentially lead to arrythmia &nsp;or heart attack or stroke}}

Snorted&
nsp;<div><img src="paste-19177028976810.jpg" /></div>
1476463049990 1476408997299 Tricyclic Antidepressants
{{c1::Indirect A
cting Adrenergic Agonists (Uptake Inhiitors)}} {{c1::Similar to cocaine&nsp;<d
iv>1 2&nsp;1</div>}} {{c1::Antidepressants}} {{c1::Blocks NE uptake&nsp;}}
{{c1::Possile arythmia, possile heart attack, possile stroke}}
Very sim
ilar to cocain<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-20478404067529.jpg" /></div>
1476463532333 1476408997299 MAO inhiitors {{c1::Indirect Acting Adrenergic
Agonist}}
{{c1::Antidepressants}} {{c1::Decrease in the reakdown
of catecholamines}}
1476463949535 1476408997299 Ephedrine
{{c1::Mixed Adrenergic Agonist}}
{{c1:: }}
<div>{{c1::<div>Used to elevate lood pressure</div><div>Sometimes as a
{{c1::Increase the release of NE (oth direct an
ronchodilator</div>}}</div>
d indirect)}} {{c1::Heart attack and stroke in patients with preexisting condi
tions&nsp;}} Its controlled y the FDA now although its still found in a lot
of supplements&nsp;
1476464217677 1476408997299 Phentolamine
{{c1::Adrenergic Antagonists (l
ockers)}}
<div>{{c1::1 2 (lph drenergic ntgonist)}}</div> {{c1::Ac
ute hypertension <div>Used in ER's</div>}} {{c1::Decreses systolic nd di
stolic blood pressure<div>Increses venous return</div><div>Cuses diltion&nbsp
;</div>}}
{{c1::Orthosttic Hypotension<div>Do not use chroniclly </
div>}}
1476464456861 1476408997299 Przosin
{{c1::Adrenergic Antgonist (Blo
ckers)}}
{{c1::1 only}} {{c1::Chronic Hypertension}}
{{c1::Lowers di
stolic nd systolic blood pressure}}
{{c1::Orthosttic Hypotension with first
dose<div>Epinphrine will hve the opposite effect becuse it will bind 2 instead
of&nsp;1</div><div>Use NE or Dopmine insted</div>}}
First dose effect<div>Ep
inephrine Reversl</div><div><img src="pste-21822728831248.jpg" /></div>
1476465191987 1476408997299 Tmsulosin
{{c1::Adrenergic Antgonists (bl
ockers) }} {{c1::1<sub></sub>}} {{c1::Benign Prosttic Hyperplsi}}
{{c1::Blocks 1<sub> </sub>in smooth muscle round the prostte glnd to rel
x the cpsule. Relieves the pressure on the urerthr cused by enlrged prostt
e}}
{{c1::N/A}}
1476465546397 1476408997299 Proprnolol
{{c1:: Adrenergic Antagonist (lo
ckers)- non selective}} {{c1::1 2}} {{c1::Hypertension<div>Angina</div><div>
Arrhythmias</div><div>Myocardial Infarction</div><div>Glaucoma</div><div>Migrain
es</div>}}
<div>{{c1::Lowers Systolic and Diastolic Pressure<div>Blocks ren
in production in kidneys which leads to increased BP</div><div></div>}}</div>
{{c1::Asthmatics (locking 2 will cause ronchoconstriction)<div><r /></div><div
>Insulin dependent diaetics- giving this will lock 2 receptor (epinephrine) whi
ch replaces glycogen in diaetics</div><div><r /></div><div>Sudden withdrawl- t
here is an upregulation of receptors in the presence of antagonists. If you aru
ptly stop the eta locker, you're releasing epinephrine that now inds to doul
e the amount of receptors. Slowly taper off, for all eta lockers</div>}}
<img src="paste-22247930593627.jpg" />
1476466151093 1476408997299 Timolol {{c1:: Adrenergic Antagonist- non selecti
ve &nsp;}}
{{c1::1 2&nsp;}}
{{c1::Glaucoma&nsp;}} {{c1::Reduces accumulati
on of aqueous humour in the eyes}}
{{c1::N/a}}
Used ecause it causes l
ess irritation&nsp;<div>Applied topically to the eye&nsp;</div><div><r /></di
v>
1476466435840 1476408997299 Metoprolol
{{c1:: adrenergic antagonist- sel
ective (second generation)}}
{{c1::1&nsp;}}
{{c1::Hypertension in patients w
ho are asthmatics/diaetic&nsp;}}
<div>{{c1::Lowers oth systolic and dias
tolic pressure<div></div>}}</div>
{{c1::Its selective so the diaetic pati
ents and the asthma patients need to e monitored carefully (and under control)<
div>Because its&nsp;1 selective not specific</div><div>If the concentration gets
high, some of it will ind eta 2 receptor</div>}}
1476467152939 1476408997299 Laetalol
{{c1:: adrenergic antagonists w/
additional action}}
{{c1:: receptor partial agonist<div>1 ntgonist</div>}}
{{c1::Hypertension}}
{{c1::Lowers systolic nd distolic blood pressure
<div>sort of ctivtors Bet receptor but less thn ctul gonist</div>}}

{{c1::N/A}}
1476467370652 1476408997299 Reserpine
{{c1::Indirect Adrenergic Antgo
nists (depletors)}}
{{c1::Storge vesicle on vricosities }} {{c1::Hy
pertension}}
<div>{{c1::Depletes levels on NE in sympthetic nevervous system
becuse its not being stored but rther broken down <div></div>}}</div>
<div>{{c1::Sleep disruption<div>Hedches</div><div>Symptoms of Prkinsons (bt
e when drug is stopped)</div><div></div>}}</div>
<img src="pste-23270132
810044.jpg" />
1476468325505 1476408997299 Botulinum Toxin {{c1::Cholinergic Nturl Toxin}
}
{{c1::Acetylcholine Storge Vesicle}} {{c1::Cn be used to tret spst
icity of cerebrl plsy ptients }}
{{c1::Prevents cholingergic stor
ge vesicle from fusing with the cell membrne, stops relese of Acetylcholine}}
{{c1::Cn probbly cuse prlysis }}
1476468674300 1476408997299 Blck Widow Spider Venom
{{c1::Cholinergi
c Nturl Toxin}}
{{c1::cholinergic Storge vesicle}}
{{c1::N/A}}
{{c1::Cuses explosive relese of cetylcholine}}
{{c1::Cn led to cholin
ergic crisis}}
1476469258951 1476408997299 Acetylcholine {{c1::Direct Acting Cholinergic
Agonist (cholinomimetics)}}
{{c1::Muscrinic nd Nicotinic}}
{{c1::So
metimes used by opthomologists to induce ccomodtion }} {{c1::see bove}
}
<div>{{c1::Not relly useful systemticlly becuse of two resons:<div>
1) cholinesterses brek it down super quick throughout our body</div><div>2) yo
u're going to effect ll gnlionic synpses becuse they ll hve nicotinic cti
vity </div><div></div>}}</div>
<img src="pste-25207163060631.jpg" />
1476469734989 1476408997299 Crbchol {{c1::Direct-Acting Cholinergic
Agonist (choline ester)}}
{{c1::Works on both muscrinic nd nictonic&nbsp
;}}
{{c1::Used for glucom }} {{c1::cuses contrctions of rdil nd
longitudinl cilliry muscle }}
{{c1::Possible to give to smthic ptie
nts s long s they know how to use them }}
948700.jpg" />
1476469899510 1476408997299 Bethnechol
{{c1::Direct Acting Chol
inergic Agonist (Choline ester)}}
{{c1::Muscrinic only}} {{c1::Prlytic
Ileus- stop in peristlsis in smll intestine <div>Bldder Atony- loss of
bility of detrusor muscle in bldder to contrct </div>}} {{c1::Contrctio
n of smll intestine nd bldder}}
{{c1::N/}}
Cn be given orlly or t
hrough IV (isnt broken down by cholinestses)<div><br /></div><div><img src="ps
te-25348896981404.jpg" /></div>
1476470140728 1476408997299 Pilocrpine
{{c1::Direct Acting Cholinergic
Agonist- Alkloid (plnt origin)}}
{{c1::Muscrinic Receptor}}
{{c1::Xe
rostomi- reduced sliv<div>Glucom- topiclly </div>}} {{c1::Acts on mu
scrinic receptors on sliv glnds}} <div>{{c1::<div>Cholinergic crisis
</div>SLUD ( slivtion, lcrimtion-ters, urintion, defection)<div>Bronchiol
r smooth muscle contrction</div><div>These cn occur with ny muscrinic goni
st</div>}}</div>
<img src="pste-25774098743474.jpg" />
1476470480167 1476408997299 Donepezil
{{c1::Anticholinesterse, non co
vlent inhibitor }}
{{c1::Acetycholinesterse Serine Hydroxly group}
}
{{c1::Erly Alzheimer's}}
{{c1::Binds mino cids t ctive site o
f the esterse<div>Positions itself there so tht cetylcholine cn't bind nd g
ets broken down more slowly</div><div>Comes off quickly</div>}} N/A
<img src
="pste-26109106192464.jpg" />
1476471823961 1476408997299 Physostigmine {{c1::Anticholinesterse Covlen
t Inhibitor Crbmte}} {{c1::Binds to cetylcholinesterse nd forms crbmt
e }}
{{c1::Glucom}}
{{c1::Prevents brek down of cetylcholi
ne}}
{{c1::Cn penetrte blood brin so should only be pplied topiclly}}
<div>Rectivtes fter minutes-hours</div><img src="pste-26323854557572.jpg" />
1476472016378 1476408997299 Neostigmine
{{c1::Anticholinesterse Covlen
t Inhibitor Crbmte}} {{c1::Cholinesterse }}
{{c1::Mystheni Grvis{{c1::The cetylcholine cn outcompete t
utoimmune neruomusculr disese}}
he ntibodies }} {{c1::N/A}}
Is ble to cross blood brin brrier so
thts why it differs from physostigmine nd cn be tken systemticlly <di

v><br /></div><div><img src="pste-26611617366415.jpg" /></div>
1476472436960 1476408997299 Crbryl
{{c1::Pesticide- Anticholinester
se- Covlent Inhibitor- Crbmtes}} {{c1::Cholinesterse}} {{c1::its pest
icide}} {{c1::Forms crbmtes}}
{{c1::Cn led to cholinergic crisis<div
>Acetlycholine ccumultes in vrious prts of the body</div>}} <div>You cn buy
this t home depot, cool, no?</div><img src="pste-26740466385286.jpg" />
1476472611769 1476408997299 Echothiophte {{c1::Anticholinesterse- slowly
reversible inhibitor- orgnophosphte}}
{{c1::Cholinesterse }}
{{c1::Glucom}}
<div>{{c1::Phosphoryltes oxygen of serine <div>The
rectivtion usully cn usully tke hours to dys</div><div></div>}}</div>
{{c1::Cnt pply too often becuse orgnophosphtes sty for while}} <div><br
/></div><img src="pste-26989574488488.jpg" />
1476472919713 1476408997299 Prthion {{c1::Anticholinesterse- slowly
reversible inhibitor- orgnophosphte- pesticide}}
{{c1::Cholinesterse}}
{{c1::It cn cuse poisoning <div>tret it with 2-PAM</div>}}
{{c1::C
n sometimes cuse ging of the cholinesterses which bsiclly mens tht it cn
't be reversed }} {{c1::Poisonings, thousnds of ER visits yer, require
s license to use}}
<img src="pste-27135603376521.jpg" />
1476473147823 1476408997299 Somn {{c1::Anticholinesterse- slowly reversi
ble inhibitor- orgnophosphte- chemicl wrfre gent}}
{{c1::Cholineste
rse}} {{c1::Its nerve gs}} <div>{{c1::Instnt ging of the cholinesterse<d
iv></div>}}</div>
<div>{{c1::<div>Super voltile (gs)</div><div>No chnce
of ntidote</div>}}</div>
Soldiers crry crbmte to protect ginst so
mn<div><img src="pste-27350351741339.jpg" /></div>
1476473352755 1476408997299 Atropine
{{c1::Cholinergic Blocker- Alkl
oid}} {{c1::Muscrinic }}
<div><div>{{c1::Crdic Emergencies in t
he ER- increses hert rte <div>Eye- Diltes the eye<br /><div>Asthm</div
><div>Urinry Incontinence</div><div>Intestine- nti spsmotic gent, reduces p
ristlsis </div><div>Orl Surgery- suppresses production of sliv</div><di
v>Used with 2-PAM</div><div>Trets crbmte poisoning</div><div>trets SLUD(cho
linergic crisis)</div><div></div></div>}}</div></div> {{c1::Decrese prsymp
thetic tone}} {{c1::Dry mouth}}
<img src="pste-27590869909920.jpg" />
1476473608106 1476408997299 Scopolmine
{{c1::Cholinergic blocker- ntur
{{c1::Motion Sickness nd nti-nuse&nb
l lkloid}} {{c1::Muscrinic}}
sp;}} {{c1::Blocks muscrinic in the CNS}}
{{c1::n/}}
1476473702766 1476408997299 Iprtropium
{{c1::Muscrinic Blocker
s- Synthetic Quternry Amines}}
{{c1::Muscrinic }}
{{c1::As
thm}} {{c1::Bronchodiltion<div>Reduces mucus production</div>}}
{{c1::n/
}}
1476473894928 1476408997299 Benzotropine
- synthetic tertiry mine}}
{{c1::Muscrinic}}
{{c1::Prkinsons Disese
}}
{{c1::Cn suppress tremors tht re ssocited with prkinsons <div
>Not cure</div>}}
{{c1::n/}}
1473011809254 1471364886851 Metbolic syndrome is wht?
<div>Incresed R
isk of Developing Type II dibetes</div>ft storge in plces besides dipose.&n
bsp;<div>ftty liver, hert, muscles</div><div>lrge wistline</div><div>high bl
ood pressure, triglyceride levels, low HDL</div><div>high fsting blood sugr (n
ot dibetic)</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-2856153252177.jpg" /></d
iv>
1475421148394 1471105979384 Extrcellulr pH is round {{c1::7.4}} while cyt
oplsmic pH is {{c1::7.1}}. The pH is {{c1::4.5-6}} in the lysosomes, golgi nd
endosomes
1475421352692 1471105979384 The rte of diffusion is directly proportionl t
o the {{c1::bsolute temperture}} nd inversely proportionl to the {{c1::visco
sity of the medium}} nd to the {{c1::moleculr rdius}}
1475422262912 1471105979384 Flux is the mesure of the number of moles cross
ing plne of unit re per unit time. It is {{c1::directly proportionl}} to t
he mgnitude of the concentrtion grdient.
1475422584068 1471105979394 How is the prtition coefficient mesured? (K<su
b>p</sub>)
Mesured by determining the distribution of the substnce betwee
n Oil nd wter<div><img src="pste-28071906246752.jpg" /></div>
1475422985487 1471105979384 Higher diffusion coeffecient (D<sub>m</sub>) nd
higher Prtition Coefficient (K<sub>p</sub>) led to {{c1::higher::higher/low
er}} permebility coefficient
1475423010669 1471105979384 High lipid solubility = {{c1::High::high/low}} m
embrne permebility
1475423106642 1471105979384 Permebility {{c1::increses::increses/decrese
s}} with lipid solubility, {{c1::decreses::increses/decreses}} with moleculr
size nd gretly {{c1::decreses::increses/decreses}} with chrge
1475423513618 1471105979394 Wht is the electroneutrlity principle?
The ide tht there must lwys be equl chrge on mcroscopic volume
1475424755870 1471105979384 The chemicl potentil () is mesure of the con
tribution of ech component to the totl energy of solution.<div>If C<sub>in</
sub><C<sub>out</sub> is {{c1::negtive::positive/negtive}}, mening the
substnce {{c1::will spontneouls diffuse inside }}</div><div>If C<sub>in<
/sub>>C<sub>out</sub> is {{c1::positive::positive/negtive}}, mening su
bstnce {{c1::requires energy to move inside}}</div><div>If If C<sub>in</su
b>=C<sub>out</sub> is {{c1::0::positive/negtive}}, mening substnce {{c1:
:is in equillibrium }}</div>
1475424840623 1471105979384 The chemicl potentil of H<sub>2</sub>O is:<div
>{{c1::incresed::incresed/decresed}} by pressure <div>{{c1::incresed::i
ncresed/decresed}} by temperture </div><div>{{c1::decresed::incresed/d
ecresed}} by solutes</div></div>
1475425906760 1471105979384 Reduced chemicl potentil of wter will:<div>{{
c1::Increse::increse/decrese}} boiling point</div><div>{{c1::Decrese::incre
se/decrese}} vpor pressure</div><div>{{c1::Decrese::increse/decrese}} freez
ing point</div>
1475426005468 1471105979384 Osmolrity of blood plsm is {{c1::300 mOsm::co
ncentrtion}}
1475426048279 1471105979384 A hypotonic solution will cuse n {{c1::incres
e::increse/decrese}} in cell volume becuse the osmolrity is {{c1::less::less
/more}} thn tht of blood plsm.
1475426215339 1471105979384 Hemolysis occurs t osmolrities less thn {{c1:
:200mOsm::concentrtion}}
1475426292923 1471105979384 In hypertonic solution the cell volume will {{
c1::decrese::increse/decrese}} becuse the osmolrity is {{c1::greter::gret
er/less}} thn tht of blood plsm
1475426587540 1471105979394 Wht is the Nernst Eqution? Wht does it mesur
e nd how is it clculted?
Mesures the equillibriumfor n ion t given c
oncentrtion difference cross membrne.<div><img src="pste-31602369364041.jp
g" /></div><div>where z is the chrge of the ion</div><div><b>Note the out/in he
re</b></div>
1475428512108 1471105979384 In Ohm's lw for membrnes,-E<su>i</su>&nsp;mea
sures the {{c1::driving force}}&nsp;if:<div>=E<su>i</su>&nsp;is {{c1::0}} so t
he current is {{c1::0}}</div><div>-E<su>i</su>&nsp;is >0 positive ions would
move {{c1::out::in/out}} while negative ions would move {{c1::in::in/out}}</div
><div>-E<su>i is </su><0 positive ions would move {{c1::in::in/out}} while ne
gative ions would move {{c1::out::in/out}}</div>
1475428792301 1471105979384 Current is defined as the {{c1::direction of the
movement of the positive charge}}, the direction of movement is given y the si
gn of the driving force<div>An outward current is a {{c1::postitve::pos/neg}} cu
rrent</div><div>An inward current is a {{c1::negative::pos/neg}} current</div>
1475431410805 1471105979394 How would you define the colloid osmotic pressur
e (aka oncotic pressure)
Osmotic pressure difference thats due to the pre
senece of impermeant molecules inside of a cell
1475431450059 1471105979394 How does the Donnan ratio work&nsp;
All perm
eale ions must e distriuted in accordance with the nernst equestion, therefor
e all permeant ions must exists in equal ratios&nsp;<div><img src="paste-338872
91965551.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div>
1475431720680 1471105979394 How do ion channels work?

Its asically di
ffusion through a selective pore<div>Removes the energy arrier for an ion getti
ng into the cell</div><div>Interactions with water are replaced y interactions
with the protein</div><div>It has a fairly rigid structure</div>
1475432454341 1471105979384 Channels have a {{c1::faster::faster/slower}} tu
rnover rate than carriers
1475432476838 1471105979384 Primary active transport relies on {{c1::direct
energy coupling}} while secondary active transport relies on {{c1::gradients}}
1475432695416 1471105979394 Whats the difference etween a symport and an an
tiport? Antiport moves things opposite each (counter-transport) other while symp
ort moves ions with each other (co-transport)
1475432771667 1471105979394 What is the function of the GLUT family of trans
porters?
They are a family of sugar transporters that do facillitated dif
fusion
1475432956533 1471105979384 In the presence of insulin, GLUT 4 is taken from
the {{c1::cytosol}} and put into the {{c1::memrane}} to allow for uptake of gl
ucose
1475433006885 1471105979384 The pump that is responsile for ATP synthesis d
uring Oxidative Phoshorylation is the {{c1::F-class proton pump}}. It is found i
n {{c1::mitochondria, chloroplasts and acteria}}
197385.jpg" />
1475433492846 1471105979384 F-type ATPases have two major portions, the F<su
>1</su> suunit which is {{c1::hydrophilic}} and the F<su>0</su>&nsp;suuni
t which is {{c1::hydrophoic}}.&nsp;
1475433679752 1471105979384 The V-Type ATPases differ from F-type in that th
ey {{c1::only use ATP to pump protons}}
1475433748553 1471105979384 The V-type ATPases main function is to {{c1::aci
dify the endosomal network, lysosomes and golgi network}}
1475434077104 1471105979394 P-type ATPases differ from V-type and F-type str
ucturally, how? P-type ATPases generally only have a single catalytic suunit an
d sometimes an additional suunit (Beta, in the Sodium Potassium ATPase). F and
V type have multiple suunits
1475434255582 1471105979394 What is the sequence of events for how a P-type
ATPase works? 1) Ion inds&nsp;<div>2) The transporter is phosphorylated</div
><div>3)Ion gets translocated as a direct result of the conformational change of
the suunit</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2881923
056023.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div>
1475434410795 1471105979384 The Na<sup>+</sup>,K<sup>+</sup>-ATPase is a {{c
1::P-type}} ATPase
1475434416384 1471105979384 The stoichiometry of the Na<sup>+</sup>,K<sup>+<
/sup>-ATPase is&nsp;<div>Hydrolysis of {{c1::1::numer}} ATP transports {{c1::3
::numer}} Na<sup>+</sup>&nsp;{{c1::out of::in to/out of}} the cell and {{c1::2
::numer}} K<sup>+ </sup>{{c1::in to::in to/out of}} the cell</div>
1475439437344 1471105979394 What does it mean to say that the Na,K ATPase is
electrogenic It generates a current with its activity
1475439675135 1471105979394 What is Ouaain?
Its a cardiace glycoside
. It inhiits Na,K ATPase and its antagonized y high [K]. It increases the forc
e of cardiace contraction y locking the release of Calcium from the cell which
is dependent on Sodium Calcium Exchanger<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4
3671227466297.jpg" /></div>
1475439824239 1471105979384 The Ca-ATPase is a {{c1::P}}-type ATPase
1475439965638 1471105979394 What are SERCA and PMCA?
SERCA which stan
ds for Sarco(ENDO)-plasmic Ca ATPase pumps calcium into the sarcomeres and endop
lasmic reticulum.<div><r /></div><div>PMCA is a Plasma Memrane Ca ATPase</div>
1475439967223 1471105979394 How are ABC Transporters organized?
They are
organized as two homologous domains<div>with 6 memrane spanning segments and 1
nucleotide inding domain in each domain. They can e linked in a single polype
ptide or as seperate halves</div><div><img src="paste-38126424686753.jpg" /></di
v>
1475440574345 1471105979394 Multiple drug resistance protein and CFTR (cysti
c firosis transmemrane regulator) are oth what kind of transporters? ABC tran
sporters
1475524341803 1471105979394 How do specific ion channels not allow other ion
s to pass through? ie what gives ion channels their specificity?
The sele
ctivity filter which is a small portion of the ion channel has a specific intera
ctions with specific ions. The strucutre of the selectivity filter puts ackone
caronyl oxygens in different places relative to ion size<div><r /></div><div>
<img src="paste-44173738639717.jpg" />&nsp;</div>
1475524762379 1471105979394 So ions are passing through the selectivity filt
er, if each ion has to ind to the filter this would in theory retard the passag
e of ions, ut Ions pass through the filter so fast. How does this make sense?
Each incoming ion displaces the next ion through electrostatic interactions (rep
ulsion)
1475525937715 1471105979384 The voltage gated potassium channel contains 6 {
{c1::alpha helical}} transmemrane segments<div>It has a P-loop which contains t
he {{c1::pore and selectivity filter}}</div><div>The S4 segment which is the {{c
1::gating mechanism}}</div><div>It also contains the inactivation mechanism whic
h is the {{c1::"all and chain"}} mechanism of inactivation.</div>
<img src
="paste-44882408243557.jpg" />
1475526080612 1471105979384 The Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor is selectiv
e for {{c1::cations}}. Its function is to depolarize the {{c1::memrane and init
iate action potential in postsynaptic memrane}}
1475526310355 1471105979384 The IP<su>3</su>&nsp;receptor is present in t
he {{c1::Endoplasmic reticulum}} and releases {{c1::calcium}} into the ulk cyto
plasm
1475526994660 1471105979384 The Ryanodine Receptor releases {{c1::calcium fr
om the Sarcoplasmic reticulum::what from where}} during muscle contraction. It c
an e opened y&nsp;<div>{{c1::<div>Increase in [Ca]<su>cyt</su></div><div>Me
chanical interaction with L-type Ca<sup>2+</sup><su>&nsp;</su>channel (skelet
al muscle)</div><div>Caffeine, ryanodine</div>}}</div> <img src="paste-45926085
296407.jpg" />
1475527400679 1471105979394 What is the GHK equation?
<img src="paste46054934315115.jpg" /><div>OR</div><div><img src="paste-46450071306327.jpg" /></
div><div>OU CAN INCLUDE Cl if you reverse</div><div><img src="paste-47047071760
460.jpg" /></div>
1475621963237 1471105979394 Ion channel conductance is what?
It is th
e proaility that a channel is open, so that means that the higher conductance
there is, the higher the permeaility
1475622052841 1471105979384 Second messenger gated channels have gates that
are controlled y an {{c1::intracellular signaling molecule}}.&nsp;<div><r /><
/div><div>Give examples</div> cAMP or IP<su>3</su>
1475622109479 1471105979384 The nicotinic receptor is a {{c1::ligand}} gated
channel that has a receptor on the {{c1::extracellular}} side of the memrane.
It is found on the {{c1::motor end plate}}<div><r /></div><div>The ions that it
allows through are {{c1::K+ and Na+}}</div>
1475622565274 1471105979394 Can you generate a diffusion potential in a mem
rane that is impermeale to a specific ion?
No, a diffusion potential is a c
aused y a diffusion of an ion down its concentration gradient. Therefore, if th
e ion cannot diffuse, there will e no potential generated
1475622655462 1471105979394 What role the Na+ K+ ATPase have in maintaining
the resting memrane potential? Its responsile for creating and maintaning the
K+ concentration which is then responsie for the diffusion potential of K+ whic
h causes the resting memrane potential
1475625190283 1471105979394 Why is hyperkalemia?
elevated lood K+ levels
1475627334162 1471105979394 Define Diffusion Potential
Its the potentia
l difference generated when a charged ion diffuses across a memrane down its co
ncentration gradient
1475627454942 1471105979394 Define equillirium potential It is the diffus
ion potential that equally opposes the tendency of an ion to continue diffusing
down its concentration gradiet
1475627598756 1471105979384 The typical equillirium potentials for the foll

owing ions are as follows<div>E<su>Na</su><sup>+</sup>&nsp;is {{c1::65 mV}}</
div><div>E<su>Ca</su><sup>2+</sup>&nsp;is {{c1::120 mV}}</div><div>E<su>K</s
u><sup>+</sup>&nsp;is {{c1::-85mV}}</div><div>E<su>Cl</su><sup>-</sup>&nsp;
is {{c1::-90 mV}}</div>
1475627847813 1471105979394 The driving force on a given ion is defined as w
hat?
The difference etween the memrane potential Em and equillrium potenti
al Ei&nsp;<div><r /></div><div>Em-Ei</div>
1475627849222 1471105979394 Define the ionic current&nsp; The ionic curren
t is essential the driving force multiplied y the conductane (now define conduc
tance)&nsp;
1475635609808 1471105979384 In glycolysis:<div>Insulin works as an {{c1::act
ivator::activator/inhiitor}} while glucagon works as an {{c1::inhiitor::activa
tor/inhiitor}} on the enzymes:</div><div>{{c1::<div>Glucokinase</div><div>Phosp
hofructokinase</div><div>Pyruvate Kinase</div>}}</div> <img src="paste-74388833
57095.jpg" />
1475635785697 1471105979384 {{c1::Endocrine}} hormones are distriuted y l
ood<div>{{c1::Paracrine}} hormones act locally</div><div>{{c1::Autocrine}} hormo
nes act on the same cell that produces it&nsp;</div>
1475635849348 1471105979384 Insulin production egins to {{c1::decrease elo
w 80::increase/decrease elow/elow some value}} mg/dL glucose
1475636277030 1471105979384 The diaetic fasting glucose is measured {{c1::a
ove::aove/elow}} {{c1::126 }}mg/dL<div>The diaetic random glucose is measure
d {{c1::aove::aove/elow}} {{c1::200}} mg/dL</div>
1475636427097 1471105979384 When glucose approaches aout {{c1::50-60}} mg/d
L you egin to see symptoms
1475636469157 1471105979384 The organ that is responsile for synthesizing g
lycogen, fatty acids, and triacylglycerides. Takes up glucose after a meal, degr
ades glycogen, releases ketone odies and undergoes gluconeogenesis during fasti
ng is the {{c1::liver}}
1475636812310 1471105979384 {{c1::Glucokinase}} has a high K<su>m</su>&ns
p;for glucose and it is found in the {{c1::liver}} while {{c1::hexokinase}} has
a low K<su>m </su>for glucose and it is found {{c1::all over}}
1475636923310 1471105979384 The organ that synthesizes glycogen and protein,
takes up glucose after a meal, uses fatty acids and ketone odies and releases
amino acids during fasting is {{c1::skeletal muscle}}
1475637019359 1471105979384 The organ that synthesizes triacyl glycerol, tak
es up glucose after a meal, and hydrolyses triacylglycerols during fasting is {{
c1::adipose tissue}}
1475637904498 1471105979394 What does it mean if an enzyme has intrinsic enz
myatic activity?
It means that the enzyme is part of the receptor protein
1475638278114 1471105979384 The role of metformin is to {{c1::lock fatty ac
id synthesis and gluconeogenesis}} via {{c1::activation of AMPK}}
<img src
="paste-40763534606648.jpg" />
1475638320224 1471105979384 A hyperosmolar coma is a common acute complicati
on of {{c1::Type II diaetes}}&nsp;
1475638606021 1471105979394 How does alcohol directly inhiit glucose produc
tion within the liver cell?
Ethanol ecomes acetaldehyde which goes to aceta
te which produces NADH which decreases glucose synthesis&nsp;
1475638954696 1471105979394 What are the MAP kinases?
They are the kin
ases that are activated y RTK activated G (Ras) proteins<div>RAF</div><div>MEK<
/div><div>ERK</div><div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11042360918503.jpg
" /></div></div>
1475771238153 1471105979384 Cortisol<div>Carons:{{c1::21}}</div><div>Synthe
sized in: {{c1::adrenal}}</div><div>Effect: {{c1::increases gluconeogenic enzyme
s (liver)}}</div><div>Structural features: {{c1::hydroxyl on C 11, C 17, C21, C1
7 and 21 are essential for gluconeogenic activity}}</div><div><r /></div>
1475771334467 1471105979384 Aldosterone<div><div>Carons: {{c1::21}}</div><d
iv>Synthesized in {{c1::adrenal}}</div><div>Effect:Kidney- {{c1::increases Na+ a
sorption, increase K+ excretion}}</div><div>Structural features: {{c1::Hydroxyl
on C21 and C11, aldehyde on C18}}</div></div>

1475771410333 1471105979384 Testosterone<div><div>Carons: {{c1::19}}</div><
div>Synthesized in {{c1::testes (some in adrenal)}}</div><div>Effect:{{c1::incre
ases muscle mass}}</div><div>Structural features: {{c1::Hydroxyl C17 and C4-C5 d
oule ond in A ring&nsp;}}</div></div>
1475771486372 1471105979384 Estradiol<div><div>Carons: {{c1::18}}</div><div
>Synthesized in: {{c1::ovary (adrenal also)}}</div><div>Effect:{{c1::increases u
terine mass during pregnancy}}</div><div>Structural features: {{c1::Hydroxly on
C17, A ring is phenyl ring&nsp;}}</div></div>
1475771667613 1471105979394 What is the order of events for the synthesis of
cortisol? (whats the whole pathway)
Stress---> Hypothalamus which makes C
RF----> Pituitary which makes ACTH----> Adrenal which makes cortisol<div><
r /></div><div><r /></div><div>Cortisol negatively inhiits the production of
CRF and ACTH&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13009455939825.jpg
" /></div>
1475772007605 1471105979384 Desmolase is activated y {{c1::ACTH}}<div>Its f
unction is to:</div><div>{{c1::<div>Cleave side chain of cholesterol</div><div>U
ptake of cholesterol into adrenal&nsp;</div>}}</div>
1475772048996 1471105979384 Melanocyte stimulation hormone is responsile fo
r {{c1::skin darkening&nsp;}} and it is very similar to {{c1::ACTH}}
1475772111060 1471105979394 Explain adison's disease
Adison's diease
is a adrenal insufficiency, the adrenal gland receives signals from the Pituitar
y through ACTH ut doesn't make coritsol which is a negative feedack inhiitor
of the pituitary.&nsp;<div>If the adrenal gland is unale to make cortisol, ACT
H keeps eing produced and ACTH is very similar to MSH which the hormone respons
ile for skin darkening. Therefore patient presents with dark skin features.&ns
p;</div><div><img src="paste-13602161426945.jpg" /></div>
1475772268562 1471105979384 Cortisol is transported through the lood y {{c
1::Cortico Steroid Binding Gloulin (CBG)}}<div><r /></div><div>Testosterone is
transported y {{c1::Sex Hormone Binding Gloulin (SHBG)}}</div><div><r /></di
v><div>Estradiol is transported y&nsp;{{c1::Sex Hormone Binding Gloulin (SHBG
)}}</div>
1475772352069 1471105979384 {{c1::Intracellular::intra/extra cell
ular}}&nsp;receptors recognize steroids y their {{c1::hydroxyl groups}}
1475772463697 1471105979384 Estradiol and Estradiol Receptor complex with th
e help of cofactors effect the<div>{{c1::regulation of histone acetyl transferas
e&nsp;}}</div><div>AND</div><div>{{c1::RNA Pol II}}</div>
1475772557419 1471105979394 What is Letrozole?&nsp;
It is an aromata
se inhiitor used to treat estrogen receptor positive reat cancers in post meno
pausal women. Aromatase is an enzyme in estradiol synthesis.&nsp;
1475772648294 1471105979394 What is Tamoxifen?
It is an anti estrogen c
hemotherapy used to treat reast cancer in women whos reast cancers are estroge
n receptor positive. It works as an anti estrogen<div><r /></div><div>used for
premenopausal pts</div>
1475772795372 1471105979384 Steroid hormone receptors have {{c1::two}} indi
ng domains which include:<div>{{c1::<div>DNA inding domain</div><div>AND</div><
div>Hormone Binding Domain</div>}}</div>
1475778471072 1471105979384 Calcium's Functions in the ody include (4):<div
>{{c1::<div>Structure of Skeleton</div><div>Important for muscle contraction</di
v><div>Blood clotting</div><div>Nerve ion pulse transmission&nsp;</div>}}</div>
1475778608593 1471105979384 Normal Serum Calcium is {{c1::10mg/100mL}}<div>I
n the ody the calcium is divided into:</div><div>{{c1::<div>51% Ionized</div><d
iv>46% protein ound</div><div>3% complexed to other ions</div>}}</div>
1475778759439 1471105979384 The hormones that increase calcium levels are {{
c1::Parathyroid Hormone and Vitamin D}} while {{c1::Calcitonin}} decreases calci
um levels&nsp;
1475778986682 1471105979384 {{c1::Parathyroid Gene Related Peptide (PTHrP)}}
is thought to e responsile for hypercalcemia of malignant tumors&nsp;
1475779109831 1471105979384 PTH is synthesized in {{c1::chief cells of the p
arathyroid gland}} in response to&nsp;{{c1::low Ca<sup>2+</sup>&nsp;levels&ns
p;}}
1475779254476 1471105979394 How is PTH synthesized? Synthesized in chief cel
ls of parathyroid gland in response to low Ca levels.&nsp;<div>Low Ca+ --> t
ranscription-->translation--> Pre-Pro-PTH-->Pro-PTH-->PTH which then
feedack inhiits the synthesis of more PTH</div><div><img src="paste-175492363
72024.jpg" /></div>
1475779354196 1471105979394 How does PTH act on the ones? PTH increases th
e numer of osteoclasts y attaching a receptor on OSTEOBLASTS which increases t
he synthesis of RANKL (osteoclast differentiating factor) which makes osteoclast
s from preosteoclasts. Osteoclasts promote one reasorption.&nsp;<div><img src
="paste-17686675325258.jpg" /></div>
1475779608180 1471105979394 How does PTH effect the kidney? It increases the
calcium reasorption in distal tue.<div>Inhiits the phosphate reasorption&n
sp;</div><div>Increased cAMP in urine is the test for elevated phosphate</div>
1475795401867 1471105979394 How does PTH effect the intestine?
It doesn
t directly effect it<div>BUT recall that PTH will result in more active form of
Vitamin D eing synthesized in the kidney which will then e used for calcium a
sorption in the intestine</div>
1475795667982 1471105979384 Calcitonin is synthesized in the {{c1::C cells o
f the thyroid&nsp;}}
1475795687420 1471105979384 Calcitonin effects the one y {{c1::inhiiting
osteoclast one resorption shrinking the osteoclasts&nsp;}}
1475795726186 1471105979384 Calcitonin effects the kidney y {{c1::increasin
g urinary calcium excretion BUT only at supraphysiological concentrations&nsp;}
}
1475795781967 1471105979384 Calcitonin affects the intestine y... {{c1::it
doesn't effect the intestine ut it does inhiit gastrin secretion}}&nsp;
1475796006384 1471105979394 Take me through the process of how Vitamin D is
made? 1)UV rays convert 7-dehydrocholesterol into Vitamin D<su>3</su>(cholec
alciferol)<div>2) Vitamin D is transported through the lood ound to Vitamin D
inding protein to <>Liver</></div><div>3) There Vitamin D<su>3</su>&nsp;is
hydroxylated into 25(OH)D<su>3</su>&nsp;y 25 hydroxylase</div><div>4) 25(OH
)D<su>3</su>&nsp;is taken to the <>Kidney</>&nsp;y Vitamin D inding prot
ein</div><div>5) There it is again hydroxylated to ecome 1,25 (OH)<su>2</su>D
<su>3</su>&nsp;(calcitrol) which is the active form of D<su>3</su></div><di
v><su><r /></su></div><div>**Note that in the Kidney, the 24 position could a
lso get hydroxylated to make 24,25 (OH)<su>2</su>D<su>3</su>&nsp;, the inac
tive form of D<su>3</su>&nsp;</div>
1475796277335 1471105979384 Cholecalciferol is&nsp;{{c1::Vitamin&nsp;D<su
>3</su>}}&nsp;made in {{c1::the skin}}<div>Calcitrol is the&nsp;{{c1::active
form of Vitamin D<su>3</su>&nsp;(1,25 OHD3)}}&nsp;made in {{c1::the kidney}}
</div>
1475796500674 1471105979394 How does Vitamin D effect the Intestine?
Promotes asorption of phosphorous in the intestine<div><r /></div><div>Binds t
o Vitamin D receptor in the cell which increases the synthesis of calcium indin
g protein (calindin) which increase calcium asorption in the intestine and inc
rease the creation of calcium channels&nsp;</div>
1475796663072 1471105979394 How does Vitamin D effect the one?
Stimulat
es osteoclast activity which causes increased one resorption and increase in se
rum calcium<div>Receptors are present in the osteolasts</div><div>They increase
the synthesis of RANKL</div>
1475796710819 1471105979394 How does vitamin D effect the kidney? It enhan
ces the action of PTH at distal tuule
1475796726954 1471105979394 What is RANKL? It is the osteoclast differentia
ting factor which takes preosteoclasts into osteoclasts&nsp;
1475801006127 1471105979394 What is Calindin
Calcium Binding Protein
in the intestine<div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><>Cal</>cium <>Bind</
>ing <>In</>testine</div>
1475804503258 1471105979394 Why do some drugs act slowly compared to others
in terms of receptors? Drugs that act on extracellular receptors (G-protein, li
gand, etc..) are quicker than drugs that act intracellularly (estradiol)
1475804576708 1471105979394 How/where does Warfarin act?
Warfarin is an a
nticoagulant&nsp;<div>It inhiits Vitamin K Epoxide Reductase which plays a rol
e in reducing Vitamin K epoxide.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-23914377904469.jpg" /></div>
1475804678604 1471105979394 What is EDTA? What is it used for?
It is a
metal chelator drug<div>Used to treat heavy metal toxicity&nsp;</div><div>EDTA
comines with lead and allowed to e excreted in urine</div><div><r /></div>
1475804894271 1471105979394 What is K<su>D, </su>what does it measure?
It measure the dissociation constant of a Ligand to Receptor (Drug)<div>Calculat
ed y&nsp;</div><div><img src="paste-24288040058946.jpg" /></div><div><img src=
"paste-24300924960921.jpg" /></div><div>KD<su>&nsp;</su>High means that there
is more dissociation, aka low affinity</div>
1475805220899 1471105979384 High drug affinities (K<su>d</su>) are conside
red to e those in the {{c1::picomolar, nanomolar and low micromolar}} range.
1475805249245 1471105979384 A {{c1::graded dose response curve}} quantifies
the magnitude of response as a function of dose&nsp; <img src="paste-24571507
900768.jpg" />
1475805381870 1471105979384 K<su>D</su>&nsp;is determined y {{c1:: the s
tructures of the drug and receptor}}<div>EC<su>50</su>&nsp;is determined y{{
c1::&nsp;strucutres of drug, receptor and drug pharmacokinetics (response rate)
}}</div><div>R<su>T</su>&nsp;is determined y {{c1:: the total numer of rece
ptors}}</div><div>E<su>max</su>&nsp;is determined y {{c1:: total numer of r
eceptors and drug pharmacokinetics and events ocuring after drug inding to rece
ptor}}</div>
<img src="paste-5407363826072.jpg" />
1475805766139 1471105979394 How would descrie the difference etween potenc
y and efficacy? Potency is the dose required to get the drug to maximum response
(Drug A requires a smaller dose than drug B to elicit maximum response, differe
nt EC<su>50</su>)<div>Efficacy is the difference in E<su>max</su>, how much
response could the drug elicit in the first place</div><div><r /></div><div><im
1475806126613 1471105979384 {{c1::False::True/False}}<div>Partial agonists
ind less receptors than full agonists ut more receptors than antagonists</div>
Partial agonists only elicit less of a response from that receptor, they ind th
e receptors with the same affinity. They will ind ut have less of an effect th
an a full agonist
1475806139584 1471105979384 {{c1::False::True/False}}<div>Aspirin has a lowe
r potency AND Efficacy than Hydromorphine, Morphine and Codeine (use graph elow
)</div><div><img src="paste-25580825215271.jpg" /></div>
Aspirin inds to
a different receptor than the others, you can only compare potency and effiacy
in drugs that ind to the same receptor&nsp;
1475807414941 1471105979394 How do partial agonists, full agonists and antia
gonists work in the induced fit model? Explain using Tamoxifen Estradiol inds
the Estrogen Receptor inside of a cell causing a conformational change that then
allows the coregulators to ind to the complex as well<div><r /></div><div>Tam
oxifen replaces estradiol and inds to the estradiol receptor inside of the cell
and when it enters the nucleus, the coregulators can't ind to it so its comple
tely turned off and the cancer cell dies</div><div><r /></div><div>In the uteru
s, Tamoxifen causes a confromational change again ut this time, some of the cor
egulators can ind ut not as well so you get some transcription ut not as much
so we say it is a partial agonist</div>
1475807537166 1471105979394 Define/explain constitutive activity (asal acti
vity) In the example of sodium channels, they open in response to acetylcholin
e ut even in the asence of acetylcholine, some of them will open up once in a
while<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-26186415604062.jpg" /></div>
1475807723136 1471105979394 Go ahead and explain this<div><img src="paste-26
242250178901.jpg" /></div>
Full agonist inds and makes more receptors (all
) in the R' prime form<div>Partial does a little more R' than R&nsp;</div><div>
Neutral is essential asal activity</div><div>Inverse favors the R, inhiiting
asal activity</div>
1475808102309 1471105979394 How do antihistamines work?

They are full in
verse agonists ecause histamine receptors follow the conformation selected mode
l (asal activity)<div><r /></div><div>They induce the conformation to remain i
n the inactive form as opposed to histamine which is going to maintain the recep
tor in the active form</div>
1475808501699 1471105979384 Competitive antagonists give&nsp;<div>{{c1::Sam
e::higher/lower/same}} E<su>max</su></div><div>{{c1::Lower::higher/lower/same}
} EC<su>50</su></div><div><su><r /></su></div><div><su><r /></su></div>
<img src="paste-26770531156311.jpg" />
1475808744622 1471105979394 How can a partial agonist e a competitive antag
onist in respect to a full agonist?
A partial agonist can compete for the re
ceptors with the full agonist. So the more partial agonist that you add, the les
s active the full agonist is and so the response approaches that of the partial
agonist instead of the full agonist<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2703681
9128632.jpg" /></div>
1475808796055 1471105979394 What is an example of a drug that is a negative
allosteric modulator, how does it work? Ketamine effects the NMDA receptor in th
e CNS, which normally inds glutamate and glycine for the ion channel. Once you
add ketamine, it inds to a different site and lowers the E<su>max</su>&nsp;n
o matter how much more glutamate you add.&nsp;<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-27157078212992.jpg" /></div>
1475809018383 1471105979394 What is enzodiazopene? How does it work?
It is an anti anxiety drug<div>Binds to the GABA receptor and is a positive allo
steric modulator&nsp;</div><div>It increases the inding affinity of GABA allow
ing more ion channel activity to allow the passage of chlorine&nsp;</div>
1475809128026 1471105979394 What is pharmacodynamic tolerance? What are its
effects graphically and what is the mechanism of how it happens?
The E<su
>max</su>&nsp;is lowered as the overall response to the drug is reduced over
time<div>This can occur ecause of desensitization of the receptor or down regul
ation of the receptor</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><d
1475809386235 1471105979394 Whats the difference etween pharmacodynamic tol
erance and pharmacokinetic tolerance?<div><r /></div> Pharmacodynamic toleranc
e involves the decrease in response due to either receptor desensitization OR do
wn regulation<div><r /></div><div>Pharmacokinetic Tolerance involves increased
drug elimination&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-20486994002325.jpg" /></div>
1475809551571 1471105979394 How does super-sensitivity work?
Some cel
ls will try to overcompensate against an antagonist y upregulating their recept
ors. This isn't an issue ecause while the patient is taking the drug, there is
so much antagonist that it really doesn't matter. The issue is if the patient a
ruptly stops taking the drug ecause then there are so many receptors that will
ind to the endogenous hormone (agonist)
1475809939974 1471105979384 {{c1::False::True/False}}<div>When a drug shows
100% response it always means that 100% of the receptors are occupied y the dru
g</div><div>Why or Why not? See elow</div>
<r /><div><r /></div><div><r
/></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div
><r /></div><div>Recall that there is such a thing as spare receptors when not
all receptors are ound ut there is complete drug response ecause of some ampl
ification in a later step. For example all of the PKA can e used up even when n
ot all of the receptors are ound.&nsp;</div><div><img src="paste-2794735219545
3.jpg" /></div>
1475810179854 1471105979394 What is a quantal dose response curve? It is a
curve that shows what dose the POPULATION responds to (yes/no response)<div><r
/></div><div>ED<su>50</su>&nsp;is a measure of what dose 50% of the populatio
n will respond to</div><div><img src="paste-28230820036975.jpg" /></div>
1475811168480 1471105979384 The formula to calculate:&nsp;<r /><div>Therap
utic Index:&nsp;{{c1::<img src="paste-28462748270637.jpg" />}}</div><div><r />
</div><div>Certain Safety Factor:&nsp;{{c1::<img src="paste-28475633172534.jpg"
/>}}</div>
TD measures adverse effect<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-
4041564225954.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4140348473762.j

pg" /></div>
1475811422904 1471105979384 Passive diffusion of drugs can happen in two way
s<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Trancellular}} meaning that they pass through the c
ell</div><div>{{c1::Paracellular}} meaning that they pass in etween cells&nsp;
</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Transcellular}} is the most common</div><div><
<img src="paste-29227252449614.jpg" />
r /></div><div><r /></div>
1475812377984 1471105979394 What is an example of a drug who's asorption ca
uses a diminishing effect?
Anything topical really, local anesthetic gets a
sored and then ecomes less effective
1475812494465 1471105979384 In order for a drug to e asored sulingually
it must e {{c1::very lipid solule}}
1475812512566 1471105979384 Most asorption of oral drugs takes place in the
{{c1::small intestine}} ecause of {{c1::the huge surface area}}
1475812554127 1471105979384 {{c1::True::True/False}}<div><r /></div><div>Ta
king a drug on an empty stomach will increase its rate of asorption</div><div><
If you take a drug with food it will have a longer gastric empty
r /></div>
ing time, it will spend more time in the stomach and take longer to get to the s
mall intestine
1475813059690 1471105979394 Why use a vasoconstrictor for a local anesthetic
?
Because you want to slow down the lood flow so that the drug is asore
d more slowly
1475813094648 1471105979394 Two reasons for doing intramuscular injections a
re:
1) If you have a very water solule compound, it needs to e injected. T
hey will undergo paracellular diffusion ecause in skeletal muscle, capillaries
are very porous.&nsp;<div>2)In emergency situations, the second fastest way to
get the drug. Can't do intravenous in this emergency</div>
1475813291018 1471105979394 What is perfusion limited distriution? Example?
It is the limitation of a drug's distriution to tissues ecause of its inailit
y get to areas of the ody that don't have a lot of lood flow.&nsp;<div>Thiope
ntal is the most lipid solule drug that we have</div><div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-30670361461102.jpg" /></div>
1475872429901 1471105979394 What is meant y Diffusion limited distriution?
Example?
This is what happens when a drug is very water solule. It has t
roule getting through cell memranes so it can only pass paracellularly (throug
h the spaces etween cells).<div>This primary occurs in skeletal muscle and the
kidney where there are wide capillaries.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Exampl
e is Penicillin (G)</div><div><img src="paste-30790620545333.jpg" /></div>
1475872544996 1471105979394 How does alumin inding influence drugs?
Drugs inding to alumin are unavailale for activity while they are ound. The
inding can e in equillirium so that when some of the free drug gets released,
it is ale to unind from alumin.<div>Think of this as a temporary sequesterin
g of drugs</div>
1475872668987 1471105979384 Bioavailaility is the {{c1::percent or fraction
of the dose reaching the systemic circulation&nsp;}}<div><r /></div><div>A dr
ug is considered to have low ioavailaility at or elow {{c1::25%}}</div>
<img src="paste-31877247271297.jpg" />
1475872905817 1471105979394 What is the hepatic first pass effect? It is th
e amount of the drug that gets past the liver efore reaching the rest of the ci
rculation.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-31872952304001.jpg" /></div>
1475872908775 1471105979394 Why is giving a drug intravenously etter than o
rally with regards to ioavailaility? Intravenous drugs are ale to circulate
throughout the ody efore passing through the liver wherase when you ingest a d
rug orally, the small intestine aors it directly to the liver where is undergo
es the hepatic first pass effect.&nsp;
1475873490770 1471105979384 {{c1::False::True/False}}<div>Hepatic first pass
effect is directly related to drug soluility&nsp;</div>
The hepatic firs
t pass effect is not related to drug soluility&nsp;
1475873720955 1471105979394 What is enterohepatic cycling? How does it work?
It is the cycling of ile from the liver to the small intestine. Bile often gets
recycled instead of having to e constantly made. It is released into the small

intestine from the common ile duct and then retaken up.&nsp;
1475873722420 1471105979394 What is enterohepatic cycling of drugs? It is th
e mechanism y which drugs get asored into the common ile duct along with il
e where they are temporarily stored until eing released again with the ile. Du
ring this time they are not effective<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-33569
464386092.jpg" /></div>
1475873842536 1471105979384 Drugs that are lipid solule {{c1::will e::will
e/will not e}} rapidly reasored from the nephron<div><r /></div><div><r /
></div> Recall that drugs get taken up into the glomerulus where they are then a
le to e reasored if they pass the memrane of the nephron, they can only do
this if they are lipid solule&nsp;<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-336725
43600882.jpg" /></div>
1475873967436 1471105979394 What is the use of proenecid? Examples?
It is used to prevent the rapid excretion of weak acid drugs from the ody y co
mpeting with them for the transporters on the nephron that will remove weak acid
s from lood circulation<div><r /></div><div>It is also used to treat gout</div
><div>It was comined with penicillin to prevent rapid excretion. It is also com
ined with Tamiflu</div>
1475874083522 1471105979384 {{c1::True::True/False}}<div><r /></div><div>Th
e purpose of drug metaolism is to increase the water soluility of the drug com
pound</div>
Very true, rememer that in order to excrete a drug, we want it
to e water solule&nsp;
1475874201771 1471105979394 What is the difference etween iotransformation
in Phase 1 Reactions and Phase 2 Reactions?
Phase 2 (conjugations, synthetic
reactions) are those reactions that conjugate a drug with a water solule molec
ule in order to increase its excretion<div><r /></div><div>Phase 1(nonsynthetic
reactions) are those that chemically react with the drug in order to change its
effect, either activate or deactivate (P450, reductases, hydrolases, oxidations
)</div>
1475874318096 1471105979394 What are two specific examples of the synthetic
reactions?<div>Enzymes?</div> Two specific reactions are the glucuronyl transf
erases and the sulfotransferases which would attach a glucuronic acid or a sulfa
te to a hydroxyl group<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-35278861369819.jpg"
/></div>
1475874964145 1471105979394 Suddenly you have napthalene arene oxide all ove
r, whats going to happen? What can this molecule effect? What is it?
Napthale
ne arene oxide is a super reactive epoxide that will ind to the amino group of
guanine if left alone. In comes glutathione reductase to save the day ut covale
ntly inding to the epoxide with its sulfhidryl group<div><img src="paste-355279
69473025.jpg" /></div>
1475875140038 1471105979394 Explain how you can overdose on acetaminophen
Acetominophen can e metaolized y synthetic reactions such as glucuronic acid
and sulfate conjugation, eventually with a high enough dose, you can run out of
these and CP 2E1, 1A2 and 3A4 will turn acetominophen into NAPQI.&nsp;<div>Thi
s is extremely reaction ut glutathione can take take care of the prolem until
you run out of glutathione</div><div>Then the NAPQI can cause cell death and liv
er failure</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-35880156791340.jpg" /></di
v>
1475876090589 1471105979384 The most common type of genetic polymorphism tha
t will effect drug metaolism is {{c1::single nucleotide polymorphisms}}
1475876232976 1471105979394 What is the genetic polymorphism thats of signif
icance when it comes to Warfarin? What are the types, how do they differ?
Warfarin is metaolized y P4502C9&nsp;<div>There are different types</div><div
>Wild Type P450C29*1 with Arg144</div><div>Mutant type P450C29*2 Cys 144</div><d
iv>The second one has a metaolism reduction of 50%</div><div>So if you give a n
ormal dose of warfarin, it will cause them to leed out.&nsp;</div><div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-36846524432928.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div>
1475876680998 1471105979384 Ethanol can induce P450 {{c1::2E1}} which in tur
n can end up producing more {{c1::NAPQI}}
1475877264744 1471105979394 What is the difference etween First Order and Z

ero Order Elimination Kinetics? First order is when the&nsp;<>rate</>&nsp;of
elimination is directly proportional to the concentraion of the drug&nsp;<div>
Second order is when the rate is independent of the concentration of the drug</d
iv><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-37666863186316.jpg" /></div>
1475877369076 1471105979384 First order drug elimination kinetics happen at
{{c1::low::high/low}} concentrations of drug<div>Zero order happen at {{c1::high
::high/low}} concentrations</div>
<img src="paste-38066295144966.jpg" />
1475877420562 1471105979384 In order to determine halflife of a drug the for
mula is&nsp;{{c1::<img src="paste-38298223378510.jpg" />&nsp;where Ke is the f
irst order rate constant}}
1475946628211 1471105979394 How do cytokine receptors differ from something
like RTK receptors?
They activate associated (ound) kinases instead of an i
ntrinsic enzyme&nsp;<div><img src="paste-541165879568.jpg" /></div>
1475946683287 1471105979384 cytokines play essential roles in lood cell {{c
1::differentiation}}
<img src="paste-695784702334.jpg" />
1475946728319 1471105979394 What is the order of how cytokine inding works?
1) ligan inding activates JAK kinase<div>2) Phospho STAT is activated (STAT-sig
nal transducers and activators of Transcription)</div><div>3) Activated phosphoSTAT enters nucleus and induces transcription</div><div><img src="paste-79027398
2876.jpg" /></div>
1475946833858 1471105979384 {{c1::False::True/False}}<div>G-protein coupled
receptors and proteins that stimulate intracellular protein cleavage have their
own enzymatic activity&nsp;</div>
<img src="paste-996432413069.jpg" />
1475947013492 1471105979384 Insulin activates {{c1::receptor tyrosine kinase
s::receptor type}} on responding cells&nsp;
g" />
1475947164093 1471105979394 What is the process of how RTK's are activated
They are activated first y some ligand which inds the receptors which causes i
t to dimerize<div>Then the receptors cross-phosphorylate each other's tyrosines
and that activates it&nsp;</div><div>Adaptor proteins ind the receptor intrace
llularly and relay the signal&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>The adaptor prote
in then activates a monomeric G protein (Ras) which activates kinases (MAPK)</di
v><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1636382540196.jpg" /></div><div><r /></
div>
1475947165883 1471105979394 What are some roles of RTKs
Carohydrate Uti
lization and protein synthesis<div><r /><div>Regulation of cell growth and surv
ival&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Angiogenesis&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-1765231559049.jpg" /></div></div>
1475947296228 1471105979394 What are three hormone receptors that we learned
aout with intrinsic hormone receptors? While you're at it, define intrinsic
RTKs<div>TGF Beta Receptors (serine kinases)</div><div>Receptor guanylyl cyclase
s</div><div><r /></div><div>Intrinsic means the enzyme is part of the receptor
protein</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2211908157837.jpg" /></div>
1475947386556 1471105979394 What is MOD? What can cause it?
MOD is
genetic diaetes<div>It is Mature Onset Diaetes in ound</div><div><r /></div>
<div>Prolems with transcription factors that control expression of metaolism g
enes</div><div>Prolems with Metaolic Enzymes</div><div>Prolems with signaling
&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2989297238407.jpg" /></div>
1475947777692 1471105979384 Glucagon, ACTH and Epinephrine are in common ec
ause they act on receptors y {{c1::signal amplification&nsp;}}<div><r /></div
>
<img src="paste-3491808412045.jpg" />
1475948233922 1471105979394 What is the asic concept of signaling y GTP-i
nding protein? The GDP is always in the protein and it gets swapped for a GTP f
or activation then dephosphorylated y hydrolysis. This is different from regula
r activation that we have seen ecause it isn't just phosphorylation<div><r /><
1475948357191 1471105979394 What is the pathway y which G proteins acts on
cAMP and PKA? 1)Something like glucagon or epinephrine will ind<div>2) The Al
pha suunit gains a GTP instead of a GDP</div><div>3) This activated Alpha suun
it will now ind to adenylate cyclase</div><div>4) This creates cAMP which activ
ates Protein Kinase A</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4290672329087.j
pg" /></div>
1475948694496 1471105979394 What are some roles of cAMP?
<img src="paste4556960301376.jpg" />
1475949212600 1471105979384 Loss of function of the alpha suunit of trimeri
c G-proteins can lead to:<div>{{c1::<div>Oesity</div><div>PTH resistance</div><
div>Hypocalcemia</div><div>Hyperphosphatamia</div><div>Short Stature</div><div>S
exual Immaturity</div>}}</div> <img src="paste-5072356376967.jpg" />
1475949248394 1471105979394 What are some heridaty diseases cause y mutatio
ns in GNAS1
<img src="paste-5244155068800.jpg" />
1475949297211 1471105979384 The following diseases are caused y mutations i
n {{c1::GNAS1 which encodes the alpha G protein suunit}}<div><img src="paste-52
69924872444.jpg" /></div>
1475949734904 1471105979384 Alright hereditary osteodrstrophy is a type of
{{c1::Pseudohypoparathyrdoism&nsp;}}
1475949742232 1471105979394 Explain the effects and presentation of Alright
Hereditary Osteodystrophy
It is a type of Psuedohypoparathyroidism<div>It
presents with Short stature, round face, and oesity</div><div>The prolem here
is that you have an issue with the alpha suunit of the G-protein receptor for P
TH</div><div>Its called psuedo ecause your PTH levels are normal ut you see no
effect</div><div>This can e seen y urinary cAMP ecause rememer that PTH cau
ses excretion of cAMP</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6017249182095.j
pg" /></div><div><img src="paste-6030134083935.jpg" /></div>
1475950079999 1471105979394 Acetycholine (or vasopresin or thromin) inds t
o a g protein linked receptor? What is the series of events that happens next?
1) Alpha suunit gets activated (you know how)<div>2) Activated alpha suunit ac
tivates Phospholipase C</div><div>3) This cleaves off and creates IP3 and DAG</d
iv><div>4a) IP3 activates opening of Ca channel on ER</div><div>4) DAG activate
s protein kinase C (ut so does Ca2+)</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-6640019440033.jpg" /></div>
1475951834488 1471105979384 An example of a non-reversile receptor pathway
is {{c1::Inflammatory Cytokines&nsp;}} <img src="paste-7155415515518.jpg" />
1475951844507 1471105979394 What is the pathway for how inflammatory cytokin
es work 1)Tumor Necrosis factor/ Interlukin I (IL-1) can ind to cell receptors<
div>2) These receptors then activate a kinase which phosphorylates I-kappa B alp
ha and also uiquinates sending it to the proteasome for the degradation</div><d
iv>3) the released NF-kappa Beta is now free to enter the nucleus as a transcrip
tion factor</div><div><img src="paste-7348689043861.jpg" /></div>
1475952349857 1471105979384 Tumor Necrosis Factor can initate:<div>{{c1::NK
kappa B&nsp;}}</div><div>and</div><div>{{c1::DISC (death inducing signaling com
plex) which release capsases and causes cell death}}&nsp;</div>
<img src
="paste-7868380086667.jpg" />
1475952363748 1471105979384 Notch, Wnt and Hedgehog receptors all cause {{c1
::protein cleavage}}&nsp;<div><r /></div><div>Notch is associated with {{c1::c
olon cancer}}</div><div>Hedgehog with {{c1::asal cell carcinoma}}</div><div>Not
ch with {{c1::T-cell acute lympholastic leukemia&nsp;}}</div> <img src="paste8014408974663.jpg" />
1475953428411 1471105979394 Whats the difference etween a malformation, def
ormation and disruption?
<>Malformation</> is a defect that results fro
m genetic factors (chromosome anormalities)<div><>Deformation </>is an anorm
al form, shape or position that results from mechanical forces</div><div><>Disr
uption</>&nsp;is a morphological defect that results from an interference with
an originally normal development (Teratogens, drugs, viruses)</div><div><r /><
1475953591250 1471105979384 A syndrome is a {{c1::specific diagnosis}} while
an association {{c2::is two or more anomalies that occur together more frequent
ly than y chance with unknown cause&nsp;}}
g" />
1475953636998 1471105979384 Cranial neural crest cells contriute to {{c1::n
erves, facial one and musculature, teeth dentine, cardiovascular valves and the
aortic arch}} <img src="paste-9049496093102.jpg" />
1475953880257 1471105979394 What is fetal alcohol syndrome? Its a syndrome c
aused y alcohol during pregnancy in which the neural crest cells are effected.<
div>This can cause craniofacial anormalities and congenital heart disease</div>
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9440338117088.jpg" /></div>
1475954573956 1471105979384 Explain the 4 priciples of Teratology<div>Dose/D
uration Response Relationship- {{c1::define dose exits elow which the teratogen
does not cause anomalies}}</div><div>Critical Periods of Development- {{c1::the
re is a period in time which the teratogen is going to cause prolems}}</div><di
v>Biological Plausiility- {{c1::does the teratogen disrupt a known ioligcal pr
ocess}}</div><div>Genotype influences susceptiility- {{c1::can you e extra sen
sitive to this teratogen}}</div>
<img src="paste-9887014715852.jpg" />
1475954698272 1471105979384 Waardenurg Syndrome in humans is a mutation in
the {{c1::Pax3 gene}} <img src="paste-10501195039199.jpg" />
1475955423124 1471105979394 Whats the difference etween having a homozygote
Pax3 mutation and a heterozygote Pax 3 mutation?
Heterozygotes get white
spotting of the ventral structures due to neural crest migration defects<div>Mut
ants get full on neural tue defects (spina ifida, congenital heart defects)</d
0918491.jpg" /></div>
1475955857391 1471105979384 <div>{{c1::True::True/False}}</div>Retinoids and
ethanol will increase the severity of the splotch phenotype
<img src="paste11476152615362.jpg" />
1475955902742 1471105979384 In order to try and prevent neural tue defects
in splotch emryos the mother could take {{c1::Folic Acid}}
<img src="paste11708080849399.jpg" />
1475957581508 1471105979394 What are HOX genes in general? They encode prot
eins that regulate transcription<div>Homeox genes</div><div>The homeoox encode
s the homeodomain</div><div><img src="paste-12219181957621.jpg" /></div>
1475957678819 1471105979384 {{c1::HOX genes}} are used to indicated anterior
-posterios positioning of protein expression
1475958098786 1471105979384 The role of {{c1::myostatin}} in the ody is a m
uscle growth inhiitor&nsp;
<img src="paste-395136991698.jpg" />
1475958135739 1471105979384 Holoprosencephaly is a developmental defect that
may e related to {{c1::enviormental factors including Vitamin A excess or gene
tic factors}}<div><r /></div><div>It is caused sometimes y a defect in the Son
ic Hedgehog Receptor</div>
<img src="paste-936302871000.jpg" />
1475962428671 1471105979384 {{c1::False::True/False}}<div>TGF Beta receptors
are enzymes with associated enzymatic activity&nsp;</div>
Recall that they
have INTRINSIC enzymatic activity&nsp;
1476124655193 1471105979384 Isotonic Saline= {{c1::.9%::percent}} NaCl= {{c1
::154mM::molar}} NaCl <img src="paste-13189844566103.jpg" />
1476125356761 1471105979394 How are cells stailized osmotically? Cells ar
e stailized osmotically y external Na<sup>+</sup><div><sup><r /></sup></div><
div><sup><img src="paste-13859859464639.jpg" /></sup></div>
1476125441760 1471105979394 What is the difference etween the asolute and
relative refractory periods? Which comes first? Asolute refractor is the period
in which no other action potential can e elicited no matter how large the stim
ulus. (comes first)<div><r /></div><div>Relative refractory period egins at th
e end of the asolute refractory period and continues until the memrane potenti
al returns to resting level. Action potential can e elicited at this point if a
higher than normal inward current is provided.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div
1476133615360 1471105979384 Give what each pump does (pumps in/out, where)<d
iv>NaK ATPase: {{c1::pumps 2K in 3 Na out for 1 ATP on memrane&nsp;}}</div><di
v>NCX: {{c1::Pumps 3 Sodium in for exchange of 1 Ca out (ECM)}}</div><div>PMCA:
{{c1::Pumps Ca Out to ECM}}</div><div>RyR: {{c1::Pumps Ca out of Sarcoplasmic Re
ticulum}}</div><div>SERCA: {{c1::Pumps Ca into Sarcoplasmic Reticulum&nsp;}}</d
iv><div><r /></div>
<img src="paste-16119012262431.jpg" />
1476133998735 1471105979384 Glucose can make it through the apical memrane

via&nsp;{{c1::Na<sup>+</sup>-glucose co transporter.}}<div>Its can make it thro
ugh the asolateral memrane via {{c1::GLUT 2 Transporter}}</div>
<img src
="paste-16591458665012.jpg" />
1476134134598 1471105979384 Adrenergic symptoms include: {{c1::anxiety, palp
itation, tremor, sweating&nsp;}}<div>Neuroglycopenia symptoms include: {{c1::he
adache, confusion, slurred speech, seizures, coma, death}}&nsp;</div> <img src
="paste-16862041604525.jpg" />
1476138870251 1471105979384 GLUT {{c1::4}} is found in muscle and fast, insu
lin induced<div>GLUT {{c1::2}} is liver, epithelial cells</div> <img src="paste17205638988171.jpg" />
1476139256483 1471105979394 Fill in the lank, what is each GLUT family part
of&nsp;<div><img src="paste-17536351469841.jpg" /></div>
<img src="paste17549236371674.jpg" />
1476139281343 1471105979394 What are the 3P's of Diaetes Mellitus? Polyphag
ia (hunger)<div>Polyuria (increased urine)</div><div>Polydypsia (increased thirs
t)</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18236431139176.jpg" /></div>
1476140674601 1471105979394 How do you reverse cAMP?
Phosphodiesteras
es&nsp;<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18992345383419.jpg" /></div>
1476143710132 1471105979394 How does methadone effect pharmacokinetic and ph
armacodynamic tolerance?
Methadone downregualtes the opiate receptors (dy
namic)<div>and induces it own metaolism (kinetic)</div><div><r /></div><div><
1476235906569 1471105979384 The transmitter of the neuromuscular junction is
{{c1::acetylcholine (ACh)}} and the receptor is {{c1::nicotinic acetylcholine r
eceptor (nAChR)}}<div><r /></div><div>The axons are {{c1::myelinated::myelinate
d/unmyelinated&nsp;}}</div><div><r /></div><div>The target is always going to
e {{c1::skeletal muscle::organ/tissue type}}</div><div><r /></div><div>The tra
nsmission type is {{c1::excitatory::inhiitory/excitatory&nsp;}}</div> <img src
="paste-25147033518512.jpg" />
1476236186885 1471105979384 The transmitters in the autonomic system are rel
eased from {{c1::varicosities&nsp;}} which are {{c1::unmyelinated::myelinated/u
nmyelinated}}<div><r /></div><div><r /></div> <img src="paste-25524990640558.j
pg" />
1476236494775 1471105979394 What is a visceral reflex arc? It is the feeda
ck response that you get in organs. Think aout the ladder.<div><r /></div><di
1476236531451 1471105979384 In the somatic nervous system, the neurotransmit
ter is {{c1::ACh}} and the receptor is a {{c1::nicotonic receptor}}&nsp;
<img src="paste-26220775342181.jpg" />
1476236736582 1471105979384 In the parasympathetic division of the autonomic
nervous system, the preganglionic neurotransmitter is {{c1::ACh}} and the gangl
ionic receptor is {{c1::nicotinic::receptor type}}<div><r /></div><div>The post
ganglionic neurotransmitter is {{c1::ACh}} and the effector organ receptor is {{
c1::muscarinic::receptor type&nsp;}}</div>
<img src="paste-26280904884339.j
pg" />
1476237013910 1471105979384 In the sympathetic division of the autonomic ner
vous system:<div>The ganglionic transmitter is {{c1::ACh}} while the receptor is
{{c1::nicotinic::receptor type.}}</div><div>The effector organ transmitter is {
{c1::norepinephrine}} and the effector organ receptor is {{c1::adrenergic::recep
tor type&nsp;}}</div> <img src="paste-27337466839239.jpg" /><div><r /></div>
1476237612714 1471105979384 {{c1::False::True/False}}<div><r /></div><div>T
he parasympathetic nervous system innervates skin ut not skeletal muscle</div>
So false, it innervates glands and organs (never skin or skeletal muscle)<div><
1476238031710 1471105979384 The parasympathetic nervous system stems from {{
c1::Cranial Nerves 3,7,9 and 10 as well as Sacral S2-S4::Spinal locations}}
<img src="paste-27535035335076.jpg" />
1476238140874 1471105979384 Tell me what each cranial nerve does/is<div>(3)
III- {{c1::Oculomotor Nerve}}</div><div>(7) VII- {{c1::Facial expressions, tears
, saliva, tase}}</div><div>(9) IX- {{c1::Glossopharyngeal- taste, senses carotid

lood pressure}}</div><div>(10) X- {{c1::Vagus Nerve- Heart, upper adomen&nsp
;}}</div><div><r /></div>
<img src="paste-28196460298666.jpg" />
1476238565232 1471105979384 There are two ganglia classes in the autonomic s
ympathetic nervous system, they are {{c1::paraverteral (sympathetic chain gangl
ion) and preverteral (collateral) }}<div><r /></div><div>While we're on the to
pic, the sympathetic nervous system stems from {{c1::T1-L3::spinal location}}</d
iv>
<img src="paste-28394028794447.jpg" />
1476239072901 1471105979384 The preverteral ganglion of the {{c1::sympathet
ic}} nervous system include the<div>{{c1::<div>Celiac Ganglion</div><div>Superio
r Mesenteric Ganglion</div><div>Inferior Mesenteric Ganglion::give me the names<
/div>}}</div> <img src="paste-28673201668468.jpg" />
1476239342525 1471105979384 The white ramus take the neuron from {{c1::the s
pinal cord to the ganglion}}<div>The gray ramus {{c1::takes it from the ganglion
elsewhere&nsp;}}</div>
Too white&nsp;<div>gray away&nsp;</div><div><
e sympathetic system innervates skin and skeletomuscular vasculature</div>
<div>Fight or flight</div><div>Would e weird if it didn't innervate the skeleta
l system</div><img src="paste-29497835389350.jpg" /><div><r /></div>
1476240310078 1471105979384 In the autonomic sympathetic nervous system whic
h synapses on the adrenal medulla also:<div>&nsp;the preganglionic fier synaps
es of the {{c1::chromafin}} cells&nsp;</div> <img src="paste-29832842838424.j
pg" />
1476240712442 1471105979384 {{c1::False::True/False}}<div><r /></div><div>N
orepinephrine is pretty much always released at concentrations that will induce
a physiological response&nsp;</div>
Its actually epinephrine and this makes
sense ecause NE is always released so it would e inefficient for it to always
have some effect<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-30159260352949.jpg" /></di
v>
1476241597245 1471105979384 The enteric nervous system regulates the {{c1::G
I tract}}
<img src="paste-30382598652310.jpg" />
1476241724563 1471105979384 The 3 ways that neurotransmitters are cleared fr
om the synapse are<div>{{c1::<div>Diffusion</div><div>Enzymatic Breakdown</div><
div>Reuptake into presynaptic terminal&nsp;</div>}}</div>
<img src="paste30537217475134.jpg" />
1476241900488 1471105979384 Acetylcholine is synthesized from the cominatio
n of {{c1::Acetyl-Coa and Choline}}<div><r /></div><div>Its degraded in the syn
aptic cleft y {{c1::acetylcholinesterase}} into {{c1::choline and acetate&nsp;
}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Acetycholine can target&nsp;{{c1::muscarinic and
nicotinic}} receptors</div>
<img src="paste-30760555774385.jpg" />
1476242561045 1471105979394 What is the difference etween how adrenergic an
d cholinergic are degraded?
The main difference is that the adrenergic is de
graded after reuptake into the presynaptic terminal while the&nsp;cholinergic i
s degraded in the synaptic cleft<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3097530413
9189.jpg" /></div>
1476242688697 1471105979384 Norepinephrine is synthesized from tyrosine via
the enzme {{c1::tyrosine hydroxylase}}.<div><r /></div><div>Then it forms DOPA
which ecomes {{c1::dopamine}}</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dopamine eta hy
droxylase::enzyme}} converts dopamine into norepinephrine&nsp;</div><div><r />
</div><div>Epinephrine is synthesized from norepinephrine via the enzyme {{c1::p
henyethanolamine methyltransferase}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Once released th
e norepinephrine is taken up into the presynaptic terminal. There the two enzyme
s that degrade it are {{c1::monoamine oxidase (MAO) (mitochondria)}} and {{c1::c
atechol-O-methyltransferase (cytosol) (COMT) }}</div> <img src="paste-31361851
195833.jpg" />
1476243339662 1471105979384 {{c1::Nicotinic}} Receptors are fast: ligand gat
ed or ionotrophic&nsp;<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Muscarinic}} and the {{c1::ca
techolamine}} receptors are slow: g protein coupled receptors or metaotrophic&n
<img src="paste-31593779429812.j
sp;</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
pg" />
1476287316490 1471105979384 <u>Nicotinic receptors</u><div>{{c1::Activated
y Acetylcholine::neurotransmitter type&nsp;}}</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Linked to non selective cation channel::memrane protein type}}&nsp;</div><div>
{{c1::Excitatory::inhiitory/excitatory}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Found in:</
div>{{c1::<div>Skeletal Muscle</div><div>ANS Ganglia</div><div>Adrenal Medulla</
div><div>}}&nsp;</div> <img src="paste-32564442038440.jpg" />
1476290287165 1471105979384 <u>Muscarinic Receptors (M2)</u><div>Neurotransm
ittter type: {{c1::Acetylcholine&nsp;}}</div><div><u><r /></u></div><div>{{c1:
:G-protein coupled::memrane protein type&nsp;}}</div><div>{{c1::Inhiitory::In
hiitory/Excitatory&nsp;}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Found in {{c1::postsynapt
ic and autoreceptors::areas}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Effector Organs/Glands
(include function):</div><div>{{c1::Cardiac Muscle- slows down heart rate, decre
ases atrial force, slows AV conduction}}</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sphinc
ters of the GI and GU, causes relaxation&nsp;}}</div> <img src="paste-32624571
580545.jpg" />
ittter type: {{c1::Acetylcholine&nsp;}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Memrane pro
tein type: {{c1::Gq coupled}}</div><div>{{c1::Excitatory:: Excitatory/Inhiitory
&nsp;}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Found in (glands/organs) with function:</div
><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smooth muscle walls of viscera- for contraction}}</
div><div>and</div><div>{{c1::Glands- secretion including sweat glands&nsp;}}</d
iv>
<img src="paste-33668248633495.jpg" />
1476318313233 1471105979384 Alpha receptor (<sub>1</sub>) <div><br /></d
iv><div>Receptor type: {{c1::Adrenergic}}</div><div>Binds with: {{c1::Epinephrin
e nd Norepinephrine (but Epi is more potent tht NE)}}</div><div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Excittory::Excittory/Inhibitory }}</div><div><br /></div><div>Re
sults in:</div><div>{{c1::Contrction of vsculr nd genitourinry smooth muscl
e }}</div><div><div><br /></div></div>
<img src="pste-35257386532946.j
pg" />
1476318597343 1471105979384 Alph Receptor (<sub>2</sub>) <div>Receptor
type: {{c1::Adrenergic}}</div><div><br /></div><div>Wht binds to it? {{c1::Epin
ephrine nd norepinephrine (but Epi is more potent) }}</div><div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Inhibitory::Excittory/Inhibitory}} (chieves this vi {{c1::decre
sed cAMP}})</div><div><br /></div><div><div>Whts the exception bout it?</div><
div>{{c1::It it usully inhibitory but on vsculr smooth muscle cells it is usu
lly excittory nd cuses contrction vi C2+}}</div></div><div><br /></div><d
iv>Presynptic/Postsynptic? {{c1::Could be both}}</div><div><br /></div><div><b
r /></div>
<img src="pste-35536559407307.jpg" />
1476319156296 1471105979384 Lets tlk bout Bet receptors ()<div><r /></div
><div><div><su>1</su>&nsp;</div></div><div>{{c1::Excitatory::Excitatory/Inhii
tory}}&nsp;</div><div>Potentcy of Epinephrine vs Norepinephrine: {{c1::Epi=NE}}
</div><div>Effect: {{c1::Positive inotropic (force) and chronotropic (rate) effe
cts on the heart&nsp;}}</div><div><r /></div><div><div><div>2&nsp;</div></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhiitory::Excitatory/Inhiitory&nsp;}}</div><div>Potentcy of Epine
phrine vs Norepinephrine: {{c1::Epi>NE}}</div></div><div>Effect: {{c1::Relax
vascular, ronchial, gastrointestinal and genitourinary smooth muscle, causes va
sodilation in specific vascular eds, stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogene
sis}}</div><div><r /></div><div><div>3</div></div><div>{{c1::Excitatory::Excitat
ory/Inhiitory}}&nsp;</div><div>Potentcy of Epinephrine vs Norepinephrine: {{c1
::Epi>Ne}}</div><div>Effect: {{c1::Lipolysis in adipose tissue}}</div>
<img src="paste-35914516529359.jpg" />
1476319596817 1471105979384 Autoreceptors work y {{c1::inhiiting the relea
se of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic cleft&nsp;}}<div><r /></div><div>
An example of this is seen with&nsp;{{c1::the&nsp;<sub>2</sub> receptor wh
ich slows the relese of NE }}</div>
<img src="pste-36120674959764.j
pg" />
1476319719628 1471105979384 The hypothlmus controls 5 bsic physiologicl
needs:<div>{{c1::<div>Blood Pressure nd Electrolyte Composition</div><div>Body
Temperture</div><div>Energy Metbolism</div><div>Reproduction</div><div>Emergen
cy Response to Stress</div>}}</div>
<img src="pste-36292473651628.jpg" />
1476320043477 1471105979384 The utonomic brinstem reflexes re(6):<div>{{c
1::<div>Regultion of blood pressure</div><div>Control of respirtion</div><div>
Slivry secretion</div><div>Vomiting</div><div>Swllowing</div><div>Eye refexes
</div>}}</div>
<img src="pste-36447092474281.jpg" />
1476320239806 1471105979384 Inhibitory "tone" is provided by contrcting sph
inctors nd relxing wlls, this is done by the {{c1::sympthetic nervous system
::pr/sym nervous system}}<div><br /></div><div>Erection reflex is cused by th
e {{c1::prsympthetic nervous system::pr/sym}}</div><div><br /></div><div>Ej
cultion Reflex is cused by {{c1::sympthetic nervous system::pr/sym}}<
/div> <img src="pste-674309865895.jpg" />
1476321435369 1471105979384 Lets tlk bout the hert:<div><br /></div><div>
The sympthetic nerves of the hert come from: {{c1::cervicl nd thorcic chin
gngli}}</div><div><br /></div><div>The sympthetic nerves innvervte the {{c1
::whole myocrdium (SA nd AV nodes, tri, ventricles nd blood vessels)::prts
}}</div><div><br /></div><div>The receptors involved re {{c1::1::rece
ptor type}} which act to(3)</div><div>{{c1::<div>increase HR,&nsp;</div><div>in
crease contractile force</div><div>increase velocity of conduction through purki
nje fiers</div>}}</div><div><r /></div><div>-----------------------</div><div>
The parasympathetic nerves of the heart {{c1::come from vagus nerve::location}}<
/div><div><r /></div><div>The nerves innervate {{c1::SA and AV nodes, atria ut
NOT ventricles}}</div><div><r /></div><div>The {{c1::muscarinic::receptor}} ty
pe act y (3)&nsp;</div><div>{{c1::<div>Decreasing heart rate</div><div>Decreas
e conduction velocity</div><div>and decrease atrial contractile force</div>}}</d
iv>
<img src="paste-16213501542829.jpg" />
1476324596132 1471105979384 Which has a greater effect on resting heart rate
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vagal tone::Vagal tone or Sympathetic tone}}</div>
<img src="paste-16247861280866.jpg" />
1476324654220 1471105979384 Vascular smooth muscle has what type of innervat
ion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sympathetic::Sympathetic/parasympathetic}}</div>
<div><r /></div><div>Exception?</div><div>{{c1::es, male and female erectile o
rgans are parasympathetic&nsp;}}</div> <img src="paste-16771847290968.jpg" />
1476325524199 1471105979384 Cardiovascular Blood Vessels<div><r /></div><di
v>All vascular smooth muscle posseses&nsp;{{c1::1}} receptors which cuse {{c1::
vsoconstriction}} with incresed {{c1::sympthetic::sym/pr}} tone</div><div><
br /></div><div>However there re {{c1::2}} receptors which are present in some v
ascular eds (ex: {{c1::coronary and skeletal muscle vessels}}). Recall that thi
s receptor causes {{c1::vasodilation}} which is important during exercise.&nsp;
</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
<img src="paste17248588661163.jpg" />
1476326376833 1471105979384 Sympathetic tone refers to a constant low level
of activity<div><r /></div><div>Constriction is an {{c1::increase::increase/dec
rease}} in tone while dilation is a {{c1::decrease::increase/decrease}} in tone<
/div> <>In</>crease Constrict<>ion</> &nsp;&nsp;<div><>D</>ilation <>
D</>ecrease</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17489106829754.jpg" /></
div>
1476327185712 1471105979384 {{c1::Circulating lood factors}} can activate a
n endothelial cell receptor which can then lead to the activation of {{c1::Nitri
c Oxide Synthase}} to produce {{c1::nitric oxide}} which in turn causes vasodila
tion
<img src="paste-17648020619733.jpg" />
1476327304244 1471105979384 As far as the lungs go<div><r /></div><div>The
sympathetic nervous system works y:</div><div>{{c1::Upper thoracic chain gangli
a}} innervating the {{c1::vasculature of the lungs}} to cause {{c1::dilation}}</
div><div>The ronchioles themselves are {{c1::dilated::constricted/dilated}} y&
nsp;{{c1::2}} Receptors (these are lood carried)</div><div><r /></div><div>The
parasympathetic system works y</div><div>{{c1::Vagus Nerve::innervation}}</div
><div>Its {{c1::constricts::dilates/constricts}} ronchiolar smooth muscle via {
{c1::muscarinic}} receptors</div><div><r /></div><div>The autonomic nervous sys
tem can e overidden y {{c1::locally released cytokines}}</div>
<img src
="paste-18030272709051.jpg" />
1476328321870 1471105979384 <u>Saliva (compostition and secretion)</u><div><

r /></div><div>Saliva secretion is maintained mostly y {{c1::parasympathetic n
ervous system::sym/para}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>The sympathetic system</
></div><div>Causes {{c1::contraction of myoepithelial cells}}</div><div>Produce
s {{c1::thick viscous saliva}}</div><div>(think aout what happens when you're n
ervous)</div><div><r /></div><div><>The parasympathetic system</></div><div>A
ll salivary glands posses {{c1::M3}} and {{c1::M2}} receptors</div><div>{{c1::Hy
pothalamus}} is the primary saliva control center in the rain</div><div>Causes
{{c1::contraction of myoepithelial cells}}</div><div>Produces {{c1::copious wate
ry saliva}}</div><div>(think aout her cats relaxing)</div>
<img src="paste18296560681399.jpg" />
1476328737427 1471105979384 <u>Autonomic Control of the Eye</u><div><u><r /
></u></div><div>Everything is controlled y the {{c1::oculomotor complex}} near
{{c1::cranial nerve III(3)}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Light stimuli is receive
d from the {{c1::retina}} through the {{c1::optic nerve}}</div><div><r /></div>
<div>The sympathetic control is found at the {{c1::superior cervical ganglion::l
ocation}} and it works to {{c1::contract::contract/dilate}} the {{c1::radial}} m
uscle in order to {{c1::dilate::dilate/constrict}} the pupil&nsp;</div><div><r
/></div><div>The parasympathetic control is found at the {{c1::cranial nerve II
I(3)::location}} and it {{c1::contracts::contracts/dilates}} the {{c1::sphincter
}} muscle in order to {{c1::constrict::constrict/dilate}} the pupil&nsp;</div>
<img src="paste-18743237280187.jpg" />
1476329936809 1471105979384 Mydriasis is defined as {{c1::wide::wide/narrow}
} pupil<div>Involves contraction of the {{c1::radial}} muscle and relaxation of
the {{c1::sphincter}} muscle&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Miosis is defined
as {{c1::narrow::wide/narrow}} pupil</div><div>Involves contraction of the {{c1:
:sphincter}} muscle and relaxation of the {{c1::radial}} muscle&nsp;</div>
<img src="paste-19189913878647.jpg" /><div>Sultanos refers to sphincter muscle a
s constrictor muscle</div><div>Radial muscle as dilator muscle&nsp;</div>
1476330067656 1471105979384 <u>Autonomic Control of Sweat Glands (Eccrine Gl
ands)</u><div><u><r /></u></div><div>Controlled y the {{c1::sympathetic::sym/p
ara}} nervous system</div><div><r /></div><div>Neurons innervating the sweat gl
ands are {{c1::cholinergic::adrenergic/cholinegic}} and release {{c1::ACh}} whic
h interacts with {{c1::muscarinic}} receptors</div><div><r /></div><div>The {{c
1::hypothalamus}} contains thermosensitive neruons&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><
div>Cold sweat is caused y an {{c1::adrenergic::cholinergic/adrenergic}} respon
se to act on&nsp;{{c1::1}} receptors which re ctivted during stress</div><div
><br /></div><div>Wht might cuse one to pper cold nd clmmy during stress?<
/div><div>{{c1::Generl sympthetic dischrge lso cuses vsoconstriction s we
ll s cold sweting}}</div><div><br /></div>
<img src="pste-19739669692802.j
pg" />
1476331130721 1471105979384 Piloerection mens {{c1::rising of skin/fur/goo
sebumps}}<div>Activted by {{c1::sympthetic::sym/pr}} nervous system</div>
<img src="pste-19877108645971.jpg" />
1476377276685 1471105979394 Wht re the effects of MAO nd COMT? They bre
k down Norepinephrine nd epinephrine in the sympthetic neuronl vricosity (M
AO) nd in the effector cell (COMT nd MAO)<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste
-28170690494871.jpg" /></div>
1476385420922 1471105979394 Wht is cycloplegi?
Its when the eye cnnot
undergo ccomodtion using the cilliry muscle<div>Cn hppen becuse of choli
nergic blockde</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-3106
9793419666.jpg" /></div>
1476468067680 1471105979384 The role of {{c1::Choline Acetyl Trnsferse (CA
T)::enzyme}} is to crete cetycholine by combining {{c1::choline nd Acetyl Co
}}<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::cetylcholinesterse::enzyme}} is wht breks down
<img src
cetylcholine to crete cette nd choline</div><div><br /></div>
="pste-23648089932176.jpg" />
1476469064629 1471105979384 Cholinergic stimultion will cuse wht in the f
ollowing tissues:<div>Iris-miosis</div><div>Ciliry Muscle- {{c1::Accomodtion}}
</div><div>Exocrine Glnds- {{c1::incresed secretion}}</div><div>Bronchi- {{c1:
:Constriction}}</div><div>GI trct- {{c1::contrction nd peristlsis}}</div><di

v>Bldder- {{c1::constriction}} </div><div>Her- {{c1::decresed rte nd f
orce}}</div><div>Blood vessels- {{c1::vsodiltion}}</div>
<img src="pste24605867639199.jpg" /><div>Think of this n increse in prsympthetic tone</di
v>
1476410674216 1476408997299 Epinephrine
gonist}}
{{c1::1 2 1&nsp;2&nsp;}}
{{c1::Cardiac Emergency<div>Alle
rgic Reaction (anaphylaxis)</div><div>Asthma</div><div>Used with local anestheti
cs</div>}}
<>{{c1::</><>Cardiovascular: </>Increases heart rate and for
ce of contraction y acting on&nsp;1 and also increase in lood pressure y acti
ng on&nsp;1<div><b>Metbolic:</b> Stimultes glycogenolysis nd gluconeogen
esis 2</div><div><>Local Anesthetic</>: decreases asorption y vasoconstrictio
n y inding 2&nsp;&nsp;</div><div><>Pulmonary effects:</>&nsp;Binds to 2 rec
eptor and causes ronchodilation</div>}}
{{c1::N/A}}
Injected intramu
scular/intravenously&nsp;
1476411758409 1476408997299 Norepinephrine {{c1::Direct Acting Adrenergic A
gonist}}
{{c1::1 2 1}} {{c1::Can e used with local anesthetic<div>Not
usually used to stimulate heart and vasoconstriction although it can e done</di
v><div>lowers heart rate (we don't know why)</div>}}
<div>{{c1::<div>Activate
s&nsp;1 on rteries nd rterioles= vsoconstriction</div><div>Activtes 1 i
n the heart, increase heart rate and force</div>lowers heart rate (we don't know
why)}}</div> {{c1::Unpredictale, can slow down heart, so we don't want to us
e it in emergency}}
Give intravenously&nsp;<div>Its selective&nsp;</div>
1476412152402 1476408997299 Dopamine
gonist}}
{{c1::1 1}} {{c1::Possile choice for cardiac emergency}}
{{c1::1 leds to increse vsoconstriction<div>1 leads to increase HR and contract
ile force</div><div>Increase lood flow to kidney (dilation of renal arteries)</
div>}} {{c1::N/A}}
Give through IV or IM
1476412487884 1476408997299 Doutamine
gonist}}
{{c1::1 1 2<div><r /></div><div><>Used as a 1 agonist</><div>It h
as two isoforms:</div><div>(+) isomer is a 1 agonist, a weak 2 agonist and&nsp;1
ntgonist</div><div>(-) isomer is 1 gonist, wek 1 and 2 agonist&nsp;</div><
div>The effects cancel each other out</div></div>}}
{{c1::Cardiac Prolems (
emergency)}}
<div>{{c1::Therefore it increases heart rate and force of contra
ction&nsp;}}</div>
{{c1::N/A}}
Intravenously and Intramuscular&nsp;<di
v><r /></div>
1476412783500 1476408997299 Phenylephrine {{c1::Direct Acting Adrenergic A
gonist}}
{{c1::1 }}
{{c1::hypotensive emergency<div>nsl decongest
nt (found in OTC drugs)</div><div>clers red eyes</div>}}
{{c1::Vsoconstr
iction<div>Cuses nsl mucos to shrink in order to decongest</div><div>Also c
uses eye vsoconstriction</div>}}
{{c1::N/A}}
1476413033461 1476408997299 Clonidine {{c1::Direct Acting Adrenergic A
gonist}}
{{c1::2 }}
{{c1::High blood pressure}}
<div>{{c1::<div>
Lows sympthetic tone</div>Ends up lowering systolic nd distolic blood pressur
e <div>Used to tret withdrwl in ddiction</div><div>Possible tretment fo
r glucom in ptients who re hypertensive </div>}}</div> <div>{{c1::Dry m
outh <div>Sedtion</div><div></div>}}</div>
Cn be tken orlly, int
rvenously or
1476413330159 1476408997299 Brimodine
gonist}}
{{c1::2}}
{{c1::Preffered tretment for Glucom}}
{{c1::Lowers introculr pressure<div>Doesn't irritte eye s much s the other
ones</div>}}
{{c1::N/A}}
Applied Topiclly
1476413514445 1476408997299 Isoproterenol {{c1::Direct Acting Adrenergic A
gonist}}
{{c1::1 2}} {{c1::Sometimes used for ashtma}}
{{c1::Br
onchodilation}} {{c1::Patients may not like the feeling of heart rate increasing
&nsp;}}
Inhaler
1476414151712 1476408997299 Aluterol
gonist}}
{{c1::2}}
{{c1::Used for asthma}} {{c1::Bronchodilation}}
{{c1::Too much will act on&nsp;1 and increase HR and contractile force}}
Inhaler&nsp;
1476414235828 1476408997299 Terutaline

gonist}}
{{c1::2}}
{{c1::Premature Uterine Contractions<div>Can als
o e taken for asthma</div>}} {{c1::Suppresses premature uterine contractions&
nsp;}} {{c1::too much of any&nsp;2 agonist can cause receptor down regulation a
nd then if you take more and more, it will start to take its effect on the heart
}}
Aersolized or IV
1476414420676 1476408997299 Amphetamine
{{c1::Indirect Acting Adrenergic
Agonist (releaser)}} {{c1::Acts on prejunctional uptake transporter and also
on the storage vesicle inside the sympathetic neuronal varisocity, it makes them
{{c1::Used to treat ADHD
oth work in reverese to release more epinephrine}}
<div>Narcolepsy</div><div>Chronic Fatigue Syndrome</div>}}
{{c1::Increase i
n Norepinephrine which will lead to activation of&nsp;1 receptors in the heart (
increased HR, systolic BP and force of contraction)<div>And gonna activate alpha
1 recetors to see a rise in diastolic pressure&nsp;</div>}} {{c1::All catech
olamines at high levels can cause an increased risk of arrhythmia}}
<img src
="paste-15311558410587.jpg" />
1476415325313 1476408997299 Methylphenidate {{c1::Indirect acting adrenergic
agonist, releaser}}
{{c1::Increase norepinephrine in junction ut to a lesse
r extent than amphetamine}}
{{c1::ADHD (ridalin)}} {{c1::Less of a risk for
arrythmia}}
{{c1::N/A}}
RIDALIN
1476415529847 1476408997299 Tyramine
{{c1::Indirect acting adrenergic
agonist, releaser}}
{{c1::none}}
{{c1::none}}
{{c1::If it makes it int
o the system, it will cause massive release of norepineprhine}} {{c1::If a patie
nt is taking a MAO inhiitor, then foods with tyramine are potentially dangerous
&nsp;}}
this is a natural reak down product from tyrosine<div>Its found
in certain foods at high levels</div><div>Broken down y MAO in GI tract and li
ver</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15680925597936.jpg" /></div>
1476415831967 1476408997299 Cocaine {{c1::Indirect Acting Adrenergic Agonist
(Uptake Inhiitor)}} {{c1::1 1&nsp;2}}
{{c1::Local Anesthetic<div>CNS E
ffects</div>}} {{c1::Blocks reuptake of NE from junction<div>Can lead to increa
se in HR, Force of contraction, increase in systolic pressure</div>}} {{c1::Ca
n potentially lead to arrythmia &nsp;or heart attack or stroke}}
Snorted&
nsp;<div><img src="paste-19177028976810.jpg" /></div>
1476463049990 1476408997299 Tricyclic Antidepressants
{{c1::Indirect A
cting Adrenergic Agonists (Uptake Inhiitors)}} {{c1::Similar to cocaine&nsp;<d
iv>1 2&nsp;1</div>}} {{c1::Antidepressants}} {{c1::Blocks NE uptake&nsp;}}
{{c1::Possile arythmia, possile heart attack, possile stroke}}
Very sim
ilar to cocain<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-20478404067529.jpg" /></div>
1476463532333 1476408997299 MAO inhiitors {{c1::Indirect Acting Adrenergic
Agonist}}
{{c1::Antidepressants}} {{c1::Decrease in the reakdown
of catecholamines}}
1476463949535 1476408997299 Ephedrine
{{c1::Mixed Adrenergic Agonist}}
{{c1:: }}
<div>{{c1::<div>Used to elevate lood pressure</div><div>Sometimes as a
{{c1::Increase the release of NE (oth direct an
ronchodilator</div>}}</div>
d indirect)}} {{c1::Heart attack and stroke in patients with preexisting condi
tions&nsp;}} Its controlled y the FDA now although its still found in a lot
of supplements&nsp;
1476464217677 1476408997299 Phentolamine
{{c1::Adrenergic Antagonists (l
ockers)}}
<div>{{c1::1 2 (lph drenergic ntgonist)}}</div> {{c1::Ac
ute hypertension <div>Used in ER's</div>}} {{c1::Decreses systolic nd di
stolic blood pressure<div>Increses venous return</div><div>Cuses diltion&nbsp
;</div>}}
{{c1::Orthosttic Hypotension<div>Do not use chroniclly </
div>}}
1476464456861 1476408997299 Przosin
{{c1::Adrenergic Antgonist (Blo
ckers)}}
{{c1::1 only}} {{c1::Chronic Hypertension}}
{{c1::Lowers di
stolic nd systolic blood pressure}}
{{c1::Orthosttic Hypotension with first
dose<div>Epinphrine will hve the opposite effect becuse it will bind 2 instead
of&nsp;1</div><div>Use NE or Dopmine insted</div>}}
First dose effect<div>Ep
inephrine Reversl</div><div><img src="pste-21822728831248.jpg" /></div>
1476465191987 1476408997299 Tmsulosin
{{c1::Adrenergic Antgonists (bl
ockers) }} {{c1::1<sub></sub>}} {{c1::Benign Prosttic Hyperplsi}}

{{c1::Blocks 1<sub> </sub>in smooth muscle round the prostte glnd to rel
x the cpsule. Relieves the pressure on the urerthr cused by enlrged prostt
e}}
{{c1::N/A}}
1476465546397 1476408997299 Proprnolol
{{c1:: Adrenergic Antagonist (lo
ckers)- non selective}} {{c1::1 2}} {{c1::Hypertension<div>Angina</div><div>
Arrhythmias</div><div>Myocardial Infarction</div><div>Glaucoma</div><div>Migrain
es</div>}}
<div>{{c1::Lowers Systolic and Diastolic Pressure<div>Blocks ren
in production in kidneys which leads to increased BP</div><div></div>}}</div>
{{c1::Asthmatics (locking 2 will cause ronchoconstriction)<div><r /></div><div
>Insulin dependent diaetics- giving this will lock 2 receptor (epinephrine) whi
ch replaces glycogen in diaetics</div><div><r /></div><div>Sudden withdrawl- t
here is an upregulation of receptors in the presence of antagonists. If you aru
ptly stop the eta locker, you're releasing epinephrine that now inds to doul
e the amount of receptors. Slowly taper off, for all eta lockers</div>}}
<img src="paste-22247930593627.jpg" />
1476466151093 1476408997299 Timolol {{c1:: Adrenergic Antagonist- non selecti
ve &nsp;}}
{{c1::1 2&nsp;}}
{{c1::Glaucoma&nsp;}} {{c1::Reduces accumulati
on of aqueous humour in the eyes}}
{{c1::N/a}}
Used ecause it causes l
ess irritation&nsp;<div>Applied topically to the eye&nsp;</div><div><r /></di
v>
1476466435840 1476408997299 Metoprolol
{{c1:: adrenergic antagonist- sel
ective (second generation)}}
{{c1::1&nsp;}}
{{c1::Hypertension in patients w
ho are asthmatics/diaetic&nsp;}}
<div>{{c1::Lowers oth systolic and dias
tolic pressure<div></div>}}</div>
{{c1::Its selective so the diaetic pati
ents and the asthma patients need to e monitored carefully (and under control)<
div>Because its&nsp;1 selective not specific</div><div>If the concentration gets
high, some of it will ind eta 2 receptor</div>}}
1476467152939 1476408997299 Laetalol
{{c1:: adrenergic antagonists w/
additional action}}
{{c1:: receptor partial agonist<div>1 ntgonist</div>}}
{{c1::Hypertension}}
{{c1::Lowers systolic nd distolic blood pressure
<div>sort of ctivtors Bet receptor but less thn ctul gonist</div>}}
{{c1::N/A}}
1476467370652 1476408997299 Reserpine
{{c1::Indirect Adrenergic Antgo
nists (depletors)}}
{{c1::Storge vesicle on vricosities }} {{c1::Hy
pertension}}
<div>{{c1::Depletes levels on NE in sympthetic nevervous system
becuse its not being stored but rther broken down <div></div>}}</div>
<div>{{c1::Sleep disruption<div>Hedches</div><div>Symptoms of Prkinsons (bt
e when drug is stopped)</div><div></div>}}</div>
810044.jpg" />
1476468325505 1476408997299 Botulinum Toxin {{c1::Cholinergic Nturl Toxin}
}
{{c1::Acetylcholine Storge Vesicle}} {{c1::Cn be used to tret spst
icity of cerebrl plsy ptients }}
{{c1::Prevents cholingergic stor
ge vesicle from fusing with the cell membrne, stops relese of Acetylcholine}}
{{c1::Cn probbly cuse prlysis }}
1476468674300 1476408997299 Blck Widow Spider Venom
{{c1::Cholinergi
c Nturl Toxin}}
{{c1::cholinergic Storge vesicle}}
{{c1::N/A}}
{{c1::Cuses explosive relese of cetylcholine}}
{{c1::Cn led to cholin
ergic crisis}}
1476469258951 1476408997299 Acetylcholine {{c1::Direct Acting Cholinergic
Agonist (cholinomimetics)}}
{{c1::Muscrinic nd Nicotinic}}
{{c1::So
metimes used by opthomologists to induce ccomodtion }} {{c1::see bove}
}
<div>{{c1::Not relly useful systemticlly becuse of two resons:<div>
1) cholinesterses brek it down super quick throughout our body</div><div>2) yo
u're going to effect ll gnlionic synpses becuse they ll hve nicotinic cti
vity </div><div></div>}}</div>
<img src="pste-25207163060631.jpg" />
1476469734989 1476408997299 Crbchol {{c1::Direct-Acting Cholinergic
Agonist (choline ester)}}
{{c1::Works on both muscrinic nd nictonic&nbsp
;}}
{{c1::Used for glucom }} {{c1::cuses contrctions of rdil nd
longitudinl cilliry muscle }}
{{c1::Possible to give to smthic ptie
nts s long s they know how to use them }}

948700.jpg" />
1476469899510 1476408997299 Bethnechol
{{c1::Direct Acting Chol
inergic Agonist (Choline ester)}}
{{c1::Muscrinic only}} {{c1::Prlytic
Ileus- stop in peristlsis in smll intestine <div>Bldder Atony- loss of
bility of detrusor muscle in bldder to contrct </div>}} {{c1::Contrctio
n of smll intestine nd bldder}}
{{c1::N/}}
Cn be given orlly or t
hrough IV (isnt broken down by cholinestses)<div><br /></div><div><img src="ps
te-25348896981404.jpg" /></div>
1476470140728 1476408997299 Pilocrpine
{{c1::Direct Acting Cholinergic
Agonist- Alkloid (plnt origin)}}
{{c1::Muscrinic Receptor}}
{{c1::Xe
rostomi- reduced sliv<div>Glucom- topiclly </div>}} {{c1::Acts on mu
scrinic receptors on sliv glnds}} <div>{{c1::<div>Cholinergic crisis
</div>SLUD ( slivtion, lcrimtion-ters, urintion, defection)<div>Bronchiol
r smooth muscle contrction</div><div>These cn occur with ny muscrinic goni
st</div>}}</div>
<img src="pste-25774098743474.jpg" />
1476470480167 1476408997299 Donepezil
{{c1::Anticholinesterse, non co
vlent inhibitor }}
{{c1::Acetycholinesterse Serine Hydroxly group}
}
{{c1::Erly Alzheimer's}}
{{c1::Binds mino cids t ctive site o
f the esterse<div>Positions itself there so tht cetylcholine cn't bind nd g
ets broken down more slowly</div><div>Comes off quickly</div>}} N/A
<img src
="pste-26109106192464.jpg" />
1476471823961 1476408997299 Physostigmine {{c1::Anticholinesterse Covlen
t Inhibitor Crbmte}} {{c1::Binds to cetylcholinesterse nd forms crbmt
e }}
{{c1::Glucom}}
{{c1::Prevents brek down of cetylcholi
ne}}
{{c1::Cn penetrte blood brin so should only be pplied topiclly}}
<div>Rectivtes fter minutes-hours</div><img src="pste-26323854557572.jpg" />
1476472016378 1476408997299 Neostigmine
{{c1::Anticholinesterse Covlen
t Inhibitor Crbmte}} {{c1::Cholinesterse }}
{{c1::Mystheni Grvis{{c1::The cetylcholine cn outcompete t
utoimmune neruomusculr disese}}
he ntibodies }} {{c1::N/A}}
Is ble to cross blood brin brrier so
thts why it differs from physostigmine nd cn be tken systemticlly <di
1476472436960 1476408997299 Crbryl
{{c1::Pesticide- Anticholinester
se- Covlent Inhibitor- Crbmtes}} {{c1::Cholinesterse}} {{c1::its pest
icide}} {{c1::Forms crbmtes}}
{{c1::Cn led to cholinergic crisis<div
>Acetlycholine ccumultes in vrious prts of the body</div>}} <div>You cn buy
this t home depot, cool, no?</div><img src="pste-26740466385286.jpg" />
1476472611769 1476408997299 Echothiophte {{c1::Anticholinesterse- slowly
reversible inhibitor- orgnophosphte}}
{{c1::Cholinesterse }}
{{c1::Glucom}}
<div>{{c1::Phosphoryltes oxygen of serine <div>The
rectivtion usully cn usully tke hours to dys</div><div></div>}}</div>
{{c1::Cnt pply too often becuse orgnophosphtes sty for while}} <div><br
1476472919713 1476408997299 Prthion {{c1::Anticholinesterse- slowly
reversible inhibitor- orgnophosphte- pesticide}}
{{c1::Cholinesterse}}
{{c1::It cn cuse poisoning <div>tret it with 2-PAM</div>}}
{{c1::C
n sometimes cuse ging of the cholinesterses which bsiclly mens tht it cn
't be reversed }} {{c1::Poisonings, thousnds of ER visits yer, require
s license to use}}
<img src="pste-27135603376521.jpg" />
1476473147823 1476408997299 Somn {{c1::Anticholinesterse- slowly reversi
ble inhibitor- orgnophosphte- chemicl wrfre gent}}
{{c1::Cholineste
rse}} {{c1::Its nerve gs}} <div>{{c1::Instnt ging of the cholinesterse<d
iv></div>}}</div>
<div>{{c1::<div>Super voltile (gs)</div><div>No chnce
of ntidote</div>}}</div>
Soldiers crry crbmte to protect ginst so
mn<div><img src="pste-27350351741339.jpg" /></div>
1476473352755 1476408997299 Atropine
{{c1::Cholinergic Blocker- Alkl
oid}} {{c1::Muscrinic }}
<div><div>{{c1::Crdic Emergencies in t
he ER- increses hert rte <div>Eye- Diltes the eye<br /><div>Asthm</div
><div>Urinry Incontinence</div><div>Intestine- nti spsmotic gent, reduces p
ristlsis </div><div>Orl Surgery- suppresses production of sliv</div><di

v>Used with 2-PAM</div><div>Trets crbmte poisoning</div><div>trets SLUD(cho
linergic crisis)</div><div></div></div>}}</div></div> {{c1::Decrese prsymp
thetic tone}} {{c1::Dry mouth}}
<img src="pste-27590869909920.jpg" />
1476473608106 1476408997299 Scopolmine
{{c1::Cholinergic blocker- ntur
{{c1::Motion Sickness nd nti-nuse&nb
l lkloid}} {{c1::Muscrinic}}
sp;}} {{c1::Blocks muscrinic in the CNS}}
{{c1::n/}}
1476473702766 1476408997299 Iprtropium
s- Synthetic Quternry Amines}}
{{c1::Muscrinic }}
{{c1::As
thm}} {{c1::Bronchodiltion<div>Reduces mucus production</div>}}
{{c1::n/
}}
1476473894928 1476408997299 Benzotropine
- synthetic tertiry mine}}
{{c1::Muscrinic}}
{{c1::Prkinsons Disese
}}
{{c1::Cn suppress tremors tht re ssocited with prkinsons <div
>Not cure</div>}}
{{c1::n/}}
1473011809254 1471364886851 Metbolic syndrome is wht?
<div>Incresed R
isk of Developing Type II dibetes</div>ft storge in plces besides dipose.&n
bsp;<div>ftty liver, hert, muscles</div><div>lrge wistline</div><div>high bl
ood pressure, triglyceride levels, low HDL</div><div>high fsting blood sugr (n
ot dibetic)</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-2856153252177.jpg" /></d
iv>
1475421148394 1471105979384 Extrcellulr pH is round {{c1::7.4}} while cyt
oplsmic pH is {{c1::7.1}}. The pH is {{c1::4.5-6}} in the lysosomes, golgi nd
endosomes
1475421352692 1471105979384 The rte of diffusion is directly proportionl t
o the {{c1::bsolute temperture}} nd inversely proportionl to the {{c1::visco
sity of the medium}} nd to the {{c1::moleculr rdius}}
1475422262912 1471105979384 Flux is the mesure of the number of moles cross
ing plne of unit re per unit time. It is {{c1::directly proportionl}} to t
he mgnitude of the concentrtion grdient.
1475422584068 1471105979394 How is the prtition coefficient mesured? (K<su
b>p</sub>)
Mesured by determining the distribution of the substnce betwee
n Oil nd wter<div><img src="pste-28071906246752.jpg" /></div>
1475422985487 1471105979384 Higher diffusion coeffecient (D<sub>m</sub>) nd
higher Prtition Coefficient (K<sub>p</sub>) led to {{c1::higher::higher/low
er}} permebility coefficient
1475423010669 1471105979384 High lipid solubility = {{c1::High::high/low}} m
embrne permebility
1475423106642 1471105979384 Permebility {{c1::increses::increses/decrese
s}} with lipid solubility, {{c1::decreses::increses/decreses}} with moleculr
size nd gretly {{c1::decreses::increses/decreses}} with chrge
1475423513618 1471105979394 Wht is the electroneutrlity principle?
The ide tht there must lwys be equl chrge on mcroscopic volume
1475424755870 1471105979384 The chemicl potentil () is mesure of the con
tribution of ech component to the totl energy of solution.<div>If C<sub>in</
sub><C<sub>out</sub> is {{c1::negtive::positive/negtive}}, mening the
substnce {{c1::will spontneouls diffuse inside }}</div><div>If C<sub>in<
/sub>>C<sub>out</sub> is {{c1::positive::positive/negtive}}, mening su
bstnce {{c1::requires energy to move inside}}</div><div>If If C<sub>in</su
b>=C<sub>out</sub> is {{c1::0::positive/negtive}}, mening substnce {{c1:
:is in equillibrium }}</div>
1475424840623 1471105979384 The chemicl potentil of H<sub>2</sub>O is:<div
>{{c1::incresed::incresed/decresed}} by pressure <div>{{c1::incresed::i
ncresed/decresed}} by temperture </div><div>{{c1::decresed::incresed/d
ecresed}} by solutes</div></div>
1475425906760 1471105979384 Reduced chemicl potentil of wter will:<div>{{
c1::Increse::increse/decrese}} boiling point</div><div>{{c1::Decrese::incre
se/decrese}} vpor pressure</div><div>{{c1::Decrese::increse/decrese}} freez
ing point</div>
1475426005468 1471105979384 Osmolrity of blood plsm is {{c1::300 mOsm::co
ncentrtion}}
1475426048279 1471105979384 A hypotonic solution will cuse n {{c1::incres
e::increse/decrese}} in cell volume becuse the osmolrity is {{c1::less::less
/more}} thn tht of blood plsm.
1475426215339 1471105979384 Hemolysis occurs t osmolrities less thn {{c1:
:200mOsm::concentrtion}}
1475426292923 1471105979384 In hypertonic solution the cell volume will {{
c1::decrese::increse/decrese}} becuse the osmolrity is {{c1::greter::gret
er/less}} thn tht of blood plsm
1475426587540 1471105979394 Wht is the Nernst Eqution? Wht does it mesur
e nd how is it clculted?
Mesures the equillibriumfor n ion t given c
oncentrtion difference cross membrne.<div><img src="pste-31602369364041.jp
g" /></div><div>where z is the chrge of the ion</div><div><b>Note the out/in he
re</b></div>
1475428512108 1471105979384 In Ohm's lw for membrnes,-E<su>i</su>&nsp;mea
sures the {{c1::driving force}}&nsp;if:<div>=E<su>i</su>&nsp;is {{c1::0}} so t
he current is {{c1::0}}</div><div>-E<su>i</su>&nsp;is >0 positive ions would
move {{c1::out::in/out}} while negative ions would move {{c1::in::in/out}}</div
><div>-E<su>i is </su><0 positive ions would move {{c1::in::in/out}} while ne
gative ions would move {{c1::out::in/out}}</div>
1475428792301 1471105979384 Current is defined as the {{c1::direction of the
movement of the positive charge}}, the direction of movement is given y the si
gn of the driving force<div>An outward current is a {{c1::postitve::pos/neg}} cu
rrent</div><div>An inward current is a {{c1::negative::pos/neg}} current</div>
1475431410805 1471105979394 How would you define the colloid osmotic pressur
e (aka oncotic pressure)
Osmotic pressure difference thats due to the pre
senece of impermeant molecules inside of a cell
1475431450059 1471105979394 How does the Donnan ratio work&nsp;
All perm
eale ions must e distriuted in accordance with the nernst equestion, therefor
e all permeant ions must exists in equal ratios&nsp;<div><img src="paste-338872
91965551.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div>
1475431720680 1471105979394 How do ion channels work?
Its asically di
ffusion through a selective pore<div>Removes the energy arrier for an ion getti
ng into the cell</div><div>Interactions with water are replaced y interactions
with the protein</div><div>It has a fairly rigid structure</div>
1475432454341 1471105979384 Channels have a {{c1::faster::faster/slower}} tu
rnover rate than carriers
1475432476838 1471105979384 Primary active transport relies on {{c1::direct
energy coupling}} while secondary active transport relies on {{c1::gradients}}
1475432695416 1471105979394 Whats the difference etween a symport and an an
tiport? Antiport moves things opposite each (counter-transport) other while symp
ort moves ions with each other (co-transport)
1475432771667 1471105979394 What is the function of the GLUT family of trans
porters?
They are a family of sugar transporters that do facillitated dif
fusion
1475432956533 1471105979384 In the presence of insulin, GLUT 4 is taken from
the {{c1::cytosol}} and put into the {{c1::memrane}} to allow for uptake of gl
ucose
1475433006885 1471105979384 The pump that is responsile for ATP synthesis d
uring Oxidative Phoshorylation is the {{c1::F-class proton pump}}. It is found i
n {{c1::mitochondria, chloroplasts and acteria}}
197385.jpg" />
1475433492846 1471105979384 F-type ATPases have two major portions, the F<su
>1</su> suunit which is {{c1::hydrophilic}} and the F<su>0</su>&nsp;suuni
t which is {{c1::hydrophoic}}.&nsp;
1475433679752 1471105979384 The V-Type ATPases differ from F-type in that th
ey {{c1::only use ATP to pump protons}}
1475433748553 1471105979384 The V-type ATPases main function is to {{c1::aci
dify the endosomal network, lysosomes and golgi network}}
1475434077104 1471105979394 P-type ATPases differ from V-type and F-type str
ucturally, how? P-type ATPases generally only have a single catalytic suunit an
d sometimes an additional suunit (Beta, in the Sodium Potassium ATPase). F and
V type have multiple suunits
1475434255582 1471105979394 What is the sequence of events for how a P-type
ATPase works? 1) Ion inds&nsp;<div>2) The transporter is phosphorylated</div
><div>3)Ion gets translocated as a direct result of the conformational change of
the suunit</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2881923
056023.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div>
1475434410795 1471105979384 The Na<sup>+</sup>,K<sup>+</sup>-ATPase is a {{c
1::P-type}} ATPase
1475434416384 1471105979384 The stoichiometry of the Na<sup>+</sup>,K<sup>+<
/sup>-ATPase is&nsp;<div>Hydrolysis of {{c1::1::numer}} ATP transports {{c1::3
::numer}} Na<sup>+</sup>&nsp;{{c1::out of::in to/out of}} the cell and {{c1::2
::numer}} K<sup>+ </sup>{{c1::in to::in to/out of}} the cell</div>
1475439437344 1471105979394 What does it mean to say that the Na,K ATPase is
electrogenic It generates a current with its activity
1475439675135 1471105979394 What is Ouaain?
Its a cardiace glycoside
. It inhiits Na,K ATPase and its antagonized y high [K]. It increases the forc
e of cardiace contraction y locking the release of Calcium from the cell which
is dependent on Sodium Calcium Exchanger<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4
3671227466297.jpg" /></div>
1475439824239 1471105979384 The Ca-ATPase is a {{c1::P}}-type ATPase
1475439965638 1471105979394 What are SERCA and PMCA?
SERCA which stan
ds for Sarco(ENDO)-plasmic Ca ATPase pumps calcium into the sarcomeres and endop
lasmic reticulum.<div><r /></div><div>PMCA is a Plasma Memrane Ca ATPase</div>
1475439967223 1471105979394 How are ABC Transporters organized?
They are
organized as two homologous domains<div>with 6 memrane spanning segments and 1
nucleotide inding domain in each domain. They can e linked in a single polype
ptide or as seperate halves</div><div><img src="paste-38126424686753.jpg" /></di
v>
1475440574345 1471105979394 Multiple drug resistance protein and CFTR (cysti
c firosis transmemrane regulator) are oth what kind of transporters? ABC tran
sporters
1475524341803 1471105979394 How do specific ion channels not allow other ion
s to pass through? ie what gives ion channels their specificity?
The sele
ctivity filter which is a small portion of the ion channel has a specific intera
ctions with specific ions. The strucutre of the selectivity filter puts ackone
caronyl oxygens in different places relative to ion size<div><r /></div><div>
<img src="paste-44173738639717.jpg" />&nsp;</div>
1475524762379 1471105979394 So ions are passing through the selectivity filt
er, if each ion has to ind to the filter this would in theory retard the passag
e of ions, ut Ions pass through the filter so fast. How does this make sense?
Each incoming ion displaces the next ion through electrostatic interactions (rep
ulsion)
1475525937715 1471105979384 The voltage gated potassium channel contains 6 {
{c1::alpha helical}} transmemrane segments<div>It has a P-loop which contains t
he {{c1::pore and selectivity filter}}</div><div>The S4 segment which is the {{c
1::gating mechanism}}</div><div>It also contains the inactivation mechanism whic
h is the {{c1::"all and chain"}} mechanism of inactivation.</div>
<img src
="paste-44882408243557.jpg" />
1475526080612 1471105979384 The Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor is selectiv
e for {{c1::cations}}. Its function is to depolarize the {{c1::memrane and init
iate action potential in postsynaptic memrane}}
1475526310355 1471105979384 The IP<su>3</su>&nsp;receptor is present in t
he {{c1::Endoplasmic reticulum}} and releases {{c1::calcium}} into the ulk cyto
plasm
1475526994660 1471105979384 The Ryanodine Receptor releases {{c1::calcium fr
om the Sarcoplasmic reticulum::what from where}} during muscle contraction. It c
an e opened y&nsp;<div>{{c1::<div>Increase in [Ca]<su>cyt</su></div><div>Me
chanical interaction with L-type Ca<sup>2+</sup><su>&nsp;</su>channel (skelet
al muscle)</div><div>Caffeine, ryanodine</div>}}</div> <img src="paste-45926085

296407.jpg" />
1475527400679 1471105979394 What is the GHK equation?
<img src="paste46054934315115.jpg" /><div>OR</div><div><img src="paste-46450071306327.jpg" /></
div><div>OU CAN INCLUDE Cl if you reverse</div><div><img src="paste-47047071760
460.jpg" /></div>
1475621963237 1471105979394 Ion channel conductance is what?
It is th
e proaility that a channel is open, so that means that the higher conductance
there is, the higher the permeaility
1475622052841 1471105979384 Second messenger gated channels have gates that
are controlled y an {{c1::intracellular signaling molecule}}.&nsp;<div><r /><
/div><div>Give examples</div> cAMP or IP<su>3</su>
1475622109479 1471105979384 The nicotinic receptor is a {{c1::ligand}} gated
channel that has a receptor on the {{c1::extracellular}} side of the memrane.
It is found on the {{c1::motor end plate}}<div><r /></div><div>The ions that it
allows through are {{c1::K+ and Na+}}</div>
1475622565274 1471105979394 Can you generate a diffusion potential in a mem
rane that is impermeale to a specific ion?
No, a diffusion potential is a c
aused y a diffusion of an ion down its concentration gradient. Therefore, if th
e ion cannot diffuse, there will e no potential generated
1475622655462 1471105979394 What role the Na+ K+ ATPase have in maintaining
the resting memrane potential? Its responsile for creating and maintaning the
K+ concentration which is then responsie for the diffusion potential of K+ whic
h causes the resting memrane potential
1475625190283 1471105979394 Why is hyperkalemia?
elevated lood K+ levels
1475627334162 1471105979394 Define Diffusion Potential
Its the potentia
l difference generated when a charged ion diffuses across a memrane down its co
ncentration gradient
1475627454942 1471105979394 Define equillirium potential It is the diffus
ion potential that equally opposes the tendency of an ion to continue diffusing
down its concentration gradiet
1475627598756 1471105979384 The typical equillirium potentials for the foll
owing ions are as follows<div>E<su>Na</su><sup>+</sup>&nsp;is {{c1::65 mV}}</
div><div>E<su>Ca</su><sup>2+</sup>&nsp;is {{c1::120 mV}}</div><div>E<su>K</s
u><sup>+</sup>&nsp;is {{c1::-85mV}}</div><div>E<su>Cl</su><sup>-</sup>&nsp;
is {{c1::-90 mV}}</div>
1475627847813 1471105979394 The driving force on a given ion is defined as w
hat?
The difference etween the memrane potential Em and equillrium potenti
al Ei&nsp;<div><r /></div><div>Em-Ei</div>
1475627849222 1471105979394 Define the ionic current&nsp; The ionic curren
t is essential the driving force multiplied y the conductane (now define conduc
tance)&nsp;
1475635609808 1471105979384 In glycolysis:<div>Insulin works as an {{c1::act
ivator::activator/inhiitor}} while glucagon works as an {{c1::inhiitor::activa
tor/inhiitor}} on the enzymes:</div><div>{{c1::<div>Glucokinase</div><div>Phosp
hofructokinase</div><div>Pyruvate Kinase</div>}}</div> <img src="paste-74388833
57095.jpg" />
1475635785697 1471105979384 {{c1::Endocrine}} hormones are distriuted y l
ood<div>{{c1::Paracrine}} hormones act locally</div><div>{{c1::Autocrine}} hormo
nes act on the same cell that produces it&nsp;</div>
1475635849348 1471105979384 Insulin production egins to {{c1::decrease elo
w 80::increase/decrease elow/elow some value}} mg/dL glucose
1475636277030 1471105979384 The diaetic fasting glucose is measured {{c1::a
ove::aove/elow}} {{c1::126 }}mg/dL<div>The diaetic random glucose is measure
d {{c1::aove::aove/elow}} {{c1::200}} mg/dL</div>
1475636427097 1471105979384 When glucose approaches aout {{c1::50-60}} mg/d
L you egin to see symptoms
1475636469157 1471105979384 The organ that is responsile for synthesizing g
lycogen, fatty acids, and triacylglycerides. Takes up glucose after a meal, degr
ades glycogen, releases ketone odies and undergoes gluconeogenesis during fasti
ng is the {{c1::liver}}
1475636812310 1471105979384 {{c1::Glucokinase}} has a high K<su>m</su>&ns
p;for glucose and it is found in the {{c1::liver}} while {{c1::hexokinase}} has
a low K<su>m </su>for glucose and it is found {{c1::all over}}
1475636923310 1471105979384 The organ that synthesizes glycogen and protein,
takes up glucose after a meal, uses fatty acids and ketone odies and releases
amino acids during fasting is {{c1::skeletal muscle}}
1475637019359 1471105979384 The organ that synthesizes triacyl glycerol, tak
es up glucose after a meal, and hydrolyses triacylglycerols during fasting is {{
c1::adipose tissue}}
1475637904498 1471105979394 What does it mean if an enzyme has intrinsic enz
myatic activity?
It means that the enzyme is part of the receptor protein
1475638278114 1471105979384 The role of metformin is to {{c1::lock fatty ac
id synthesis and gluconeogenesis}} via {{c1::activation of AMPK}}
<img src
="paste-40763534606648.jpg" />
1475638320224 1471105979384 A hyperosmolar coma is a common acute complicati
on of {{c1::Type II diaetes}}&nsp;
1475638606021 1471105979394 How does alcohol directly inhiit glucose produc
tion within the liver cell?
Ethanol ecomes acetaldehyde which goes to aceta
te which produces NADH which decreases glucose synthesis&nsp;
1475638954696 1471105979394 What are the MAP kinases?
They are the kin
ases that are activated y RTK activated G (Ras) proteins<div>RAF</div><div>MEK<
/div><div>ERK</div><div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11042360918503.jpg
" /></div></div>
1475771238153 1471105979384 Cortisol<div>Carons:{{c1::21}}</div><div>Synthe
sized in: {{c1::adrenal}}</div><div>Effect: {{c1::increases gluconeogenic enzyme
s (liver)}}</div><div>Structural features: {{c1::hydroxyl on C 11, C 17, C21, C1
7 and 21 are essential for gluconeogenic activity}}</div><div><r /></div>
1475771334467 1471105979384 Aldosterone<div><div>Carons: {{c1::21}}</div><d
iv>Synthesized in {{c1::adrenal}}</div><div>Effect:Kidney- {{c1::increases Na+ a
sorption, increase K+ excretion}}</div><div>Structural features: {{c1::Hydroxyl
on C21 and C11, aldehyde on C18}}</div></div>
1475771410333 1471105979384 Testosterone<div><div>Carons: {{c1::19}}</div><
div>Synthesized in {{c1::testes (some in adrenal)}}</div><div>Effect:{{c1::incre
ases muscle mass}}</div><div>Structural features: {{c1::Hydroxyl C17 and C4-C5 d
oule ond in A ring&nsp;}}</div></div>
1475771486372 1471105979384 Estradiol<div><div>Carons: {{c1::18}}</div><div
>Synthesized in: {{c1::ovary (adrenal also)}}</div><div>Effect:{{c1::increases u
terine mass during pregnancy}}</div><div>Structural features: {{c1::Hydroxly on
C17, A ring is phenyl ring&nsp;}}</div></div>
1475771667613 1471105979394 What is the order of events for the synthesis of
cortisol? (whats the whole pathway)
Stress---> Hypothalamus which makes C
RF----> Pituitary which makes ACTH----> Adrenal which makes cortisol<div><
r /></div><div><r /></div><div>Cortisol negatively inhiits the production of
CRF and ACTH&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13009455939825.jpg
" /></div>
1475772007605 1471105979384 Desmolase is activated y {{c1::ACTH}}<div>Its f
unction is to:</div><div>{{c1::<div>Cleave side chain of cholesterol</div><div>U
ptake of cholesterol into adrenal&nsp;</div>}}</div>
1475772048996 1471105979384 Melanocyte stimulation hormone is responsile fo
r {{c1::skin darkening&nsp;}} and it is very similar to {{c1::ACTH}}
1475772111060 1471105979394 Explain adison's disease
Adison's diease
is a adrenal insufficiency, the adrenal gland receives signals from the Pituitar
y through ACTH ut doesn't make coritsol which is a negative feedack inhiitor
of the pituitary.&nsp;<div>If the adrenal gland is unale to make cortisol, ACT
H keeps eing produced and ACTH is very similar to MSH which the hormone respons
ile for skin darkening. Therefore patient presents with dark skin features.&ns
p;</div><div><img src="paste-13602161426945.jpg" /></div>
1475772268562 1471105979384 Cortisol is transported through the lood y {{c
1::Cortico Steroid Binding Gloulin (CBG)}}<div><r /></div><div>Testosterone is
transported y {{c1::Sex Hormone Binding Gloulin (SHBG)}}</div><div><r /></di

v><div>Estradiol is transported y&nsp;{{c1::Sex Hormone Binding Gloulin (SHBG
)}}</div>
1475772352069 1471105979384 {{c1::Intracellular::intra/extra cell
ular}}&nsp;receptors recognize steroids y their {{c1::hydroxyl groups}}
1475772463697 1471105979384 Estradiol and Estradiol Receptor complex with th
e help of cofactors effect the<div>{{c1::regulation of histone acetyl transferas
e&nsp;}}</div><div>AND</div><div>{{c1::RNA Pol II}}</div>
1475772557419 1471105979394 What is Letrozole?&nsp;
It is an aromata
se inhiitor used to treat estrogen receptor positive reat cancers in post meno
pausal women. Aromatase is an enzyme in estradiol synthesis.&nsp;
1475772648294 1471105979394 What is Tamoxifen?
It is an anti estrogen c
hemotherapy used to treat reast cancer in women whos reast cancers are estroge
n receptor positive. It works as an anti estrogen<div><r /></div><div>used for
premenopausal pts</div>
1475772795372 1471105979384 Steroid hormone receptors have {{c1::two}} indi
ng domains which include:<div>{{c1::<div>DNA inding domain</div><div>AND</div><
div>Hormone Binding Domain</div>}}</div>
1475778471072 1471105979384 Calcium's Functions in the ody include (4):<div
>{{c1::<div>Structure of Skeleton</div><div>Important for muscle contraction</di
v><div>Blood clotting</div><div>Nerve ion pulse transmission&nsp;</div>}}</div>
1475778608593 1471105979384 Normal Serum Calcium is {{c1::10mg/100mL}}<div>I
n the ody the calcium is divided into:</div><div>{{c1::<div>51% Ionized</div><d
iv>46% protein ound</div><div>3% complexed to other ions</div>}}</div>
1475778759439 1471105979384 The hormones that increase calcium levels are {{
c1::Parathyroid Hormone and Vitamin D}} while {{c1::Calcitonin}} decreases calci
um levels&nsp;
1475778986682 1471105979384 {{c1::Parathyroid Gene Related Peptide (PTHrP)}}
is thought to e responsile for hypercalcemia of malignant tumors&nsp;
1475779109831 1471105979384 PTH is synthesized in {{c1::chief cells of the p
arathyroid gland}} in response to&nsp;{{c1::low Ca<sup>2+</sup>&nsp;levels&ns
p;}}
1475779254476 1471105979394 How is PTH synthesized? Synthesized in chief cel
ls of parathyroid gland in response to low Ca levels.&nsp;<div>Low Ca+ --> t
ranscription-->translation--> Pre-Pro-PTH-->Pro-PTH-->PTH which then
feedack inhiits the synthesis of more PTH</div><div><img src="paste-175492363
72024.jpg" /></div>
1475779354196 1471105979394 How does PTH act on the ones? PTH increases th
e numer of osteoclasts y attaching a receptor on OSTEOBLASTS which increases t
he synthesis of RANKL (osteoclast differentiating factor) which makes osteoclast
s from preosteoclasts. Osteoclasts promote one reasorption.&nsp;<div><img src
="paste-17686675325258.jpg" /></div>
1475779608180 1471105979394 How does PTH effect the kidney? It increases the
calcium reasorption in distal tue.<div>Inhiits the phosphate reasorption&n
sp;</div><div>Increased cAMP in urine is the test for elevated phosphate</div>
1475795401867 1471105979394 How does PTH effect the intestine?
It doesn
t directly effect it<div>BUT recall that PTH will result in more active form of
Vitamin D eing synthesized in the kidney which will then e used for calcium a
sorption in the intestine</div>
1475795667982 1471105979384 Calcitonin is synthesized in the {{c1::C cells o
f the thyroid&nsp;}}
1475795687420 1471105979384 Calcitonin effects the one y {{c1::inhiiting
osteoclast one resorption shrinking the osteoclasts&nsp;}}
1475795726186 1471105979384 Calcitonin effects the kidney y {{c1::increasin
g urinary calcium excretion BUT only at supraphysiological concentrations&nsp;}
}
1475795781967 1471105979384 Calcitonin affects the intestine y... {{c1::it
doesn't effect the intestine ut it does inhiit gastrin secretion}}&nsp;
1475796006384 1471105979394 Take me through the process of how Vitamin D is
made? 1)UV rays convert 7-dehydrocholesterol into Vitamin D<su>3</su>(cholec
alciferol)<div>2) Vitamin D is transported through the lood ound to Vitamin D

inding protein to <>Liver</></div><div>3) There Vitamin D<su>3</su>&nsp;is
hydroxylated into 25(OH)D<su>3</su>&nsp;y 25 hydroxylase</div><div>4) 25(OH
)D<su>3</su>&nsp;is taken to the <>Kidney</>&nsp;y Vitamin D inding prot
ein</div><div>5) There it is again hydroxylated to ecome 1,25 (OH)<su>2</su>D
<su>3</su>&nsp;(calcitrol) which is the active form of D<su>3</su></div><di
v><su><r /></su></div><div>**Note that in the Kidney, the 24 position could a
lso get hydroxylated to make 24,25 (OH)<su>2</su>D<su>3</su>&nsp;, the inac
tive form of D<su>3</su>&nsp;</div>
1475796277335 1471105979384 Cholecalciferol is&nsp;{{c1::Vitamin&nsp;D<su
>3</su>}}&nsp;made in {{c1::the skin}}<div>Calcitrol is the&nsp;{{c1::active
form of Vitamin D<su>3</su>&nsp;(1,25 OHD3)}}&nsp;made in {{c1::the kidney}}
</div>
1475796500674 1471105979394 How does Vitamin D effect the Intestine?
Promotes asorption of phosphorous in the intestine<div><r /></div><div>Binds t
o Vitamin D receptor in the cell which increases the synthesis of calcium indin
g protein (calindin) which increase calcium asorption in the intestine and inc
rease the creation of calcium channels&nsp;</div>
1475796663072 1471105979394 How does Vitamin D effect the one?
Stimulat
es osteoclast activity which causes increased one resorption and increase in se
rum calcium<div>Receptors are present in the osteolasts</div><div>They increase
the synthesis of RANKL</div>
1475796710819 1471105979394 How does vitamin D effect the kidney? It enhan
ces the action of PTH at distal tuule
1475796726954 1471105979394 What is RANKL? It is the osteoclast differentia
ting factor which takes preosteoclasts into osteoclasts&nsp;
1475801006127 1471105979394 What is Calindin
Calcium Binding Protein
in the intestine<div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><>Cal</>cium <>Bind</
>ing <>In</>testine</div>
1475804503258 1471105979394 Why do some drugs act slowly compared to others
in terms of receptors? Drugs that act on extracellular receptors (G-protein, li
gand, etc..) are quicker than drugs that act intracellularly (estradiol)
1475804576708 1471105979394 How/where does Warfarin act?
Warfarin is an a
nticoagulant&nsp;<div>It inhiits Vitamin K Epoxide Reductase which plays a rol
e in reducing Vitamin K epoxide.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-23914377904469.jpg" /></div>
1475804678604 1471105979394 What is EDTA? What is it used for?
It is a
metal chelator drug<div>Used to treat heavy metal toxicity&nsp;</div><div>EDTA
comines with lead and allowed to e excreted in urine</div><div><r /></div>
1475804894271 1471105979394 What is K<su>D, </su>what does it measure?
It measure the dissociation constant of a Ligand to Receptor (Drug)<div>Calculat
ed y&nsp;</div><div><img src="paste-24288040058946.jpg" /></div><div><img src=
"paste-24300924960921.jpg" /></div><div>KD<su>&nsp;</su>High means that there
is more dissociation, aka low affinity</div>
1475805220899 1471105979384 High drug affinities (K<su>d</su>) are conside
red to e those in the {{c1::picomolar, nanomolar and low micromolar}} range.
1475805249245 1471105979384 A {{c1::graded dose response curve}} quantifies
the magnitude of response as a function of dose&nsp; <img src="paste-24571507
900768.jpg" />
1475805381870 1471105979384 K<su>D</su>&nsp;is determined y {{c1:: the s
tructures of the drug and receptor}}<div>EC<su>50</su>&nsp;is determined y{{
c1::&nsp;strucutres of drug, receptor and drug pharmacokinetics (response rate)
}}</div><div>R<su>T</su>&nsp;is determined y {{c1:: the total numer of rece
ptors}}</div><div>E<su>max</su>&nsp;is determined y {{c1:: total numer of r
eceptors and drug pharmacokinetics and events ocuring after drug inding to rece
ptor}}</div>
<img src="paste-5407363826072.jpg" />
1475805766139 1471105979394 How would descrie the difference etween potenc
y and efficacy? Potency is the dose required to get the drug to maximum response
(Drug A requires a smaller dose than drug B to elicit maximum response, differe
nt EC<su>50</su>)<div>Efficacy is the difference in E<su>max</su>, how much
response could the drug elicit in the first place</div><div><r /></div><div><im

1475806126613 1471105979384 {{c1::False::True/False}}<div>Partial agonists
ind less receptors than full agonists ut more receptors than antagonists</div>
Partial agonists only elicit less of a response from that receptor, they ind th
e receptors with the same affinity. They will ind ut have less of an effect th
an a full agonist
1475806139584 1471105979384 {{c1::False::True/False}}<div>Aspirin has a lowe
r potency AND Efficacy than Hydromorphine, Morphine and Codeine (use graph elow
)</div><div><img src="paste-25580825215271.jpg" /></div>
Aspirin inds to
a different receptor than the others, you can only compare potency and effiacy
in drugs that ind to the same receptor&nsp;
1475807414941 1471105979394 How do partial agonists, full agonists and antia
gonists work in the induced fit model? Explain using Tamoxifen Estradiol inds
the Estrogen Receptor inside of a cell causing a conformational change that then
allows the coregulators to ind to the complex as well<div><r /></div><div>Tam
oxifen replaces estradiol and inds to the estradiol receptor inside of the cell
and when it enters the nucleus, the coregulators can't ind to it so its comple
tely turned off and the cancer cell dies</div><div><r /></div><div>In the uteru
s, Tamoxifen causes a confromational change again ut this time, some of the cor
egulators can ind ut not as well so you get some transcription ut not as much
so we say it is a partial agonist</div>
1475807537166 1471105979394 Define/explain constitutive activity (asal acti
vity) In the example of sodium channels, they open in response to acetylcholin
e ut even in the asence of acetylcholine, some of them will open up once in a
while<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-26186415604062.jpg" /></div>
1475807723136 1471105979394 Go ahead and explain this<div><img src="paste-26
242250178901.jpg" /></div>
Full agonist inds and makes more receptors (all
) in the R' prime form<div>Partial does a little more R' than R&nsp;</div><div>
Neutral is essential asal activity</div><div>Inverse favors the R, inhiiting
asal activity</div>
1475808102309 1471105979394 How do antihistamines work?
They are full in
verse agonists ecause histamine receptors follow the conformation selected mode
l (asal activity)<div><r /></div><div>They induce the conformation to remain i
n the inactive form as opposed to histamine which is going to maintain the recep
tor in the active form</div>
1475808501699 1471105979384 Competitive antagonists give&nsp;<div>{{c1::Sam
e::higher/lower/same}} E<su>max</su></div><div>{{c1::Lower::higher/lower/same}
} EC<su>50</su></div><div><su><r /></su></div><div><su><r /></su></div>
<img src="paste-26770531156311.jpg" />
1475808744622 1471105979394 How can a partial agonist e a competitive antag
onist in respect to a full agonist?
A partial agonist can compete for the re
ceptors with the full agonist. So the more partial agonist that you add, the les
s active the full agonist is and so the response approaches that of the partial
agonist instead of the full agonist<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2703681
9128632.jpg" /></div>
1475808796055 1471105979394 What is an example of a drug that is a negative
allosteric modulator, how does it work? Ketamine effects the NMDA receptor in th
e CNS, which normally inds glutamate and glycine for the ion channel. Once you
add ketamine, it inds to a different site and lowers the E<su>max</su>&nsp;n
o matter how much more glutamate you add.&nsp;<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-27157078212992.jpg" /></div>
1475809018383 1471105979394 What is enzodiazopene? How does it work?
It is an anti anxiety drug<div>Binds to the GABA receptor and is a positive allo
steric modulator&nsp;</div><div>It increases the inding affinity of GABA allow
ing more ion channel activity to allow the passage of chlorine&nsp;</div>
1475809128026 1471105979394 What is pharmacodynamic tolerance? What are its
effects graphically and what is the mechanism of how it happens?
The E<su
>max</su>&nsp;is lowered as the overall response to the drug is reduced over
time<div>This can occur ecause of desensitization of the receptor or down regul
ation of the receptor</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><d

1475809386235 1471105979394 Whats the difference etween pharmacodynamic tol
erance and pharmacokinetic tolerance?<div><r /></div> Pharmacodynamic toleranc
e involves the decrease in response due to either receptor desensitization OR do
wn regulation<div><r /></div><div>Pharmacokinetic Tolerance involves increased
drug elimination&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-20486994002325.jpg" /></div>
1475809551571 1471105979394 How does super-sensitivity work?
Some cel
ls will try to overcompensate against an antagonist y upregulating their recept
ors. This isn't an issue ecause while the patient is taking the drug, there is
so much antagonist that it really doesn't matter. The issue is if the patient a
ruptly stops taking the drug ecause then there are so many receptors that will
ind to the endogenous hormone (agonist)
1475809939974 1471105979384 {{c1::False::True/False}}<div>When a drug shows
100% response it always means that 100% of the receptors are occupied y the dru
g</div><div>Why or Why not? See elow</div>
<r /><div><r /></div><div><r
/></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div
><r /></div><div>Recall that there is such a thing as spare receptors when not
all receptors are ound ut there is complete drug response ecause of some ampl
ification in a later step. For example all of the PKA can e used up even when n
ot all of the receptors are ound.&nsp;</div><div><img src="paste-2794735219545
3.jpg" /></div>
1475810179854 1471105979394 What is a quantal dose response curve? It is a
curve that shows what dose the POPULATION responds to (yes/no response)<div><r
/></div><div>ED<su>50</su>&nsp;is a measure of what dose 50% of the populatio
n will respond to</div><div><img src="paste-28230820036975.jpg" /></div>
1475811168480 1471105979384 The formula to calculate:&nsp;<r /><div>Therap
utic Index:&nsp;{{c1::<img src="paste-28462748270637.jpg" />}}</div><div><r />
</div><div>Certain Safety Factor:&nsp;{{c1::<img src="paste-28475633172534.jpg"
/>}}</div>
TD measures adverse effect<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste4041564225954.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4140348473762.j
pg" /></div>
1475811422904 1471105979384 Passive diffusion of drugs can happen in two way
s<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Trancellular}} meaning that they pass through the c
ell</div><div>{{c1::Paracellular}} meaning that they pass in etween cells&nsp;
</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Transcellular}} is the most common</div><div><
<img src="paste-29227252449614.jpg" />
1475812377984 1471105979394 What is an example of a drug who's asorption ca
uses a diminishing effect?
Anything topical really, local anesthetic gets a
sored and then ecomes less effective
1475812494465 1471105979384 In order for a drug to e asored sulingually
it must e {{c1::very lipid solule}}
1475812512566 1471105979384 Most asorption of oral drugs takes place in the
{{c1::small intestine}} ecause of {{c1::the huge surface area}}
1475812554127 1471105979384 {{c1::True::True/False}}<div><r /></div><div>Ta
king a drug on an empty stomach will increase its rate of asorption</div><div><
If you take a drug with food it will have a longer gastric empty
r /></div>
ing time, it will spend more time in the stomach and take longer to get to the s
mall intestine
1475813059690 1471105979394 Why use a vasoconstrictor for a local anesthetic
?
Because you want to slow down the lood flow so that the drug is asore
d more slowly
1475813094648 1471105979394 Two reasons for doing intramuscular injections a
re:
1) If you have a very water solule compound, it needs to e injected. T
hey will undergo paracellular diffusion ecause in skeletal muscle, capillaries
are very porous.&nsp;<div>2)In emergency situations, the second fastest way to
get the drug. Can't do intravenous in this emergency</div>
1475813291018 1471105979394 What is perfusion limited distriution? Example?
It is the limitation of a drug's distriution to tissues ecause of its inailit
y get to areas of the ody that don't have a lot of lood flow.&nsp;<div>Thiope
ntal is the most lipid solule drug that we have</div><div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-30670361461102.jpg" /></div>
1475872429901 1471105979394 What is meant y Diffusion limited distriution?
Example?
This is what happens when a drug is very water solule. It has t
roule getting through cell memranes so it can only pass paracellularly (throug
h the spaces etween cells).<div>This primary occurs in skeletal muscle and the
kidney where there are wide capillaries.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Exampl
e is Penicillin (G)</div><div><img src="paste-30790620545333.jpg" /></div>
1475872544996 1471105979394 How does alumin inding influence drugs?
Drugs inding to alumin are unavailale for activity while they are ound. The
inding can e in equillirium so that when some of the free drug gets released,
it is ale to unind from alumin.<div>Think of this as a temporary sequesterin
g of drugs</div>
1475872668987 1471105979384 Bioavailaility is the {{c1::percent or fraction
of the dose reaching the systemic circulation&nsp;}}<div><r /></div><div>A dr
ug is considered to have low ioavailaility at or elow {{c1::25%}}</div>
<img src="paste-31877247271297.jpg" />
1475872905817 1471105979394 What is the hepatic first pass effect? It is th
e amount of the drug that gets past the liver efore reaching the rest of the ci
rculation.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-31872952304001.jpg" /></div>
1475872908775 1471105979394 Why is giving a drug intravenously etter than o
rally with regards to ioavailaility? Intravenous drugs are ale to circulate
throughout the ody efore passing through the liver wherase when you ingest a d
rug orally, the small intestine aors it directly to the liver where is undergo
es the hepatic first pass effect.&nsp;
1475873490770 1471105979384 {{c1::False::True/False}}<div>Hepatic first pass
effect is directly related to drug soluility&nsp;</div>
The hepatic firs
t pass effect is not related to drug soluility&nsp;
1475873720955 1471105979394 What is enterohepatic cycling? How does it work?
It is the cycling of ile from the liver to the small intestine. Bile often gets
recycled instead of having to e constantly made. It is released into the small
intestine from the common ile duct and then retaken up.&nsp;
1475873722420 1471105979394 What is enterohepatic cycling of drugs? It is th
e mechanism y which drugs get asored into the common ile duct along with il
e where they are temporarily stored until eing released again with the ile. Du
ring this time they are not effective<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-33569
464386092.jpg" /></div>
1475873842536 1471105979384 Drugs that are lipid solule {{c1::will e::will
e/will not e}} rapidly reasored from the nephron<div><r /></div><div><r /
></div> Recall that drugs get taken up into the glomerulus where they are then a
le to e reasored if they pass the memrane of the nephron, they can only do
this if they are lipid solule&nsp;<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-336725
43600882.jpg" /></div>
1475873967436 1471105979394 What is the use of proenecid? Examples?
It is used to prevent the rapid excretion of weak acid drugs from the ody y co
mpeting with them for the transporters on the nephron that will remove weak acid
s from lood circulation<div><r /></div><div>It is also used to treat gout</div
><div>It was comined with penicillin to prevent rapid excretion. It is also com
ined with Tamiflu</div>
e purpose of drug metaolism is to increase the water soluility of the drug com
pound</div>
Very true, rememer that in order to excrete a drug, we want it
to e water solule&nsp;
1475874201771 1471105979394 What is the difference etween iotransformation
in Phase 1 Reactions and Phase 2 Reactions?
Phase 2 (conjugations, synthetic
reactions) are those reactions that conjugate a drug with a water solule molec
ule in order to increase its excretion<div><r /></div><div>Phase 1(nonsynthetic
reactions) are those that chemically react with the drug in order to change its
effect, either activate or deactivate (P450, reductases, hydrolases, oxidations
)</div>
1475874318096 1471105979394 What are two specific examples of the synthetic
reactions?<div>Enzymes?</div> Two specific reactions are the glucuronyl transf
erases and the sulfotransferases which would attach a glucuronic acid or a sulfa
te to a hydroxyl group<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-35278861369819.jpg"
/></div>
1475874964145 1471105979394 Suddenly you have napthalene arene oxide all ove
r, whats going to happen? What can this molecule effect? What is it?
Napthale
ne arene oxide is a super reactive epoxide that will ind to the amino group of
guanine if left alone. In comes glutathione reductase to save the day ut covale
ntly inding to the epoxide with its sulfhidryl group<div><img src="paste-355279
69473025.jpg" /></div>
1475875140038 1471105979394 Explain how you can overdose on acetaminophen
Acetominophen can e metaolized y synthetic reactions such as glucuronic acid
and sulfate conjugation, eventually with a high enough dose, you can run out of
these and CP 2E1, 1A2 and 3A4 will turn acetominophen into NAPQI.&nsp;<div>Thi
s is extremely reaction ut glutathione can take take care of the prolem until
you run out of glutathione</div><div>Then the NAPQI can cause cell death and liv
er failure</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-35880156791340.jpg" /></di
v>
1475876090589 1471105979384 The most common type of genetic polymorphism tha
t will effect drug metaolism is {{c1::single nucleotide polymorphisms}}
1475876232976 1471105979394 What is the genetic polymorphism thats of signif
icance when it comes to Warfarin? What are the types, how do they differ?
Warfarin is metaolized y P4502C9&nsp;<div>There are different types</div><div
>Wild Type P450C29*1 with Arg144</div><div>Mutant type P450C29*2 Cys 144</div><d
iv>The second one has a metaolism reduction of 50%</div><div>So if you give a n
ormal dose of warfarin, it will cause them to leed out.&nsp;</div><div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-36846524432928.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div>
1475876680998 1471105979384 Ethanol can induce P450 {{c1::2E1}} which in tur
n can end up producing more {{c1::NAPQI}}
1475877264744 1471105979394 What is the difference etween First Order and Z
ero Order Elimination Kinetics? First order is when the&nsp;<>rate</>&nsp;of
elimination is directly proportional to the concentraion of the drug&nsp;<div>
Second order is when the rate is independent of the concentration of the drug</d
1475877369076 1471105979384 First order drug elimination kinetics happen at
{{c1::low::high/low}} concentrations of drug<div>Zero order happen at {{c1::high
::high/low}} concentrations</div>
<img src="paste-38066295144966.jpg" />
1475877420562 1471105979384 In order to determine halflife of a drug the for
mula is&nsp;{{c1::<img src="paste-38298223378510.jpg" />&nsp;where Ke is the f
irst order rate constant}}
1475946628211 1471105979394 How do cytokine receptors differ from something
like RTK receptors?
They activate associated (ound) kinases instead of an i
ntrinsic enzyme&nsp;<div><img src="paste-541165879568.jpg" /></div>
1475946683287 1471105979384 cytokines play essential roles in lood cell {{c
1::differentiation}}
<img src="paste-695784702334.jpg" />
1475946728319 1471105979394 What is the order of how cytokine inding works?
1) ligan inding activates JAK kinase<div>2) Phospho STAT is activated (STAT-sig
nal transducers and activators of Transcription)</div><div>3) Activated phosphoSTAT enters nucleus and induces transcription</div><div><img src="paste-79027398
2876.jpg" /></div>
1475946833858 1471105979384 {{c1::False::True/False}}<div>G-protein coupled
receptors and proteins that stimulate intracellular protein cleavage have their
own enzymatic activity&nsp;</div>
<img src="paste-996432413069.jpg" />
1475947013492 1471105979384 Insulin activates {{c1::receptor tyrosine kinase
s::receptor type}} on responding cells&nsp;
g" />
1475947164093 1471105979394 What is the process of how RTK's are activated
They are activated first y some ligand which inds the receptors which causes i
t to dimerize<div>Then the receptors cross-phosphorylate each other's tyrosines

and that activates it&nsp;</div><div>Adaptor proteins ind the receptor intrace
llularly and relay the signal&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>The adaptor prote
in then activates a monomeric G protein (Ras) which activates kinases (MAPK)</di
v><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1636382540196.jpg" /></div><div><r /></
div>
1475947165883 1471105979394 What are some roles of RTKs
Carohydrate Uti
lization and protein synthesis<div><r /><div>Regulation of cell growth and surv
ival&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Angiogenesis&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-1765231559049.jpg" /></div></div>
1475947296228 1471105979394 What are three hormone receptors that we learned
aout with intrinsic hormone receptors? While you're at it, define intrinsic
RTKs<div>TGF Beta Receptors (serine kinases)</div><div>Receptor guanylyl cyclase
s</div><div><r /></div><div>Intrinsic means the enzyme is part of the receptor
protein</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2211908157837.jpg" /></div>
1475947386556 1471105979394 What is MOD? What can cause it?
MOD is
genetic diaetes<div>It is Mature Onset Diaetes in ound</div><div><r /></div>
<div>Prolems with transcription factors that control expression of metaolism g
enes</div><div>Prolems with Metaolic Enzymes</div><div>Prolems with signaling
&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2989297238407.jpg" /></div>
1475947777692 1471105979384 Glucagon, ACTH and Epinephrine are in common ec
ause they act on receptors y {{c1::signal amplification&nsp;}}<div><r /></div
>
<img src="paste-3491808412045.jpg" />
1475948233922 1471105979394 What is the asic concept of signaling y GTP-i
nding protein? The GDP is always in the protein and it gets swapped for a GTP f
or activation then dephosphorylated y hydrolysis. This is different from regula
r activation that we have seen ecause it isn't just phosphorylation<div><r /><
1475948357191 1471105979394 What is the pathway y which G proteins acts on
cAMP and PKA? 1)Something like glucagon or epinephrine will ind<div>2) The Al
pha suunit gains a GTP instead of a GDP</div><div>3) This activated Alpha suun
it will now ind to adenylate cyclase</div><div>4) This creates cAMP which activ
ates Protein Kinase A</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4290672329087.j
pg" /></div>
1475948694496 1471105979394 What are some roles of cAMP?
<img src="paste4556960301376.jpg" />
1475949212600 1471105979384 Loss of function of the alpha suunit of trimeri
c G-proteins can lead to:<div>{{c1::<div>Oesity</div><div>PTH resistance</div><
div>Hypocalcemia</div><div>Hyperphosphatamia</div><div>Short Stature</div><div>S
exual Immaturity</div>}}</div> <img src="paste-5072356376967.jpg" />
1475949248394 1471105979394 What are some heridaty diseases cause y mutatio
ns in GNAS1
<img src="paste-5244155068800.jpg" />
1475949297211 1471105979384 The following diseases are caused y mutations i
n {{c1::GNAS1 which encodes the alpha G protein suunit}}<div><img src="paste-52
69924872444.jpg" /></div>
1475949734904 1471105979384 Alright hereditary osteodrstrophy is a type of
{{c1::Pseudohypoparathyrdoism&nsp;}}
1475949742232 1471105979394 Explain the effects and presentation of Alright
Hereditary Osteodystrophy
It is a type of Psuedohypoparathyroidism<div>It
presents with Short stature, round face, and oesity</div><div>The prolem here
is that you have an issue with the alpha suunit of the G-protein receptor for P
TH</div><div>Its called psuedo ecause your PTH levels are normal ut you see no
effect</div><div>This can e seen y urinary cAMP ecause rememer that PTH cau
ses excretion of cAMP</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6017249182095.j
pg" /></div><div><img src="paste-6030134083935.jpg" /></div>
1475950079999 1471105979394 Acetycholine (or vasopresin or thromin) inds t
o a g protein linked receptor? What is the series of events that happens next?
1) Alpha suunit gets activated (you know how)<div>2) Activated alpha suunit ac
tivates Phospholipase C</div><div>3) This cleaves off and creates IP3 and DAG</d
iv><div>4a) IP3 activates opening of Ca channel on ER</div><div>4) DAG activate
s protein kinase C (ut so does Ca2+)</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste

-6640019440033.jpg" /></div>
1475951834488 1471105979384 An example of a non-reversile receptor pathway
is {{c1::Inflammatory Cytokines&nsp;}} <img src="paste-7155415515518.jpg" />
1475951844507 1471105979394 What is the pathway for how inflammatory cytokin
es work 1)Tumor Necrosis factor/ Interlukin I (IL-1) can ind to cell receptors<
div>2) These receptors then activate a kinase which phosphorylates I-kappa B alp
ha and also uiquinates sending it to the proteasome for the degradation</div><d
iv>3) the released NF-kappa Beta is now free to enter the nucleus as a transcrip
tion factor</div><div><img src="paste-7348689043861.jpg" /></div>
1475952349857 1471105979384 Tumor Necrosis Factor can initate:<div>{{c1::NK
kappa B&nsp;}}</div><div>and</div><div>{{c1::DISC (death inducing signaling com
plex) which release capsases and causes cell death}}&nsp;</div>
<img src
="paste-7868380086667.jpg" />
1475952363748 1471105979384 Notch, Wnt and Hedgehog receptors all cause {{c1
::protein cleavage}}&nsp;<div><r /></div><div>Notch is associated with {{c1::c
olon cancer}}</div><div>Hedgehog with {{c1::asal cell carcinoma}}</div><div>Not
ch with {{c1::T-cell acute lympholastic leukemia&nsp;}}</div> <img src="paste8014408974663.jpg" />
1475953428411 1471105979394 Whats the difference etween a malformation, def
ormation and disruption?
<>Malformation</> is a defect that results fro
m genetic factors (chromosome anormalities)<div><>Deformation </>is an anorm
al form, shape or position that results from mechanical forces</div><div><>Disr
uption</>&nsp;is a morphological defect that results from an interference with
an originally normal development (Teratogens, drugs, viruses)</div><div><r /><
1475953591250 1471105979384 A syndrome is a {{c1::specific diagnosis}} while
an association {{c2::is two or more anomalies that occur together more frequent
ly than y chance with unknown cause&nsp;}}
g" />
1475953636998 1471105979384 Cranial neural crest cells contriute to {{c1::n
erves, facial one and musculature, teeth dentine, cardiovascular valves and the
aortic arch}} <img src="paste-9049496093102.jpg" />
1475953880257 1471105979394 What is fetal alcohol syndrome? Its a syndrome c
aused y alcohol during pregnancy in which the neural crest cells are effected.<
div>This can cause craniofacial anormalities and congenital heart disease</div>
1475954573956 1471105979384 Explain the 4 priciples of Teratology<div>Dose/D
uration Response Relationship- {{c1::define dose exits elow which the teratogen
does not cause anomalies}}</div><div>Critical Periods of Development- {{c1::the
re is a period in time which the teratogen is going to cause prolems}}</div><di
v>Biological Plausiility- {{c1::does the teratogen disrupt a known ioligcal pr
ocess}}</div><div>Genotype influences susceptiility- {{c1::can you e extra sen
sitive to this teratogen}}</div>
<img src="paste-9887014715852.jpg" />
1475954698272 1471105979384 Waardenurg Syndrome in humans is a mutation in
the {{c1::Pax3 gene}} <img src="paste-10501195039199.jpg" />
1475955423124 1471105979394 Whats the difference etween having a homozygote
Pax3 mutation and a heterozygote Pax 3 mutation?
Heterozygotes get white
spotting of the ventral structures due to neural crest migration defects<div>Mut
ants get full on neural tue defects (spina ifida, congenital heart defects)</d
0918491.jpg" /></div>
1475955857391 1471105979384 <div>{{c1::True::True/False}}</div>Retinoids and
ethanol will increase the severity of the splotch phenotype
<img src="paste11476152615362.jpg" />
1475955902742 1471105979384 In order to try and prevent neural tue defects
in splotch emryos the mother could take {{c1::Folic Acid}}
<img src="paste11708080849399.jpg" />
1475957581508 1471105979394 What are HOX genes in general? They encode prot
eins that regulate transcription<div>Homeox genes</div><div>The homeoox encode
s the homeodomain</div><div><img src="paste-12219181957621.jpg" /></div>

1475957678819 1471105979384 {{c1::HOX genes}} are used to indicated anterior
-posterios positioning of protein expression
1475958098786 1471105979384 The role of {{c1::myostatin}} in the ody is a m
uscle growth inhiitor&nsp;
<img src="paste-395136991698.jpg" />
1475958135739 1471105979384 Holoprosencephaly is a developmental defect that
may e related to {{c1::enviormental factors including Vitamin A excess or gene
tic factors}}<div><r /></div><div>It is caused sometimes y a defect in the Son
ic Hedgehog Receptor</div>
<img src="paste-936302871000.jpg" />
1475962428671 1471105979384 {{c1::False::True/False}}<div>TGF Beta receptors
are enzymes with associated enzymatic activity&nsp;</div>
Recall that they
have INTRINSIC enzymatic activity&nsp;
1476124655193 1471105979384 Isotonic Saline= {{c1::.9%::percent}} NaCl= {{c1
::154mM::molar}} NaCl <img src="paste-13189844566103.jpg" />
1476125356761 1471105979394 How are cells stailized osmotically? Cells ar
e stailized osmotically y external Na<sup>+</sup><div><sup><r /></sup></div><
div><sup><img src="paste-13859859464639.jpg" /></sup></div>
1476125441760 1471105979394 What is the difference etween the asolute and
relative refractory periods? Which comes first? Asolute refractor is the period
in which no other action potential can e elicited no matter how large the stim
ulus. (comes first)<div><r /></div><div>Relative refractory period egins at th
e end of the asolute refractory period and continues until the memrane potenti
al returns to resting level. Action potential can e elicited at this point if a
higher than normal inward current is provided.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div
1476133615360 1471105979384 Give what each pump does (pumps in/out, where)<d
iv>NaK ATPase: {{c1::pumps 2K in 3 Na out for 1 ATP on memrane&nsp;}}</div><di
v>NCX: {{c1::Pumps 3 Sodium in for exchange of 1 Ca out (ECM)}}</div><div>PMCA:
{{c1::Pumps Ca Out to ECM}}</div><div>RyR: {{c1::Pumps Ca out of Sarcoplasmic Re
ticulum}}</div><div>SERCA: {{c1::Pumps Ca into Sarcoplasmic Reticulum&nsp;}}</d
iv><div><r /></div>
<img src="paste-16119012262431.jpg" />
1476133998735 1471105979384 Glucose can make it through the apical memrane
via&nsp;{{c1::Na<sup>+</sup>-glucose co transporter.}}<div>Its can make it thro
ugh the asolateral memrane via {{c1::GLUT 2 Transporter}}</div>
<img src
="paste-16591458665012.jpg" />
1476134134598 1471105979384 Adrenergic symptoms include: {{c1::anxiety, palp
itation, tremor, sweating&nsp;}}<div>Neuroglycopenia symptoms include: {{c1::he
adache, confusion, slurred speech, seizures, coma, death}}&nsp;</div> <img src
="paste-16862041604525.jpg" />
1476138870251 1471105979384 GLUT {{c1::4}} is found in muscle and fast, insu
lin induced<div>GLUT {{c1::2}} is liver, epithelial cells</div> <img src="paste17205638988171.jpg" />
1476139256483 1471105979394 Fill in the lank, what is each GLUT family part
of&nsp;<div><img src="paste-17536351469841.jpg" /></div>
<img src="paste17549236371674.jpg" />
1476139281343 1471105979394 What are the 3P's of Diaetes Mellitus? Polyphag
ia (hunger)<div>Polyuria (increased urine)</div><div>Polydypsia (increased thirs
t)</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18236431139176.jpg" /></div>
1476140674601 1471105979394 How do you reverse cAMP?
Phosphodiesteras
es&nsp;<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18992345383419.jpg" /></div>
1476143710132 1471105979394 How does methadone effect pharmacokinetic and ph
armacodynamic tolerance?
Methadone downregualtes the opiate receptors (dy
namic)<div>and induces it own metaolism (kinetic)</div><div><r /></div><div><
1476377276685 1471105979394 What are the effects of MAO and COMT? They re
ak down Norepinephrine and epinephrine in the sympathetic neuronal varicosity (M
AO) and in the effector cell (COMT and MAO)<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-28170690494871.jpg" /></div>
1476385420922 1471105979394 What is cycloplegia?
Its when the eye cannot
undergo accomodation using the cilliary muscle<div>Can happen ecause of a choli
nergic lockade</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3106

9793419666.jpg" /></div>
1476468067680 1471105979384 The role of {{c1::Choline Acetyl Transferase (CA
T)::enzyme}} is to create acetycholine y comining {{c1::choline and Acetyl Coa
}}<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::acetylcholinesterase::enzyme}} is what reaks down
acetylcholine to create acetate and choline</div><div><r /></div>
<img src
="paste-23648089932176.jpg" />
1476469064629 1471105979384 Cholinergic stimulation will cause what in the f
ollowing tissues:<div>Iris-miosis</div><div>Ciliary Muscle- {{c1::Accomodation}}
</div><div>Exocrine Glands- {{c1::increased secretion}}</div><div>Bronchi- {{c1:
:Constriction}}</div><div>GI tract- {{c1::contraction and peristalsis}}</div><di
v>Bladder- {{c1::constriction}}&nsp;</div><div>Hear- {{c1::decreased rate and f
orce}}</div><div>Blood vessels- {{c1::vasodilation}}</div>
<img src="paste24605867639199.jpg" /><div>Think of this an increase in parasympathetic tone</di
v>
1477352395050 1471141547999 What happens to Mesoderm derived Hemangiolasts
at week 3 (eginning of emryotic period)?
differentiate into endothelial c
ells and hematopoietic stem cells
1477352438028 1471141547999 How and where are the hematopoietic stem cells i
nitally organized? &nsp;Do they move? When?
<div>the hematopoietic stem cell
s initially organize as lood islands in the extraemryonic mesoderm. the cells
migrate to the liver that remains the major hematopoietic organ until the 7th mo
nth when the stem cells colonize the one marrow. &nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
1477352503158 1471141547999 What is the fate of Hematopoietic stem cells in
the one marrow?&nsp; hematopoietic stem cells in the one marrow self-renew,
replicate, and differentiate into progenitor cells.
1477352553851 1471141547999 What happens when you inject progenitor cells in
to the spleen? <div>the progenitor cells proliferate into colony-forming units
(CFUs) when injected experimentally into the spleen; thus, progenitor cells and
CFUs are interchangeale terms. &nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
1477352576495 1471141547999 What do CFU's (progenitor cells) differentiate i
nto. &nsp;What are the terms for each of these?
erythrocytic, granulocyt
ic, monocytic, lymphocytic, and thromocytic precursor cells:<div><r /></div><d
iv><div><>erythropoiesis</> defines the differentiation of CFU-E into red loo
d cells (RBCs).</div><div><>granulopoiesis </>and <>monocytopoiesis </>defin
e the differentiation of CFU-GM into neutrophils, eosinophils, asophils, and mo
nocytes.&nsp;</div><div><>lymphocytopoiesis</> and<> thromocytopoiesis </>
define the differentiation of CFU-L and megakaryocytes into lymphocytes and plat
elets. &nsp; &nsp;&nsp;</div></div>
1477352656096 1471141547999 How are lood cells screened microscopically? &n
<div>Spreading a drop of either one marrow aspirate or lood across a g
sp;
lass slide to create a thin smear that is treated with eosin dye (stains hemoglo
in orange-red to pink), asic dyes (stain nuclei dark lue) and neutral dyes .
&nsp; &nsp; &nsp; &nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
1477352705064 1471141547999 1. What is the progenitor cell of Proerythrolas
ts?<div>2. How can you determine whether a cell in the Erythrocyte lineage is mo
re or less mature?</div><div>3. When does extrusion of nuclei occur? How do Reti
culocytes and Erythrocytes differ?</div>
Proerythrolasts are direct desc
endants of CFU-E and changes in cytoplasmic color characterize the lineage of er
ythrolasts (Darker=less mature). Extrusion of the nuclei occurs in the later st
ages ut the anucleate reticulocytes lack the central pallor that characterizes
the erythrocytes.&nsp;
1477352816241 1471141547999 What do myelolasts differentiate into? &nsp;Wh
at was their precursor? Myelolasts, the first precursor cells derived from CFUGM, differentiate into promyelocytes
1477352872350 1471141547999 What completes granulopoiesis? How long does it
take? Loulation of the horseshoe-shaped nuclei of the late stage and cells c
ompletes granulopoiesis, which normally encompasses 14-18 days.
1477352948444 1471141547999 NOTE: THIS CARD IS JUST TO REMIND OU TO LOOK AT
THE HISTOLOG SMEARS TO RECOGNIZE CELLS AND STUFF.
NOTHING HERE :)
1477352989347 1471141547999 Why does the cytoplasm progressively change from

<div>Because there is mo
lue to reddish pink during erythropoiesis?&nsp;
re hemogloin in the cell and less riosomes, meaning less RNA to stain. (Check
this answer)</div><div><r /></div>
1477353458912 1471141547999 Why is hypoxia the principal stimulus for erythr
opoietin secretion, and what is the normal duration of erythropoiesis?&nsp;
<div>Hypoxia stimulates Erythropoietin secretion from the perituular cells, whi
ch is the primary regulatory glycoprotein hormone in erythropoiesis. It takes 78 days.</div><div><r /></div>
1477353510027 1471141547999 How are Leukocytes named? &nsp;What are each of
them named after?
leukocytes are named y staining affinities of their cyt
oplasmic granules; thus, eosin stains the large granules of eosinophils orange-r
ed to pink, asic dyes stain the large granules of asophils deep lue, and neut
ral dyes stain the fine granules of neutrophils faint pink. the comination of d
yes stains cytoplasmic lysosomes of the monocytes and lymphocytes grayish lue.
&nsp;
1477353612593 1471141547999 Where is the iloed thymus?
deep to the ster
num
1477353664079 1471141547999 When and where does immunocompetent T cell produ
ction. &nsp;How does this change over time.
Significant production of immuno
competent T cells occurs in the thymus efore puerty, production of immunocompe
tent T cells decreases during adulthood (i.e., progenies of T cells are estalis
hed y the mid-twenties and the adult thymus is occupied mainly y adipose tissu
e). &nsp;
1477353706055 1471141547999 Descrie the histological structure of the Thymu
s.
the connective tissue capsule surrounding the loes of the thymus. Exten
sions from the capsules sudivide the loes into loules that are characterized
y an outer, dark-stained cortex and a central, pale-stained medulla. &nsp;&ns
p;
1477353743291 1471141547999 How are mature B cells generated? How are T cell
s matured?
Lymphocytopoiesis in the one marrow generates mature B cells u
t T cells must circulate from the one marrow to the thymus to undergo maturatio
n. Epithelial reticular cells (ERC) are essential for T cell maturation (i.e., t
o ecome immunocompetent).
1477353809275 1471141547999 How do T-cells get into the Thymus, how do they
move across it, and what happens once they are in the cortex. How does this affe
ct staining?
<div>Immature T cells traverse the capillary endothelia in the m
edulla and migrate into the cortex to mature and proliferate; thus, nuclei of th
e vast T cell population accounts for the dark staining of the cortex.&nsp;</di
v><div><r /></div>
1477353858657 1471141547999 What covers the capillaries in the cortex of the
thymus. &nsp;What constitutes the lood thymus arrier? &nsp;What does this d
o?
Epithelia reticular cells.&nsp;ERC, tight junctions of the cortical cap
illary endothelia, thick asement memranes, and macrophages constitute the loo
d-thymus arrier that locks developing T cells from premature exposure to antig
ens.&nsp;<div><r /></div>
1477353910448 1471141547999 What happens if antigens cross the lood-thymus
<div>circumvention of the arrier y nonself and/or self-antigen
arrier?
s drives reactive T cells into apoptosis and therey prevents immune reactions i
n the thymus. &nsp; &nsp; &nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
1477353945608 1471141547999 Where is the Blood thymus arrier located in the
Medulla, what is the consequence of this? How does this effect staining?
Tricked you! The medulla lacks a lood-thymus arrier; thus, mature T cells retu
rn to the medulla to reenter the loodstream.&nsp;<div><r /></div><div>The tra
nsitory presence of oth immature and immunocompetent T cells accounts for the w
eak staining intensity of the medulla.</div>
1477354075915 1471141547999 What forms the thymic corpuscles?
<div>Cir
cumferentially arranged ERC, many of which are degenerating, form the corpuscles
.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
1477354104976 1471141547999 What are Regulatory T cells and how are they mad
e.
Viale ERC in the thymic corpuscles produce cytokines that induce the de
velopment of regulatory T cells, a suclass that contriutes to the termination
of immune responses outside of the thymus.&nsp;
1477354138643 1471141547999 What is the function of Porous lymphatic capilla
ries, and where are they?<div><r /></div><div>Where are Lymphatic Capillaries a
undant?</div> Porous lymphatic capillaries, which occur almost everywhere loo
d capillaries are found, readily asor excess capillary filtrates (lymph) to pr
event edema formation<div><r /></div><div><div>Lymphatic capillaries are partic
ularly aundant in organ systems that are open to the external environment (e.g.
the skin, respiratory system, urogenital system, and digestive system).&nsp;</
div></div><div><r /></div>
1477354193451 1471141547999 Where do Lymphatic capillaries empty? Lymphati
c capillaries empty into lymphatic vessels for the delivery of lymph to local ly
mph nodes.
1477354218197 1471141547999 Where do lymphatic vessels reside? How does the
ody insure unidirectional lymph flow? Among the elements of the microcirculati
on. &nsp;Bicuspid valves insure unidirectional lymph flow toward the lymph node
s. &nsp;<div><r /></div>
1477354268124 1471141547999 What are lymphangitis and lymphadenitis and why
are these conditions potentially dangerous?
<div><span class="Apple-ta-span
" style="white-space:pre"> </span>4. Seconday inflammations of lymphatic vessels
and lymph nodes that may occur when the lymphoid system is involved in chemical
or acterial transport after severe injury or infection. &nsp;The uncontained
infection may lead to septicemia</div><div><r /></div>
1477354305402 1471141547999 <div>What is lymphedema?&nsp;</div><div><r /><
/div> <div>&nsp;Lymphedema is a localized edema occuring when lymph does not
drain from an area of the ody, for example with removal or lockage of a node.<
/div><div><r /></div>
1477354322871 1471141547999 What forms lymphoid nodules? Where do they form?
&nsp;What lymphoid cells are disperes omong the nodules?
Aggregates of B
cell progeny from antigen-activated B cells form lymphoid nodules in the mucosaassociated lymphoid tissue (MALT). Surmise the lymphocytes dispersed among the l
ymphoid nodules are mainly T cells. &nsp; &nsp;
1477354387953 1471141547999 What occupies the lymph nodes? &nsp;How many ly
mph nodes are there? &nsp;What are the 3 layers of the lymphoid tissue? What ac
counts for the darker staining of the lymphoid cortex? Billions of immunocompet
ent lymphocytes occupy the 500-600 lymph nodes that reside throughout the ody.&
nsp;the surrounding connective tissue capsule, the central pale-stained medulla
, and the outer dark-stained cortex,&nsp;lymphoid nodules account for the darke
r staining of the cortex. &nsp;&nsp;<div><r /></div>
1477354483821 1471141547999 What resides on the oundary etween the lymph n
ode cortex and medulla? What lines this area? What is the function of the HEV?
High endothelial venules (HEV) residing along the oundary are lined y simple c
uoidal endothelium. &nsp;The HEV selectively ind circulating immunocompetent
B cells and T cells, which enter the lymph nodes y traversing the cuoidal endo
thelium. &nsp; &nsp; &nsp;&nsp;
1477354574124 1471141547999 Where do afferent lymphatic vessels deliver lymp
h? &nsp;Where does the lymph go after? Directly into the sucapsular sinus. Lym
ph flows from the sucapsular sinus into the cortical sinuses.
1477354691884 1471141547999 What lines the lymph sinuses? What filters antig
ens from the percolating lymph? A discontinuous endothelium lines the sinuses,&n
sp;antigens are filtered from the percolating lymph y lymphocytes and macropha
ges that reside adjacent to the porous sinuses. &nsp; &nsp;&nsp;
1477354739981 1471141547999 Where are B-cells activated? &nsp;Where do they
replicate? What do the plasma cells derived from Progeny B cells form? &nsp;
B cells, which are selectively activated y antigens in the incoming lymph, repl
icate in the cortex and therey form the lymphoid nodules. Plasma cells derived
from the progeny B cells form germinal centers within the nodules. &nsp; &nsp;
&nsp;
1477354788485 1471141547999 Where does lymph from the cortical sinus drain?
<div>&nsp;Lymph drains from the cortical sinuses into the medullary sinuses tha
t interweave among the medullary cords (i.e., linear aggregates of antigen-activ
ated lymphocytes and plasma cells that migrate from the cortex into the medulla)
. &nsp; &nsp;&nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
1477354817649 1471141547999 How do cells of the medullary cords enter the pe
rcolating lymph?
By traversing the porous medullary sinuses that coalesce
nce into a single efferent lymphatic vessel that returns filtered lymph, fortifi
ed with activated lymphocytes and plasma cells, to the lymphatic circulation
1477354860345 1471141547999 <div>How are lymphocytes and plasma cells, activ
ated in local lymph nodes y the incoming lymph from MALT, ale to exit the loca
l nodes and relocate to the MALT? &nsp; &nsp; &nsp; &nsp; &nsp; &nsp; &ns
p; &nsp; &nsp; &nsp; &nsp; &nsp;&nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
Lymphocy
tes can leave the node y entering efferent lymphatics to travel in lymph, where
they eventually reenter the systemic circulation. Movement across HEV's into ly
mph nodes is determined y specific adhesions molecules on lymphocyte surfaces t
hat ind complementary cytokines on endothelial cells.
1477355181549 1471141547999 What does the connective tissue capsue and its i
nward projections encompass?
<div>the splenic pulp, a fine meshwork of type I
II collagen (reticular) fiers.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
1477355207188 1471141547999 What fills the splenic pulp to designat the red
oulp and what designates the white pulp?
Extravasated erythrocytes fill m
ost of the splenic pulp to designate the red pulp and lymphoid nodules dispersed
in the red pulp designate the white pulp.
1477355273709 1471141547999 What delivers lood to capillaries in the red pu
lp? What is special aout these capillaries?
Small terminal ranches of the s
plenic artery deliver lood to capillaries residing in the red pulp. The capilla
ries are open-ended; thus, lood flows from the capillaries directly into the me
shwork of the red pulp.
1477355322150 1471141547999 Descrie the structure of the red pulp. Venous s
inusoids interweave throughout the red pulp and extravasated lood cells squeeze
through slit-like spaces etween the endothelial cells that line the sinusoids.
1477355381966 1471141547999 What happens to the red lod cells as they age?
&nsp;How does this effect their aility to squeeze into sinusoids? What is the
result of this? Aged RBCs lose their pliaility and cannot squeeze into the sinu
soids; thus, they are removed phagocytically y resident macrophages. &nsp;
1477355423848 1471141547999 What happens to lood orne antigens that enter
the red pulp?<div><r /></div><div>What forms the lymphoid nodules of the white
pulp?</div>
Blood-orne antigens that enter the meshwork of the red pulp are
either selectively ound y extravasated lymphocytes or phagocytized y the res
ident macrophages.<div><r /></div><div><div>Proliferation of antigen-activated
B cells forms the lymphoid nodules of the white pulp. &nsp; &nsp;&nsp;</div><
1477355466969 1471141547999 Where do the venous sinusoids empty?
Venous s
inusoids empty into small triutaries of the splenic vein that return the immuno
logically filtered lood to the circulation.&nsp;
1477355483604 1471141547999 <div>How do the clinical consequences of splenec
tomy in children differ from those in adults?&nsp;</div>
<div>In adults t
here is usually no clinical consequence, ut in children it can lead to increase
d occurance and severity of infections.</div><div><r /></div>
1476988610461 1421618046184 {{c1::Mesoderm-derived::Derived from}} hemangio
lasts differentiate into {{c1::endothelial cells}} and {{c1::hematopoietic stem
cells}} at the onset of the {{c1::emryonic period (week 3)}} <img src="paste10909216931841.jpg" />
1476988883372 1421618046184 Hematopoietic Stem Cells initially organize as {
{c1::lood islands}} in the {{c1::extraemryonic mesoderm}}.&nsp;<div><r /></d
iv><div>The cells migrate to the {{c1::liver}}, which remains the major hematopo
ietic organ until the {{c1::7th month}}, which is when {{c1::the stem cells colo
nize the one marrow}}.</div> <img src="paste-15758235009025.jpg" />
1476989069527 1421618046184 {{c1::Hemangiolast}}-derived pluripotential hem
atopoietic stem cells in the one marrow self-renew, replicate, and differentiat
e into {{c1::progenitor cells}}.&nsp;<div><r /></div><div>The {{c1::progenitor

cells}} proliferate into {{c1::colony-forming units (CFUs)}} when injected expe
rimentally into the {{c1::spleen}}.&nsp;</div> Note: Progenitor cells and CFUs
are interchangeale terms.<div><img src="paste-16179141804033.jpg" /></div>
1476989484953 1421618046184 CFUs diferentiate into {{c1::erythrocytic, granu
locytic, monocytic, lymphocytic, and thromocytic precursor}} cells.&nsp;
1476989655477 1421618046184 <div>Erythropoiesis = differentiation of {{c1::C
FU-E into RBCs}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Granulopoiesis and monocytopoiesis =
differentiation of {{c1::CFU-GM into neutrophils, eosinophils, asophils, and m
onocytes.&nsp;}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Lymphocytopoiesis and thromocytopo
iesis = differentiation of {{c1::CFU-L and megakaryocytes into lymphocytes and p
latelets.&nsp;}}</div>
1476989691466 1421618046184 Blood cells are screened microscopically y {{c1
::spreading a drop of either one marrow aspirate or lood across a glass slide
to create a thin smear}} that is treated with {{c1::eosin dye::Dye 1}}, {{c1::a
sic dyes::Dye 2}}, and {{c1::neutral dyes}}.<div><r /></div><div>{{c2::Eosin Dy
e::Dye 1}} stains hemogloin orange-red to pink</div><div>{{c3::Basic Dyes: Dye
2}} stain nuclei dark lue</div>
1476989865105 1421618046184 Proerythrolasts are direct descendents of {{c1:
:CFU-E}} and changes in {{c1::cytoplasmic color}} characterize the lineage of er
ythrolasts.&nsp;<div><r /></div><div>Extrusion of nuclei occurs in the {{c1::
later stages}}, ut {{c1::anucleate reticulocytes}} lack the {{c1::central pallo
r}} that characterizes the erythrocytes.</div> <img src="paste-17145509445633.j
pg" /><img src="paste-17072495001601.jpg" />
1476990211085 1421618046184 {{c1::Myelolasts}}, the first precursor cells d
erived from CFU-GM, differentiate into {{c1::promyelocytes}}.&nsp;<div><r /></
div><div>Loulation of the horseshoe-shaped nuclei of the {{c1::late stage and
cells}} compels {{c1::granulopoiesis}}, which normally encompasses {{c1::14-18}}
days.&nsp;</div>
<img src="paste-17665200488449.jpg" />
1476990809779 1421618046184 Promyelocytes have {{c1::large,round}} nuclei an
d&nsp;{{c1::reddish lue cytoplasmic granules (lysosomes)<div></div>}}<div>Myel
ocytes have {{c1::eccentrically positioned nuclei flattened on one side.::nuclei
}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Metamyelocytes have {{c1::indentations in the flat
tened sides of}} nuclei</div><div><r /></div><div>Band cells have {{c1::horsesh
oe shaped}} nuclei</div>
<img src="paste-17974438133761.jpg" />
It is due to a loss of riosomes
lue to reddish pink during erythopoiesis?
1264961836947 1204533978
One of the "side-effects" of opiates is constipa
tion, something that has een used eneficially as a drug.&nsp;&nsp;What drug
is this, and how does it work?&nsp;&nsp;Similarly, how can a different drug, u
sing the same chemical properties, e used to reduce the constipation associated
with morphine?<r /> <>IMMODIUM</>, a <>hydrophilic opiate </>&nsp;can't
e asored stay WITHIN gut given to relieve diarrhea (recall that opiates cause
horrile constipation).&nsp;&nsp;<div>A HDROPHILIC form of naloxone (opiate
receptor antagonist), is given to lock the constipation.<r /><div><r /></div>
<div>Unlike morphine/other opiates, which are relatively hydrophoic, Immodium (
diphenoxylate) is a HDROPHILIC opiate&nsp; can't cross the gut epithelium to e
asored</div></div> y
1288315736795 178046759
Aove what level of TAGs would you almost defini
tely treat?&nsp;&nsp;Why?&nsp;&nsp;What are you trying to avoid?
Start tr
eating aove 500, ecause can get drastic changes, to aove 1000, due to saturat
ion of aility to deal with those => pancreatitis<r /><r />Thought that pan
creatic lipase cleaves triglycerides (TAGs) free fatty acids (FFAs) &nsp;immunog
enic/inflammation pancreatitis
y
1303662635778 1204533978
Last to disappear from respiratory epithelium as
move down airway?&nsp;&nsp;Why is this logical?
Cilia, which persist to
end of <>respiratory ronchioles</> - allow for clearing of the mucus that cou
ld plug the airways, along with cartilage, glands, and golet cells at the <>sm
allest ronchi</>.<div><r /></div><div>In other words, you would expect there
to e cilia-containing cells DISTAL to cells that produce mucus. &nsp;If there

were mucus-producing cells without cilia, there would e no mechanism to clear t
he mucus.</div> y
1303662760072 1204533978
Ethamutol - mechanism Inhiits polymerization
of arainoglycan, component of mycoacterial cell wall<r /><r />Drug?
y
1303738105556 1204533978
Correlation coefficient - what does it descrie?
<r /><r />Ranges from -1 to 1 Descries two important characteristics of an as
sociation: the <>strength</> and <>polarity</><r /><r />Term?&nsp;&nsp;R
ange? y
y
1303739811238 1204533978
Crohn's disease vs. Ulcerative colitis - MC pres
entations (2 each)<r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><
r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r
/><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r /><r />*Repre
sents transmural inflammation <span style="font-weight:600; text-decoration: u
nderline;">Adominal pain</span>*<r />Diarrhea<r />Low-grade fever<r />Sympto
ms of malasorption<r /><r />vs.<r /><r /><span style="font-weight:600; text
-decoration: underline;">Bloody diarrhea</span><r />Adominal discomfort<r /><
y
r />Diseases? y
1304358708415 1204533978
<>Baclofen</>[sound:rec1304370920.mp3] - mecha
nism
<>Antispasticity, GABA receptor agonist on spinal cord inhiitory path
ways</>, <>decreases neuronal cAMP and Ca influx, increases K efflux</>, redu
ces motor neuron excitiaility and inhiits spinal reflexes <r /><r />Drug?
y
y
1304358744724 1204533978
<>Baclofen</>[sound:rec1304370920.mp3] - use (
3)
Spasticity associated with:<r /><>MS</><r /><>Spinal cord injury</
><r /><>ALS</><r /><r />Drug?
y
y
1304730793448 1204533978
Most Gram - enteric rods, including Pseudomonas
aeruginosa and Bacteroides fragilis<r /><r />Treatment?
Zosyn (Piperacil
lin-tazoactam)<r /><r />Use? y
y
1405023671641 1360214116626 Progestin challenge - explain mechanism y descr
iing when you use it Test of <>anovulation </>(i.e. in case of anovulation,
giving progestin should&nsp; leeding)<div><r /></div><div>In anovulation: con
tinuous estrogen&nsp; endometrial hyperplasia;</div><div>progesterone given MIMI
CS post-ovulation hormones&nsp; endometrial maturation;</div><div>withdrawal&ns
p; leeding</div><div><r /></div><div><><u>Normal</u></>:</div><div>Pre-ovulat
ion: Follicular granulosa cells make estrogen</div><div>Ovulation: release of eg
g, and luteinization of follicular remains&nsp; corpus luteum</div><div>Post-ovu
lation: corpus luteum releases progesterone + estrogen</div><div>Progesterone no
rmally causes maturation of endometrium</div><div>Lack of hCG&nsp; corpus luteum
regression&nsp; progesterone&nsp;&nsp; endometrial sloughing</div><div><r /></
div><div><><u>Prolem</u></>: no ovulation&nsp; no luteinization&nsp; no corpu
s luteum&nsp; no progesterone&nsp; continued endometrial growth w/o maturation</
div><div><r /></div><div><><u>Test</u></>: progesterone exogenously&nsp; endo
metrial maturation; when progesterone levels drop&nsp; endometrial sloughing</di
v>
1415482856442 1415447872707 True vocal cords vs. false vocal cords - which h
as stratified squamous epithelium? &nsp;Why would this make sense?
<div>Tru
e vocal cords = stratified squamous epithelium</div><div><r /></div>Stratified
squamous epithelium is for PROTECTION, in areas where there is a lot of potentia
l trauma (think aout where it's found: skin, ack of your throat...vagina...anu
s). &nsp;Stratified squamous epithlium will e found everywhere in the respirat
ory tract where there is the potential for trauma (oropharynx/laryngoparynx, muc
h of epiglottis ecause this is the path food will take; true vocal cords ecaus
e they eat against each other to generate sound)<r />
1415498880747 1415447872702 Burkitt's lymphoma vs. follicular lymphoma - use
underlying genetic lesion to explain how quickly they would grow. &nsp;What wo
uld their response to chemotherapy e? &nsp;Why?
t(8,14)&nsp; c-myc overe
xpression. &nsp;C-myc, recall, is an oncogene (a gene that when overexpressed w
ill cause uncontrolled cell GROWTH). &nsp;Thus, when it is overexpressed&nsp; F
AST growing tumor.<div>Because it is fast-growing, it will e HIGHL susceptile

to chemotherapy (which targets rapidly dividing cells)</div><div><r /></div><d
iv>vs.</div><div><r /></div><div>t(14,18)&nsp; cl overexpression. &nsp;Bcl is
an anti-apoptotic gene. &nsp;Thus, when overexpressed, it will PREVENT death o
f cells. &nsp;Unlike C-myc, it will NOT cause rapid cell growth&nsp; SLOW growi
ng tumor.</div><div>However, ecause Bcl prevents cell death, and ecause the tu
mor is slow growing&nsp; relatively RESISTANT to chemotherapy.</div><div><r /><
/div><div>What conditions?</div>
y
1415549807451 1415447872702 O2 sat vs. hemogloin concentration what are the
y? &nsp;How would they e affected in anemia? <div>Percentage of hemogloin O2
-inding sites that are ound to O2</div><div><r /></div><div>Vs.</div><div><r
/></div><div>Concentration (amount) of hemogloin</div><div><r /></div><div>Wh
at are they? &nsp;How would they e affected in anemia?</div><div><r /></div><
div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></
div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r
/></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><di
v><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></di
v><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /
></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div>
<r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
<div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /><
/div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><
r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div>O2 sat UNCHANG
ED in anemia</div><div>Hemogloin LOW in anemia</div> y
1415549825736 1415447872702 Anemia what would e the PaO2, PAO2, O2 saturati
on, hemogloin concentration, and O2 content? &nsp;Why?
<div>Anemia = lo
w hemogloin/hematocrit</div><div><r /></div><div>PaO2, PAO2, O2 saturation are
all unaffected</div><div>O2 content low (recall that most of the O2 in the loo
d is ound to hemogloin)</div>
1415549835367 1415447872702 High altitude what would e the PaO2, PAO2, O2 s
aturation, hemogloin concentration, and O2 content? &nsp;Why? <div>High altitu
de lower atmospheric pressure</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div>PAO2 P
aO2 O2 saturation &nsp; O2 content </div><div>Hemogloin concentration unchanged (
if chronic high altitude, would expect hemogloin&nsp; as compensation)</div>
1415549884701 1415447872702 Acetazolamide why give it in cases of high altit
ude? &nsp;Explain the mechanism.
<div>Altitude: atmospheric pressure PAO2
O2 content </div><div><r /></div><div>Acetazolamide: lock HCO3- reasorption l
ose HCO3- metaolic acidosis respiratory alkalosis (hyperventilation PCO2 ) PAO2
PaO2 saturation O2 content </div><div><r /></div><div>To learn more, visit:&nsp;
http://www.yousmle.com/alveolar-gas-equation-for-the-usmle-step-1-diuretics-youproaly-wont-guess-the-connection/</div><div><r /></div>
1415711977308 1415447872702 Lesch-Nyhan use enzyme deficiency to explain wha
t the uric acid levels would e. &nsp;What is the mechanism? <div>HGPRT defic
iency</div><div><r /></div><div>Cannot salvage the purine ases hypoxanthine an
d guanine uild-up of hypoxanthine/guanine reakdown of hypoxanthine/guanine uri
c acid </div><div><r /></div><div>Recall: purines are roken down into uric acid
(thus when purines uild up in the case of Lesch-Nyhan uric acid uild up)</div
><div><r /></div>
1418768876928 1415447872702 Steroid hormone use the structure to explain whe
re it acts, and where its receptor is Steroid hormones are ALL ased on choles
terol (i.e. a <>nonpolar</> lipid)<div><r /></div><div>Recall that the cell m
emrane is composed of a<> lipid</> (i.e. nonpolar) ilayer; nonpolar molecule
s will cross, and polar molecules will not cross<r /><div><r /></div><div>Ster
oid hormones, ecause they are nonpolar, will <>CROSS the cell memrane&nsp; en
ter the nucleus&nsp; affect transcription directly</>. &nsp;This is as opposed
to most other hormones (e.g. NE/Epi, insulin/glucagon, GH, etc.) which are POLA
R, and thus will NOT cross the cell memrane&nsp; ind to cell surface receptors
.</div></div>
1418854669354 1415447872702 Thyroid hormone -&nsp;use the structure to expl
ain where it acts, and where its receptor is
Recall that <>thyroid hormone i
s ased off of tyrosine</>, which is a <>nonpolar amino acid</> (it's one wit
h the enzene ring), meaning just like with steroid hormones (ased off choleste
rol) <>it CAN cross the cell memrane</><div><r /></div><div>It's <><u>recep
tor, thus, is intracellular</u></>, and it will <>directly affect transcriptio
n just like steroid hormones</>.</div><div><r /></div><div>They LOVE questions
like this for Step 1, ecause it connects structure with function</div>
1419250153103 1415447872702 For an X-linked recessive condition, the prevale
nce in the male population is 1/100,000. &nsp;What is the prevalence of heteroz
ygous females? <div>Prevalence in males for X-linked recessive condition = freq
uency of the X-mutation. &nsp;Basically, they are asking what the product "2pq"
&nsp;is.</div><div><r /></div><div>Recall: <>p + q = 1</>; <>p^2 + 2pq + q^
2 = 1</></div><div><r /></div><div>q = 1/100,000 p = 99,999/100,000</div><div>
<r /></div><div><r /></div><div>2pq = 2 * 1/100,000 * (99,999/100,000) = 1/50,
000 * 1 = <>1/50,000 = prevalence of heterozygous females</></div><div><r /><
/div>
1419385570389 1415447872702 Nucleotide vs. nucleoside - what is the differen
ce?
Base + sugar + phosphate<div><r /></div><div>vs.</div><div><r /></div>
<div>Base + sugar</div><div><r /></div><div>Terms?</div>
y
1419385774228 1415447872702 Nucleotide salvage - what is the general process
of salvage?
<>Recall that <u>nucleotides = ase + sugar + phosphate</u></>
<div><r /></div><div>Salvage is <>taking either a ase alone OR ase + sugar (
nucleoside) to create a nucleotide y adding the requisite sugar + phosphate</>
(in the case of starting from a ase), <>or phosphate</> (in the case of star
ting from a nucleoside)</div><div><r /></div><div>In other words, if I start fr
om a ase, I will need to add oth a sugar + phosphate nucleotide</div><div>If I
start from a nucleoside, I will need to add a phosphate</div>
1419386064375 1415447872702 Acyclovir - use its structure to explain what wo
uld e needed to "salvage" it. &nsp;How do we take advantage of this pharmacolo
gically?
Recall: <>acyclovir = guanosine (nucleoside; ase + sugar) anal
og</><div><r /></div><div>Would need a <>viral kinase to phosphorylate</> (a
dd phosphate) the nucleoside&nsp; nucleotide</div><div><r /></div><div><>Norma
l human cells do NOT have a kinase to phosphorylate guanosine</> (or guanosine
analogs), so ONL cells infected with herpes viruses that have the viral kinase
will e ale to activate the drug</div>
1419386304995 1415447872702 Acyclovir - why is it toxic to cells once it has
Recall that DNA synthesis progresses from 5' 3', meaning
een activated?
that <>you need a free 3' -OH group to attach new nucleotides to</>. &nsp;In
<>acyclovir, you LACK a 3' hydroxyl (-OH) group, meaning that you CANNOT add n
ew nucleotides to the growing chain if it incorporates into the chain</>.<div><
r /></div><div>This leads to <>premature chain termination</>.<r /><div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-131636452655411.jpg" /></div></div>
1419386443865 1415447872702 If you started with a guanine ase, what sustra
te would you have to add to "salvage" it? &nsp;What enzyme performs this?
Recall: <>nucleotide = ase + sugar + phosphate</><div><r /></div><div>If sta
rt from a guanine (ase only), would <>need to add sugar + phosphate</>, which
is done y adding PRPP (phosphoriosyl pyrophosphate). &nsp;This is done y <
>HGPRT (hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoriosyltransferase)</>.</div><div><r /></d
iv><div>NOTE: the NAME makes sense (just ike it does for most of iochemistry).
&nsp;ou are taking hypoxanthine or guanine (ase only) and adding a phosphori
ose (the phosphate + sugar) to form a nucleotide.</div>
1477261916416 1421618046187 What antimicroial peptide is present on your sk
in?&nsp;
Psoriasin<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2967822401537.jpg
" /></div>
1477265089885 1421618046187 What are the two ways the Innate Immune system r
ecognizes danger? Give details of each. <img src="paste-31284541784065.jpg" />
1477431581692 1421618046187 What's the primary antiody class used in resear
ch?
IgG
1477432285634 1421618046187 What is HMGB1? <img src="paste-73358041415681.j
pg" />
1477433024177 1421618046187 How does secretory IgA form?
<div>The dimeriz
ed IgA2 can ind to the Poly-Ig receptor which will cause endocytosis.&nsp;</di
v><div>In the vessicle the receptor is cleaved, leaving a small secretory piece
ound to the J chain efore it is released into the lumen. &nsp;</div><div>This
will protect the antiody against proteases.</div>
1477434249542 1421618046187 Descrie hapten carriers
Small molecules
are often not immunogenic unless attached to a large molecule (called a hapten c
arrier)
1477434472361 1421618046187 <div>What effects the immunogenicity of vaccines
?&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div><div><r /></div></div>
Adding an adjuve
nt to a vaccine will make it more immunogenic, it also depends on the mode of ad
ministation and how much is given.<div><r /></div>
1477434483942 1421618046187 <div>What are the most immunogenic molecules?</d
iv><div><r /></div><div><div><r /></div></div>
<r /><div>Proteins are
the most immunogenic, followed y carohydrates. &nsp;Nucleic acids, metal mole
cules, and small organic compounds can e immunogenic as haptens, lipids are not
immunogenic.</div>
1477434820728 1421618046187 What are 3 major examples of cross reactivity?
<div>Myocarditis: Chlamydia outer shell will resemle cardiac myosin heavy chain
.</div><div><r /></div><div>MS: HEP B will resemle myelin asic protein</div><
div><r /></div><div>Myasthenia gravis: Herpes proteins will resemle nAcH recep
tor</div>
1477352395050 1471141547999 What happens to Mesoderm derived Hemangiolasts
at week 3 (eginning of emryotic period)?
differentiate into endothelial c
ells and hematopoietic stem cells
1477352438028 1471141547999 How and where are the hematopoietic stem cells i
nitally organized? &nsp;Do they move? When?
<div>the hematopoietic stem cell
s initially organize as lood islands in the extraemryonic mesoderm. the cells
migrate to the liver that remains the major hematopoietic organ until the 7th mo
nth when the stem cells colonize the one marrow. &nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
1477352503158 1471141547999 What is the fate of Hematopoietic stem cells in
the one marrow?&nsp; hematopoietic stem cells in the one marrow self-renew,
replicate, and differentiate into progenitor cells.
1477352553851 1471141547999 What happens when you inject progenitor cells in
to the spleen? <div>the progenitor cells proliferate into colony-forming units
(CFUs) when injected experimentally into the spleen; thus, progenitor cells and
CFUs are interchangeale terms. &nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
1477352576495 1471141547999 What do CFU's (progenitor cells) differentiate i
nto. &nsp;What are the terms for each of these?
erythrocytic, granulocyt
ic, monocytic, lymphocytic, and thromocytic precursor cells:<div><r /></div><d
iv><div><>erythropoiesis</> defines the differentiation of CFU-E into red loo
d cells (RBCs).</div><div><>granulopoiesis </>and <>monocytopoiesis </>defin
e the differentiation of CFU-GM into neutrophils, eosinophils, asophils, and mo
nocytes.&nsp;</div><div><>lymphocytopoiesis</> and<> thromocytopoiesis </>
define the differentiation of CFU-L and megakaryocytes into lymphocytes and plat
elets. &nsp; &nsp;&nsp;</div></div>
1477352656096 1471141547999 How are lood cells screened microscopically? &n
<div>Spreading a drop of either one marrow aspirate or lood across a g
sp;
lass slide to create a thin smear that is treated with eosin dye (stains hemoglo
in orange-red to pink), asic dyes (stain nuclei dark lue) and neutral dyes .
&nsp; &nsp; &nsp; &nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
1477352705064 1471141547999 1. What is the progenitor cell of Proerythrolas
ts?<div>2. How can you determine whether a cell in the Erythrocyte lineage is mo
re or less mature?</div><div>3. When does extrusion of nuclei occur? How do Reti
culocytes and Erythrocytes differ?</div>
Proerythrolasts are direct desc
endants of CFU-E and changes in cytoplasmic color characterize the lineage of er
ythrolasts (Darker=less mature). Extrusion of the nuclei occurs in the later st
ages ut the anucleate reticulocytes lack the central pallor that characterizes
the erythrocytes.&nsp;
1477352816241 1471141547999 What do myelolasts differentiate into? &nsp;Wh
at was their precursor? Myelolasts, the first precursor cells derived from CFU-
GM, differentiate into promyelocytes

1477352872350 1471141547999 What completes granulopoiesis? How long does it
take? Loulation of the horseshoe-shaped nuclei of the late stage and cells c
ompletes granulopoiesis, which normally encompasses 14-18 days.
1477352948444 1471141547999 NOTE: THIS CARD IS JUST TO REMIND OU TO LOOK AT
THE HISTOLOG SMEARS TO RECOGNIZE CELLS AND STUFF.
NOTHING HERE :)
<div>Because there is mo
lue to reddish pink during erythropoiesis?&nsp;
re hemogloin in the cell and less riosomes, meaning less RNA to stain. (Check
this answer)</div><div><r /></div>
1477353458912 1471141547999 Why is hypoxia the principal stimulus for erythr
opoietin secretion, and what is the normal duration of erythropoiesis?&nsp;
<div>Hypoxia stimulates Erythropoietin secretion from the perituular cells, whi
ch is the primary regulatory glycoprotein hormone in erythropoiesis. It takes 78 days.</div><div><r /></div>
1477353510027 1471141547999 How are Leukocytes named? &nsp;What are each of
them named after?
leukocytes are named y staining affinities of their cyt
oplasmic granules; thus, eosin stains the large granules of eosinophils orange-r
ed to pink, asic dyes stain the large granules of asophils deep lue, and neut
ral dyes stain the fine granules of neutrophils faint pink. the comination of d
yes stains cytoplasmic lysosomes of the monocytes and lymphocytes grayish lue.
&nsp;
1477353612593 1471141547999 Where is the iloed thymus?
deep to the ster
num
1477353664079 1471141547999 When and where does immunocompetent T cell produ
ction. &nsp;How does this change over time.
Significant production of immuno
competent T cells occurs in the thymus efore puerty, production of immunocompe
tent T cells decreases during adulthood (i.e., progenies of T cells are estalis
hed y the mid-twenties and the adult thymus is occupied mainly y adipose tissu
e). &nsp;
1477353706055 1471141547999 Descrie the histological structure of the Thymu
s.
the connective tissue capsule surrounding the loes of the thymus. Exten
sions from the capsules sudivide the loes into loules that are characterized
y an outer, dark-stained cortex and a central, pale-stained medulla. &nsp;&ns
p;
1477353743291 1471141547999 How are mature B cells generated? How are T cell
s matured?
Lymphocytopoiesis in the one marrow generates mature B cells u
t T cells must circulate from the one marrow to the thymus to undergo maturatio
n. Epithelial reticular cells (ERC) are essential for T cell maturation (i.e., t
o ecome immunocompetent).
1477353809275 1471141547999 How do T-cells get into the Thymus, how do they
move across it, and what happens once they are in the cortex. How does this affe
ct staining?
<div>Immature T cells traverse the capillary endothelia in the m
edulla and migrate into the cortex to mature and proliferate; thus, nuclei of th
e vast T cell population accounts for the dark staining of the cortex.&nsp;</di
v><div><r /></div>
1477353858657 1471141547999 What covers the capillaries in the cortex of the
thymus. &nsp;What constitutes the lood thymus arrier? &nsp;What does this d
o?
Epithelia reticular cells.&nsp;ERC, tight junctions of the cortical cap
illary endothelia, thick asement memranes, and macrophages constitute the loo
d-thymus arrier that locks developing T cells from premature exposure to antig
ens.&nsp;<div><r /></div>
1477353910448 1471141547999 What happens if antigens cross the lood-thymus
<div>circumvention of the arrier y nonself and/or self-antigen
arrier?
s drives reactive T cells into apoptosis and therey prevents immune reactions i
n the thymus. &nsp; &nsp; &nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
1477353945608 1471141547999 Where is the Blood thymus arrier located in the
Medulla, what is the consequence of this? How does this effect staining?
Tricked you! The medulla lacks a lood-thymus arrier; thus, mature T cells retu
rn to the medulla to reenter the loodstream.&nsp;<div><r /></div><div>The tra
nsitory presence of oth immature and immunocompetent T cells accounts for the w
eak staining intensity of the medulla.</div>
1477354075915 1471141547999 What forms the thymic corpuscles?
<div>Cir
cumferentially arranged ERC, many of which are degenerating, form the corpuscles
.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
1477354104976 1471141547999 What are Regulatory T cells and how are they mad
e.
Viale ERC in the thymic corpuscles produce cytokines that induce the de
velopment of regulatory T cells, a suclass that contriutes to the termination
of immune responses outside of the thymus.&nsp;
1477354138643 1471141547999 What is the function of Porous lymphatic capilla
ries, and where are they?<div><r /></div><div>Where are Lymphatic Capillaries a
undant?</div> Porous lymphatic capillaries, which occur almost everywhere loo
d capillaries are found, readily asor excess capillary filtrates (lymph) to pr
event edema formation<div><r /></div><div><div>Lymphatic capillaries are partic
ularly aundant in organ systems that are open to the external environment (e.g.
the skin, respiratory system, urogenital system, and digestive system).&nsp;</
div></div><div><r /></div>
1477354193451 1471141547999 Where do Lymphatic capillaries empty? Lymphati
c capillaries empty into lymphatic vessels for the delivery of lymph to local ly
mph nodes.
1477354218197 1471141547999 Where do lymphatic vessels reside? How does the
ody insure unidirectional lymph flow? Among the elements of the microcirculati
on. &nsp;Bicuspid valves insure unidirectional lymph flow toward the lymph node
s. &nsp;<div><r /></div>
1477354268124 1471141547999 What are lymphangitis and lymphadenitis and why
are these conditions potentially dangerous?
<div><span class="Apple-ta-span
" style="white-space:pre"> </span>4. Seconday inflammations of lymphatic vessels
and lymph nodes that may occur when the lymphoid system is involved in chemical
or acterial transport after severe injury or infection. &nsp;The uncontained
infection may lead to septicemia</div><div><r /></div>
1477354305402 1471141547999 <div>What is lymphedema?&nsp;</div><div><r /><
/div> <div>&nsp;Lymphedema is a localized edema occuring when lymph does not
drain from an area of the ody, for example with removal or lockage of a node.<
1477354322871 1471141547999 What forms lymphoid nodules? Where do they form?
&nsp;What lymphoid cells are disperes omong the nodules?
Aggregates of B
cell progeny from antigen-activated B cells form lymphoid nodules in the mucosaassociated lymphoid tissue (MALT). The lymphocytes dispersed among the lymphoid
nodules are mainly T cells. &nsp; &nsp;
1477354387953 1471141547999 What occupies the lymph nodes? &nsp;How many ly
mph nodes are there? &nsp;What are the 3 layers of the lymphoid tissue? What ac
counts for the darker staining of the lymphoid cortex? Billions of immunocompet
ent lymphocytes occupy the 500-600 lymph nodes that reside throughout the ody.&
nsp;the surrounding connective tissue capsule, the central pale-stained medulla
, and the outer dark-stained cortex,&nsp;lymphoid nodules account for the darke
r staining of the cortex. &nsp;&nsp;<div><r /></div>
1477354483821 1471141547999 What resides on the oundary etween the lymph n
ode cortex and medulla? What lines this area? What is the function of the HEV?
High endothelial venules (HEV) residing along the oundary are lined y simple c
uoidal endothelium. &nsp;The HEV selectively ind circulating immunocompetent
B cells and T cells, which enter the lymph nodes y traversing the cuoidal endo
thelium. &nsp; &nsp; &nsp;&nsp;
1477354574124 1471141547999 Where do afferent lymphatic vessels deliver lymp
h? &nsp;Where does the lymph go after? Directly into the sucapsular sinus. Lym
ph flows from the sucapsular sinus into the cortical sinuses.
1477354691884 1471141547999 What lines the lymph sinuses? What filters antig
ens from the percolating lymph? A discontinuous endothelium lines the sinuses,&n
sp;antigens are filtered from the percolating lymph y lymphocytes and macropha
ges that reside adjacent to the porous sinuses. &nsp; &nsp;&nsp;
1477354739981 1471141547999 Where are B-cells activated? &nsp;Where do they
replicate? What do the plasma cells derived from Progeny B cells form? &nsp;
B cells, which are selectively activated y antigens in the incoming lymph, repl
icate in the cortex and therey form the lymphoid nodules. Plasma cells derived
from the progeny B cells form germinal centers within the nodules. &nsp; &nsp;
&nsp;
1477354788485 1471141547999 Where does lymph from the cortical sinus drain?
<div>&nsp;Lymph drains from the cortical sinuses into the medullary sinuses tha
t interweave among the medullary cords (i.e., linear aggregates of antigen-activ
ated lymphocytes and plasma cells that migrate from the cortex into the medulla)
. &nsp; &nsp;&nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
1477354817649 1471141547999 How do cells of the medullary cords enter the pe
rcolating lymph?
By traversing the porous medullary sinuses that coalesce
nce into a single efferent lymphatic vessel that returns filtered lymph, fortifi
ed with activated lymphocytes and plasma cells, to the lymphatic circulation
1477354860345 1471141547999 <div>How are lymphocytes and plasma cells, activ
ated in local lymph nodes y the incoming lymph from MALT, ale to exit the loca
l nodes and relocate to the MALT? &nsp; &nsp; &nsp; &nsp; &nsp; &nsp; &ns
p; &nsp; &nsp; &nsp; &nsp; &nsp;&nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
Lymphocy
tes can leave the node y entering efferent lymphatics to travel in lymph, where
they eventually reenter the systemic circulation. Movement across HEV's into ly
mph nodes is determined y specific adhesions molecules on lymphocyte surfaces t
hat ind complementary cytokines on endothelial cells.
1477355181549 1471141547999 What does the connective tissue capsule and its
inward projections encompass? <div>the splenic pulp, a fine meshwork of type I
II collagen (reticular) fiers.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
1477355207188 1471141547999 What fills the splenic pulp to designate the red
pulp and what designates the white pulp?
Extravasated erythrocytes fill m
ost of the splenic pulp to designate the red pulp and lymphoid nodules dispersed
in the red pulp designate the white pulp.
1477355273709 1471141547999 What delivers lood to capillaries in the red pu
lp? What is special aout these capillaries?
Small terminal ranches of the s
plenic artery deliver lood to capillaries residing in the red pulp. The capilla
ries are open-ended; thus, lood flows from the capillaries directly into the me
shwork of the red pulp.
1477355322150 1471141547999 Descrie the structure of the red pulp. Venous s
inusoids interweave throughout the red pulp and extravasated lood cells squeeze
through slit-like spaces etween the endothelial cells that line the sinusoids.
1477355381966 1471141547999 What happens to the red lod cells as they age?
&nsp;How does this effect their aility to squeeze into sinusoids? What is the
result of this? Aged RBCs lose their pliaility and cannot squeeze into the sinu
soids; thus, they are removed phagocytically y resident macrophages. &nsp;
1477355423848 1471141547999 What happens to lood orne antigens that enter
the red pulp?<div><r /></div><div>What forms the lymphoid nodules of the white
pulp?</div>
Blood-orne antigens that enter the meshwork of the red pulp are
either selectively ound y extravasated lymphocytes or phagocytized y the res
ident macrophages.<div><r /></div><div><div>Proliferation of antigen-activated
B cells forms the lymphoid nodules of the white pulp. &nsp; &nsp;&nsp;</div><
1477355466969 1471141547999 Where do the venous sinusoids empty?
Venous s
inusoids empty into small triutaries of the splenic vein that return the immuno
logically filtered lood to the circulation.&nsp;
1477355483604 1471141547999 <div>How do the clinical consequences of splenec
tomy in children differ from those in adults?&nsp;</div>
<div>In adults t
here is usually no clinical consequence, ut in children it can lead to increase
d occurance and severity of infections.</div><div><r /></div>
1477355921965 1471141547999 Where is the thymus located? &nsp;What happens
to it with age? <div>Thymus is in the upper thorax. &nsp;At older ages the thym
us will shrink, however it will e large enough for T cell maturation</div><div>
<r /></div>
1477356066656 1471141547999 Descrie the BullShit anatomy of the thymus we w
ere taught.
<div>Outer cortex has cortical epithelial cells, then there Is t
he corticol medullary junction, then there are medullary cells with dendritic ce
lls which have a function in teaching the T cells what is self MHC. &nsp;</div>
<div><r /></div>
1477356113724 1471141547999 Where does the immature Thymocyte enter the thym
us?
<div>The Thymocyte or immature T cell will enter into the cortex of the
thymus through the medulla. &nsp; For every 50 million cells entering the thymu
s, 1 million will exit the thymus as mature T cells.</div><div><r /></div>
1477356142243 1471141547999 How do we know the thymus is critical for Matura
tion of T cells?
In a mouse experiment, a SCID lymphocyte deficient mouse
is given one marrow stem cells from a NU (no thymus) mouse. &nsp;The NU mouse
is given a thymus graft from the SCID mouse. &nsp;Both end up having T-cells a
fter the procedure, when they had little to none efore.
1477356236681 1471141547999 Explain the phases of alpha eta T cell developm
ent in the mouse thymus.
There are four doule-negative stages (note CD44
is thought to help ind epithelial cells)<div>DN1: CD44+ ut CD25-</div><div>DN
2: CD44+ and CD25+</div><div>DN3: Low CD44, CD25+</div><div>DN4: CD44-, CD25-</d
iv><div><r /></div><div>The eginning of rearrangement occurs at DN3, starting
with the Beta chain. &nsp;Here the cell egins to lose expression of CD44 and C
D25 ut it aquires a PreTCR, which signals for the alpha chain to rearrange as w
ell, giving the ESSENTIAL<> alpha-eta hetorodimer in conjunction with expressi
ng CD4 and CD8.</></div><div>CD4 and CD8 will not express until after DN4. &ns
p;Notch Is expressed throughout, &nsp;as well as IL-7 which is thought to e in
volved in proliferation (not Il-2).</div><div>Negative selection will then occur
and their will e down regulation of either Cd4 or Cd8 and the cell will mature
into one or the other. &nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
1477356877938 1471141547999 What happens to T cells that undergo apoptosis?
They are ingested y macrophges in the thymic cortex.
1477356896453 1471141547999 What two T cell lineages are produced in the thy
mus?
Gamma delta, and alpha eta T cells.
1477357984058 1471141547999 At what developmental stages will thymocytes res
ide in the cortex?
DN2-> immature Doule Positive Phase. &nsp;They matu
re as they enter the medulla.
1477358040608 1471141547999 What cells also reside in the epithelial layer o
f the Thymus? Dendritic epidermal T cells will form an interdigitating network
with the langerhans cells.
1477358084233 1471141547999 What are the stages of Rearrangement in Alpha Be
ta T cells?
1. First DJ rearangement occurs in the B chain, then VDJ rearang
ement occurs, producing the eta chain (occurs at DN3). &nsp;<div><r /></div><
div>2. Surface expression of this Beta chain in association with a surrogate alp
ha chain will signal to stop B rearrangement. &nsp;This Pre-TCR will signal for
the cell to ecome permissive for TCR a-chain rearrangement, expression of CD4
and CD8, proliferation, and the cessasion of B-chain rearrangement (called allel
ic exclusion).</div><div><r /></div><div>3.The cell will proliferate at this st
age, eginning induction of CD4/8 and alpha transcription.&nsp;</div><div><r /
></div><div>4. The V will add to the J on the alpha chain, leading to surface ex
pression of Alpha-Beta-CD3 complex.</div>
1477358341702 1471141547999 When are there the most Gamma delta thymocytes?
Up until 18 days days of gestation there will e more GD then aB thymocytes, how
ever they will rapidly decline into adulthood until they only mke up 10% of the
thymocyte pool.
1477358408704 1471141547999 How does positive selection occur? How do we tes
t this? Cells whose receptor inds self MHC I/II will pass through positive sele
ction, and differentiate into either a CD4 or CD8 cell depending on which recept
or they ound to. &nsp;Those that do not will undergo apoptosis.<div><r /></di
v><div>CD4/8 doule positive cells which can only ind MHC1a will differentiate
into Single positive CD8 T cells when exposed to epithelia cells expressing MHCI
a, ut not when they express MHCI.</div><div><r /></div><div>We can also take
the one marrow from an MHC a+ mouse, and transplant it into irradiated MHCa an
d MHC mice. &nsp;These mice will only produce mature T cells which respond to
Self MHC, not the other MHC complex.</div>

1477358786430 1471141547999 What is the role of thymic cortical epithelial c
ells? They mediate positive selection,
1477358908720 1471141547999 Descrie the process of negative selection.
T cells which have passed through positive selection that ind Self MHC+Self ant
igen or with high affinity to Self-MHC will undergo apoptosis. &nsp;Those that
do not will turn into mature CD4/CD8 lymphocytes.
1477359024222 1471141547999 Where can negative selection of thymocytes occur
?
In oth the cortex and medulla.
1477359053245 1471141547999 How do thymocytes emigrate from the medulla into
the lood?
After 3-4 days in the medulla, upregulation of S1PR1 will cause
the T cell to exit the thymus into the lood.
1477359144463 1471141547999 How would you classify the majority of T-cells i
n your ody?
Doule positive CD4 and CD8 Cells (~80%) undergoing oth positiv
e and negative selection..
1477359202885 1471141547999 Where are T-cells specific for self antigen dele
ted, how do we know this?
In the thymus, when you express a transgene of s
elf peptide in the thymus you can see widespread apoptosis upon staining.
1477359244407 1471141547999 How do we regulate the expression of self peptid
e in the thymus?
<div>Some self peptide expressed in thymus, AIRE is expr
essed in the thymic medulla, and expression of this molecule upregulates express
ion of some self peptides.</div><div><r /></div>
1477359285939 1471141547999 What pathogens are the CD8 and CD4 T cells most
effective at dealing with?
CD8=virus<div>CD4=acteria<r /><div><r /></div
></div>
1477360767401 1471141547999 How does a TCR actually signal? <div>Ligand ind
ing occurs at the cell surface TCR. T cell receptor is noncovalently associated
with the CD3 molecule since the T cell receptor y itself will not produce enoug
h signaling. &nsp;Cd3 is expressed oth on Cd4 and Cd8 cells. &nsp;In the Cd3
molecules there are ITAMs, Immunoreceptor Tyrosine Based activation motifs, thes
e are critical for signaling. &nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
1477360843335 1471141547999 How does ITAM transduce TCR signals?
<div>Aft
er antigen recognition, there is phosphorylation of ITAM, leading to ITAM units
eing rought together on oth CD3 and TCR, this will recruit another kinase. Th
is whole complex is called ZAP-70, an initial transcription factor involved when
a TCR recognizes foreign antigen and Self MHC.</div><div><r /></div>
1477360910417 1471141547999 Descrie Two plus one competence signaling.
In order for a T cell respons to occur, there must e MHC+ peptide recognition,
costimulation y&nsp;B7 (which has several molecules, CD80/CD86, which is expre
ssed on APC's) inding the CD28 receptor on the T cell, and stimulation y cytok
ines such as IL-12. &nsp;This will lead to the phosphorylation of ITAMs, produc
tion of IL-2, and clonal expansion of T cell.<div><r /></div>
1477361051673 1471141547999 Explain everything you need to know aout ZAP si
gnaling.
ZAP-70 phosphorylates LAT and SLP-76, which will set off a serie
s of phosphorylation events leading to the activation of four downstream molecul
es.
1477361114950 1471141547999 What three transcription factors ind the promot
or region of IL-2 following TCR signaling?
NFAT, NF-kB, and AP-1
1477361246251 1471141547999 Explain how the IL-2 receptor works.
On a res
ting T cell the IL-2 receptor only has the gamma and eta suunits. &nsp;Since
it lacks the alpha suunit it can only ind IL-2 with a moderate affinity. &nsp
;When it recognizes self peptide the alpha chain of the receptor is expressed, a
llowing the receptor to ind the autocrine IL-2 with high affinity. &nsp;IL-2 i
s a T cell growth factor cytokine.
1477361340752 1471141547999 What happens when a T cell inds IL-2 It is si
gnaled to enter the cell cycle and proliferate. &nsp;Note the active receptor
inds 100x stronger than the naive receptor.
1477361708762 1471141547999 What signals are required to upregulate IL-2 exp
ression in T cells? What happens when one of these is missing? T cells need to
ind oth the MHC-antigen complex via the TCR and the B7 receptor vi the CD28 mo
lecule in order to upregulate IL-2, increase the staility of the IL-2 transcrip
t, and produce anti-apoptotic signals. &nsp;If there is no CD28-B7 inding the
T cell will ecome anergic, meaning it will never respond to any signal (due to
lack of CD28 response elemnt activation). &nsp;When the T-cell only inds B7, i
t will have no effect. &nsp;This is thought to e a regulatory mechanism.
1477361976544 1471141547999 How long does T cell division take and when does
it egin?
it takes 6 hours/cycle and it egins within 18 hours of activati
on.
1477362006116 1471141547999 Do T cells require co-stimulation once activated
?
No, they can kill non-B7 expressing infected cells in the periphery.
1477362036078 1471141547999 Where are naive T cells activated? How aout act
ivated T cells? In primary limphoid organs y dendritic cells. &nsp;Activated T
cells are in the periphery.
1477362087757 1471141547999 What genes are immediately expressed after TCR l
igation? &nsp;How aout soon after? &nsp;How aout much later?
Immediat
e: C-fos, ZAP-70, NF-kB, NFAT, c-Jun, c-Myc<div>Early: IL-2, IL-2R, IL-3, IL-6,
IFN-y</div><div>Late: adhesion molecules (more than 2 days later)</div>
1477362174128 1471141547999 Which cells have B7 receptors? Dendritic cells
will constituatively express B7, B-lymphocyes can e induced to express B7 once
activated.
1477362244562 1471141547999 How can T cells e stimulated y a cell that min
imally expressed B7, or needs to e induced?
T cells, once inding the MHC-An
tigen complex, can ind the CD40 receptor which is expressed on the APC via CD40
ligand. &nsp;This will cause the APC to express B7, which the T cell can ind.
&nsp;The APC will also produce activating cytokines. Despite this pathway B7 i
s still the primary costimulator.
1477362370263 1471141547999 How is B7 inding regulated?
<div>One dimer o
f CTLA-4 can ind two different B7 dimers, leading to high avidity clustering wh
ich will lock B7 inding to CD28.</div><div>CTLA-4 is a negative regulator of i
mmune response</div><div>CTLA-4 is constituative ut takes time to ind so it wi
ll not stop an effective immune response</div>
1477362435701 1471141547999 Explain the concept of an immunological synapse.
Before T cells are stimulated, the receptors are randomly assorted in the memra
ne. &nsp;Once the T cell inds the MHC, the molecules on oth the T cell and AP
C move together to form an immunological synapse which will assist later in the
production of cytokines. &nsp;This is refered to as the SMAC, or super molecula
r antigen complex.
1477362527995 1471141547999 What Immunological drugs can we use to lock IL2 mediated T cell proliferation?
<div>Cyclosporin an FK506 are immunologi
cal drugs. &nsp;Both of these molecules act on calcineurin, inhiiting activati
on of NFAT, which inds to the IL-2 promotor gene. &nsp;This locks the increas
ed production of IL-2, lowering T cell proliferation which you would not want in
the case of a transplantation (especially if the MHC is foreign).</div><div><r
/></div>
1477362607676 1471141547999 What diseases are conferred y T-cell activation
defects?
ZAP-70 tyrosine kinase defect will give a type of SCID.<div><r
/></div><div>A defect in BtK will give Brutons X-linked agammagloulinemia.</div
><div><r /></div><div>Mutations in CD40L on a T cell will lead to X-linked Hype
r-IgM.</div>
1477362677997 1471141547999 How do cytokines signal?
Via a JAK/STAT a
ssociated receptor. &nsp;One cytokine can turn on multiple genes (pleiotropic)
and different cytokines can turn on the same genes (redundant). &nsp;Defficienc
ies in cytokine signaling can lead to immunodeficiency.
1477362739210 1471141547999 Which cytokines share the samme gamma chain on t
he cytokine receptors? IL-2, IL-4, Il-7, and IL-12. &nsp;Defects in this chain
lead to massive defecits.
1477362796244 1471141547999 How does the IFN family signal. They use a Simil
ar JAK/STAT signaling pathway.
1477362828504 1471141547999 What will a deficiency in the IL-2R gamma chain
cause? Since this chain is shared in the IL-2, 4, 7, 9, 11, and 15 receptors, t
his defect will cause X-linked SCID since IL-7 is necessary for lymphocyte devel
opment.
1477362880516 1471141547999 Which immunogloins are expressed in naive matur
ed B cells
They emerge from the spleen with IgM and IgD
1477364115914 1471141547999 How do antiodies mediate humorol immunity? Whic
h region determines their inding specificity? &nsp;How aout iological activi
ty?
They can ind and neutralize pathogens efore adhere to host cells, opsi
nize pathogens, and activate complement which enhances opsonization and lyses so
me acter.<div><r /></div><div>The V region determines inding specificity, the
C region determines iological activity.</div>
1477364207725 1471141547999 Where does negative selection occur for B cell a
ntiodies? Whre do they move to upon maturation?
In the one marrow. They
move to the peripheral lymphoid organs, antiodys are secreted here, memory cel
ls are in one marrow &nsp;and lymphoid tissue.
1477364287464 1471141547999 How do B-cells signal to stop heavy chain rearra
ngement and move on to the light chain? <div>B cell expresses 1 heavy chain alle
le and 1 light chain allele. There is 1 heavy chain 1 light chain due to allelic
exclusion. &nsp;Pre-B cell receptors will act as a fake light chain, and assem
le in the cytoplasm and sometimes on the surface. &nsp;It will then test itsel
f somehow. &nsp;Some signal will then e sent through this prereceptor to turn
on the RAG for the light chain (stopping rearrangment of the second heavy chain
allele) &nsp;There are 20 potential light chain rearrangement partners. &nsp;<
/div>
1477364368373 1471141547999 How can unsuccesful rearangments e remidied wit
hout using the B-cells extra allele copy?
There can actually e repeated r
earrangements on the light chain loci if there are multiple recomination joints
possile. &nsp;Once there are no more then the cell will need to move on to th
e next allele (or the lamda light chain if the kappa has already failed 2x)<div
><r /></div><div>Note there is clonal expansion prior to light chain rearrangme
nt, meaning there are many different VDJH chain light chain possiilities all us
ing the same VDJH heavy chain.</div>
1477364532911 1471141547999 What happens if there is a self reacting clone i
n the one marrow?
The light chain will rearrange again, and if this fails
as well then the cell will die.
1477364592473 1471141547999 Explain what happens with a self reactive molecu
le which is solule. &nsp;How aout low affinity non-cross linking self reactiv
ity?
The B cell will migrate to the periphery, however it will e anergic and
eventually die. &nsp;The mature B cell which inds with low non-cross linking
affinity to self will mature and migrate to the periphery.&nsp;In the periphery
there could e circumstances where this cell will ecome reactive and have cr
oss reactivity of antiody clones to self.<div><r /></div>
1477364697943 1471141547999 How do B cells activate?
They require BCR
cross linking via antigen inding, and a helper T cell can produce cytokines an
d ind the B cell via the TCR and CD40L to stimulate B cell activation and anti
ody production.
1477364787887 1471141547999 How can a T cell recognize an internal virus pro
tein since they theoretically should only e identifyale y surface proteins?
T cells recognize any viral peptide and can provide T cell help to activate the
B cell, and the B cell will still produce antigen that ind the surface proteins
which originally ound, not the internal viral protein.
1477364862554 1471141547999 What T helper Cell interaction is important for
driving B cells into the cell cycle?
The CD40-CD40L interaction is important
for driving B cells into the cell cycle, and promotes class switching + somatic
hypermutation.
1477364918898 1471141547999 1. Where do B cells meet their antigen? What hap
pens when B cells are activated?<div><r /></div><div>2. How do Naive B cells en
ter the primary lymphoid follicles?</div><div><r /></div><div>3. What forms the
Germinal center and what is this for?<r /><div><r /></div><div><r /></div></
div>
Via dendritic cells in the secondary lymphoid tissues like the spleen, l
ymph, nodes, tonsils, and peyers patches. Once activated B cells will move to th
e oarder etween T and B cell zones where they can interact. &nsp;<div><r /><
/div><div>Naive B cells will enter the primary lymphoid follicles from the lymph
or lood.</div><div><r /></div><div>The germinal center, where somatic hypermu
tation and class switching occur, is formed y the proliferating B cells.</div>
1477365081443 1471141547999 What is somatic hypermutation? Last chance for
BCR diversity.<div><r /></div><div>Activation Induced Cytosine Deaminase (AID)
will introduce point mutations into the V region of the BCR. &nsp;Most of these
will decrease inding affinity and cause apoptosis, however mutations which inc
rease inding affinity will gain T helper cell aid and proliferate/differentiate
into Plasma Cells and Memory B cells.</div>
1477365179911 1471141547999 What happens to activated B cells that do not mo
ve into the germinal center?
The form a primary focus that does not undergo s
omatic hypermutation and will mostly produce IgM. &nsp;These rarely undergo cla
ss switching and rapidly ecome antiody secreting plasma cells.&nsp;<div><r /
></div><div>IgM=recent infection</div>
1477365293575 1471141547999 Explain how class switching works?
There ar
e constant regions in the gene for the BCR. &nsp;In this gene there are switch
regions present upstream of each potential constant region. &nsp;Transcription
of a cytokine driven upstream promotor will initiate switching. In switching, en
zymes like AID will cause nicks in the DNA. &nsp;DNA repair enzymes will repair
the reaks, and the 2 switch regions are rought together y the DNA repair mac
hinery. &nsp;The looped out sequence is excized, and the new constant region is
adjacent to the VDJ region.
1477365469665 1471141547999 Where does class switching occur and what is ess
ential for the process to occur?
In the germinal center primarily, AID an
d CD40-CD40L interactions are essential for them to proceed. &nsp;Patients lack
ing either cannot under class switching and undergo Hyper IgM syndrome with seve
re immune deficiency.
1477365533142 1471141547999 1. Which antiody is est for crossing the epith
elium? &nsp;2. How aout the Placenta? &nsp;3. How aout est at opsinization?
&nsp;4.How aout compliment activation?
1.IgA dimer<div>2. IgG (1)</div>
<div>3.IgG1</div><div>4. IgM</div>
1477365645228 1471141547999 What is the effect of neutralizing antiodies?&n
They will coat
sp;<div>What effects can antiodies have on toxin?</div>
acteria y inding adhesins and lock acterial uptake. &nsp;They can also ind
to virus receptors and lock fusion events.<div><r /></div><div>Antiodies can
lock the inding of toxins to their cell surface receptor.</div>
1477365726333 1471141547999 How do complement and antiodies interact to ena
Macrophages will phagocytose a acteria coated with comp
le phagocytosis?
liment and IgG when the C3 inds the CR1 receptor and the IgG antiody inds th
e Fc receptor.
1477365808321 1471141547999 How do NK cells work with antiodies? NK cells
will ind antigens that are on foreign cells via Fc receptors. Cross linking of
these receptors will signal the NK cell to kill the target cell.
1477365867208 1471141547999 What are ad antiodies?
Cross reacting a
ntiodies and IgE, since IgE does not do anything for us (important for parasite
defense ut we dont have parasites) and causes allergies instead. Antigen indi
ng causes receptor ound antiody cross linking leading to mast cell degranulati
on.
1477365948216 1471141547999 How can you get antiody without T cell help?
T-independent 1 antigens (such as LPS) which will ind to Toll like receptors an
d cause non specific antiody response y activated B plasma Cells.<div><r /></
div><div>TI-2 antigens have repetative structure and activate antigen specific,
mature B cells in the asence of T cells help via cross linking.</div><div><r /
></div><div>The antiodies produced to these antigens are important at early sta
ges of acterial infection, even though they are low affinity.</div><div><r /><
1477366088011 1471141547999 What is the function of LFA-1 and ICAM-1?
Adhesion etween the CD8 cell and the MHC expresing cell
1477431992969 1471141547999 What is the prototypic Cytokine of TH1 CD4 cells
? &nsp;What is their primary function? Interferon Gamma, macrophage activation.

1477432085175 1471141547999 What is the prototypic Cytokine of TH2 CD4 cells
? &nsp;What is their primary function? IL-4, 5, and 14 are all switch facters w
hich interact heavily with TH2 cells. &nsp;They are involved in class switching
for IgE antiodies.
1477432132479 1471141547999 What will drive the differentiaton of naive Cd4
cells to TH1 cells?
T et activation, in association with IL-12 signaling, w
ill drive STAT4 pathways which lead to TH1 cell differentiation.
1477432203366 1471141547999 What will drive the differentiaton of naive Cd4
cells to TH2 cells?
IL-4 is the driving factor in TH2 synthesis, in conjunct
ion with GATA-3 signalling followed y STAT6 signaling.
1477432451021 1471141547999 1. When TH1 cells are involved, what type of res
ponse should you expect?<div>2.What is the effect of IFN gamma which is released
y TH1 cells?</div><div>3.What is the effect of IL-2 and INF gamma on CD8+ cell
s?</div>
1. Cell mediated immunity responses.<div>2. Macrophage activatio
n and Opsonization/complement inding</div><div>3.They upregulate differentiatio
n into CTL's</div>
1477432518179 1471141547999 What is the effect of INF gamma on the macrophag
e?
Increased B7 expression, killing of phagocytosed microes, increased MHC
expression, secretion of TNF, IL-1, IL-12.
1477432566635 1471141547999 1.What type of response is indicated y TH2 cell
s?<div>2. What is the effect of IL-4?</div><div>3. What is the effect of IL-5?</
div><div>4. What is the effect of IL-10?</div> 1.Humoral immune response<div>2.
Production of IgG antiodies and IgE antiodies. &nsp;Supression of macrophage
activity.</div><div>3. Eosinophil activation.</div><div>4.&nsp;&nsp;Supressio
n of macrophage activity.</div>
1477432698769 1471141547999 What is the effect of a pure TH2 response?
The individual will e sicker since there is only humoral immunity associated T
cells.
1477432750624 1471141547999 What stimulates Tregulatory differentiation? &n
sp;How aout TH17? &nsp;What is TH17 for?
TGF-B. &nsp;TGF-B and IL-6. &n
sp;Getting rid of infectious pathogens, it can also promote autoimmune disease
1477432817197 1471141547999 How can CD8 cells ypass the need for B7 costimu
lation? Cytokines will stimulate CTL differentiation in conjunction with ound M
HC.
1477432855403 1471141547999 What is the mechanism of CTL mediated lysis?
Either Granule exocytosis which leads to caspase activation and apoptosis, or Fa
sL-Fas inding leading to apoptosis of effected cell.
1477432932071 1471141547999 What are the mucosal tissues in the human ody?
The GI tract, Respiratory tract, lachrymal gland, salivary glad, mammary gland.
1477434448168 1471141547999 What are the T and B cells located in the GALT?
In peyers patch. &nsp;Intraepithelial lymphocytes scattered in the epithelium.
1477434580630 1471141547999 Where are the stem cells located in the GALT?
In the crypts.
1477434594516 1471141547999 How is antigen taken in into the GALT? Through
M cells (via vesicles), and then released at the asal surface where is is ound
y dendritic cells to activate T cells.
1477434669432 1471141547999 What is the lamina propria? &nsp;Is it part of
the epithelium? The lamina propria is a thing layer of connective tissue which l
ies eneath the epithelium and together with the epithelium constitutes the muco
sa. &nsp;It iis distinct from the epithelium. &nsp;
1477434768427 1471141547999 What are Intraepithelia lymphocytes?
They are
CD8 T cells in the epithelia lining &nsp;which are always activated. There is
not much clonal diversity in them and respond to a small numer of antigens.
1477434844748 1471141547999 How do activated T cells get to the Lamina propr
ia if they aren't just responding to an infection?
Since there is always ac
tivated T cells in the lamina propria/intestinal epithelium, T cells must first
enter Peyers patch via the lood vessels (directed y CCR7 and L-selectin indin
g). &nsp;The T cells will encounter Dendritic cell ound antigen transported in
to peyers patch via M cells and ecome activated. &nsp;They will then drain via
the mesenteric lymph nodes into the thoracic duct and return to the gut where t
hey home to the Lamina proper/epithelium using the CCR9 and A:B integrin homing
receptors.
1477435004072 1471141547999 1. How do Intraepithelial T cells respond to epi
thelial cells infected y viruses?<div><r /></div><div>2.&nsp;How do Intraepit
helial T cells respond to epithelial cells undergoing stress due to infection, d
amage, or toxic peptide??</div> 1. They will kill the epithelial cell via perfor
in/granzyme and fas-dependent pathways. &nsp;<div><r /></div><div>2. Epithelia
l cells undergoing this type of stress will express MIC-A and MIC-B. &nsp;The N
KG2D receptor on the IEL will ind these signaling molecules and kill the stress
ed cell via perforin/granzyme pathway.</div>
1477435196240 1471141547999 1.What is the main antiody of the mucosal immun
e system?<div><r /></div><div>What are this antiodies effects in the mucosal i
mmune system?</div>
1.IgA.<div><r /></div><div>2. It can ind and neutraliz
e pathogens/toxins on the gut surfice, it can ind and neutralize internalized a
ntigens, it can export toxins fromthe lamina Propria to the gut lumin, and Bindi
ng of IgA to Dectin-1 on the M cell allows transport of antigen to DC-SIGN dendr
itic cell.</div>
1477435325460 1471141547999 How are acteria recognized on epithelial cell s
urfaces?<div><r /></div><div>How are acteria recognized in the cytosol?</div><
div><r /></div>
Via Toll like receptors, which signal via NFkB to expres
s inflammatory cytokines and chemokines to recruit neutrophils, macrophages, and
DC's.<div><r /></div><div>Bacteria/their products in the cytosol are recognize
d y NOD1 and NOD2 receptors,&nsp;which signal via NFkB to express inflammatory
cytokines and chemokines to recruit neutrophils, macrophages, and DC's.</div><d
iv><r /></div>
1477435451671 1471141547999 What happens when the epithelial cell detects in
tracellular infection? This triggers formation of the inflammasome, leading to
production of IL-1, and IL-18 which activate myeloid cells and increase arrier
integrity.
1477435510603 1471141547999 What happens to acteria sitting in the cytoplas
m or trying to escape from a phagosome? They are taken into a forming autophagos
ome and destroyed via lysosome fusion.
1477435554811 1471141547999 Is the composition of the microiota the same at
different mucosal surfaces?
No, they differ at every mucosal surface.
1477435701450 1471141547999 How do microorganisms assist in digestion and he
alth maintainenece? &nsp;(5 things)
1. They synthesize essential metaolites
like Vitamin K,&nsp;<div>2.&nsp;reak down plant fiers in food (to short cha
in fatty acids),&nsp;<div><div>3. inactivate toxic sustances in food/made y p
athogens,&nsp;</div><div>4. prevent pathogens from enefiting from the resource
s in the human gut,&nsp;</div><div>5. Interact with the epithelium to trigger d
evelopment of the secondary lymphoid tissues, leading tot he estalishment of th
e gut associated lymphoid tissues.</div></div></div>
1477436066947 1471141547999 How can acteria exist within the mucousa? &nsp
;Why dont we kill them off?
<div>IgA antiodies ind microfloura and prevent
it from crossing the arrier, Paneth cells will secrete antimicroial proteins
to keep the gut acteria in check, and Gut microfloura lack the virulence factor
s to cross the epithelial layer. &nsp;This allows them to exist in the mucous e
stalished y the mucins of the Golet cell.</div><div><r /></div>
1477436171951 1471141547999 How does the ody prevent commensals from reachi
ng the systemic compartment?
Mesenteric lymph nodes form a arrier that preve
nts commensals from reaching systemic compartments.<div><r /></div><div><r /><
/div>
1477436267044 1471141547999 What is the most important factor in why the imm
une system ignores commensals? Induction of local T regulatory cells.<div><r /
></div><div>Note there are also IL-10 producting dendritic cells.</div>
1477436305947 1471141547999 What is one of the leading worldwide causes of d
eath? Mucosal infection.
1477436331144 1471141547999 Why is salmonella so dangerous? <>It can enter
and kill M cells, then infect the macrophages and epithelial cells. It can also
infect the ody via the luminal surface of epithelial cells or via phagocytic ce
lls that are sampling the gut lumen contents. </>&nsp;Either way, this will le
ad to chemokine and cytokine production to draw neutrophils out of the lood to
activate them. &nsp;DC's travel to the site to provoke adaptive immunity. &nsp
;<>If this fails the acteria will travel to the system and cause systemic infe
ction. &nsp;</>
1477436487703 1471141547999 What is the difference etween the immune respon
se in mucosal and non-mucosal tissues? In non-mucosal tissues inflammation is a
key step in fighting the infection. &nsp;There is no inflammation in the mucos
al tissues during the fight vs the infection since the cells are already there.
&nsp;Inflammation in the mucousa is caused y the disease, not a result of figh
ting the disease.
1477436619416 1471141547999 What can cause a C-Diff infection and why is thi
s dangerous?
Overuse of antiiotics kills off the gut microiota, allowing Cdiff to colonize the mucousa. &nsp;These produce toxins that injure the mucosal
memrane, leading to neutrophils and RBCs's to leak into the gut etween injure
d epithelial cells. This leads to colitis and pseudo memrane formation.
1477436701166 1471141547999 What causes Type 1 hypersensitivity?
Exoginou
s antigen induces an IgE response within 15-20 minutes of introduction.&nsp;
1477437471051 1471141547999 What is the presentation of Class I hypersensiti
vity? Wheal and Flare appearance:<div>Wheal: increased vascular permeaility l
eads to extravasation of fluid and swelling,</div><div>Flare: Vasodilation of su
rrounding cutaneous lood vesses leading to redness of the surrounding skin.</di
v><div><r /></div><div>This is due to mast cells, asophils and eosinophils.</d
iv>
1477437543751 1471141547999 How does a Type I hyopersensitivity &nsp;occur
at the cellular level? Allergen inds an antiody on a B cell which is stimulat
ed y TH cell. &nsp;This leads to allergen specific IgE prodution.&nsp;Allerge
n cross linking 2 antiodies ound to mast cell Fc receptor will cause degranula
tion and allergic reaction.
1477437664179 1471141547999 What are the effects of mast cells on the GI tra
ct, Eye/nasal/airways, and lood vessels?
GI: Increased fluid secretions a
nd peristalis leading to <>Diarrhea and Vomiting</><div><><r /></></div><di
v>Eye/nasal/airway: Decreased airway diameter and increased mucus secretion lead
ing to sneezing, congestion etc.</div><div><r /></div><div>Blood vessels: Incre
ased lood flow/permeaility leading to increased fluid in tissues/increased flo
w of lymph to lymph nodes. &nsp;Can cause Hypotension potentially leading to an
aphylaxis.</div>
1477437785677 1471141547999 What are the 3 iochemical events in mast cell a
ctivation?
1. Granule secretion which causes tissue changes<div>2. Modifica
tion of arachidonic acid into prostaglandins and leukotrienes</div><div>3. Trans
cription of cytokine genes such as TNF leading to inflammation.</div>
1477437858475 1471141547999 what is atopy? the inherited &nsp;tendency to
manifest localized &nsp;anaphylactic reactions
1477437902442 1471141547999 How will IV, Sucu, Inhaled, and ingested allerg
en affect an individual?
IV: Widespread release of histamine leading to h
ives and anaphylaxis at higher doses.&nsp;<div><r /></div><div>Sucu: Local re
lease of histamine causing wheal and flare reaction, topical allergens penetrati
ng skin can e a cause of atopic exzema.</div><div><r /></div><div>Inhaled: All
ergic rhinitis in the upper airway, Asthma due to contractions of ronchial smoo
th muscle/increased mucus secretion.</div><div><r /></div><div>Ingested: Vomiti
ng and Diarrhea, antigen diffusing into lood can cause hives, anaphylaxis, or a
topic eczema.</div>
1477438087410 1471141547999 What is a major reason allergens are so immunolo
gically active? The are often proteases, and at low doses they favour activation
of IL-4 producing CD4 cells which cause IgE class swiching.
1477438141532 1471141547999 How do allergens penetrate the epithelial arrie
r?
The proteolytic activity of allergens lets them enter. For example, Der
p 1 is a proteolytic enzyme found in dust mites. &nsp;It enters the epithelium
y cleaving the occludin in tight junctions, where it will e taken in y DC's w
hich prime CD4 TH2 cells. &nsp;These in turn will enale B cells to produce a D
er p 1 specific IgE antiody, and these will travel ack to the mucosa and produ
ce this antiody. &nsp;The next time Der P 1 gets through the mucosa it will tr
igger histamine degranulation and an allergic response.&nsp;
1477438343581 1471141547999 What is an example of massive overresponsiveness
to Protease allergens? Netherton's syndrome is caused y a high level of IgE in
response to protease allergens since the individual lacks the protease inhiito
r SPINK5. &nsp;This leads to red skin, recurrent skin/tissue infections, and mu
ltiple allergies.
1477438427471 1471141547999 What is the cause of asthma?
<div>Initial ast
hma response is IgE induced hypersensitivity reaction. &nsp;However, this early
response turns into a chronic response caused y products that are secreted and
activate TH2 cells. &nsp;These cells will secrete a unch of effector factors
that recruit a lot of inflammatory cells to the site. &nsp;This will cause chro
nic inflammation, causing damage to the epithelial cells leading to thickened a
sement memrane due to epithelial injury, leading to hyperplasia and hypertrophy
of the smooth muscle layer. &nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
1477438517821 1471141547999 Atopic individuals are likely to have a ____ gen
etic suceptiility to allergic reaciton and live in a ______ environment. &nsp;
Why?
High<div>"Hygienic"</div><div><div>T regulatory cell response limits ai
lity to make a Type 1 hypersensitivity response of individuals living in "less h
ygenic" conditions.</div></div><div><r /></div>
1477438600297 1471141547999 What is the effect of IL-4 on the IgE response?
&nsp;How out INF-y? increased IL-4 concentration leads to increased IgE synt
hesis.<div><r /></div><div>Increasing INF-y leads to inhiition of IgE synthesi
s.</div>
1477438662041 1471141547999 How are type 1 hypersensitivity reacitons screen
ed for? Skin testing.<div><r /></div><div>Radioasoren test which will detect
if patient's IgE inds allergen using radiolaeled anti-IgE.</div>
1477438763279 1471141547999 How can one treat a Type I allergy?
<div>Sma
ll injections of allergen will cause class switching to IgG, which will ind the
allergen and prevent IgE inding (definition of a Blocking antiody).</div><div
><r /></div>
1477438853580 1471141547999 What are some drugs we can use to treat Type I h
ypersensitivity?
Antihistamines: Block H1 and H2 histamine receptors<div>
<r /></div><div>Cromolyn Sodium: Blocks Ca influx into mast cells locking degr
anulation.</div><div><r /></div><div>Theophylline: Prolongs high cAMP y inhii
ting Phosphodiesterase, inhiiting mast cell degranulation.</div><div><r /></di
v><div>Epinephrine: stimulates cAMP production inhiiting degranulation of mast
cells.</div><div><r /></div><div>Cortisone: Reduces histamine levels y lockin
g conversion of histidine to histamine. &nsp;Stimulates cAMP production.</div>
1477438978412 1471141547999 What is Type II hypersensitivity?<div><r /></di
v><div>Give some examples?</div>
Know as cytotoxic hypersensitivity, endo
ginous IgM and IgG antiody mediated destruction of cells in conjunction with co
mplement. &nsp;Presents as lysis and necrosis, possile involvement of Phagocyt
es and NK cells.<div><r /></div><div>Rejection of transfusions</div><div>Erythr
olastosis fetalis</div><div>Goodpastures Syndrome (target of glomerular asemen
t memrane antigen in lungs and kidneys)</div><div>Pemphigus vulgaris</div>
1477439259645 1471141547999 Explain how hemolytic disease of the neworn occ
urs?
During her first pregnancy, an Rh negative mom will create Rh factor spe
cific B cells for the child during delivery. &nsp;If she has another child who
is Rh positive, her anti-rh plasma cells will secrete IgG specific for the red
lood cells of her second child. &nsp;This can e treated with <>RHOGAM,</>&n
sp;which locks the as to the Rh antigen and prevents B-cell activation.<div><
1477439570740 1471141547999 What is Type 3 hypersensitivity?<div><r /></div
><div>Give examples</div>
Immune complex hypersensitivity, solule antigen
will produce a reaction when immune complexes activate complement. &nsp;These
will deposit into vascular walls or other tissues and cause inflammation. &nsp;
This leads to tissue damage caused y platelets and neutrophils, presenting as e
rythema, edema, and necrosis. &nsp;<div><r /></div><div>Arthus reaction</div><

div>Serum sickness</div><div>Lupus</div><div>Rheumatoid arthritis</div><div>Farm
ers lung/pigeon reeders lung</div>
1477439690436 1471141547999 Descrie the arthus reaction
<div><div>Solul
e antigen causes immune complex with&nsp;Complement, thisactivates mast cells w
hich causes pathology associated with type III hypersensitivity, leading to acti
vation of neutrophils and lytic enzymes causing tissue damage.</div></div><div><
r /></div>
1477440136208 1471141547999 Descrie Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis? Examples
of these are farmers/pidgeon reeders lung. &nsp;The farmer/reeder takes up l
ots of spores (actinomycete fungus),and there are A's made to the spore (IgG).
&nsp;This causes an allergen antiody complex to form, leading to deposition in
the alveoli. &nsp;This causes inflammation and pneumonitis.
1477440222643 1471141547999 Descrie Type 4 hypersensitivity?
Cell med
iated/delayed type hypersensitivity. &nsp;It is involved in the pathogenesis of
many auto-immune and infectious diseases. &nsp;It is characterized y the appe
arance of erythema and induration, and is histologically identified y monocytes
and a few T-cells.
1477440332521 1471141547999 What causes the swelling and induration of Type
4 hypersensitivity?
Accumulation of effectorT cells at the site of inflammat
ion.
1477440364151 1471141547999 Why does poison oak cause an allergic reaction?
Poison oak Releases <>Pentadecacatechol</>, whci will cross the skin and enter
the Dendritic Cells. &nsp;This will sensitize a TH1 cell, which will produce I
FN gamma, leading to recruitment of macrophages to the site. &nsp;These produce
lytic enzymes which are the cause of symptoms.
1477440454912 1471141547999 What is the molecular asis of celiacs disease?
In celiacs patients, <>Transglutaminase (tTG)</>&nsp;will modify gluten so th
at they can e processes and ount to MHC II (they are not normally). &nsp;This
activates Gluten specific CD4 T cells which will kill mucosal epithelial cells
y Fas inding. &nsp;They also secrete IFN-y which will cause epithelial cytoki
ne/chemokine production leading to recruitment of other inflammatory cells.
1477440571277 1471141547999 What is the clinical relavence of the IgA anti-g
luten antiody? <div>These antiodies are not responsile for the tissue damage,
it is just used as a diagnostic test. &nsp;The pathogy is caused y T cells, m
aking it a Type 4 hypersensitivity reaction.</div><div><r /></div>
1477587133300 1471141547999 What is the difference etween primary and secon
dary immunodeficiencies?
Primary: Born with it, some developmental disord
er.<div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div>Secondary: the result of some other di
ease, environmental factor etc.</div>
1477587186640 1471141547999 When are infants protected from infection y mat
ernal IgG? &nsp;What point are they most susceptile to infection?
In a ful
l term infant there Is passive maternal antiodies (IgG) starting at 6 months pr
eterm, and the ay will egin to make their own immune response which will outn
umer the maternal IgG at around 6 months of age. &nsp;When thet are young thes
e aies have very low levels of IgG, ut high IgM, so they are at risk for seve
re infections.
1477587295597 1471141547999 When we speak aout the gradual deterioration of
the immune system due to age, it is a process called:<div><r /></div><div>This
process egins at around age:</div>
Immunosenescence<div><r /></div><div>Ag
e 50 and up</div>
1477587369923 1471141547999 How does vaccination differ for people age 65 an
d older?
Quadruple vaccine doses to counteract their low immune responsiv
eness.
1477587394864 1471141547999 Define CD8 skewing
Cells which have een co
nsistently dealing with specific viruses throughout life will draw more and more
differentiated CD8 T cells to fight those viruses, leaving the host susceptile
to other infections.
1477587443960 1471141547999 Why does protein-calorie malnutrition contriute
to immunodeficiency? Associated with decreased production of IL-2 and INF-y (
activating cytokines) and an increase in IL-4 and IL-10 (inactivating cytokines)

production. &nsp;There is also an associated decrease in the activation marker
s CD69/CD25.
1477587524117 1471141547999 What drugs are used as immunosupressents?
Steroids<div><r /></div><div>Cyclosporin A, FK506 (Calcineurin inhiitors given
to transplant patients)</div><div><r /></div><div>TNF, TNFR, IL17R etc for Rhe
umatoid arthritis, can leave the patient susceptile to infections such as TB an
d fungal infections.</div>
1477587620948 1471141547999 How do steroid molecules have anti-immune effect
s?
Activated Steroid Receptor interactions with NF-kB will lock the transc
ription of NF-kB target genes.
1477587672793 1471141547999 What is a side effect of irradiation and cytotox
ic drugs given during chemotherapy for cancer? Leukopenia and Thromocytopenia.
&nsp;Neutropenia can also occur from chemotherapy, leading to frequent gram ne
gative infections.
1477587760552 1471141547999 Which type of cancer can particularly effect an
individuals aility to have functioning immune responses?
Hodgkins lymphom
a.
1477587813425 1471141547999 What is the major clinical manifestation of sple
nectomy in patients who are not careful?
Disseminated infection with enca
psulated acteria (meningococcus, haemophilus influenza etc.)
1477588235578 1471141547999 What is the major cell that is killed in HIV?
CD4 T cells which make TH17 (note other cells like DC's, macrophages, and CD8 T
cells are also effected)
1477588309182 1471141547999 What causes X-Linked agammagloulinemia? &nsp;W
hat is he major clinical symptom of it? Mutations in B cell Tyrosine kinase (on
X chromosome) gene causes failure for B cells to move past the Pre-B cell stage.
&nsp;<div><r /></div><div>Manifests as low to no B cells in PBlood, no gamma
gloulin in lood, and possile autoimmune diseases for unknown reasons (20% of
patients).</div><div><r /></div><div>Note: T cells usually normal.</div>
1477588455610 1471141547999 What causes Hyper IgM sydrome?<div>What are the
clinical manifestations?</div> Defect in either the CD40L (CD154) on T cells, o
r CD40 on B cells/APC.<div><r /></div><div>Deficiency of every Ig except IgM du
e to inaility to class switch or form memory B cells (meaning no plasma cells,
no germinal centers).</div>
1477588559584 1471141547999 What are the symptoms of:<div>IgA Deficiency</di
v><div>IgM Deficiency</div><div>IgG Deficiency</div>
<div>IgA Deficiency:MOST
COMMON. Respiratory and G/U tract infections. &nsp;Possile intestinal issues,
allergic diseases and autoimmune disorders.</div><div>IgM Deficiency: Sever inf
ections, malignancies, autoimmune diseases.</div><div>IgG Deficiency: Rare, poss
ile to go unnoticed till adulthood.</div>
1477588690003 1471141547999 What can Cause Comined variale Immunodeficienc
y Disease (CVID) and what are the symptoms?
Caused y a unch of different m
utations, however TACI and TNFR Family mutations have een shown to cause famili
ar CVID associated with B cell defects (cannot turn to plasma cells).<div><r />
</div><div>Clinical symptoms are deficiency in Ig levels</div>
1477588780828 1471141547999 What can cause XSCID? &nsp;What are the clinica
l manifestations?
Deficiency of the y-Chain of the IL-2 receptor which wil
l affect IL-7 signaling.<div><r /></div><div>Failure to thrive, infections, dia
rrhea, death (due to defective T cells, no Thymus, possile B/NK cell issues)</d
iv>
1477588854502 1471141547999 What are the 2 most common causes of SCID? What
are the treatments for each?
y chain deficiency is the most common (46%)<div>
Bone marrow transplant<r /><div><r /></div><div>ADA deficiency is the second m
ost common (16.5%) Gene therapy to replace ADA.</div></div>
1477588920081 1471141547999 What will happen if there is a defect in ZAP-70?
SCID-like deficiencies associated with nonfunctional CD4 T cells leading to an i
naility to class switch (only IgM in circulation).
1477589043233 1471141547999 What can cause Bare Lymphocyte Syndrome?
MHC Class II defects:<div>Gene transcription defects, can e corrected y one m
arrow transplant.<r /><div><r /></div><div>MHC Class I defects:</div></div><di

v>TAP gene mutations, treated with antiiotics and IVIg.</div>
1477589102790 1471141547999 What are the classic symptoms of Wiskott Aldrich
Syndrome? &nsp;What causes this? &nsp;What is the mode of inheritence?
Recurrent infection, Eczema, and Thromocytopenia (RET)<div><r /></div><div>Cau
sed y an X linked mutation in the WAS protein gene, leading to poor immune cell
function.</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
1477589187999 1471141547999 What are the clinical manifestations of DiGeorge
syndrome?
-Asence of a Thymus, defective Parathyroid<div>-Anormal heart
development/facial deformities.</div><div>-Twitching<r /><div>-Asent T cells,
Low antiody levels, infection susceptiility.</div></div>
1477589288753 1471141547999 What causes Chronic Granulomatous Disease? What
is the inheritence? &nsp;What is the treatment?
70% X-linked, 30% AR.<di
v>Defect in Cytochrom 558 (X-linked)</div><div><r /></div><div>Can e treated
y IFN-y</div>
1477589350178 1471141547999 Descrie the Nitrolue tetrazolium test?
The Nitrolue tetrazolium will react with ROS made y the macrophages in the la
and turn lue. &nsp;A lack of this lue color indicates a defect, commonly ass
ociated with CGD.
1477589557862 1471141547999 What is Chediak Higashi syndrome? What is the in
heritence? What causes it?
Recurrent acterial infections (Characterized y
LACK OF SKIN AND EE PIGMENT, THIS IS A CLINICAL SIGN) since phagocytes cannot
kill acteria due to impaired protein trafficking to the lysosomes. &nsp;<div><
r /></div><div>Autosomal recessive</div><div><r /></div><div>Mutation in the L
ST protein.</div>
1477589660195 1471141547999 What causes Hereditary angioneurotic edema? What
are the clinical symptoms?
Defective C1 inhiitor, swelling of the face, ai
rways, and adominal cramping.
1477592130917 1471141547999 Why are they making PD-1 and CTLA-4 antiodies?
They can e used to neutralize the checkpoint inhiitors which allow the Tumor c
ells to escape apoptosis.
1477705101908 1471141547999 List the order of Acute inflammation
Reflex V
asoconstriction, Vasodilation leading to hyperemia, Exudation, Stasis, Adhesion/
rolling and finally margination
1477705199101 1471141547999 Descrie the flow of fluid in normal and accute
vessels.
Normally, the osmotic pressure (oncotic pressure) will e counte
ralanced y the oncotic pressure, ut in the arterioles this is incomplete so t
here is net flow out. &nsp;In the capillaries there is an even hydrostatic and
oncotic pressure. &nsp;In the venules there is net flow in. &nsp;<div><r /></
div><div>Vasodilation during inflammation will cause the hydrostatic pressure to
significantly increase, leading to massive fluid leakage in all three areas.</d
iv>
1477705263336 1471141547999 How does acute inflammation lead to cells leakin
g out of capillaries? The endothelial cells have actually contracted, allowing
fluid to leak out of the vessel through the iwidened nterendothelial cell gaps.
1477705497438 1471141547999 What is the difference etween transudate and ex
udate? Exudate is fluid/protein leak due to vasodilation and increased ICG size
. &nsp;Transudate is fluid leak due to decreased colloid osmotic pressure, such
as in chronic liver disease
1477705624686 1471141547999 Descrie the difference etween immediate transi
ent exudation, immediate prolonged exudation, and delayed prolonged exudation
<div>Fluid will leak out at different times and in different quantities. After t
he transient exudate stops the endothelial cells go ack to their normal state (
starts right away, lasts from seconds to an hour at most, then goes ack to norm
al). &nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>After some significant trauma, there will
e immediate prolonged exudate since there is continued leakage (like a seroma
in surgery). &nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>In a different case, the injury t
akes place at Time 0, doesn't cause much damage, ut persists over time. &nsp;E
ventually it manifests as damage to the tissues (For example, in a sun urn UV w
ill injury the endothelial and skin, so you need to e exposed to the same injur
y for a period of time and the you get significant fluid leakage) when you get a
delayed prolonged exudation. &nsp;&nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
1477705981944 1471141547999 What are the three different natures of exudate?
Watery <>Serous </>exudate (specific gravity=1)<div><r /></div><div><>Firin
ous</>&nsp;characterized y firin leakage (specific gravity>1)</div><div><
r /></div><div><>Hemorrhagic</> Characterized y whole lood leakage<r /><di
v><r /></div><div><r /></div></div>
1477706095549 1471141547999 Descrie the process of margination
<div>Dur
ing lood flow, the various elements move through the lood at different paces d
ue to their viscosity. &nsp;The fluid moves on the outer areas and the lood ce
lls are forced to the center. &nsp;As you lose some fluid during inflammatory r
esponse, the red lood cells (and others) will start to ecome sticky and stick
together. &nsp;The white lood cells will e pushed out of the center towards t
he outside (stasis), eventually they are marginated onto the walls.</div><div><
r /></div>
1477706133449 1471141547999 Descrie the process of leukocyte migration
Normally the WBC is repelled from the endothelium due to like-like charge intera
ctions. &nsp;The WBC can ecome adherent to the endothelium due to E-Selectin &
nsp;and integrin interactions. &nsp;As these ecome activated it causes the ad
hesion molecules to ind to their receptors transiently. &nsp;These will cause
a rolling effect along the endothelium via sequential activation and deactivatio
n reactions in response to cytokines (TNF and IL-1) which will activate the adhe
sion molecule receptors on these cells. &nsp;As they move along they will find
the ICG where there are other molecules that pull them into the extra-endothelia
l space. &nsp;
1477706264281 1471141547999 What is Diapedesis?
The process of the WBC m
oving through the ICG.
1477706282735 1471141547999 How can our inflammatory response to a pathogen
cause local tissue damage?
<div>When the ody forms an inflammatory respons
e, it may contriute to the damage caused y the exoginous agent. &nsp;When &n
sp;the phagosome is forming, some of the lysosomal granules get released into th
e tissue. &nsp;This proteases and other enzymes will contriute to tissue damag
e locally. &nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
1477706393859 1471141547999 What types of tissue responses characterize infl
ammation and what are the signs of accute inflammation? <div>Inflammation is neu
rologic, vascular, humoral, and cellular</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
<div><div>Signs of inflammation are:</div><div>-Swelling</div><div>-Redness</div
><div>-Increase in temperature due to heat radiation from lood flow</div><div>Pain (so we can do something aout the area)</div><div>-Loss of function</div></
div>
1477706444610 1471141547999 Descrie the Plasma derived mediator pathway of
clotting.
XII is cleaved to XIIa, activating oth a clotting cascade leadi
ng to Thromin activation, and a Kinin cascade involving the activation of Kalli
krein, which will activate Bradykinin (pain molecule). &nsp;Thromin will cleav
e firinogen into Firin (clot forming). Kallikrein will cleave plasminogen into
Plasmin (counteractive agent), which catalyzes compliment ut also cleaves Fir
in to stop clotting.
1477706637503 1471141547999 What is PGI2? Prostacyclin, causes vasodilatio
n, inhiits platelet aggregation.
1477706683926 1471141547999 What is TXA2? Thromoxane A2<div>Causes vasoco
nstriction, promotes platelet aggregation.</div>
1477706712611 1471141547999 What are the effects of Leukotrienes? Bronchos
pasm and increased vascular permiaility.
1477706741750 1471141547999 What steroid that our teacher said in class will
Prednizone
lock the formation of arachidonic acid?
1477706773003 1471141547999 What is a suppurative exudate? Pussy exudate fr
om pyogenic infection. &nsp;The pus is neutrophils
1477706881047 1471141547999 What is Firinopurulent exudate?
Mix of f
irin and pus
1477706898728 1471141547999 Give an example of Serous, suppurative and Firi
nous exudate? Serous: Bullous diseases leading to water listers<div><r /></d

iv><div>Firinous: uremic pericarditis, read and utter heart. &nsp;Also in ch
ronic kidney disease.</div><div><r /></div><div>Suppurative: acute appendicitis
.</div>
1477706982316 1471141547999 What is the difference etween and Ascess and P
hlegmons?
Ascess is a focal pussy exudate, Phlegmons (cellulitis) is a sp
reading ascess, caused y something like Streptococcis.
1477707035302 1471141547999 What is the difference etween an ulcer and Pseu
domemrane? What is the most common cause of psuedomemranes? What else causes p
seudomemrane acute inflammation?
Ulcer: Focal necrosis and inflammation o
n the surface of some tissue, it leaves a crater ehind. &nsp;Usually a discret
e area.<div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div>Pseudomemrane: Diffuse Ulceration
.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>C-Diff (pseudomemranous colitis caused y C.
Difficile) is the most common cause</div><div><r /></div><div>Diptheria also c
auses pseudomemrane&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div>Note: ot
h are sutypes of acute inflammation ON SURFACES</div>
1477707091606 1471141547999 What causes the fever state of accute inflammati
on?
Endogenous pyrogens: IL-1, IL-6, TNFa, PGE, NO<div><r /></div><div><r
/></div>
1477707143597 1471141547999 What stimulates Leukocytosis in accute inflammat
ion?
IL-1, TNF, CSF, GSF
1477707166192 1471141547999 How long until acute inflammation ends? &nsp;Wh
at characterizes this? Neutraphils are replaced after 2-3 days y macrophages.
1477707229856 1471141547999 Descrie granulation tissue?
<div>Capillaries
generating in the area &nsp;to cart away the deree.</div><div><r /></div>
1477707355937 1471141547999 What will cause a decreat in collagen degredatio
n in scar tissue formation (firosis). Decreased metalloproteinase activity.
1477707409075 1471141547999 What are the mediators of chronic inflammation?
Cytokines, Lymphokines/monokines, C5a for chemotaxis, and angiogenesis factors.
1477707446508 1471141547999 <div><r /></div><div>What can cause a non-necra
tizing granuloma?</div>What can cause a necrotizing granuloma?<div>What can caus
e a suppurative granuloma?</div>
<div>Foreign ody, sarcoidosis, fungi.</
div><div><r /></div>T, fungi, Rheumatoid Arthritis<div><r /></div><div>Chalaz
ion (eye lid granuloma), Cat scratch disease<r /><div><r /></div><div><r /></
div></div>
1477707545473 1471141547999 What is a multinucleated giant cell?
<div>Som
etimes the ody cant deal with the agent, so it fuses macrophages to phagocytize
a larger material, such as a parasitic ovum. &nsp;The ody also wants to e a
le to shut the process down, so these giant cells are terminally differentiated.
&nsp;</div><div><r /></div>
1477707575240 1471141547999 What are the 2 types of giant cells?
Foreign
ody: random nuclei locations.<div><r /></div><div>Langhans type: peripheral or
ganization of nuclei.</div>
1477707607174 1471141547999 What are the 3 outcomes of granuloma? "Resolut
ion"<div><r /></div><div>Scarring with or without calcification to replace necr
otic tissue</div><div><r /></div><div>Cavity formation</div>
1477707657927 1471141547999 What are the systemic effects of chronic inflamm
ation? Low grade fever (99/100)<div>Weight loss</div><div>Anemia</div><div>Leuk
ocytosis, ut less than acute inflammation</div>
1477708948715 1471141547999 What is the difference etween tissue regenerati
on and tissue repair? Regeneration is replacement with cells that serve the sa
me function. &nsp;Repair is replacement with a scar via firosis which surves a
different function.
1477709001576 1471141547999 What are laile cells? Continously dividint, li
ke the Skin and GI, can regenerate from a limited wound.
1477709036391 1471141547999 What are stale cells? Can e stimulated to div
ide y a wound, such as liver cells. &nsp;Not continously dividing.
1477709062805 1471141547999 What are permanant cells?
<div>Lost the a
ility to divide, Such as neurons and Myocardial muscle cells. &nsp;However, wit
h specialized cell culture techniques there are some ways to get neurons to grow
in culture.</div><div><r /></div>
1477709081998 1471141547999 What stimulates cells into the G1 phase from G0?
TNF,IL-6
1477709241228 1471141547999 What stimulates Cell proliferation?
HGF, TGF
-a
1477709254719 1471141547999 What signals cells to stop growing?
TGF-B an
d activin
1477709284853 1471141547999 What factors trigger formation of scar tissue?
TGF-B!!!, IL-13, Vitamin C
1477711209757 1471141547999 When is the firous scar weakest?&nsp; 3-7 days
1477711233562 1471141547999 When will the scar remodel?
2-3 months
1477711246902 1471141547999 How does granulation tissue form?
<div>Gra
nulation tissue grows due to cytokines causing endothelial cells to send out cap
pilary shoots into the wounded areas. &nsp;There are also endothelial precursor
cells which &nsp;migrate to the wound y chemotactic factors and will grow end
othelial capillaries.</div><div><r /></div>
1477711278487 1471141547999 How is the scar remodeled?
<div>Randomly la
id down collagen is reasored y Matrix metalloproteinase regulators and these
are stimulated y TNF/IL-1 and EGF. &nsp;Steroids and TGF-B prevent these from
activating and cause scarring.</div><div><r /></div>
1477711320028 1471141547999 What does organization mean?
Firosis
1477711336729 1471141547999 What is primary and secondary wound healing?
Primary is a clean incised wound<div><r /></div><div>Secondary is a large dirty
wound</div>
1477711367492 1471141547999 What happens when there is too much wound healin
g?
Keloids, strictures, exuerant granulation tissue, all do to too much sc
ar tissue.
1477711426132 1471141547999 What happens when there is too little wound heal
ing?
Ulcers and fistulas
1477711443762 1471141547999 What can cause defects in wound healing?
Inadequate mediator production<div><r /></div><div>Neutropenia/one marrow supp
ression do to drugs/radiation</div><div><r /></div><div>Inadequate chemotaxis</
div><div><r /></div><div>Defective actericidal activity</div><div><r /></div>
<div>Vitamin/nutritional deficienies.</div>
1476889390538 1471141547999 How will lood/serum/plasma look with an anticoa
gulant? &nsp;Without? With: 55% is plasma with coagulation factors on the top,
45% is Red lood cells on the ottom (hematocrit) and white lood cells and pla
telets are in the center.<div><r /></div><div>Without: Serum on top missing fi
rinogen and other coagulation factors, clot on ottom containing cells and coagu
lation factors in the clot.</div>
1476889499112 1471141547999 What are the white lood cells, list them in ord
er of decreasing prevalence in the peripheral lood.
Neutrophils, Lymphocytes
, Monocytes, Eosinophils, Basophils
1476889609976 1471141547999 What are the two types of Hematopoiesis and wher
e do they occur?
Myeloid Devlopment: Occurring in the one marrow, this i
nclude production of neutrophils, eos, asos, monocytes, erythrocytes and platel
ets.<div><r /></div><div>Lymphoid development: Primarily occurs in one marrow
(B lymphocyte production) and Thymus (T lymphocyte production). &nsp;Secondaril
y occurs in the spleen, lymph nodes, and gut associated tissues where B and T ce
lls ecome competent and proliferate in response to antigen.</div>
1476889750135 1471141547999 Where is the major site of hematopoisis in the f
etus? The liver, the one marrow in the axial skeleton is the major site throu
ghout life however (not including the distal long ones).
1476889808944 1471141547999 Why do new orns have a pot elly?
Enlarged
liver due to residual hematopoiesis.
1476889833112 1471141547999 What happens when the one marrow can no longer
participate in Hematopoiesis? The liver and spleen can revert ack to lood ce
ll production.
1476903241320 1471141547999 What is induced Hematopoiesis? It is hematopoie
sis in response to anormal conditions, for example increased production of neut
rophils in response to acteria and increased RBC production in response to Anem

ia.
1476903300511 1471141547999 What makes up the one marrow semi liquid state?
Hematopoietic cells, support(stromal cells) and extracellular matrix, one produ
cting cells (osteolasts and osteoclasts), and lood vessels (arteries, veins, s
inuses)
1476903954353 1471141547999 What is the structure of Bone marrow? Blood ce
lls suspended in cords etween traeclae which support the cells. &nsp;There ar
e also a Network of lood sinuses throughout the one marrow lined with endothel
ial cells to form a arrier.
1476904115790 1471141547999 How are cell location, trafficking and growth re
gulated?
Cytokine and Chemokine secretions, and Receptors and adhesion mo
lecules on cells.
1476904427723 1471141547999 What happens as lood cells mature in the one m
arrow? They migrate through the endothelial cells into the vascular sinus, then
into the peripheral lood.
1476904478968 1471141547999 What is a megakaryocyte?
A cell that prot
rudes proplatelet processes through the endothelial cells and releases platelets
directly into the sinus.
1476904525508 1471141547999 What are the types of marrow and what is their m
akeup? How does the composition change over time?
Red marrow is 90% hemato
poietic cells, ellow marrow is adipocytes and some lood cells. &nsp;During in
fancy there is 90-100% red marrow, in all the ones. &nsp;With age, starting at
5-7, there is the process of <font color="#ce0206">involution </font>in which f
at replaces the red marrow. &nsp;By age 20 red marrow is only located in the ax
ial skeleton, pelvis, and proximal ends of long ones.
1476904634645 1471141547999 Where is one marrow collected from?
Iliac cr
est
1476904650517 1471141547999 What is the difference etween medullary and ext
ramedullary hematopoiesis
Medullary: In one marrow cavity<div>Extramedull
ary: Outside the one marrow cavity, commonly in the spleen and liver</div>
1476905056253 1471141547999 What happens if there is an increased proportion
of hematopoietic cells to fat in BM? It can cause one deformities in childre
n, for example in thalassemia major.
1476905141393 1471141547999 What happens if there is early release of cells
from the one marrow? There are immature cells on peripheral lood smear.
1476905178847 1471141547999 What is the clinical sign for extramedullary hem
atopoiesis?
Hepatosplenomegaly
1476905228328 1471141547999 What are hematopoietic stem cells?
They can
split into a common myeloid/lymphoid progenetor, and another stem cell.
1476905298304 1471141547999 What is the processes of myelopoiesis? Myelola
sts form into ands and finally segmented neutrophils (seperated y promyelocyte
, myelocyte, metamyelocyte which are immature precursor cells)
1476905384755 1471141547999 What is the process of lympho and momopoiesis?
Lympholast->prolymphocyte->lymphocyte<div>Monolast->Promonocyte->M
onocyte</div>
1476905433873 1471141547999 Descrie the process of Megakaryopoiesis
Megakaryolast to Megakaryocyte to Platelets in the peripheral lood.
1476905510481 1471141547999 Descrie the process of Erythropoiesis. Immature
nucleated RBC precursors in the marrow will differentiate into Reticulocytes wh
ich in a day will mature into Erythrocytes.
1476905565859 1471141547999 How can the ody rapidly increase Neutrophil con
centration in response to microorganisms?
They can moalize them from the
marginal neutrophil pool in the capillary walls, lung, spleen, and liver. They c
an also e increased with steroids. &nsp;
1476906100751 1471141547999 How is neutrophil concentration effected in canc
er?
They are lower since they are the first lood cells to decrease with che
motherapy.
1476906173922 1471141547999 What happens to lood cells with Vitamin B12 and
Folate deficiencies? Impaired DNA synthesis leads to ineffective hematopoiesi
s causing megalolastic anemia. &nsp;This causes slower nuclear maturation in t

he BM &nsp;due to Nuclear cytoplasmic asynchrony, leading to large anormal RBC
precursors. &nsp;In the PB this causes Pancytopenia (decreased WBC RBC PLT's),
oval macrocytes and hypersegmented neutrophils.
1476906340231 1471141547999 What are growth factors/cytokines and where are
they produced. Produced in the one marrow microevironment (except EPO which is
secreted via the kidney), these ind growth factor receptors on hematopoietic c
ells and can have therapeutic applications.
1476906409052 1471141547999 What is a clinical use of EPO? Treating chronic
kidney disease.
1476906427457 1471141547999 Descrie the function of EPO. <img src="paste3547642987488.jpg" />
1476906481296 1471141547999 What is G-CSF? What is it clinically used for?
It is granulocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor, stimulating the differentiation and
maturation of Neutrophils, as well as moilizing HSCs into the peripheral lood
.<div><r /></div><div>It can e used to increase WBC count in cancer patients w
ith Leukopenia y moalizing WBCs from the BM to PB</div>
1476906617657 1471141547999 What is GM-CSF? What does it do? &nsp;What is i
t clinically used for? Granulocyte macrophate colony stimulating factor. &nsp;
It stimulates the differentiation and maturation of neutrophils and monocytes, a
s well as moilizes HSCs into the peripheral lood.<div><r /></div><div>Clinica
lly it is given to donors to moilize HSCs and progenitor cells into the PB. &n
sp;These can then e collected y venous access and leukapheresis and can e use
d to treat patients with hematologic conditions.</div>
1476906739428 1471141547999 What is one marrow aspirate used for? &nsp;How
aout iopsy? Aspirate: Identify anormal morphology of hematopoietic cells<di
v><r /></div><div>Biopsy: Oserve one marrow architecture and cells in fixed l
ocation to diagnose enign and malignant conditions.</div>
1477155950667 1471141547999 In which cells are antiody integral memrane pr
oteins? Unstimulated B cells
1477156032994 1471141547999 Where is there the most variaility in antiodie
s?
In the CDR regions of the V domains, where the antiodies ind.
1477156159218 1471141547999 Which region imparts flexiility to antiodies?
The hinge region
1477156241797 1471141547999 How do secreted IgG antiodies differ from memr
ane antiodies? Secreted antiodies have shorter C termini due to the loss of so
me of their transmemrane domain. &nsp;This is due splicing through the use of
a different Poly A site.
1477156438645 1471141547999 What are the primary functions of IgG? the prin
cipal antiody mediatory of the secondary immune response<div>the only antiody
that can cross the placenta to provide passive protection of the fetus</div><div
><r /></div>
1477157037120 1471141547999 What IgG suclass is most susceptile to proteas
e cleavage?
IgG3, since the hinge region is longest.
1477157066014 1471141547999 What are the major functions of IgM?
Principa
l antiody mediatory of the primary immune response<div>agglutinates antigen</di
v><div>proficient at complement fixation</div>
1477157119813 1471141547999 What is the structure of IgM? How is this functi
onally significant?
It is a pentamer so it can ind up to 10 epitopes (all t
he same kind) on a cell surface, giving it very high avidity. &nsp;It does not,
however, have a hinge region (from POPS).
1477157191995 1471141547999 In what two forms do IgA exist?&nsp; In the I
gA1 monomer, which is present in circulation<div><r /></div><div>IgA2 dimer whi
ch is the predominant antiody in mucosal secretions and mucosal immunity. &nsp
;</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
1477157592121 1471141547999 What are the functions of IgD? It is used as a
marker of B cell maturation<div>Co-stimulator during antigen presentation</div><
div>If it is in the serum it is a sign of cancer.</div>
1477157656783 1471141547999 What is the function of IgE? &nsp;<div>What doe
s it ind to?</div><div>What is IgE presence in circulation?</div><div>How does
It is the primary antiody in hypersensitivity,

inding of IgE work?</div>
allergies, and asthma. &nsp;It used to e the primary antiparasite antiody, ho
wever we usually dont have parasites anymore so they attack other structures. &n
sp;<div><r /></div><div>It inds with vary high affinity to mast cells and cir
culating asophils, less so to lymphocytes and monocytes.&nsp;</div><div><r />
</div><div>It is present in circulation at only very trace ammounts.&nsp;<div><
r /></div><div>IgE inds to the Fc receptor on mast cells, and allergen inding
to IgE will trigger the release of the granules in the cell containing histamin
es and other allergic reaction components.</div></div>
1477157825100 1471141547999 Which region of the antiody will ind antigens?
The Fa region, however without the Fc region it will not interact with Fc recep
tors.
1477158039748 1471141547999 What are isotypic, allotypic, and idiotypic dete
rminants?
Isotypic: Determined y gene, it is the same for a species, it i
s the type of immunogloin (IgM, IgG etc.)<div><r /></div><div>Allotypic: Deter
mined y allele, it is the different types of strains of each immunogloin (a2 v
s a1) determined y differences on the conserved regions of their heavy and ligh
t chains.</div><div><r /></div><div>Idiotypic: Changes in the variale regions
of the heavy and light chains that effect antiody inding.</div>
1477158172650 1471141547999 What is immunogeniticity vs antigenicity?
Immunogenicity: The aility to evoke an immune response<div><r /></div><div>Ant
igenicity: The aility to ind an antiody.&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>&n
sp;Small molecules are often not immunogenic unless attached to a large molecule
(called a hapten carrier)</div>
1477158234208 1471141547999 What properties of an antigen will lead to the l
argest immune response?&nsp; Non self structure which is large in size, chemi
cally complex and capale of eing degraded. &nsp;<div><r /></div><div>&nsp;<
/div>
1477158401981 1471141547999 What types of onds link antiody to antigen?
Non covalent
1477158423856 1471141547999 What is cross reactivity?
Antiodies to fo
reign invaders can resemle our own strucutres (shared epitopes) and trigger an
immune response:<div><r /></div>
1477158565716 1471141547999 Give a complete description of how the Lectin Pa
thway works up until its convergence with the other 2 pathways MBL or Ficolin
ind either a mannose/fructose residue, or a acetylated oligosaccharide. &nsp;Th
is activates MASP-2, turning it into a Cleavage enzyme. This will cleave C4 into
C4a and C4, C4 remaining ound on the pathogen. &nsp;C4 will complex with C
2a, which was cleaved into C2a and C2 y MASP-2. &nsp;C2 will not remain oun
d. &nsp;This active C42a complex acts as a C3 convertase, cleaving up to 1000
molecules of &nsp;C3 into C3a and C3. &nsp;C3 will stay ound on the microi
al surface via the TED domain or complex onto the convertase.
1477160054037 1471141547999 Give a complete description of how the Classical
pathway works up until its convergence with the other 2 pathways
<div>C1q
&nsp;will either ind an antiody ound to a pathogen, or the pathogen itself.
&nsp;This will trigger C1r to cleave C1s into an active protease. This will cl
eave C4 into C4a and C4, C4 remaining ound on the pathogen. &nsp;C4 will co
mplex with C2a, which was cleaved into C2a and C2 y C1s. &nsp;C2 will not re
main ound. &nsp;This active C42a complex acts as a C3 convertase, cleaving up
to 1000 molecules of &nsp;C3 into C3a and C3. &nsp;C3 will stay ound on th
e microial surface via the TED domain or complex onto the convertase.</div><div
><r /></div>
1477160074545 1471141547999 Give a complete description of how the alternati
ve pathway works up until its convergence with the other 2 pathways
<div>C3
is deposited via another pathway and will ind free factor B. &nsp;This is cle
aved y plasma protease Factor D into Ba and B. &nsp;This C3B complex is als
o a C3 convertase, cleaving C3 into C3a and C3. C3 will stay ound on the micr
oial surface via the TED domain or complex onto the convertase.</div><div>In ad
dition, C3 could spontaneously hydrolyze to C3(H2O), inding Factor B (which is
cleaved from Factor B into B and Ba y Factor D), turning into a C3 convertase
. The C3 that is then produced will rapidly inactivate unless it inds to a cel
l surface and complexes with another B which was cleaved from Factor B y Facto
r D.</div><div>C3B is not very stale on the cell surface, so properdin/Factor
P will stailize it on the pathogen surface.</div><div><r /></div>
1477160095165 1471141547999 How is the memrane attack complex formed? (Big
MAC attack)
C3 can ind to either C42a or C3B to form an active C5 conve
rtase. &nsp;This will cleave C5 into C5 and C5a. C5 is critical in forming th
e memrane attack complex. &nsp;This will ind C6 and C7, and will ind to the
memrane via C7. &nsp;C7 wil ind the complex and insert into the memrane, C8
will ind, when C9 will ind and polymerize on the memrane. &nsp;10-16 molecul
es of C9 will form a pore into the cell to allow leakage and transport of immune
molecules in to kill the cell.
1477160138939 1471141547999 What is the function of free C5a?
Free C5a
can ind to C5a receptors on phagocytes and will allow phagocytosis of C3 coate
d acteria ound to the CR1 Receptor.
1477160168572 1471141547999 What is the result of the interactions etween C
3 and Factor I?
A C3 on the cell can e cleaved y Factor I and MCP Cof
actor to release C3f, leaving iC3 ehind. &nsp;iC3 can then e cleaved to rel
ease C3c and leave C3dg.
1477160211473 1471141547999 What is the effect of small released fragments?
Small released fragments like C5a and C3a can act on lood vessels to increase v
ascular permeaility and cell adhesion molecules. &nsp;This allows fluid leakag
e from lood vessels and extravasation of immunogloulin and component molecules
, as well as increased migration of macrophages, PMN's (polymophonuclear leukocy
tes), and lymphocytes. The microial activity of these cells is also increased.<
div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div>LOOKS LIKE LOCAL INFLAMMATION TO ME</div>
1477160231775 1471141547999 What are all the mechanisms for host protection
from each of the various attack pathways?
<div>On host cells complement re
gulatory proteins CR1, H, MCP, and DAF will ind to C3 to displace B. &nsp;Th
is will cause cleavage y Factor I, inactivating C3.&nsp;</div><div>&nsp;</di
v><div>A C1INH (inhiitor) can also displace C1r and C1s from C1q to lock actio
n of the classical pathway on host cells.</div><div>&nsp;</div><div>DAF, C4BP,
and Cr1 will displace C2a from the C42a complex in the lectin pathway, leading
to cleavage y solule protease I.&nsp;</div><div>&nsp;</div><div>The C3 comp
onent of the C5 convertase can e displaced y CR1 and H which act as cofactors
in the cleavage of C3 y I.&nsp;</div><div>&nsp;</div><div>CD59 will lock th
e assemly of the attack complex y locking C9 polymerization.</div><div><r />
</div>
1477160264267 1471141547999 What are the effects of defects in the classical
/lectin (MBL), and alternative pathways? &nsp;How aout defects in C3 depositi
on? What aout defects in the ig MAC attack? <div>Defects in the classical pa
thway leads to immune complex disease, defects in MBL lead to childhood acteria
l infections, defects in alternative lead to infection with pyogenic acteria, a
nd Neisseria SPP.</div><div>&nsp;</div><div>Defects In C3 deposition leads to
infection with pyogenic acteria, Neisseria SPP, and immune complex diseases</di
v><div>&nsp;</div><div>Defects in Memrane attack complexes lead to infection w
ith Neisseria spp.</div><div><r /></div>
1477160345964 1471141547999 Which MHC will CD4 helper and CD8 cytotoxic T ce
lls recognize? MHC I->CD8<div>MHC II-> CD4</div>
1477161278149 1471141547999 Where is the HLA complex located in the human Ge
nome? &nsp;How aout in mice for shits and gigs?<div><r /></div><div>What are
the 3 allelic components of MHC I in humans? &nsp;How aout MHC II</div><div><
r /></div><div>What other genes are found in the human MHC region?</div>
Short arm of chromosome 6 for humans, 17 for mice.<div><r /></div><div>Class I
is A, B, and C. &nsp;Class II is DR, DQ, and DP.</div><div><r /></div><div>Gen
es for some complement components found within the human MHC region. &nsp;TAP 1
and TAP 2 are transport associated proteins found in this region. &nsp;Some cy
tokine genes are also found here, such as TNFa and TNF. &nsp;Some non classica
l MHC class I genes are HLA E, F, and G. &nsp;They do not have the same structu
re as the classical molecules.</div>
1477162093264 1471141547999 How do new haplotypes arise? &nsp;Which parent

is this more common with?
They arise due to recomination of chromosomes d
uring meiosis. &nsp;This is more common with the father.
1477162156492 1471141547999 How are MHC class I and II genotypes expressed?
They are codominantly expressed.
1477162196705 1471141547999 Which loci are the most polymorphic for Class I
and II MHC?
B is the most polymorphic for Class I and DR is the most for cla
ss II. &nsp;
1477162315440 1471141547999 Descrie the structure of Class I MHC. <div>The
heavy alpha chain is non covalently associated with a small invarient chain cal
led eta 2 microgloulin. &nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>All the different Lo
ci have a similar structer to this if they are Class I (A, B, C etc.)</div><div>
<r /></div><div>Beta 2 microgloulin will e invarient since it is essential fo
r cell surface expression.</div><div>Heavy chain is composed of the a1 and a2 do
main which form the peptide inding cleft,&nsp;</div><div>this will ind the an
tigen and present it to CD8 positive T cells. A3 domain is non varient</div><div
>and will ind the Cd8 T cell.</div><div><r /></div>
1477162438421 1471141547999 Descrie the structure of clas II MHC molecules.
<div>Class 2 molecules have 2 heavy chains, alpha1 + alpha 2, and Beta1 + Beta2.
&nsp;The peptide inding cleft is etween a1 and 1.</div>
1477162563472 1471141547999 How does the peptide inding cleft function?
At any given time the peptide inding cleft can only have 1 ound peptide, howev
er each cleft can ind many different types of molecules due to critical residue
s which are shared y a lot of proteins. At any given time 98% of PBClefts are o
ccupied for self peptides. &nsp;During immune response that self peptide will
e umped out y viral/acterial peptides.&nsp;
1477162646867 1471141547999 What is the major difference in the peptide ind
ing clefts of I and II? Class I peptide inding cleft is closed at oth sides. &
nsp;Class II is open, allowing for larger peptide inding.
1477162695126 1471141547999 Which anchor residues are essential for the K a
nd Kd alleles of MHC class I? For K 5 and 8 are essential, for Kd 2 and 9 are
essential.
1477162993249 1471141547999 How do the amino acid differences in different H
LA alleles cause changes in their inding affinities? The small amino acid dif
ferences will cause a significant change in the inding pockets of the HLA molec
ules.
1477163113789 1471141547999 Where is the most allelic variaility in MHC mol
ecules? In the inding pockets.
1477163157210 1471141547999 How does a T-cell recognize an MHC ound antigen
on an antigen presenting cell? The T cell receptor must e a match for oth the
antigen eing presented, and the polymorphic shape of the MHC itself (meaning i
t must e a self MHC) in order to ind. &nsp;
1477163252554 1471141547999 Which cells express MHC I molecules?
All nucl
eated cells, and platelets. &nsp;Erythrocytes do not express them in humans, on
ly mice.
1477163279360 1471141547999 Which cells express MHC Class II molecules?
B cells, macrophages, dendritic cells and activated (not resting) T cells in hum
ans.
1477163370302 1471141547999 What is alloreactivity? <div>T cell only recogni
zes self MHC, however there is an exception to this rule called alloreactivity w
here T cells can recognize foreign MHC . &nsp;This can happen in vivo during or
gan transplantation, lood transfusion, or pregnancy. &nsp;Some foreign cell (m
acrophage) will express allogeneic MHC I and II. &nsp;</div><div><r /></div><d
1477163459050 1471141547999 How do T cells recognize allogenic MHC? <div>If
the allogeneic structure resemles the self MHC then the t cell may e ale to
ind and respond. &nsp;There is a very high frequency of these types of cells, a
nd the response is due to cross reactivity etween allogeneic MHC, self MHC and
the peptides they are expressing.</div><div><img src="paste-9749575762494.jpg" /
></div>
1477163626877 1471141547999 Descrie the effect of superantigens on MHC-Tcel

l inding
Super antigens dont bind the antigen binding groove, they bind on
the outside of the antigen presenting cell. Many t cells can bind when a
bacterial or viral super antigen are bound to the MHC. The immune response
to these antigens are vrey strong and activate many cells, often leading to the
toxic shock caused by these bacteria/toxins.
1477163680455 1471141547999 How can you type the HLA allele of an individual
?
You add an antibody to the allele you are testing for, then add compleme
nt followed by trypsin blue dye into the solution. If the antibody was a m
atch, then the complement would have bored holes into the cell and allowed dye t
o be taken into the cell. If they were not a match there would be no dye i
n the cell.
1477163774873 1471141547999 How can you use a lymphocyte reaction to check t
he compatability of a donor and recipient of blood.
Take the donor cells, an
d add them to cells from the recipient, then add radioactive thymidine. &n
bsp;If they are a match there will be no proliferation. If they are not a match
there will be lymphocyte proliferation which will incorperate the radioactive nu
cleotide into their DNA which can then be seen with a geiger meter.
1477163956732 1471141547999 What does it mean if you and your father have di
fferent allles of MHC? He aint your papa. Check the mail man.
1477163986040 1471141547999 What is a drawback of certain HLA alleles?
Certain alleles (Such as B27) can predispose individuals to autoimmune diseases
(such as ankylosing spondylitis).
1477164039726 1471141547999 Which MHC is more important to completely match
in allograft survival? Class II MHC.
1477164083432 1471141547999 What are the peptide presentation strategies for
MHC I and MHC II?
MHC-1 s strategy: Pinch the Peptide at either end and pr
esent the pinched portion to TCR. MHC-2 s strategy: Interact with most of the pe
ptide backbone (and some residues) and present the linearized peptide to the TCR
1477164918268 1471141547999 How do T cells recognize antigen?
They onl
y recognize linear epitopes when they are bound to MHC.
1477165623674 1471141547999 what is the effect of CD4 and CD8 cells upon see
ing an antigen complexed to MHC?
When CD8 cells see antigen bound to MHC
I it will kill the infected cell and produce cytokines.<div><br /></div><div>Whe
n CD4 cells see antigen bound to MHC II they will proliferate and produce cytoki
nes.</div>
1477165695564 1471141547999 Answer the following questions for Cytosolic, in
travesicular, and extracellular pathogens/toxins:<div><br /></div><div>Where are
they degraded</div><div>What do they bind to</div><div>What are they presented
to</div><div>What is the effect on presenting</div>
Cytosolic pathogens (in
any cell):<div><div>Where are they degraded: Cytosol</div><div>What do they bind
to: MHC I</div><div>What are they presented to: CD8 T cell</div><div>What is th
e effect on presenting: Cell Death</div><div><br /></div><div>Intravesicular pat
hogens (usually in macrophage): </div><div><div>Where are they degraded:&nb
sp;Endocytic vesicles (acidic)</div><div>What do they bind to: MHC II</div><div>
What are they presented to: CD4 T cells</div><div>What is the effect on presenti
ng: Activation to kill intravesicular bacteria and parasites.</div></div><div><b
r /></div><div>Extracellular Pathogens/Toxins:</div><div><div>Where are they deg
raded: Endocytic vesicles (acidic)</div><div>What do they bind to: MHC II</
div><div>What are they presented to: CD4 T Cells.</div><div>What is the effect o
n presenting: Activation of B cells to secrete Ig to eliminate extracellular bac
teria/toxin.</div></div><div><br /></div></div>
1477165995668 1471141547999 What are the two pathways for antigen processing
and how do generally they work?
Exoginous: Antigen will be taken into th
e cell by APC s which will present the molecule on MHC II.<div>Endoginous: Antig
en was formed by some form of infection, so antigen presenting on MHC I will cau
se CD8 cells to kill the infected cell.</div>
1477166121518 1471141547999 What are the three professional antigen presenti
ng cells and what are their final effects.<div><br /></div><div>What is the mech
anism of action of Effector T cells? </div>
Dendritic Cell: Causes N
aive T cell activation and clonal expantion/differentiation into effector T cell

s.<div><br /></div><div>Macrophage: Effector T cell activation causing activatio
n of macrophages (cell mediated immunity) to kill endocytoses microbe.</div><div
><br /></div><div>B cell: Activated by effector T cell leading to antibody produ
ction. Note: B cells are antigen specific while the other two are not, thi
s means the antibodies produced will be specific for the antigen.</div><div><br
/></div><div>Effector t cells will upregulate cytokines (such as INTERFERON GAMM
A (this is likely a test question)) which will stimulate the desired effects.</d
iv>
1477166388555 1471141547999 Where are dendritic cells located?
<div>25%
of epidermal layer is phenotypically immature dendritic cell</div><div>In the l
ymphoid organs dendritic cells sit at the interphase of the b cell and t cell re
gions</div><div><br /></div>
1477166411365 1471141547999 How do dendritic cells actually present antigen
to T cells if they are in the epidermal layer? <div>Dendritic cells will grab f
ree antigen and become activated, migrating through the lymphatic vessels to the
lymph node, going through a maturation process and binding T cells in the lymph
node.</div><div><br /></div>
1477166454356 1471141547999 What are the differences in function between an
immature and mature Dendritic Cell?
Immatured Dendritic cells are designed t
o highly bind a large number of antigens, but not signal T cells (they have less
7x MHC complexes which are turned over move often). Once they mature, the
number of MHC complexes increased 7 fold, and they no longer highly bind antige
ns. Instead they are more proficient at signaling T cells using molecules
like Il-12 and B7 etc.
1477166606584 1471141547999 What are the differences in Dendritic Cells and
B cells as antigen presenting cells?
Dendritic cells can efficiently deliver
both signals (Antigen+peptide which will cause T cell activaiton, and a post sti
mulatory molecule which causes clonal expansion), and are thus the most efficien
t primary immune response molecule. <div><br /></div><div>B cells are rare
in primary response, but will drasticaly expand in secondary response, and thus
are the most efficient secondary response molecule.</div>
1477166815828 1471141547999 How are antigens take in and bound to MHC?
They are bound to a nonspecific (in dendritic cells and macrophages, specific in
B cells) antigen binding receptor, which will causes clatharin mediated endocyt
osis of the vesicle. This will fuse with an early endosome, causing sepera
tion from antigen and recycling of the receptor. This endosome will fuse t
o an exocytic vesicle which contains the MHC complex bound to an invarient prote
in. The invarient chain is then cleaved, leavin the CLIP protein bound. Th
e antigen will then displace CLIP and bind to the MHC II molecule in the lysosme
where it will be trafficked to the cell surface to bind CD4 cells.
1477167106274 1471141547999 How are endoginous antigens presented on the cel
l surface?
Endoginous antigen proteins are digested by the proteosome, and
then actively transported into the ER by the TAP1 and TAP2 active transporters.
In the ER the MHCI molecule will bind B2 microglobin and then the antigen.
It will then be trafficked to the golgi and then finally the cell surface
to bind a CD8 T cell.
1477167304492 1471141547999 What is the purpose of the invarient chain on MH
C Class II?
The invarient chain will block binding of class I peptides to Cl
ass II in the ER. It is removed by HLA DM in the endosome/lysosome.
1477167383689 1471141547999 Where do T cells survey APC s for foreign peptid
es?
In the lymph nodes.
1477167426111 1471141547999 What is the definition of immunodominant epitope
s?
Peptides that bind most avidly to MHC.
1477167456820 1471141547999 What is the effect of having alleles that do not
bind well to certain peptides? What is a way that viruses can artifically
impact this pathway? These alleles, for example HLA-B8, will cause the indivi
duals to be low responders to certain diseases, such as Hep B in this example. &
nbsp;Viruses, such as Adenovirus E19, can block nascent MHC (Class I in this cas
e) and block their movement from the ER. This will lower expression and ca
use reduced immune recognition of the virus.<div><br /></div>

1477167584159 1471141547999 What is cross-presentation?
It is when dendr
itic cells take up antigen from the outside, like a virus infected cell, and pre
sent the peptides to CD8 T cells on MHC I. This can be more effective sinc
e the dendritic cell isn t infected and thus the virus is less likely to escape.
1477167717773 1471141547999 What is CD1?
Aa non polymorphic MHC-like mole
cule that associated with B2-microglobulin (maps outside MHC region) and is capa
ble of presenting mycolic acid and liparabinomannan (Lipid and Glycolipid) from
mycobacteria to T cells. The antigen is exogenous and requires processing.
<div><br /></div><div>CD1 can express non-protein antigen to a population of CD4
cells that express NK markers or to some conventional T cells in order to stimu
late cytokine production. </div>
1477167865370 1471141547999 Give a general relavence of antigen presentation
to clinical medicine <img src="paste-12519829669064.jpg" />
1477192230111 1471141547999 Describe the Specificity, diversity, memory resp
onse, self/nonself discrimination, and cell types of innate immunity. <img src
="paste-13396002996804.jpg" />
1477192320062 1471141547999 What is the biggest immune organ in the innate r
esponse?
The skin
1477192336776 1471141547999 What are the non-induced innate response sites?
Skin, mouth, airway, lung, epithelial lining of airway, lung, and alimentary can
al, stomach, intestines and rectum.
1477192375214 1471141547999 Describe the mechanical and chemical defense of
the skin, gut, lungs, and eyes/nose/oral cavity.
<b>Mechanical:</b><div><
font color="#0f0466">Skin:Epithelial cells with tight junctions, flow of air/flu
id</font></div><div><font color="#0f0466">Gut:Epithelial cells with tight juncti
ons, flow of air/fluid</font></div><div><font color="#0f0466">Lungs: Epithelial
cells with tight junctions, movement of mucus by cilia</font></div><div><font co
lor="#0f0466">Eye/nose/oral:Epithelial cells with tight junctions, tears, nasal
cilia</font></div><div><br /></div><div><b>Chemical:</b></div><div><font color="
#a00f0e">Skin:Fatty acids, defensins (psoriasin), lamellar bodies, Cathelicidin<
/font></div><div><font color="#a00f0e">Gut:Low pH, enzymes (pepsin), a-defensins
, Reglll, cathelicidin</font></div><div><font color="#a00f0e">Lungs:Pulminary su
rfactant, a-defensins, Cathelicidin</font></div><div><font color="#a00f0e">Eye/n
ose/oral:Enzymes in tears and saliva, Histatins, B-defensins</font></div>
1477192626867 1471141547999 How do epithelial barriers block infection?
They are a physical barrier, produce local antibiotics like defensins, and kill
microbs with intraepithelial lymphocytes (innate lymphoid cells).
1477192680192 1471141547999 What types of bacteria do defensins like psorias
in work on?
Gram negative bacteria.
1477192703420 1471141547999 What occurs at the onset of the inflammatory res
ponse? 1. Recruitment of effector cells/mechanisms, vasodilation, increased per
meability,<div>2. Blood clotting to prevent pathogen spread</div><div>3. Tissue
remodeling to repair damage.</div>
1477192865494 1471141547999 What increases in the serum at the onset of infe
ctions? Acute phase proteins, which are usually at low concentration, rapidly in
crease until the resolution of the infection.
1477192914069 1471141547999 Describe the process of acute phase protein prod
uction. Macrophages are induced by bacteria to produce IL-6, which causes hepato
cytes to produce C-reactive protein, mannan binding lectin etc. C-reactive
protein binds phosphorylcholine and acts as an opsin+activates complement. &nbs
p;Mannose binding lectin binds mannose on the bacteria, acting as an opsinin and
activating complement (see lecture 4).
1477193051936 1471141547999 What is the SED rate, how is it significant?
It is the rate at which red blood cells in a tube of blood will settle. At
the start of infection, secreted IL-6 will increase fibrinogen secretion, incre
asing the SED rate in erythrocytes since fibrinogen will bind and weigh them dow
n. It is used as a non-specific indicator of inflammation and infection by
bacteria.
1477193146090 1471141547999 How does the innate immune system recognize dang
er?
Pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPS): Components on the pathog
en that are common to different pathogens and elicit a response. MAMPS are
microbe associated molecular patterns.<div><br /></div><div>Danger-associated m
olecular patterns (DAMPS): Heat shock proteins, HMGB1-a chromatin associated pro
tein that is secreted in reponse to danger and can induce DC maturation and proinflammatory cytokines, Purine metabolites released upon necrotic cell death, an
d DNA anywhere except the nucelus and mitochondria.</div>
1477238160618 1471141547999 What is the difference between PAMP recognition
and antibody recognition?
Antibodies are highly specific and will only bin
d to a specific antigen on a cell. A Pattern recognition receptor on an in
nate leukocyte will bind a pattern molecule which can be widely distributed amon
g pathogens.
1477238250060 1471141547999 What is a Toll like receptor? Which receptor bin
ds Bacterial LPS and gram negative Bacteria?
It is a type of Pattern Recognit
ion receptor which is comprised of a leucine rich region on its exterior domain,
and a TIR signaling domain composed of 3 boxes. There are different extra
cellular and intracellular forms of the receptor, and upon activation the recept
ors dimerize.<div><br /></div><div>TLR4 will bind Bacterial LPS and Gram negativ
e bacteria.</div>
1477238471803 1471141547999 What will activate a DAMP receptor? What w
ill this activation cause?
ATP from dying cells, DNA, bacterial toxins, and
other ligands can activate DAMP Receptors on Inflammasomes which results in IL1B activation.
1477238587178 1471141547999 What are some cytoplasmic intracellular Censors
and what do they do?
RIG-I and MDA5 recognize cytoplasmic RNA (like from viru
ses)<div><br /></div><div>AIM, TREX, and STING recognize cytoplasmic DNA (like f
rom DNA viruses)</div>
1477238641759 1471141547999 What are the cells involved in innate immunity?
Neutrophils+macrophages (phagocytes)<div><br /></div><div>Dendritic cells</div><
div><br /></div><div>Natural killer cells</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div
1477238700336 1471141547999 What is the difference between neutrophils and m
acrophages/monocytes
Neutrophils are short lived (with extended life upon inf
ection), macrophages are long lived and can regenerate lysosomes<div><br /></div
><div>Macrophages present Antigen to CD4 cells, Neutrophils do not, </div>
<div><br /></div><div>Macrophages are present in tissues and blood so will respo
nd quickly to infection, neutrophils are only in blood so will need to be recrui
ted to the site of the infection.</div>
1477238807193 1471141547999 What can macrophages differentiate into if they
are not activated?
Microglia in the CNS<div>Kupfler Cells in the Liver</div
><div>Alveolar Macrophages in the Lung</div><div>Osteoclasts in the bone</div>
1477238858812 1471141547999 How do macrophages drag in bacteria?
Via acid
opods (tenticles)
1477238883572 1471141547999 Which Toll like receptor allows macrophages to r
ecognize gram negative bacteria?
CD14
1477238942375 1471141547999 What will be the effect of chemicals like chemok
ines, N-formalmethionyl peptides, or lipid mediators binding to PPR s on macroph
ages? Increased integrin avidity, cytoskeletal changes, and ultimately migrati
on to the tissues.
1477239022027 1471141547999 What will be the effect of microbes binding to a
Mannose PPR? Phagocytosis of microbe into the phagosome, production of cytoki
nes+Reactive oxygen intermediates, and ultimately killing of microbes
1477239089659 1471141547999 What is the effect of microbe binding to a toll
like receptor? Production of cytokines+Reactive oxygen intermediates, and ultim
ately killing of microbes
1477239170499 1471141547999 Explain what happens in the innate immune system
upond damage to the tissue
Damage causes release of vasoactive and chemotac
tic factors, triggering a local increase in blood flow and capillary permeabilit
y. This allows an influx of fluid and cells to the site. Phagocytes
will migrate to the site of inflammation via chemotaxis and in conjunction with
antibacterial exudate they will destroy bacteria.

1477239290414 1471141547999 What is the process of extravasation and how doe
s it work?
It is the process by which immune cells will migrate out of the
capillaries to the site of infection. The cells will roll along the walls of the
capillary via E-Selectin-Mucin interactions until chemokines induce a change in
the integrins on the cell. This will allow the integrens to interact with
ICAM and let the cell slip through the capillary.
1477239402021 1471141547999 How are bacteria phagocytosed and destroyed?
Bacteria are attached to a pseudopodia and ingested for form a phagosome.
This will fuse with a lysosome which digests the bacteria and the digested produ
cts are dumped out of the cell.
1477239461403 1471141547999 Which signalling molecule will enhance the effec
tor functions of Macrophages, what produces it, and what does it do?
Interfer
on Gamma will stimulate increased production of Reactive oxygen intermediates an
d Nitric Oxide (via iNOS). It will also trigger increased release of cytok
ines, fibroblast growth factors/angiogenic factors/metalloproteinases, and incre
ased MHC molecules in conjunction with costimulators. This will ultimated
lead to increased mirobe killing, inflammation, tissue remodeling, and antigen p
resentation. It is released by NK cells and T cells.<div><br /></div><div>
1477239823425 1471141547999 How do neutrophils kill microbes?
Via reac
tive oxygen species formed during the oxidative burst.
1477239856892 1471141547999 Which reactive oxygen species can be formed by i
NOS?
Peroxynitrate, ONOO1477239888292 1471141547999 What is a Natural Killer cell?
Non-phag
ocytic cell of lymphoid lineage (no receptor rearrangement). Kill via granule re
lease to area of immunological synapse. Releae perforin to poke holes in m
embranes and proteases to digest the cell, causing apoptosis. They can be
stimulated by IL-12 to produce IFN-Gamma, which induces killing of microbes in p
hagocytes.
1477240006151 1471141547999 How do NK cells recognize targets?
They are
inhibited by Class I MHC complexes showing self peptide in healthy cells.
When a virus downregulates Class I MHC they may escape CTL s but they become sen
sative to NK cells.<div><br /></div><div>They can also bind IgG through FC recep
tors, leading to killing of antibody coated cell.</div>
1477240138031 1471141547999 What is the effect of interferons?
They can
upregulate NK activity, induce TH1 response, block viral replication via induct
ion of antiviral state (Type I IFN (alpha?)) and Increase Expression of class I
MHC molecules on infected cells (Type I IFN (Beta?)).
1477240260043 1471141547999 describe the action of IL-1B, IL-6, and TNF-a in
the liver, bone marrow endothelium, hypothalamus, fat/muscle, and dendritic cel
ls.
<img src="paste-17824114279624.jpg" />
1477240444214 1471141547999 What is the professional IFN producing cell (tea
cher discovered these, i bet money they re a question) Plasmacytoid DC
1477240763518 1471141547999 What is IL-12? IT is produced by the cells of t
he innate response, like Macrophages and DC, and activate T and NK cells.
1477241364400 1471141547999 Which cytokines of the innate response are essen
tial for stimulation or dampening of adaptive responses?
IFN alpha and IL
-12
1477243923282 1471141547999 How many immunoglobin genes are there? How
many T cell receptor genes?
3 IG genes (1 heavy 2 light) and 2 TCR receptor
genes (1/subunit)
1477244006034 1471141547999 What happens to the heavy chain of an immunoglob
in during B cell development?<div><br /></div><div>What happens to the light cha
in of an immunoglobin during B cell development?</div><div><br /></div><div>How
does this actually allow for the necessary diversity, since this splicing itself
should only account for millions, not billions, or combinations (use this quest
ion to describe the mechanism of B cell/T cell diversity, including what happens
when there is a problem)</div> The DNA itself is spliced, joining the D segment
to the J segment, then the V to the DJ segment. Introns are removed during RNA
splicing.<div><br /></div><div>The V segment is spliced directly to the J segmen

t since their is no D.</div><div><br /></div><div>Immunoglobins have multiple <b
>V, D, and J</b> gene segments which have <b>Recombination Signal Sequences</b>
attached to their ends (either 23 BP or 12 BP segments, which is attached change
s but a 23 and a 12 always face each other and pair on the DNA). <b>RAG1 a
nd RAG2 recombinases</b> will allight the segments using the RSS sequences, and
the looped out segment (including the RSS sequences) are spliced out. The
resulting DNA strand is rejoined using the <b>DNA repair proteins</b> (Ku70 and
Ku80, the KuKu proteins), and <b>TdT</b> will add untemplated DNA nucleotides to
the new hairpin complex which was created by the RAG complex. These strands wil
l be paired and ligated to form a coding joint. A problem with DNA repair
enzymes will cause malignancies. These will also cause immunodeficienies,
since you cant resolve the cuts that RAG is making</div><div><br /></div>
1477244526786 1471141547999 What 4 processes generate antibody diversity?
1. Multiple copies of each gene segment joined in different combinations.<div><b
r /></div><div>2. Many different combinations of H and L chain variable regions
that pair to form the antigen bidnign sight. (no heavy/loight chain for T
cell receptor but there is still combinational diversity)</div><div><br /></div
><div>3. Addition and subtraction of nucleotides by the recombination proc
ess.</div><div><br /></div><div>4. Somatic hypermutation</div>
1477244645386 1471141547999 How can the unique VDJ rearrangement be used cli
nically? Malignant lymphoid cells are usually monoclonal, so they will ha
ve an easily identifiable VDJ region.
1477244725570 1471141547999 What % of rearrangements are non productive?
2/3, or 66%, of the time. These B cells will not mature.
1477244757989 1471141547999 How do cells determine whether a B cell should m
ature or not following rearrangement? <div>Progenitor undergoes a DJ rearrange
ment, then undergoes a VDJ rearrangement. If there is a functional protein
synthesized, then light chain rearangement starts, first kappa, and if this doe
snt work two times, then you rearrange lambda, and if this doesnt work 2x then the
cell dies. If the cell doesn t produce a functional protein after the fir
st VDJ rearrangement, then it tries again using the second allle, and if this do
esnt work the cell dies.</div><div><br /></div>
1477244881892 1471141547999 How are constant regions synthesized? They all
start as IgM, then IgD and will usually end up as IgG, IgE, and IgA.
1477244936036 1471141547999 Which immunoglobins are expressed on the surface
of Naive B cells?
IgM and IgD
1477244957417 1471141547999 What subunits are present on the A and B chain l
ocus of the TCR gene. V and J on a-chain<div><br /></div><div>D, J, and V on t
he B chain</div><div><br /></div><div>(Note C and L are on both but do not get s
pliced)</div>
1477245081414 1471141547999 Does somatic hypermutation occur after TCR rearr
angement?
No
1477751497754 1471141547999 51 Year old patient presents with hip and knee p
ain which is made worse by pain, releaved by rest. Palpation of the knees
reveals a solid swollen mass, and aspirate taken from the kneww was clear and ye
llow, with a white count below 2000. Diagnose this patient. What wou
ld you expect to find on x-ray of the knee? How would you treat this patient?
Osteoarthritis. <div><br /></div><div>You would expect Join narrowing and
bone spur/osteophyte formation. </div><div><br /></div><div>Treatment inclu
des, weight loss, physical therapy, and pain management using NSAIDs and possibl
e corticosteroid injections. Surgery is a last resort.</div>
1477751967410 1471141547999 22 Year old female presents with inflammation of
her Distal Interphalangeal joints and Proximal Phalangeal joints. Palpati
on reveals a squishy increase in mass. Patient also has small, non tendor
bumps on her elbows, and episcleritis. Give a preliminary diagnosis for th
is patient, how would you confirm your diagnosis? How would you treat this patie
nt?
Rheumatoid Arthritis<div><br /></div><div>Lab test for Rheumatoid Factor
and Anti-CCP antibody.</div><div><br /></div><div>Immune suppressing drugs, man
y different possibilities.</div>
1477752355343 1471141547999 Escleromalacia Perforans, or herniation of the e

ye, is a clinical sign of what disease? Rheumatoid Arthritis.<div><br /></div><d
1477752392523 1471141547999 Rheumatoid Arthritis usally presents:<div>a. Sym
etrically</div><div>b. Asymetrically</div><div>c. Rarely</div><div>d. In patient
s between the ages of 20 and 50.</div> Symetrically<div><br /></div><div>Note f
or answer D that patients are usually either young or old, not in-between.</div>
1477752481239 1471141547999 What are the clinical stages of gout? Acute go
uty arthritis<div><br /></div><div>Intercritical stage, where symptoms recede</d
iv><div><br /></div><div>Chronic tophaceous gout, characterized by permanent joi
n damage and chronic damage to soft tissue.</div>
1477752541240 1471141547999 50 year old male with a history of alcoholism pr
esents in the ER complaining of a burning pain in his left big toe. The to
e appears to be swollen, warm, and tender. The patient admits to drinking
6-7 times per week. What is preliminary diagnosis for this patient? How would yo
u confirm it? Gout<div><br /></div><div>Synovial fluid analysis of the joint s
hould reveal needle shaped, intracellular negatively birefringent crystals (Yell
ow looking) under the polarized microscope. The white blood cell count in
the joint could be as high as 60000/mm3. </div><div><br /></div><div><img
src="paste-64214056042497.jpg" /></div>
1477752724084 1471141547999 How would you treat gout?
Allopurinol or F
ebuoxostat (XO inhibitors), Probenicid (increased excretion of urate), and NSAID
S/glucocorticoids to previde pain releaf.<div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1477752811047 1471141547999 70 year old male presents with swelling and pain
in his right knee. Radiographs reveal punctate and linear densities in the arti
cular cartilage. What is a preliminary diagnosis for this patient? How wou
ld you test this? How would you treat this patient?
<div>Chondrocalcinosis o
f the knee (pseudogout) due to Calcium pyrophosphate crystal deposition.</div><d
iv><br /></div>Synovial fluid analysis shows Intracellular rhomboid shaped cryst
als which are weakly positively birefringent (blue) under the microscope.<div><b
r /></div><div>NSAIDs/steroids for pain. There is no preventative measure
to prevent disease progression.</div>
1477753040177 1471141547999 25 year old male prevents with chronic back pain
and morning stiffness which improves on exercise. He reveals that he has
pain which switches from one side of his butt to the other. Give a preliminary d
iagnosis? What are some clinical findings you would expect in the late stage of
the disease? How do you manage it?
Ankylosing Spondylitis<div><br /></div><
div>Bamboo like spine, Bone eroision/lower spine immobility, and Tendonitis of h
eels.</div><div><br /></div><div>Physical therapy, NSAIDS for pain, TNFa inhibit
ors.</div>
1477753233185 1471141547999 Patient presents with Swollen painful hands. &nb
sp;Nails appear hyperheritotic and pitted, and the hands are occupied by sporati
c red rashes. Give a preliminary diagnosis for this patient. What would yo
u expect to find on an X-ray of his hand?
Psoriatic Arthritis<div><br /></
div><div>Erosion of the joints.</div>
1477753389022 1471141547999 Patient presents 2 weeks after treatment for inf
ectious diarrhea with Oligoarthritis of their right hand. What is their pr
eliminary diagnosis? How would you treat it?
Reactive arthritis.<div><br /></
div><div>treat pain with NSAID/Steroids. Antibiotics for any lingering inf
ection.</div>
1477753679860 1471141547999 HIV patient presents with swollen knee and joint
pain. What is you preliminary diagnosis, and how would you test this?
Viral arthritis, confirm viral infection of the knee.
1477753757543 1471141547999 Patient presents with splinter hemorrhages under
his nails and tender purple bumpts on his legs. What is your preliminary
diagnosis? How can you test this?
Leukocytoclastic Vasculitis (evidenced b
y the purple bumps) and Cutaneous small vessel vasculitis (splinter hemorrhages)
. Skin biopsy should reveal neutraphils in the vessel with degranulation and nec
rosis.
1477754102702 1471141547999 What are the three major diseases which can mimi
c vasculitis? Cancer malignancys<div><br /></div><div>Infections</div><div><br

/></div><div>Drug/toxin reactions (cocaine for example)</div>
1477755119536 1471141547999 Female patient presents with sudden onset of hea
dache, cotton wool spots upon optical exam, and a swollen optical disc. Give a p
reliminary diagnosis for this patient? How can you confirm this? How
should you treat it? Giant cell Arteritis<div><br /></div><div>Biopsy of Temp
oral artery</div><div><br /></div><div>Immediately give large dose of Corticoste
roids to prevent vision loss, even before confirmation by biopsy. </div>
1477755280987 1471141547999 20 year old Asian Female presents with aortic in
sufficiency and pericarditis. What is your prelimiary diagnosis? Wha
t is a way to confirm this diagnosis? How can you treat this? Takayasu s arter
itis<div><br /></div><div>Angiography for occlusive and aneurysmal disease</div>
<div><br /></div><div>Surgical management, prednisone.</div>
1477755422571 1471141547999 5 year old boy presents with cracked lips and sp
otting on his tongue. His hands and conjunctava are swollen, and he presen
ts with a large red rash. What is your preliminary diagnosis? What would y
ou do to confirm this? How would you treat this? Kawasaki s disease.<div>
<br /></div><div>Lab tests for abnormalities like increased C reactive protein e
tc.<br /><div><br /></div><div>IV gamma globulin and high dose aspirin.</div></d
iv>
1477755655279 1471141547999 65 year old male presents with complete inabilit
y to move his wrist and testicular pain. What clinical tests should you do
? What is your preliminary diagnosis?
Give an arteriograph to test for
abnormal vasculitis, take a biopsy<div><br /></div><div>Polyarteritis Nodosa</d
iv>
1477755799232 1471141547999 8 year old boy presents with purple splotches on
his leg, abdominal pain, and bloody urine. What is your preliminary diagnosis?
What should you do to test this? how can you treat this? Henoch-Schonlein
Purpura<div><br /></div><div>Test IgA antibody levels and biopsy the lesion.</d
iv><div><br /></div><div>Treat with steroids, treat symptoms.</div>
1477755961774 1471141547999 A patient presents with a positive Rheumatoid fa
ctor test, however Rheumatoid Arthritis has been ruled out. He also has hematinu
ria and palpable purple skin lesions. What is your preliminary diagnosis?
Cryoglobulinemic vasculitis
1477756113810 1471141547999 What is Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis?
Granulomatous inflammation of the respiratory tract with necrotizing vasculitis
of the small to medium sized vessels.
1477756176582 1471141547999 What is Microscopic Polyangiitis?
Necrotiz
ing vasculitis of the small vessels
1477756198572 1471141547999 What is eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyang
iitis? Eosinophil rich granulomatous inflammation of medium sized vessels, asso
ciated with asthma and eosinophilia.
1477756237033 1471141547999 How do you treat ANCA associated Vasculitis?
<div>They usually require long periods of treatment via steroids and some other
immunosuppresent agent, then you continue another immunosuppresent for a long ti
me</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-67710159421441.jpg" /></div><div><
br /></div>
1477756311500 1471141547999 Patient presents with recurrent canker sores, ge
nital ulcers, and a positive pathergy test. What is your preliminary diagn
osis? Behcet s Disease.
1477756364365 1471141547999 A patient presents with Skin lesions, leukopenia
and septal perforations. They admit to frequent drug use. What is this patient
suffering from, and what is causing it? Cocaine induced vasculitis caused by Lev
amisole contamination.
1477756435429 1471141547999 What is the typical long term damage due to smal
l vessel vasculitis?
Renal insufficiency and oxygen dependence.
1477756499260 1471141547999 What is the long-term damage associated with med
ium vessel vasculitis? Foot/wrist drop. Cutaneous ulcerations
1477756534964 1471141547999 What is the long-term damage associated with lar
ge vessel vasculitis? Blindness, stroke, Claudication (angina of the arms)
1472597332437 1421618046184 In anaerobic conditions, {{c1::lactate dehydroge

nase}} converts pyruvate into {{c2::lactate}}, also forming {{c2::NAD}} in the p
rocess
1472597384900 1421618046184 In anaerobic conditions, lactate dehydrogenase c
onverts pyruvate into {{c2::lactate}}, forming NAD, which is then used in the gl
ycolysis reaction catalyzed by {{c1::G3P dehydrogenase}}.
1472866342051 1421618046187 What three enzymes make up the Pyruvate Dehydrog
enase Complex? Pyruvate Dehyrodgenase (E1)<div>Dihydrolipoyl Transacetylase (E2
)</div><div>Dihydrolipoyl Dehydrogenase (E3)</div>
1472866344654 1421618046187 What coenzyme does Pyruvate Dehydrogenase need i
n order to function properly? Thiamine Pyrophosphate (TPP)<br />
1472866382597 1421618046187 What coenzyme(s) does Dihydrolipoyl Transacetyla
se (E2) need in order to function properly?
Lipoic Acid & CoA
1472866410805 1421618046187 What coenzyme(s) does Dihydrolipoyl Dehydrogenas
e need in order to function properly? FAD and NAD+
1472866514725 1421618046184 In the PDC, {{c1::Pyruvate Decarboxylase}} acts
on Pyruvate, turning it into a Hydroxyethyl derivative. <img src="paste306609125326849.jpg" />
1472866555557 1421618046184 After Pyruvate is turned into a hydroxyethyl der
ivative, {{c1::Dihydrolipoyl Transacetylase}} turns that into {{c2::Acetyl CoA}}
<img src="paste-306785218985985.jpg" />
1472866841291 1421618046187 Pyruvate Dehydrogenase in the TCA is inhibited b
y (3)<div><br /></div> ATP<div>NADH</div><div>Acetyl CoA</div>
1472866842195 1421618046187 Effect of ATP on Citrate Synthase in the TCA cyc
le
inhibition<div><br /></div>
1472866855940 1421618046187 Effect of ATP or NADH on Isocitrate Dehydrogenas
e in the TCA is Inhibition
1472866872427 1421618046187 Effect of ADP on Isocitrate Dehydrogenase in the
TCA
activation
1472866915305 1421618046187 Effect of Succinyl CoA on alpha-Ketoglutarate De
hydrogenase
Inhibition
1472866941143 1421618046187 Effect of NADH on alpha-Ketoglutarate Dehydrogen
ase
Inhibition
1472866952358 1421618046187 What does PDH Kinase do?
<div>phosphoryla
tes and subsequently inactivates PDH</div><img src="paste-314803922927617.jpg" /
><div>Regulation of Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex</div>
1472867181555 1421618046187 What does PDH phosphatase do? dephosphorylate,
thus activating PDH<div><img src="paste-314803922927617.jpg" /></div>
1472867204036 1421618046187 Effect of Pyruvate on PDH kinase is
inhibiti
on<div><img src="paste-314803922927617.jpg" /></div>
1472867234180 1421618046187 Effect of ATP or NADH on PDH kinase is Activati
on<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-314803922927617.jpg" /></div>
1472867264922 1421618046187 effect of acetyl CoA on PDH kinase
activati
on<div><img src="paste-314803922927617.jpg" /></div>
1472867281949 1421618046187 PDH phosphatase is activated by Ca 2+<div><img s
rc="paste-314803922927617.jpg" /></div>
1472867299062 1421618046187 What is the only enzyme in TCA that is embedded
in the inner mitochondrial membrane?
Succinate Dehydrogenase<div><br /></div>
1472867351028 1421618046187 _________ is the act of replenishing TCA cycle i
ntermediates that have been extracted for biosynthesis Anaplerosis
1472867426230 1421618046187 ATP made per NADH / FADH2?
NADH: 3<div>FADH
2: 2</div>
1472867487721 1421618046184 <div>High levels of {{c1::pyruvate carboxylase}}
for </div><div>gluconeogenesis occur in {{c2::liver}} and </div><div>
{{c2::kidney}}</div>
1472867501960 1421618046184 Compared to liver and kidney, other cells h
ave lower <div>activities of pyruvate carboxylase to </div><div>mainta
in the concentration of </div><div>{{c1::oxaloacetate}}</div>
1472867529504 1421618046184 {{c1::The Pasteur effect}} is the inhibition of
glycolysis by Oxygen.
1472867663441 1421618046184 {{c1::Cancer}} Cells tend to have increased glyc

olysis. This is known as {{c2::the Warburg Effect}}
1472867695253 1421618046184 <div>Mutations in {{c1::isocitrate dehydrogenase
1}} and {{c1::2}} result </div><div>in the formation of {{c2::2
-hydroxyglutarate (2HG)}} instead of alpha-ketoglutarate</div>
1472867767148 1421618046184 <div>{{c2::2HG}} is a {{c1::competitive}} inhibi
tor </div><div>of alpha-ketoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases</div>
1472867797134 1421618046184 <div>Dioxygenases have an important role in&nbsp
;</div><div>{{c1::demethylation}} reactions for histones and DNA </div>
1472867831245 1421618046184 <div>Low activities of {{c1::fumarase}}</div><di
v>drives a metabolic shift to aerobic glycolysis in some </div><div>kidney
tumors and thereby enhances the Warburg </div><div>effect </div>
1472867861980 1421618046184 The inner mitochondrial membrane is {{c1::imperm
eable}} to NADH.
<img src="paste-328865645854721.jpg" />
1472867987449 1421618046184 The glycerol 3-phosphate shuttle leads to {{c1::
FADH2}} being sent to the ETC. <img src="paste-328861350887425.jpg" />
1472868037708 1421618046184 The malate-aspartate shuttle makes {{c1::NADH}}
to be sent to the ETC <img src="paste-329071804284929.jpg" />
1472868766324 1421618046184 NADH Dehydrogenase (Complex I) in the ETC transf
ers {{c1::H+}} to {{c2::Coenzyme Q}}.
1472868808401 1421618046184 Coenzyme Q in the ETC transfers H from Complex I
and II to Complex III, linking the {{c1::flavoproteins}} to {{c1::cytochromes}}
.
<img src="paste-340818539839489.jpg" />
1472868885496 1421618046184 H+ passing through the channel in ATP Synthase (
Complex V) drive the {{c1::rotation of F0 subunit}}.
1472868949157 1421618046184 The rotation of the F0 subunit in ATP Synthase (
Complex V) in ETC causes {{c1::conformational changes in F1 subunit.}}
1472868977071 1421618046184 Conformational changes in the F1 subunit of Comp
lex V (ATP Synthase) in the ETC leads to {{c1::ATP formation}}.
1472869019473 1421618046184 {{c1::Oligomycin}} binds to the F0 subunit of Co
mplex V (ATP Synthase), closing the H+ channel.
1472869053615 1421618046184 ATP: ADP Translocase (Antiporter) is inhibited b
y {{c1::Atractyloside}}.
1472869102008 1421618046184 {{c1::Lebers hereditary optic neuropathy}} is ca
used by mutation in mtDNA that impairs cell respiration and oxidative phosphoryl
ation.
1472869175659 1421618046184 {{c1::Leigh syndrome}} is due to subpar performa
nce of any components of the PDH complex, TCA, or Oxidative Phosphorylation.
1472875398793 1421618046187 Cardiac contractility depends exclusively on wha
t process for principal source of energy?
fatty acid oxidation
1472875442994 1421618046184 <div>{{c1::Fatty acid oxidation}} is required as
the principal source of energy by the following physiological processes an
d conditions:</div><div><br /></div><div><div>Diabetic patients for whom glucose
metabolism is low </div><div>Periods of starvation / caloric restriction.&
nbsp;</div><div>Periods of extended bioenergetic exertion. </div></div>
1472875455682 1421618046184 Fatty acid transport begins with the Mobili
zation of fatty acids from {{c1::adipose tissue}}, bound primarily to {{c2:
:serum albumin}} in plasma
1472875564367 1421618046184 After being bound to albumin, transport of fatty
acids in plasma to peripheral tissues for {{c1::activation}} and util
ization by cells
1472875618699 1421618046184 After being activated, the transport of activate
d fatty acids to {{c2::mitochondria}} for {{c1::-oxidation}} occurs.
1472875663821 1421618046184 <div>{{c1::Lipolysis}} is the reakdown of triac
ylglycerides&nsp;</div><div>into {{c2::free fatty acids and glycerol}}&nsp;</d
iv>
1472875701184 1421618046184 Effect of glucagon on lipolysis in adipose cells
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stimulation}}</div>
1472875762545 1421618046184 Effect of epinephrine and other adrenocorticotro
pic hormones on lipolysis in adipose cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stimulati
on}}</div>
1472875789569 1421618046184 Effect of insulin on lipolysis in adipose cells?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition}}</div>
1472875809006 1421618046184 Upon hormone inding to a receptor in adipose ti
ssue, {{c1::adenylate cyclase}} turns ATP into {{c2::cAMP}}
<img src="paste356005544198145.jpg" />
1472875956499 1421618046184 In adipose tissue, after cAMP is made, it activa
tes {{c1::PKA}}.&nsp; <img src="paste-356001249230849.jpg" />
1472875998100 1421618046184 In Adipose tissue, once PKA is active, it phosph
orylates {{c1::triacylglycerol lipase}}.
<img src="paste-356001249230849.
jpg" />
1472876043666 1421618046184 In Adipose tissue, triacylglycerol lipase, once
it is phosphorlyated ecomes {{c1::active}}
<img src="paste-356001249230849.
jpg" />
1472876072112 1421618046184 In adipose tissue, triacylglycerol lipase and ot
her lipases act to form {{c1::free fatty acids}}, which are then {{c2::released
into lood stream ound y alumin.}} <img src="paste-356001249230849.jpg" />
1472876240085 1421618046184 <div>-oxidation takes place in the {{c1::mitochon
drial matrix of liver}}</div>
1472876258845 1421618046184 <div>Short-chain and medium-chain fatty acids en
ter the&nsp;</div><div>mitochondrial matrix {{c1::y diffusion}}</div>
1472876322410 1421618046184 <div>Long-chain fatty acids enter the&nsp;mitoc
hondrial matrix y {{c1::the carnitine shuttle}}</div>
1472877764220 1421618046184 To use the carnitine shuttle,&nsp;First you nee
d to activate the fatty acid to form {{c1::fatty acyl CoA}}
1472877876015 1421618046184 The enzyme {{c1::acyl CoA synthetase}} is used t
o activate the fatty acid to form fatty acyl CoA
1472877949804 1421618046184 {{c1::Carnitine palmitoyltransferase I (CPT I)}}
and {{c1::CPT II}} mediate fatty acyl CoA transfer across outer and inner mitoc
hondrial memrane
<img src="paste-358548164837377.jpg" />
1472878073940 1421618046184 {{c1::CPT I}} catalyzes the rate-limiting step i
n fatty acid oxidation <img src="paste-358543869870081.jpg" />
1472878092395 1421618046184 {{c1::malonyl CoA}}, which is essential for fatt
y acid synthesis) inhiits CPTI <img src="paste-358792977973249 (1).jpg" />
1472878118173 1421618046184 The first step of Beta Oxidation, Oxidation, of
fatty acids produces {{c1::FADH2}}
<img src="paste-358878877319169.jpg" />
1472878211387 1421618046184 The third oxidation step of Beta Oxidation of fa
tty acids produces {{c1::NADH}} <img src="paste-358874582351873.jpg" />
1472878230309 1421618046184 The fourth step of Beta Oxidation, thiolytic cle
avage, of fatty acids produces {{c1::acetyl CoA}}
2351873.jpg" />
1472878271924 1421618046184 The oxidation of palmitic acid results in {{c1::
131 ATP}}
<img src="paste-360614044106753.jpg" />
1472878309230 1421618046184 {{c1::Medium chain acyl CoA dehydrogenase (MCAD)
}} is the enzyme in the first oxidative step in the reakdown&nsp;of <><i>medi
um</i></> chain fatty acids&nsp;
1472878401530 1421618046184 {{c1::Medium chain acyl CoA dehydrogenase defici
ency (MCADD)}} is an autosomal recessive disorder which results in decreased ai
lity to reak down fatty acids.
1472878456819 1421618046184 Ketones odies are produced in {{c1::liver mitoc
hondria}}
1472878513651 1421618046184 Ketone odies are produced in one of two situati
ons:<div><r /></div><div>-During {{c1::starvation / caloric restriction}}&nsp;
</div><div><div>-When {{c2::acetyl CoA exceeds the capacity of TCA cycle}},&nsp
;it is used to form ketone odies&nsp;</div></div>
1472878594487 1421618046184 <div>Because ketone odies are {{c1::solule}},
they do not need to ind&nsp;alumin (in contrast to fatty acids)&nsp;</div>
1472878615762 1421618046184 The three kinds of ketone odies are {{c1::aceto
ne}}, {{c1::acetoacetic acid}}, and&nsp;{{c1::-hydroxyutyric&nsp;acid}}
1472879385257 1421618046184 In the synthesis of ketone odies, HMG CoA is ac
ted upon y {{c2::HMG CoA lyase}}, turning it into {{c1::acetoacetate}}.

<img src="paste-362941916381185.jpg" />
1472879435525 1421618046184 In the synthesis of ketone odies, acetoacetate
can e turned into {{c1::acetone}} or&nsp;{{c2::D--hydroxyutyrate}} <img src
="paste-362946211348481.jpg" />
1472879490993 1421618046184 <div>Ketone odies can e converted ack into {{
c1::acetyl CoA}}&nsp;y most tissues except the {{c2::liver}}&nsp;</div>
1472879926162 1421618046184 {{c1::Leptin}} is a&nsp;satiety hormone, inhii
ts hunger, & regulates food intake&nsp;
1472879973156 1421618046184 Effect of leptin on fatty acid synthesis: {{c1::
inhiition}}
1472880001868 1421618046184 Effect of leptin on fatty acid oxidation: {{c1::
stimulation}}
1472880015194 1421618046184 Effect of leptin on glucose uptake: {{c1::stimul
ation}}
1472880030052 1421618046184 The most commonly performed gastric ypass surge
ry is {{c1::Roux-en- Gastric Bypass (RGB)}} <img src="paste-365926918651905.
jpg" />
1472880094232 1421618046184 <div>Immediately after Roux-en- ypass surgery,
patients with Type 2&nsp;</div><div>diaetes exhiit&nsp;{{c1::</div><div>imm
ediate remission of the&nsp;</div><div>disease &nsp;</div>}}
1473051289731 1421618046187 How does the structure of cholesterol contriute
to memrane shape?
it adds a rigidity and curvature
1473051322561 1421618046187 Where is there more cholesterol, moving from the
inside of the cell to the outside of the cell?&nsp; increasing memrane chol
esterol from RER to Plasma Memrane<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4327179
5507201.jpg" /></div>
1473051379291 1421618046187 What are the three main features of cholesterol?
<div>27 carons all derived from acetate</div><div>C-3 hydroxyl group</div><div>
C-17 side chain with 8 carons</div>
1473051434664 1421618046187 What can e done to the C-3 molecule of choleste
rol?
It can e esterified
1473051475045 1421618046187 Where is cholesterol esters' primary form transp
orted in?
plasma
1473051503346 1421618046187 Where are cholesterol esters packaged? lipoprot
ein particles (e.g. LDL, HDL)
1473051524222 1421618046187 When eliminating cholesterol, it is converted in
to what?
ile acids and ile salts
1473051544734 1421618046187 Cholesterol is&nsp;converted into ile acids an
d ile salts in the ____
liver
1473051582323 1421618046187 After cholesterol was&nsp;converted into ile a
cids and ile salts in the liver, it is stored in _______
gall ladder
1473051611313 1421618046187 After cholesterol was&nsp;converted into ile a
cids and ile salts in the liver, it is stored in the gall ladder until it is s
ecreted into the ________
intestine
1473051625778 1421618046187 Cholesterol synthesis egins with the molecule _
_________
Acetyl CoA<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-48352741818369 (
1).jpg" /></div>
1473051715804 1421618046184 In cholesterol synthesis, acetyl CoA is converte
d into {{c1::acetoacetyl CoA}} y {{c2::thiolase}}.
851073.jpg" />
1473051784677 1421618046187 The synthesis of HMG CoA occurs in what three lo
cations?<div><r /></div>
<img src="paste-48348446851073.jpg" />
1473051835328 1421618046184 {{c1::HMG CoA synthase}} converts {{c2::acetoace
tyl CoA}} into {{c3::HMG CoA}} using {{c4::acetyl CoA}} as a sustrate.
1473051866987 1421618046184 {{c1::HMG CoA reductase}} in cholesterol synthes
is turns {{c2::HMG CoA}} into {{c3::Mevalonic acid}}, using {{c4::NADPH}} as a s
utrate.
<img src="paste-48966922141697.jpg" />
1473052083362 1421618046184 In cholesterol synthesis, a multi step process t
aking place in many different cellular locations converts {{c2::Mevalonic Acid (
6C)}} into {{c1::Cholesterol (27C)}}

<img src="paste-49082886258689.jpg" />
1473052240679 1421618046187 In cholesterol synthesis from mevalonic acid to
cholesterol, what molecules are used for energy and how many of each? <img src
="paste-49078591291393.jpg" />
1473052753458 1421618046184 <div>The transcription factor regulating cholest
erol synthesis genes is&nsp;</div><div>{{c1::SREBP (sterol responsive element
inding protein)}}</div>
1473052756419 1421618046184 <div>SREBP is&nsp;a transmemrane protein that:
</div><div>has a {{c1::DNA inding domain}}</div><div>has a {{c2::SCAP interacti
ng domain}}</div>
1473052850029 1421618046184 {{c1::SCAP (SREBP Cleavage Activating Protein)}}
inds to SREBP in the {{c2::ER}}.
1473052893208 1421618046184 <div>when ER sterols are {{c1::low}}, SCAP-SREBP
move to the {{c2::Golgi}}</div>
1473052919529 1421618046184 In the SCAP-SREBP complex, What senses that ster
ol levels are low?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::SCAP}}</div>
1473052945493 1421618046184 In the {{c3::golgi}}, {{c2::Protease 1}} and {{c
2::Protease 2}} are&nsp;responsile for the two step cleavage of {{c1::SREBP}}
resulting&nsp;in solule, cytosolic {{c1::SREBP}}.
1473053015117 1421618046184 <div>Mature, proteolytically-processed SREBP&ns
p;translocates from the Golgi to the {{c1::nucleus}}, where it&nsp;{{c2::activa
tes the expression of cholesterol synthesis genes}}</div>
1473053123730 1421618046187 When intracellular cholesterol levels are high,
how is HMG CoA reductase (HMGR) affected?
staility of HMG CoA reductase D
ECREASES
1473053187753 1421618046187 When cholesterol levels are high, HMG CoA reduct
ase's staility declines, and what happens?
<img src="paste-50349901611009.j
pg" />
1473053239193 1421618046187 When HMG CoA Reductase (HMGR) is phosphorylated,
what state is it in? inactive
1473053395140 1421618046184 HMGR is phosphorylated y an {{c1::AMP activated
kinase &nsp;(AMPK)}} when ATP levels are {{c2::low}}.
1473053416036 1421618046184 Insulin {{c1::stimulates}} HMGR expression and a
ctivity.
Insulin --> glucose uptake-->more ATP--> less HMGR phos
phorylation -->more cholesterol formation
1473053506093 1421618046184 Glucagon {{c1::inhiits}} HMGR expression and ac
tivity. Insulin --> glucose uptake-->more ATP--> less HMGR phosphorylat
ion -->more cholesterol formation
1473053523096 1421618046184 <div>Statins competitively inhiit HMGR----they
mimic the transient intermediate {{c1::mevadyl CoA}}</div>
<img src="paste51101520887809.jpg" />
1473053578948 1421618046184 Ezetimie {{c1::inhiits}} asorption of cholest
erol. <img src="paste-51165945397249.jpg" />
1473053647146 1421618046184 Ezetimie does not lock {{c1::asorption of tri
glycerides or fat solule vitamins.}} <img src="paste-51161650429953.jpg" />
1473053670031 1421618046184 <div>ezetimie administered in comination with
a&nsp;simavastatin&nsp;further {{c1::reduces}} total cholesterol levels as com
pared&nsp;to {{c1::statin alone}}</div>
<img src="paste-51359218925569.j
pg" /><div><r /></div>
1473053756551 1421618046184 <div>ezetimie administered in comination with
a&nsp;simavastatin&nsp;{{c1::locks}} cholesterol {{c2::asorption}} in the {{
c3::intestine}} and&nsp;cholesterol {{c2::synthesis}} in the {{c3::liver}}</div
>
<img src="paste-51432233369601.jpg" />
1473053828696 1421618046184 {{c1::Bile acids}} and {{c1::Bile salts}}&nsp;a
id digestion y {{c2::emulsifying dietary lipids}}&nsp;making them&nsp;accessi
le to {{c3::pancreatic lipases}}
1473053903370 1421618046184 Bile acids and ile salts&nsp;aid intestinal a
sorption of&nsp;{{c1::fat-solule vitamins (A, D, E, K) &nsp;&nsp;}}
1473053931915 1421618046184 {{c1::&nsp;7-alpha-hydroxylase}} primarily cata
lyzes the formation of primary ile acids from cholesterol
<img src="paste-
51745765982209.jpg" />
1473054025269 1421618046184 Cholic Acid {{c1::inhiits}} 7-alpha-hydroxylase
in the formation of ile acids from cholesterol.
131905.jpg" />
1473054062215 1421618046184 Cholesterol {{c1::activates}} 7-alpha-hydroxylas
e in the formation of ile acids from cholesterol.
099201.jpg" />
1473054093849 1421618046184 What enzyme participates in the rate limiting st
ep of primary ile acid formation from cholesterol?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::7
-alpha-hydroxylase}}</div>
<img src="paste-51857435131905.jpg" />
1473055594278 1421618046184 <div>Digestion requires the hydrolysis of lactos
e to {{c1::galactose}}&nsp;</div><div>and {{c1::glucose}} catalyzed y the enzy
me {{c2::lactase}}</div>
1473055836909 1421618046184 {{c1::UDP glucose}} is formed from {{c1::glucose
-1-p}} y {{c2::UDP-Glucose-pyrophosphorylase.}}
9487233.jpg" />
1473055938490 1421618046184 {{c1::Galactose 1-phosphate uridyltransferase}}
catalyzes the transfer of {{c2::UDP}} from {{c3::UDP-Glucose}} onto {{c3::Galact
ose 1-Phosphate.}}
<img src="paste-125481764519937.jpg" />
1473083910885 1421618046184 {{c1::Classic Galactosemia}} is an {{c2::autosom
al recessive}} disorder which is caused y a {{c3::uridyltransferase deficiency.
}}
<img src="paste-127453154508801.jpg" />
1473089962343 1421618046184 {{c1::Galactokinase deficiency}} leads to format
ion of {{c2::galacitol}}; the latter reaction is catalyzed y {{c3::Aldose reduc
tase}}, using {{c4::NADPH}} as an additional sustrate in addition to the primar
y sustrate {{c4::Galactose}}. <img src="paste-127659312939009.jpg" />
1473090056765 1421618046184 Acccumulation of {{c1::galactitol}} leads to dev
elopment of {{c2::cataracts}} <img src="paste-127655017971713.jpg" />
1473090079927 1421618046184 {{c1::UDP-Hexose 4-epimerase}} can turn UDP Gala
ctose into {{c2::UDP Glucose}}, and vice versa. This can lead to glycogen synthe
sis.
<img src="paste-127770982088705.jpg" />
1473090155511 1421618046184 The major linkages in glycogen structure are {{c
1::alpha 1,4}} and {{c1::alpha 1,6}}
1473090368278 1421618046184 The alpha 1,4 linkages in glycogen structure are
found {{c1::etween glucosyl residues in the main chain.}}
1473090410706 1421618046184 The alpha 1,6 linkages are found in {{c1::ranch
points}} in glycogen chains.
1473090431361 1421618046184 Highest concentration of glycogen is in the {{c1
::liver}}, whereas the {{c1::rain}} has a very low glycogen concentration.
1473090570319 1421618046187 In muscle vs liver, when glycogen is roken down
into glucose, what are the different uses of the glucose?
<img src="paste129536213647361.jpg" />
1473090609506 1421618046184 In glycogen synthesis, {{c1::Glucose 6-phosphate
}} is converted to {{c1::glucose 1-phosphate}} in a reversile reaction catalyze
d y {{c2::phosphoglucomutase}} <img src="paste-129720897241089.jpg" />
1473090655542 1421618046184 {{c1::Glucose 1-phosphate + UTP}} ---> {{c2::
UDP-glucose +pyrophosphate&nsp;}}<div><r /></div><div>is catalyzed y {{c3::UD
P-glucosepyrophosphorylase}}</div>
<img src="paste-129922760704001.jpg" />
1473090743102 1421618046184 {{c1::Glycogen synthase}} catalyzes the transfer
of glucose from {{c3::UDP-glucose}} to glycogen with the formation of an {{c2::
alpha 1-> 4 link}}. <img src="paste-130111739265025.jpg" />
1473090997992 1421618046184 {{c1::Branch points}} are formed y {{c2::glycog
en ranching enzyme (amylo 1-4-> 1-6 transglucosylase)}}
<img src="paste130408092008449.jpg" />
1473091075435 1421618046184 In glycogen reakdown,{{c3::&nsp;Alpha 1-> 4
}} links in glycogen are roken y aphosphorolytic cleavage that requires {{c2::
inorganic phosphate}} and produces {{c2::glucose 1-phosphate}}. The reaction is
catalyzed y the enzyme {{c1::glycogen phosphorylase}}.
1473091175239 1421618046184 In glycogen reakdown, {{c1::ranch points}} are
cleaved y a hydrolytic reaction that produces free glucose and is catalyzed y
{{c2::glycogen deranching enzyme}}. This enzyme also has a {{c3::transferase a

ctivity}} that can transfer a small oligosaccharide near a ranch point to a lon
ger alpha1-> 4 linked chain.
1473091227842 1421618046184 {{c1::Glycogen synthase}} can only elongate usin
g existing chains of glucose, and therefore requires a {{c2::primer}}.
1473091704394 1421618046184 <div>In the asence of a glycogen&nsp;fragment
to serve as a primer for glycogen synthase, a protein called {{c1::glycogenin}}
can serve as an acceptor of {{c2::glucose residues}}&nsp;from UDP-glucose</div>
<img src="paste-131039452200961.jpg" />
1473091845032 1421618046184 <div>The side-chain {{c1::hydroxyl}} group of a
specific&nsp;{{c2::tyrosine}} AA in the glycogenin enzyme serves as the site at
which the {{c3::initial glucosyl}} unit is attached, which eventually forms a s
hort primer.</div>
<img src="paste-131275675402241.jpg" />
1473094470123 1421618046184 In the liver and muscle, {{c1::glucose 1-phospha
te}} is turned into {{c1::glycogen}} via {{c2::glycogen synthase}}.
1473094535356 1421618046184 In the liver and muscle, {{c2::glycogen}} is tur
ned into {{c2::glucose 1-phosphate}} y {{c1::glycogen phosphorylase}}.
1473094618134 1421618046184 Glycogen synthase is {{c1::stimulated}} y {{c2:
:glucose 6-phosphate}}.
1473094647366 1421618046184 Glycogen phosphorylase is {{c2::inhiited}} y {
{c1::glucose 6-phosphate}} and {{c1::ATP}} and {{c1::glucose}}
1473094705854 1421618046184 In the {{c3::muscle}}, glycogen phosphorylase is
stimulated y {{c1::Ca2+}} and {{c2::AMP}}
1473094780820 1421618046184 In glycogen synthesis, {{c1::glucagon}} inds to
the G protein coupled receptor, which activates {{c2::Adenylyl cyclase}}
<img src="paste-159875862626305.jpg" />
1473094868508 1421618046184 In glycogen synthesis, {{c1::active Adenylyl Cyc
lase}} turns ATP into {{c2::cAMP}}
<img src="paste-159871567659009.jpg" />
1473094907708 1421618046184 In glycogen synthesis, cAMP &nsp;inds to the {
{c1::PKA tetramer}}, causing {{c2::the 2 catalytic suunits to dissociate from t
he regulatory ones.}} <img src="paste-159871567659009.jpg" />
1473094952370 1421618046184 In glycogen synthesis, {{c1::PKA}} phosphorylate
s {{c2::glycogen synthase a (active)}}, turning it into {{c2::glycogen synthase
(inactive)}} <img src="paste-159871567659009.jpg" />
1473095040215 1421618046184 Overall, glucagon {{c1::inhiits}} glycogen synt
hesis. <img src="paste-159871567659009.jpg" />
1473095230428 1421618046184 In glycogen synthesis, {{c1::protein phosphatase
1}} converts glycogen synthase (inactive) into glycogen synthase a (active)
y {{c2::dephosphorylating}}.
<img src="paste-159871567659009.jpg" />
1473095293583 1421618046184 In glycogen synthesis, protein phosphatase 1 is
{{c1::stimulated}} y {{c2::insulin}} <img src="paste-159871567659009.jpg" />
1473095317253 1421618046184 In glycogen degradation, oth {{c1::glucagon}} a
nd {{c1::epinephrine}} can trigger the activation of {{c2::adenylyl cyclase}}.
<img src="paste-172619030593537.jpg" />
1473095778115 1421618046184 <div>Active PKA {{c1::phosphorylates}} the inact
ive</div><div> form of {{c2:: glycogen phosphorylase kinase}}, producing the acti
ve a form</div>
<img src="paste-172614735626241.jpg" />
1473095853401 1421618046184 <div>Active {{c1::phosphorylase kinase}} is the
only enzyme that phosphorylates</div><div>{{c2::glycogen phosphorylase}} to it
s active a form, which then egins {{c3::glycogenolysis}}</div>
<img src="paste172786534318081.jpg" />
1473095908929 1421618046184 During muscle contraction, {{c1::Ca2+}} inds to
the {{c2::calmodulin}} suunit of {{c3::phosphorylase kinase}}, activating it w
ithout {{c4::phosphorylation}}. <img src="paste-172782239350785.jpg" />
1473096004173 1421618046184 In muscle under extreme conditions of anoxia and
depletion of ATP, {{c1::AMP}} activates {{c2::glycogen phosphorylase }} withou
t it eing phosphorylated.
<img src="paste-172782239350785.jpg" />
1473096052361 1421618046184 Glycogen Storage Disease Type VI is also known a
s {{c1::HERS Disease}}
1473096086361 1421618046184 In HERS disease, the defective enzyme is {{c1::l
iver glycogen phosphorylase}}

1473096106006 1421618046184 The genetic inheritance of Type VI glycogen stor
age disease HERS disease is {{c1::X linked&nsp;}}
1473097357552 1421618046184 The term lysosomal storage diseases is given&ns
p;<div>to a variety of rare hereditary diseases in&nsp;</div><div>which there i
s a defect in a {{c1::hydrolase}} enzyme&nsp;</div>
1473097755417 1421618046184 <div>{{c1::GLCOPROTEINS}} are proteins that hav
e {{c2::oligosaccharide chains}}&nsp;</div><div>covalently attached to their {{
c2::polypeptide chains}}</div>
1473097808152 1421618046184 Most common type of glycoprotein is known as {{c
1::collagen.}}
1473097851340 1421618046184 Heparin {{c1::inhiits}} {{c2::lood clotting}}
1473097889205 1421618046184 <div>In collagen there is an&nsp;{{c1::O-glycos
idic}}&nsp;link etween {{c2::galactose}} or {{c2::glucose}} and the {{c3::hydr
oxyl group of hydroxylysine}}</div>
1473097966428 1421618046184 <div>{{c1::N-glycosidic}}&nsp;links exist etwe
en&nsp;{{c2::N-acetylglucosamine}}&nsp;and {{c3::asparagine}} in Glycoproteins
</div>
1473098006541 1421618046184 <div>{{c2::Proteoglycans}} usually consist of a
core protein covalently linked to a&nsp;</div><div>{{c1::glycosaminoglycan}}</d
iv>
1473098203196 1421618046184 <div>The {{c1::glycosaminoglycan}} typically con
sists of a long polysaccharide chain with a&nsp;</div><div>repeating disacchari
de motif</div>
1473098218040 1421618046184 <div>Glycosaminoglycans are {{c1::polyanionic}}.
The negative charge comes from the&nsp;</div><div>presence of {{c2::caroxyl}}
and/or {{c2::sulfate groups}}</div>
1473098239798 1421618046184 <div>The {{c3::repeating disaccharide}} in the g
lycosaminoglycan is glycosidically linked to a {{c1::serine}} residue on the&ns
p;protein through a {{c2::galactose-galactose-xylose-serine}} &nsp;sequence</di
v>
1473098306200 1421618046184 <div>{{c1::Proteoglycan monomers}} typically are
ound non-covalently to a {{c2::hyaluronic acid}}&nsp;</div><div>molecule in a
ssociation with linker proteins in a&nsp;ottle rusharrangement</div>
<img src
="paste-220580930387969.jpg" />
1473098531798 1421618046184 {{c1::Glycosaminoglycans}} are also known as {{c
2::mucopolysaccharides}}
1473098697105 1421618046184 {{c3::Hyaluronic Acid}} is different from other
glucosaminoglycans ecause it doesn't have a {{c1::covalent attachment to protei
n}} and is also found in {{c2::acteria}} as well as animal tissue.
1473099938423 1421618046184 Glycosaminoglycans include (6):<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::<div>Hyaluronic Acid</div><div>Heparan sulfate</div><div>Heparin</div
><div>Chondroitin sulfate</div><div>Dermatan sulfate</div><div>Keratan sulfate</
div><div>(3H CDK)</div>}}</div>
1473100005224 1421618046184 <div>In the synthesis of glycoproteins and prote
oglycans, the units in the saccharide chains are added from&nsp;{{c1::</div><di
v>nucleoside diphosphate&nsp;</div><div>derivatives</div><div>}}&nsp;e.g.&nsp
;{{c2::UDP-glucuronic acid}},&nsp;{{c2::UDP-N-acetylgalactosamine}}&nsp;and&n
sp;{{c2::GDP-mannose}}</div>
1473100121853 1421618046184 <div>{{c1::Sialic acid}} in glycoproteins is&ns
p;added from {{c2::CMP-NANA}}.&nsp;</div>
1473100156581 1421618046184 For glycosaminoglycan synthesis and synthesis of
{{c2::O-linked glycoproteins}}, the addition is {{c1::direct}}
1473100182854 1421618046184 For {{c2::N-linked glycoproteins}}, the chain is
formed on {{c1::dolichol pyrophosphate}} and then transferred to the protein
1473100212716 1421618046184 Degradation of glycosaminoglycans and glycoprote
ins<div><r /></div><div>Degradation of the saccharide chains is achieved y {{c
2::hydrolytic enzymes}} present in {{c2::lysosomes}}</div><div><r /></div><div>
The enzymes act on the ends of the chains on a {{c1::last-on-first-off}} asis</
div>
1473100277133 1421618046184 The {{c1::mucopolysaccharidoses}} are a series o

f hereditary diseases resulting from mutations in genes coding for degradative e
nzymes acting on glycosaminoglycans(mucopolysaccharides)
1473100388159 1421618046184 With the exception of the {{c1::X-linked}} Hunte
r syndrome (MPS II) Mucopolysaccharidoses have an {{c2::autosomal recessive}} in
heritance
1473100412683 1421618046184 {{c1::MPS I (Hurler Syndrome)}} is due to a defi
ciency of {{c2::L-iduronidase}}.
1473100474530 1421618046184 {{c2::Hurler syndrome}}&nsp;leads to mental ret
ardation and structural changes dueto accumulation of {{c1::dermatan sulfate}} a
nd {{c1::heparan sulfate}}
1473100548401 1421618046184 {{c2::MPS II (Hunter Syndrome)}} is an X-linked
disease due to a deficiency of {{c1::iduronate sulfatase}}
1473100594702 1421618046184 {{c2::MPS III (Sanfilippo Syndrome)}} is caused
y Deficiency in one of four degradative enzymes leads {{c1::to severe mental re
tardation ut little structural change}}
1473100622300 1421618046184 The four degradative enzymes which can lead to S
anfilippo Syndrome (MPS III) are:<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<div>Heparan sulfam
idase</div><div>N-Acetylglucosulfatase</div><div>Glucosamine-N-acetyl transferas
e&nsp;</div><div>N-Acetylglucosmine-6-sulfatase</div>}}</div>
1473100683131 1421618046184 {{c1::MPS IV (Morquio Syndrome)}} is due to Defi
ciency of a {{c2::galactose-6-sulfatase}} or a {{c2::eta-galactosidase}} leads
to accumulation of {{c3::keratan sulfate}} with normal intelligence ut severe d
eformity
1473100732894 1421618046184 {{c1::Sly syndrome (MPS VII)}} is due to a {{c2:
:Beta-glucuronidase}} deficiency which accumulates {{c3::Dermatan sulfate}} and
{{c3::Heparan sulfate}}, leads to {{c4::hepatosplenomegaly}}
1473110587690 1421618046184 The three sources of fatty acids are {{c1::diet,
de novo synthesis y the liver, and adipose tissue}}
1473110633041 1421618046184 {{c1::Orlistat}} and {{c1::Alii}} inhiit pancre
atic lipase.
1473110671233 1421618046184 {{c1::1,2-diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGAT)}
} catalyzes the final step in triglyceride synthesis: {{c2::re-synthesizes trigl
ycerides}} in enterocytes (intestinal asorptive cells) <img src="paste-30732638
4865281.jpg" />
1473110789229 1421618046184 1,2-diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGAT) is inh
iited y {{c1::Lovaza}}
<img src="paste-307322089897985.jpg" />
1473110823311 1421618046184 {{c1::DGAT}} knockout mice were found to e resi
stant to {{c2::diet induced oesity}} <img src="paste-307322089897985.jpg" />
1473110851746 1421618046184 {{c2::DGAT}} is essential for {{c1::adipose tiss
ue formation}} <img src="paste-307322089897985.jpg" />
1473110875689 1421618046184 Saturated means {{c1::no doule onds}}, for exa
mple {{c2::Palmitic Acid}}
1473110917831 1421618046184 Unsaturated means {{c2::doule onds present}},
such as in {{c1::Linoleic Acid}}
1473110938336 1421618046184 {{c1::Arachidonic acid}} is required for prostag
landin synthesis.
1473110963521 1421618046184 Two essential fatty acids must e otained from
the diet: {{c1::linoleic acid and alpha-linoleic acid.}}
1473111873565 1421618046184 <div>{{c2::Short-chain}} and {{c2::medium-chain
fatty acids}} in the diet (e.g. dairy&nsp;</div><div>products) are directly as
ored into the lood y intestinal&nsp;</div><div>capillaries and&nsp;must e
ound to {{c1::serum alumin}} to e transported</div>
1473111913887 1421618046184 <div>Long-chain fatty acids (from diet or synthe
sized intracellularly), &nsp;</div><div>are packaged into {{c1::lipoprotein par
ticles}}, which are transported in&nsp;</div><div>lood</div>
1473111964652 1421618046184 de novo fatty acid synthesis requries {{c1::ATP}
} and {{c1::NADPH}}
1473111989370 1421618046184 <div>{{c1::&nsp;Acetyl Coenzyme A}}&nsp;&nsp;
provides caron atoms for&nsp;de novo&nsp;fatty acid synthesis&nsp;</div>
1473112015965 1421618046184 <div>In the TCA cycle, acetyl CoA is&nsp;</div>

<div>converted to {{c2::citrate}} y</div><div>{{c1::citrate synthase}}</div>
<img src="paste-327401062006785.jpg" />
1473112106641 1421618046184 <div>Once citrate crosses the memrane, Cytosoli
c citrate is converted to acetyl CoA&nsp;</div><div>and OAA y&nsp;{{c1::ATP-c
itrate lyase}},&nsp;which&nsp;requires ATP</div>
2006785.jpg" />
1473112161256 1421618046184 {{c2::Acetyl CoA caroxylase (ACC)}} requires {{
c1::ATP}}, and {{c1::iotin}} as a cofactor.
<img src="paste-327946522853377.
jpg" />
1473112237084 1421618046184 Long chain fatty acids {{c1::inhiit}} ACC activ
ity
1473112266568 1421618046184 {{c1::AMP activated kinase (AMPK)}} {{c2::phosph
orylates}} ACC, which {{c3::inhiits}} fatty acid synthesis.
1473112325681 1421618046184 AMPK is stimulated y {{c1::high AMP}}
1473112339431 1421618046184 AMPK is {{c1::activated}} y {{c2::glucagon}} in
the liver
1473112352655 1421618046184 AMPK has three suunits: {{c1::gamma, alpha, et
a}}
1473112379779 1421618046184 AMPK gamma suunit inds to {{c1::AMP}} {{c2::co
operatively}}
1473112406241 1421618046184 AMPK gamma suunit inding to AMP promotes {{c1:
:conformational change in alpha suunit}}
1473112426206 1421618046184 AMPK alpha suunit is the {{c1::catalytic}} suu
nit, which is conformationally changed y AMP inding to gamma.
1473112464087 1421618046184 A conformational change in AMPK alpha suunit ex
poses {{c1::threonine 172}}, which is {{c2::phosphorylated}}
1473112485910 1421618046184 The AMPK eta suunit determines {{c1::sustrate
specificity}} and is the {{c2::scaffold for the assemly of the complex.}}
1473112569674 1421618046184 {{c1::Protein Phosphatase 2A (PP2A)}} {{c2::deph
osphorylates}} ACC, {{c3::activating}} fatty acid synthesis.
1473112611222 1421618046184 Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is {{c1::upregulat
ed}} y insulin and glucose uptake.
1473112637147 1421618046184 High Calorie diet leads to {{c1::synthesis}} of
ACC.
1473112658911 1421618046184 Low calories diet leads to {{c1::decreased synth
esis}} of ACC
1473112674017 1421618046184 {{c2::Fatty Acid synthetase}} catalyzes the {{c1
::elongation}} of fatty acid chains
1473130348041 1421618046187 In the pentose phosphate pathway (HMP shunt): Th
e oxidative reactions vs nonoxidative reactions: which are reversile vs irrever
sile? <img src="paste-416358424641537.jpg" />
1473130392185 1421618046187 What coenzyme is used for glucose 6-phosphate tu
rning into 6-phosphogluconate, catalyzed y glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase?
<div>NADP+</div><img src="paste-416354129674241.jpg" /><div><r /></div>
1473130467664 1421618046187 What enzyme works on 6-phosphogluconate?
6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase<r /><div><img src="paste-416354129674241.jpg"
/></div>
1473130677956 1421618046187 What does 6-phosphogluconate get turned into y
6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase?
Riulose 5-phosphate<r /><div><img src=
"paste-416354129674241.jpg" /></div>
1473130726246 1421618046187 An epimerase turns riulose 5-phosphate into?
xylulose 5-phosphate<r /><div><img src="paste-416354129674241.jpg" /></div>
1473130761914 1421618046187 What acts upon xylulose 5-phosphate?
Transket
olase<r /><div><img src="paste-416354129674241.jpg" /></div>
1473130938086 1421618046187 Xylulose 5-phosphate is acted upon y transketol
ase to form
<div>glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate</div><img src="paste-41635412967
4241.jpg" />
1473131013479 1421618046187 3 molecules of g6p -->&nsp; <div>2 f6p + 1 g
ly-3-phos + 3 CO2</div><img src="paste-416354129674241.jpg" /><div><r /></div>
1473131135503 1421618046187 In cancer cells---><span class="Apple-ta-spa

n" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Increased glycolysis --> increased glycoly
tic intermediates -->
&nsp;more formation of riose 5-phosphate&nsp;
1473131173372 1421618046187 NADPH is used to keep which peptide in a reduced
state? glutathione
1473131251282 1421618046184 With a low concentration of reduced {{c3::glutat
hione}}, the red lood cells are more sensitive to {{c1::oxidative stress}} and
may develop {{c2::hemolytic anemia}}.
1473131282962 1421618046187 How do drugs induce hemolytic anemia in people w
ho have g6p dehydrogenase deficiency? If the drugs have oxidative action
1473131357522 1421618046184 Fructose metaolism ypasses {{c1::PFK-1}}, so {
{c2::regulation}} is removed
1473131358756 1421618046184 The&nsp;greater part of fructose metaolism occ
urs in the {{c1::liver}}
1473131374898 1421618046184 {{c1::Fructokinase}} acts on Fructose and turns
it into {{c2::Fructose 1-phosphate}}
<img src="paste-417900317900801.jpg" />
1473131440072 1421618046184 {{c1::Aldolase B}} acts of F-1-phosphate and tur
ns it into {{c2::Glyceraldehyde}} and {{c2::DHAP}}
2933505.jpg" />
1473131470366 1421618046184 Deficiency of {{c2::Aldolase B}} is known as {{c
1::Hereditary Fructose Intolerance}}
<img src="paste-417896022933505.jpg" />
1473131503431 1421618046184 Hereditary Fructose Intolerance leads to intrace
llular trapping of {{c1::fructose 1-phosphate}} <img src="paste-418226735415297.
jpg" />
1473131579852 1421618046184 Hereditary Fructose Intolerance causes<span clas
s="Apple-ta-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>{{c1::severe hypoglycemia}} d
ue to {{c1::increased glucose metaolism}}
1473131644178 1421618046184 Hereditary Fructose Intolerance leads to {{c1::h
epatic failure}} and {{c1::death}}.
1473131719850 1421618046184 Therapy for Hereditary Fructose Intolerance is {
{c1::rapid detection}} and removal of {{c2::fructose and sucrose in diet}}
1473197008862 1421618046184 {{c2::LDL}} has {{c1::apoprotein B}} on the surf
ace.&nsp;
<img src="paste-555858962415617.jpg" />
1473197320554 1421618046184 In LDL, you can find {{c1::cholesterol ester}} a
nd {{c1::triglycerides}}.
<img src="paste-555854667448321.jpg" />
1473197353332 1421618046184 The surface of {{c2::HDL}} has {{c1::apoprotein
A-1.}} <img src="paste-555854667448321.jpg" />
1473197378422 1421618046184 The major classes of lipoproteins include {{c1::
chylomicrons}}, {{c1::VLDLs}}, {{c1::LDLs}}, and {{c1::HDLs}}.
1473197657353 1421618046187 <img src="paste-566115344318465.jpg" /><div>what
is the lack arrow pointing to?</div> <img src="paste-566128229220353.jpg" />
is the white arrow pointing to?</div> <img src="paste-566660805165057.jpg" />
is the arrowhead pointing to?</div>
<img src="paste-567137546534913.jpg" />
1473197757822 1421618046187 What disease is seen here?<div><img src="paste-5
67528388558849.jpg" /></div>
<img src="paste-567541273460737.jpg" />
1473197882161 1421618046184 Cholesterol is asored in the {{c2::small intes
tine}} and assemled into {{c1::chylomicrons}}.
1473197892066 1421618046184 <img src="paste-570294347497473.jpg" /><div>From
this graph, it is evident that {{c2::chylmicron reakdown}} is greater in {{c1:
:females}}.</div>
1473197952798 1421618046184 Chylomicrons are assemled in the {{c1::intestin
e}} and contain {{c2::apo B48}}.
<img src="paste-584583703691265.jpg" />
1473198268491 1421618046184 After assemly, chylomicrons are released into {
{c1::lymph}}. <img src="paste-584579408723969.jpg" />
1473198288192 1421618046184 Chylomicrons acquire {{c1::apo C-II}} and {{c1::
apo E}} from {{c2::HDL}} in plasma.
<img src="paste-584579408723969.jpg" />
1473198325774 1421618046184 On the surface of non-hepatic tissues, {{c1::Lip
oprotein Lipase}} is there to metaolize chylomicrons. <img src="paste-58457940

8723969.jpg" />
1473198376042 1421618046184 {{c1::apo CII}} inds to and activates the {{c2:
:Lipoprotein lipase.}} <img src="paste-586593748385793.jpg" />
1473198455944 1421618046184 After triglycerides are hydrolyzed y the lipopr
otein lipase, {{c1::chyloprotein remnants}} depleted of glycerol, free fatty aci
ds transfer {{c2::apo CII}} to {{c2::HDL}}.
<img src="paste-587268058251265.
jpg" />
1473198853036 1421618046184 Remnants with {{c1::apoE}} and apoB48 ind to th
e {{c1::apoE}} receptor on {{c2::liver cells}}, resulting in uptake of the remna
nts.
<img src="paste-587263763283969.jpg" />
1473199221874 1421618046184 Chylomicron metaolism egins in the {{c1::intes
tine}} and {{c2::cholesterol}} is delivered to the {{c2::liver}}.
1473199443481 1421618046184 {{c1::VLDL}} and {{c1::LDL}} metaolism starts i
n the {{c2::liver}}.&nsp;
1473199512035 1421618046184 General characteristics of HDLs:<div><r /><div>
synthesized in the {{c1::liver}} and {{c1::intestine}}</div><div>secreted direct
ly into the {{c2::lood}}</div><div>express {{c2::apo-AI}} and {{c2::AII}},{{c2:
:apo-CII}} and {{c2::apo-E}} protein rich</div><div>have the least {{c3::cholest
erol}} and {{c4::cholesterol ester}}</div></div>
1473199758120 1421618046184 HDL-apolipoprotein exchange&nsp;<div><r /><div
><r /></div><div>HDL transfers {{c2::apo-CII}} and {{c2::apo-E}} to {{c1::chylo
microns}}</div><div>{{c1::Chylomicrons}} return {{c2::apo-CII}} to mature HDLs</
div><div><r /></div><div>HDL transfers {{c3::apo-CII}} and {{c3::apo-E}} to {{c
5::VLDLs}}</div><div>{{c5::VLDL}} returns {{c4::apo-CII}} and {{c4::apo-E}} to H
DLs</div></div>
1473199986167 1421618046184 HDL and reverse cholesterol transport<div><r />
</div><div>HDLs can acquire cholesterol from {{c1::plasma memrane}},</div><div>
HDLs can acquire cholesterol esters from {{c2::other lipoproteinparticles}} and
recycle them to {{c2::liver}}&nsp;</div>
1473200046076 1421618046184 After inding to the SR-B1 receptor, HDL is upta
ken and enters {{c1::cholesterol ester}} metaolism, eventually turning into {{c
2::ile}}.
1473200228104 1421618046184 The LDL receptor has an LDL inding domain which
{{c1::inds apolipoproteins}}. <img src="paste-642879294799873.jpg" />
1473200534863 1421618046184 The LDL receptor has an N-linked oligosaccharide
domain which is required for {{c1::LDL inding.}}
9832577.jpg" />
1473200559585 1421618046184 The LDL receptor has a cytosolic domain which is
highly conserved and required for {{c1::endocytosis}}. <img src="paste-64287499
9832577.jpg" />
1473200581025 1421618046184 LDL receptor mutations lead to {{c1::high}} seru
m LDL levels.
1473200645986 1421618046184 In {{c2::Class I}} LDL receptor mutations, {{c1:
:no receptors}} are synthesized.
1473200671767 1421618046184 In Class {{c2::2}} LDL receptor mutations, recep
tors are synthesized, ut {{c1::retained intracellularly in the ER or Golgi.}}
tors {{c3::reach}} the cell surface, ut lack {{c1::normal LDL inding.}}
tors reach the cell surface and ind LDL ut {{c2::are not clustered in coated p
its and endocytosed.}}
1473200838978 1421618046184 {{c1::Clathrin}} is recruited, forming a cage in
step 1 that rings the receptor and LDL into cell, as a {{c1::clathrin}} coated
vesicle.&nsp;The it of memrane pinches off and segregates the {{c2::LDL rece
ptor}}, sending that ack out to the surface to work again
<img src="paste650434142273537.jpg" />
1473200954039 1421618046184 {{c1::Acyl CoA cholesterol acetyltransferase (AC
AT)}} converts {{c2::cholesterol}} into {{c2::cholesterol ester}} for storage an
d is located inside {{c3::hepatocytes}}.
1473201077746 1421618046184 {{c2::Oversupply of cholesterol}} upregulates {{

c1::Acyl CoA cholesterol acetyltransferase (ACAT)}}
1473201120677 1421618046184 {{c2::PCSK9}} is a normal human protein that in
ds the {{c1::LDL receptor}} and stimulates {{c1::receptor endocytosis}} <img src
="paste-655420599304193.jpg" />
1473201193473 1421618046184 {{c1::Anti-PCSK9 antiody}} inds PCKS9 and prev
ents its interaction with {{c1::LDL receptor}}<div>increases the surface presenc
e of {{c1::LDL receptor}}</div><div>thus, {{c1::LDL receptor}} can ind LDL part
icles and ring them into the cell&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div><><i>last t
hree are the same thing</i></></div>
1473201331366 1421618046184 <div>{{c3::Lomitapide}}&nsp;inhiits the&nsp;{
{c4::</div><div>microsomal triglyceride transfer&nsp;</div><div>protein (MTP or
MTTP)</div><div>}}, which is necessary for&nsp;{{c1::</div><div>the assemly a
nd</div><div>secretion of chylomicron</div><div>}}&nsp;and{{c2::</div><div> ver
y low-density&nsp;</div><div>lipoprotein (VLDL) assemly and secretion</div><di
v>}}&nsp;in the liver.&nsp;</div>
1473201409877 1421618046184 {{c1::Bile acid sequestrants}}(e.g.{{c2::cholest
yramine}}) lock the re-asorption of ile acids in the gut. This prevents re-up
take and cholesterol is {{c3::eliminated}}.
1473201476568 1421618046184 In triglyceride synthesis,&nsp;Two fatty acids
are transferred from {{c1::fatty acyl coenzyme A}} molecules to {{c1::glycerol 3
-phosphate}} to yield a phosphatidic acid. The phosphate group is {{c3::hydrolyz
ed}}. Then, a third fatty acyl group is added to yield a {{c2::triglyceride}}.
1473202214136 1421618046184 <div>In the {{c2::liver}} glycerol can e phosph
orylated y the action of&nsp;{{c1::glycerol kinase}} to form {{c1::glycerol 3phosphate}}</div>
1473202255365 1421618046184 There are two types of mechanism for the formati
on of phosphatidyl compounds that consist of a phosphatidyl group attached to a
polar head group.&nsp;<div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div>These mechanisms i
nvolve activation of either the {{c1::diacylglycerol group}} or the {{c1::head g
roup}} with {{c2::CDP}}.&nsp;</div>
<img src="paste-690742410346497.jpg" />
1473202794447 1421618046184 <div>{{c1::Phospholipases}} selectively hydrolyz
e specific&nsp;{{c2::</div><div>ester&nsp;</div><div>linkages</div><div>}}&ns
p;on phosphatidyl compounds</div>
1473202861842 1421618046184 {{c2::Phospholipase A2}}, acting on phosphotidyl
inositol, releases {{c1::arachidonic acid}}.
1473202981843 1421618046184 Phospholipase A2 is {{c1::inhiited}} y glucoco
rticoids.
1473203000606 1421618046184 Phospholipase A2 is {{c1::activated}} y trypsin
.
1473203016346 1421618046184 {{c2::Phospholipase C}} is {{c1::activated}} y
the PIP2 system.
1473203132513 1421618046184 {{c1::Phospholipase C}} can hydrolyze {{c2::PIP2
}} at point C, creating {{c3::inositiol 1,4,5 trisphosphate (IP3)}}, which in ad
dition to diacylglycerol, can e an {{c4::activator}} of Protein Kinase C.&nsp;
1473203741024 1421618046184 IP3 causes the release of {{c1::calcium}} which
{{c2::activates}} PKC.
1473203750538 1421618046184 <div>The molecule sphingosine is synthesized fro
m&nsp;{{c1::</div><div>palmitoyl&nsp;</div><div>coenzyme A</div><div>}}&nsp;a
nd the {{c1::amino acid serine}}.</div>
1473203782726 1421618046184 <div>Acylation of {{c1::sphingosine}} with a fat
ty acid&nsp;transferred from a fatty acyl coenzyme A results in the formation o
f a&nsp;{{c2::ceramide}}</div>
1473203830065 1421618046184 <div>Addition of {{c1::choline phosphate}} to sp
hingosine yields {{c1::sphingomyelin}} while&nsp;the addition of {{c2::sugars}}
yields {{c2::cererosides}} and {{c2::gloosides}}.&nsp;</div>
1473203970998 1421618046184 glycolipids that contain {{c1::sialic acid}} are
known as {{c2::gangliosides}}
1473204166561 1421618046184 {{c1::PAPS}} turns {{c2::cererosides}} into {{c
2::Sulfatide}}.
1473204177958 1421618046184 <div>Hereditary defects in {{c1::hydrolases}} re

quired for the degradation of {{c2::sphingolipid}}&nsp;</div><div>molecules res
ult in their accumulation</div>
1473204317975 1421618046184 {{c1::Prostaglandins}} work right within the cel
ls where {{c2::they are synthesized}}
1473204645229 1421618046184 Prostaglandins cannot e {{c1::stored}} due to {
{c1::their extremely short half life}}
1473204682451 1421618046184 {{c1::COX}} is the same enzyme as {{c2::prostagl
andin endoperoxide synthase.}}
1473204731863 1421618046184 The first step in the synthesis of prostaglandin
s is the {{c2::oxidative cyclization}} and {{c2::susequent peroxidation}} of fr
ee {{c1::arachidonic acid}} to yield PGH2, catalyzed y {{c3::COX}}
<img src
="paste-742509651165185.jpg" />
1473204841404 1421618046184 PGH2 is converted to a variety of {{c1::prostagl
andins}} and {{c1::thromoxanes}} y a variety of cell-specific synthases
<img src="paste-742505356197889.jpg" />
1473204888619 1421618046184 {{c1::COX-1}} is {{c2::constitutive}}, expressed
in {{c2::most}} tissues
1473204947172 1421618046184 {{c2::COX-2}} is {{c1::inducile}} following inf
lammation,trauma, etc
1473204977193 1421618046184 COX-1 is {{c1::not influenced}} y steroids, cyt
okines or acteria
1473205000597 1421618046184 COX-2 is {{c1::induced}} y cytokines&nsp;
1473205020043 1421618046184 COX-2 is {{c1::inhiited}} y steroids
1473205030178 1421618046184 COX-2 is often found in {{c1::immunocompetent}}
cells.
1473205048082 1421618046184 {{c1::LPS, IL-1, TNF-alpha}} (3) are all pro-inf
lammatory and thus {{c2::stimulate}} COX-2
1473205171871 1421618046184 {{c1::PGE2}} plays an important role in the deve
lopment, regulation, and activity of different cells of the {{c2::immune}} syste
m
<img src="paste-746375121731585.jpg" />
1473205234140 1421618046184 {{c1::Prostaglandins}} play an integral role in
a myriad of infections and diseases, including cancer, and periodontal (teeth) d
isease <img src="paste-746813208395777.jpg" />
1473205291959 1421618046184 When tissues are damaged, white lood cells arem
oilized to the site to minimize tissue destruction.{{c1::Prostaglandins}} are p
roduced as a result
1473205335257 1421618046184 <div>Blood clots form when a lood vessel is dam
aged. Molecules closely related to prostaglandins called&nsp;thromoxanes {{c1:
:stimulate}} constriction&nsp;and clotting of platelets</div>
1473205375618 1421618046184 PGI2 (a prostaglandin) {{c1::inhiits}} the cons
triction and clotting of platelets
1473205433252 1421618046184 Certain {{c1::prostaglandins}} (i.e. {{c1::PGE2}
}) are involved with induction of laor y inducing {{c2::uterine contractions}}
1473205468423 1421618046184 {{c1::leukotrienes}}, molecules related to prost
aglandins, promote {{c2::constriction}} of ronchi associated with asthma
1473205501138 1421618046184 {{c1::5-lipoxygenase (5-LO)}} and {{c1::FLAP}} w
ork to produce {{c2::leukotrienes}}
1473205562855 1421618046184 Inhiitors&nsp;of 5-LO and FLAP are anti {{c1::
asthma}} and {{c1::allergy}} inhiitors 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) and FLAP work to p
roduce leukotrienes
1473205589732 1421618046184 NSAIDs {{c1::inhiit}} COX enzymes
1473205625954 1421618046184 NSAIDs {{c1::reduce}} production of prostaglandi
ns and thromoxanes.
1473205643703 1421618046184 NSAIDs reduce {{c1::pain, fever, inflammation}}
(3)
1473205668892 1421618046184 {{c2::Aspirin}} works on oth COX-1 and COX-2 to
{{c1::inhiit}} arachidonic acids entry into the active site of the enzyme
1473205719693 1421618046184 {{c1::acetyl}} group of aspirin binds to {{c1::s
erine}} group in COX, this relieves some effects of pain and fever
1473205756884 1421618046184 {{c2::Low dose aspirin therapy}} will reduce but

not abolish the ability for blood to clot, thereby reducing heartattacks and st
roke because it has a {{c1::short half life}}
1473205823691 1421618046184 The side pocket of COX-1 has a {{c1::isoleucine}
} residue, whereas the side pocket of COX-2 has a {{c1::valine}} residue
<img src="paste-753191234830337.jpg" />
1473206003729 1421618046184 COX-2 inhibitors are more attractive for usage t
han NSAIDs due to {{c1::the lack of GI side effects.}}
1473206058075 1421618046184 Prostaglandins, thromboxanes and leukotrienes ar
e known as {{c1::eicosanoids}}
1473206084925 1421618046184 The dietary precursor of eicosanoids is the esse
ntial fatty acid {{c1::linoleic acid}}
1473254007253 1421618046184 The essential amino acids are : <div>{{c1::
<div>Phenylalanine (F)<div>Valine (V)</div><div>Threonine (T)</div><div>Tryptoph
an (W)</div><div>Isoleucine (I)</div><div>Methionine (M)</div><div>Histidine (H)
</div><div>Leucine (L)</div><div>Lysine (K)</div></div><div>Arginine (R)</div>}}
</div> Phenylalanine (F)<div>Valine (V)</div><div>Threonine (T)</div><div>Trypt
ophan (W)</div><div>Isoleucine (I)</div><div>Methionine (M)</div><div>Histidine
(H)</div><div>Leucine (L)</div><div>Lysine (K)</div><div><br /></div><div>Argini
ne (R) is conditional, essential in some circumstances.</div><div><br /></div><d
iv>Mneumonic: FML WIT VH,sometimes R</div>
1473254330679 1421618046184 {{c1::Trypsin}} cleaves specifically at the carb
oxyl terminus of {{c2::Arg}} and {{c2::Lys}}. <div><br /></div><div><br /></di
v><div>TRK</div><div><br /></div><img src="paste-794702093746177.jpg" />
1473254420885 1421618046184 {{c2::Chymotrypsin}} tends to cleave at {{c1::ar
omatic AAs}},{{c1::Leu}}, {{c1::Met}} <div>CALM = <u><b>C</b></u>hymotrypsin c
leaves <u><b>A</b></u>romatic<u><b> L</b></u>eucine<u><b> M</b></u>ethionine</di
v><div><br /></div><img src="paste-794697798778881.jpg" />
1473254478407 1421618046184 {{c1::Elastases}} cleave at {{c2::Ala,}} {{c2::G
ly}}, {{c2::Ser}}.
<div><br /></div><div>E-AGS</div><div><br /></div><div><
br /></div><img src="paste-794697798778881.jpg" />
1473254514732 1421618046184 {{c2::Carboxypeptidase A}} cleaves at {{c1::Vali
ne, Isoleucine, Alanine, Leucine}}.
<div><br /></div><div>A VIAL = Carboxype
ptidase <u style="font-weight: bold; ">A</u>   <u style="font-we
ight: bold; ">V</u>aline <u style="font-weight: bold; ">I</u>soleucine <u style=
"font-weight: bold; ">A</u>lanine <u style="font-weight: bold; ">L</u>eucine</di
v><div><br /></div><div><br /></div><img src="paste-794697798778881.jpg" />
1473254552427 1421618046184 {{c1::Carboxypeptidase B}} cleaves at {{c2::Arg}
} and {{c2::Lys}}. (not Trypsin)
<div><br /></div><div>B RK</div><div><br
/></div><div><br /></div><img src="paste-794697798778881.jpg" />
1473254573785 1421618046184 Dietary lipids and proteins cause the secretion
of the hormones {{c1::cholescystokinin}} and {{c1::secretin}}.
1473254628343 1421618046184 {{c2::Cholescystokinin}} {{c1::inhibits}} gastri
c mobility, which {{c1::stops}} secretion.
te-795397878448129.jpg" /></div>
1473254708521 1421618046184 {{c2::Cholescystokinin}} stimulates the release
of {{c1::pancreatic enzymes}} and {{c1::bile acids}}.
<img src
="paste-795449418055681.jpg" />
1473254779805 1421618046184 {{c2::Secretin}} stimulates the release of {{c1:
:bicarbonate}}. <img src="paste-795612626812929.jpg" />
1473254812439 1421618046184 In {{c2::Cystinuria}}, there is a genetic defect
of the transporter for the following four AA: {{c1::cystine, ornithine, arginin
e, and lysine.}}
Mneumonic: Cystinuria CORK (for AA)<div><br /></div><div
1473254905222 1421618046184 {{c1::Cystine}} precipitates in the acidic urine
forming stones due to the inability to reabsorb it in Cystinuria.
<img src
="paste-795900389621761.jpg" />
1473254985735 1421618046184 {{c1::Kwashiorkor}} is caused by {{c2::protein d
eficiency}} in breast milk.
1473255152146 1421618046184 Common symptoms of {{c1::Kwashiorkor}} are {{c2:
:swollen abdomen, discolored hair, and lethargy}}(3).

1473255203797 1421618046184 Can treat {{c1::Kwashiorkor}} with {{c2::gradual
reintroduction of protein and amino acids}}, but irreversible damage may have a
lready occurred.
1473255242554 1421618046184 {{c1::Aminotransferase}} removes the amino group
from an amino acid
<img src="paste-797227534516225.jpg" />
1473255353983 1421618046184 {{c1::alpha-Ketoacids}} are used as {{c2::amino
group acceptors}} when deaminating amino acids. <img src="paste-797223239548929.
jpg" />
1473255396094 1421618046184 The two amino enzymes used during Liver function
tests are {{c1::Alanine aminotransferase (ALT)}} and {{c1::Aspartate Aminotrans
ferase (AST)}} <img src="paste-797751520526337.jpg" />
1473255494759 1421618046184 {{c1::AST}} and {{c1::ALT}} levels are elevated
in liver dysfunction due to hepacytic cell lysing.
Hepacytic cells have the
se enzymes inside and the cells are lysed in liver function.<div><br /></div><di
1473255556856 1421618046184 {{c1::Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP)}} is the cofacto
r during {{c2::Aminotransferase}} reactions.
<img src="paste-797747225559041.
jpg" /><img src="paste-797897549414401.jpg" />
1473255630033 1421618046184 The amino group transferred to Pyridoxal Phospha
te (PLP) is then transferred to {{c1::OAA}} to make {{c1::Aspartate}}. <img src
="paste-797893254447105.jpg" />
1473255780181 1421618046184 Following poisoning with toxic mushroom Amanita
phalloides, {{c1::ALT levels}} reach a 20x peak 36 hours after ingestion.
<img src="paste-798176722288641.jpg" />
1473255887676 1421618046184 Following poisoning with toxic mushroom Amanita
phalloides, {{c1::bilirubin}} begins to increase 36 hours after ingestion.
<img src="paste-798369995816961.jpg" />
1473255915041 1421618046184 {{c1::Glutamate dehydrogenase}} is the enzyme in
volved in {{c2::oxidative deamination}} of Glutamate. This reverses the aminot
ransferase activity.<div><img src="paste-798533204574209.jpg" /><img src="paste798546089476097.jpg" /></div>
1473256014779 1421618046184 Oxidative deamination of Glutamate to alpha-keto
glutarate is dependent on the cofactor {{c1::NAD+}}
8952833.jpg" />
1473256042765 1421618046184 GTP is an {{c1::allosteric inhibitor}} of glutam
ate dehydrogenase.
<div>Since glutamate dehydrogenase mostly makes alpha-ke
toglutarate, which is an intermediate of TCA, high GTP means high energy, so you
don t want the TCA to proceed</div><div><br /></div><img src="paste-79867493849
4977.jpg" />
1473256214306 1421618046184 {{c1::D-amino acid oxidase (DAO)}} is an enzyme
that catalyzes the oxidative deamination of D-AAs. Increased activity has been l
inked to {{c2::schizophrenia}}. <img src="paste-798984176140289.jpg" />
1473256387306 1421618046184 In ammonia transport to the liver, {{c1::Glutami
ne Synthetase}} catalyzes the conversion of {{c2::glutamate}} to form glutamine.
1473256513833 1421618046184 In transport of ammonia to the liver, glutamine
is cleaved by {{c1::glutaminase}} in the liver to produce {{c2::free ammonia}} a
nd {{c2::glutamate}}. <img src="paste-799413672869889.jpg" />
1473256571683 1421618046184 In ammonia transport to the liver, Alanine is pr
oduced by {{c1::Alanine aminotransferase (ALT)}} from {{c2::pyruvate}} <img src
="paste-799413672869889.jpg" />
1473256649728 1421618046184 In ammonia transport to the liver, {{c2::alanine
}} is converted back to {{c2::pyruvate}}, which is used to synthesize {{c1::gluc
ose}}. <img src="paste-799413672869889.jpg" />
1473257172563 1421618046184 {{c2::Ketogenic}} Amino Acids are {{c1::Leucine
and Lysine}}. <img src="paste-801402242727937.jpg" />
1473257438252 1421618046184 Nonessential glucogenic AND ketogenic amino acid
s are {{c1::tyrosine}} <img src="paste-801397947760641.jpg" />
1473257469290 1421618046184 Essential Glucogenic Amino Acids are {{c1::Histi
dine, Methionine, Threonine, Valine}} <div>mneumonic: His MTV is <i style="fon

t-weight: bold; ">essential</i> for him to have the <u style="font-weight:
bold; ">energy</u> to get through his day.</div><div><br /></div><img src="
paste-801397947760641.jpg" />
1473257667377 1421618046184 {{c1::Aspartate}} turns into {{c2::Oxaloacetate}
}, catalyzed by {{c3::Aspartate Aminotransferase}}
7299073.jpg" />
1473257706158 1421618046184 Some leukemia cells are unable to synthesize suf
ficient {{c1::asparagine}} to support their growth.
These patients can be sy
stematically given asparaginase for treatment.
1473257761943 1421618046184 {{c1::Phenylalanine}} is degraded to form {{c2::
tyrosine}} by {{c3::Phenylalanine hydroxylase}}.
1739393.jpg" />
1473257922127 1421618046184 Tyrosine formed by Phenylalanine hydroxylase is
then converted to {{c1::Fumarate}} and {{c1::Acetoacetate}}.
<img src="paste802841056772097.jpg" />
1473257960548 1421618046184 A deficiency in {{c1::Phenylalanine hydroxylase}
} leads to {{c2::Phenylketonuria}}.
<img src="paste-802841056772097.jpg" />
1473257987796 1421618046184 Methionine is a souce of {{c1::S-Adenosylmethion
ine (SAM)}}, which is a source of {{c2::methyl groups}}.
<img src="paste803188949123073.jpg" />
1473258142007 1421618046184 Methionine leads to S-Adenosylmethionine (SAM),
which is eventually metabolized into {{c1::L-homocysteine.}} via SAH hydrolase
<img src="paste-803184654155777.jpg" />
1473258226837 1421618046184 {{c2::Tyrosine}} is the amino acid precursor of
{{c1::dopamine}}, {{c1::epinephrine}} and {{c1::norepinephrine}}.
<img src
="paste-803412287422465.jpg" />
1473258352437 1421618046184 {{c1::Cocaine}} inhibits {{c2::dopamine}} and {{
c2::norepinephrine}} reuptake in the brain.
1473258380560 1421618046184 Tyrosine hydroxylase has a commonality with Phen
ylalanine hydroxylase as both use {{c1::Tetrahydrobiopterin}} as a cofactor.
<img src="paste-803407992455169.jpg" />
1473258459569 1421618046184 {{c1::Tyrosine Hydroxylase}} converts Tyrosine i
nto DOPA. <img src="paste-803407992455169.jpg" />
1473258647993 1421618046184 {{c1::Aromatic Amino Acid Decarboxylase}} conver
ts DOPA into dopamine <img src="paste-803407992455169.jpg" />
1473258668438 1421618046184 {{c1::Dopamine Beta-Hydroxylase}} converts Dopam
ine into Norepinephrine <img src="paste-803407992455169.jpg" />
1473258693822 1421618046184 The rate limiting step enzyme for the synthesis
of catecholamines is {{c1::Tyrosine Hydroxylase.}}
2455169.jpg" />
1473258732747 1421618046184 The three catecholamines are {{c1::Dopamine, Epi
nephrine, and Norepinephrine}}. <img src="paste-803407992455169.jpg" />
1473258759076 1421618046184 Parkinson s disease results from the degeneratio
n of {{c1::dopamine neurons.}}
1473258926340 1421618046184 A way to partially relieve the symptoms of Parki
nson s is to administer {{c1::L-DOPA.}} Why not just administer Dopamine? It can
not cross the blood brain barrier.<div><img src="paste-803407992455169.jpg" /></
div>
1473259220832 1421618046184 Catecholamines are metabolised by {{c1::catechol
-O-methyl transferase (COMT)}} and {{c1::monoamine oxidase (MAO)}}
<img src
="paste-804898346106881.jpg" />
1473259396922 1421618046184 Inhibitors of MAO were the first {{c1::antidepre
ssants}}
<img src="paste-804894051139585.jpg" />
1473259417071 1421618046184 Serotonin is synthesized from the Amino Acid {{c
1::Tryptophan}}.
<img src="paste-805113094471681.jpg" />
1473259489206 1421618046184 The mechanistic steps of Trp --> serotonin ar
e {{c1::hydroxylation}} and then {{c1::decarboxylation}}.
<img src="paste805108799504385.jpg" />
1473259527288 1421618046184 {{c1::Flouxetine}} is an antidepressant that inh
ibits Serotonin reuptake.

1473259551576 1421618046184 Serotonin is degraded by {{c1::Monoamine Oxidase
(MAO)}} to 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid.
1473259592741 1421618046184 Melatonin is a sleep inducing hormone derived fr
om {{c1::Serotonin}}.
1473259658448 1421618046184 {{c1::Glutamate}} is the major excitatory neurot
ransmitter in the brain.
<img src="paste-805491051593729.jpg" />
1473259704468 1421618046184 GABA is derived from the amino acid {{c1::glutam
ate}}. <img src="paste-805486756626433.jpg" />
1473259716023 1421618046184 {{c1::GABA}} is the major inhibitory neurotransm
itter in the brain
<img src="paste-805486756626433.jpg" />
1473259731686 1421618046184 Histamine is derived from the amino acid {{c1::H
istidine}}, after a {{c2::decarboxylation}}.
<img src="paste-805748749631489.
jpg" />
1473259798785 1421618046184 Creatine and Creatine phosphate are derived from
the reaction between the amino acids {{c1::Arginine}} and {{c1::Glycine}}.
Creatine and Creatine phosphate serve as high energy reserves. Creatine Kinase i
s used a marker for cardiovascular disease. The phosphate from Creatine phosphat
e can be used to phosphorylated ADP<div><img src="paste-806204016164865.jpg" /><
/div>
1473259911049 1421618046184 Creatine phosphate is a {{c1::high energy}} comp
ound that is used to {{c2::phosphorylate ADP.}} <img src="paste-806199721197569.
jpg" />
1473259933625 1421618046184 {{c2::Creatinine}} is a marker in the {{c1::kidn
eys}}, formed from Creatine and Creatine phosphate.
1197569.jpg" />
1473260736319 1421618046184 Phenylketonuria leads to an elevation in {{c1::p
henylalainine}} levels and its derivatives.
<img src="paste-807445261713409.
jpg" />
1473260944292 1421618046184 Common symptoms of Phenylketonuria are {{c1::hyp
opigmentation}} and {{c1::intellectual disability}}.
6746113.jpg" />
1473260982763 1421618046184 Common treatment for Phenylketonuria is {{c1::di
etary restriction of phenylalanine.}} <img src="paste-807440966746113.jpg" />
1473261004734 1421618046184 Phenylketonuria can also be caused by a deficien
cy in the enzymes that synthesize {{c1::Tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4)}}
<img src
="paste-807973542690817.jpg" />
1473261114364 1421618046184 {{c4::Maple Syrup Urine disease}} is caused by d
eficiency in mitochondrial {{c1::branched chain alpha keto acid dehydrogenase (B
CKD)}} that {{c3::oxidatively decarboxylates}} (the biochemical changes made) {{
c2::Leu, Ile, and Val.}}(3 amino acids) <img src="paste-808214060859393.jpg" />
1473261270340 1421618046184 In {{c3::maple syrup urine disease}}, {{c1::BCAA
s}} and their corresponding {{c1::alpha-keto acids}} accumulate in blood, causin
g interference with {{c2::brain}} function.
1473261351635 1421618046184 Treatment of Maple Syrup Urine Disease (MSUD) is
{{c1::synthetic formula free of BCAAs}}
<img src="paste-808209765892097.
jpg" />
1473261428901 1421618046184 {{c2::Albinism}} arises from a deficiency of the
enzyme {{c1::tyrosinase}}.
1473261546884 1421618046184 Tyrosinase converts tyrosine into {{c1::melanin}
}.
1473261558802 1421618046184 The two major types of melanin in the body are {
{c1::Eumelanin}} and {{c1::Pheomelanin}}.
<div>Eumelanin gives rise to bro
wn/black pigment; Pheomelanin gives rise to red/blond melanin.</div><div><br /><
/div><img src="paste-809008629809153.jpg" />
1473261732517 1421618046184 The most abundant melanin in the body is {{c1::e
umelanin}}.
<div>Eumelanin is more commonly used for skin pigment</div><div>
<br /></div><img src="paste-809004334841857.jpg" />
1473261858334 1421618046184 Homocystinuria is a group of disorders involving
defects in the metabolism of {{c1::homocysteine}}.
0590337.jpg" />
1473262117660 1421618046184 Treatment of homocystinuria includes {{c1::restr
iction of methionine}} and {{c2::supplementation with viamins B6, B12, and folat
e}}
<img src="paste-809558385623041.jpg" />
1473262160596 1421618046184 Total plasma homocysteine levels are {{c1::posit
vely}} correlated with {{c2::Cardiovascular Disease Mortality.}}
<img src
="paste-809846148431873.jpg" />
1473262255471 1421618046184 {{c1::Alkaptonuria}} is a non fatal condition in
volving a deficiency in {{c2::homogentisic acid oxidase}}
1473262309783 1421618046184 Accumulation of {{c1::homogentisic acid (2,5-dih
ydroxylphenyl acetic acid)}} is seen in {{c2::Alkaptonuria}}.
1473262357155 1421618046184 homogentistic acid is an intermediate in the pat
hway of {{c2::tyrosine}} degradation.
1473262389708 1421618046184 A characteristic physiological symptom of Alkapt
onuria is homogentisic aciduria, where the {{c1::urine oxidizes to a dark pigmen
t on standing.}}
<img src="paste-810267055226881.jpg" />
1473262446147 1421618046184 A symptom involving vertebrae in Alkaptonuria is
the {{c1::deposition of black pigment in cartilege and connective tissue.}}
<img src="paste-810340069670913.jpg" />
1473262498867 1421618046184 Nitric oxide is synthesized from {{c2::arginine}
} by {{c1::Nitric oxide synthase (NOS)}}
<img src="paste-810511868362753.
jpg" />
1473303075085 1421618046184 Nonessential glucogenic amino acids are:<div>{{c
1::<div>Alanine</div><div>Arginine</div><div>Asparagine</div><div>Aspartate</div
><div>Glutamate</div><div>Glutamine</div><div>Glycine</div><div>Proline</div><di
v>Cysteine</div><div>Serine</div>}}</div>
A4G3 PCS<div><br /></div><div><b
r /></div>
this structure</div>
Adenine
1473341273099 1421618046187 <img src="paste-25868588023809 (1).jpg" /><div>N
ame the base</div>
Thymine
the base</div> Guanine
the base</div> Cytosine
the base</div> Uracil
1473341378939 1421618046184 To go from a base to a nucleoside, a {{c1::glyco
sidic linkage to a ribose sugar}} is added.
<img src="paste-26143465930753.j
pg" />
1473341443485 1421618046184 To go from a nucleoside to a nucleotide, the {{c
2::ribose sugar}} is {{c1::phosphorylated}}.
<img src="paste-26139170963457.j
pg" />
1473341471568 1421618046184 GMP is turned into GDP using {{c2::ATP}}; this r
eaction is catalyzed by {{c1::Nucleoside Monophosphate Kinase}}.
1473341591166 1421618046184 The four commone purine bases are:<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<div>Hypoxanthine</div><div>Xanthine</div><div>Adenine</div><div>G
uanine</div>}}</div>
1473341812314 1421618046184 The two pathways to generate purines and pyrimid
ines are {{c1::de novo biosynthetic pathways and salvage pathways.}}
1473342152343 1421618046184 In De novo biosynthesis of purines, the starting
substance is the {{c1::Ribose 5-phosphate}} from the {{c2::Pentose Phosphate Pa
thway}} <img src="paste-27552215203841.jpg" />
1473342253415 1421618046184 In de novo biosynthesis of purines, Ribose 5-pho
sphate is converted into {{c1::PRPP}}, catalyzed by {{c1::PRPP synthase.}}
<img src="paste-27547920236545.jpg" />
1473342290565 1421618046184 The major regulatory enzyme in purine biosynthes
is is {{c1::Amidophosphoribosyl transferase}} <img src="paste-27659589386241.j
pg" />
1473342348461 1421618046184 in de novo purine biosynthesis, {{c3::PRPP}} is
turned into {{c2::5-phosphoribosylamine,}} catalyzed by {{c1::Amidophosphoribosy

l transferase}}.
<img src="paste-27655294418945.jpg" />
1473342397220 1421618046184 In purine biosynthesis, PRPP --> 5-phosphorib
osylamine, {{c1::Glutamine}} is where the the nitrogen to 5-phosphoribosylamine
comes from
<img src="paste-27655294418945.jpg" />
1473342523996 1421618046184 In purine biosynthesis, Amidophosphoribosyl tran
sferase is inhibited by the three molecules {{c1::IMP, AMP, GMP}}
<img src
="paste-27655294418945.jpg" />
1473342553966 1421618046184 The hypoxanthine is the base and when it is a nu
cleotide, it is called {{c1::Inosine Mono-phosphate (IMP)}}
1473342634284 1421373138997 <img src="dd4de8495ca7d08678007fa234401f2eaff78c
e4_Q 0.svg" /> <img src="dd4de8495ca7d08678007fa234401f2eaff78ce4_A 0.svg" />
<img src="dd4de8495ca7d08678007fa234401f2eaff78ce4_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="dd4de8495ca7d08678007fa234401f2eaff78ce4_tmpqrrlbq.png" />
1473342683066 1421618046184 {{c2::IMP}} is the precursor for both {{c1::AMP}
} and {{c1::GMP}}
1473342708428 1421618046184 When ATP levels are {{c2::high}}, IMP conversion
to GMP is {{c1::stimulated}} <img src="paste-42807939039233.jpg" />
1473342866933 1421618046184 When GTP levels are {{c1::low}}, IMP conversion
to AMP is {{c2::reduced}}.
<img src="paste-42803644071937.jpg" />
1473342924172 1421618046184 Ribose 5-phosphate to PRPP is {{c1::inhibited}}
by {{c2::IMP, AMP, and GMP}} (3)
1473342988572 1421618046184 IMP to AMP or GMP undergo {{c1::classic negative
feedback}} in terms of regulation
<img src="paste-45329084841985.jpg" />
1473343030946 1421618046184 In salvage pathways, you {{c1::re-utilize}} puri
nes
<img src="paste-45380624449537 (1).jpg" />
1473343094069 1421618046184 The salvage enzymes are {{c1::Adenine phosphorib
osyl transferase (APRT)}} and {{c2::Hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transfer
ase (HGPRT)}}
1473343144701 1421618046184 {{c1::Nucleotidase}} cleaves a {{c2::phosphate}}
off of Nucleoside monophosphates in order to undergo reutilization pathway (sal
vage)
1473343205901 1421618046184 {{c1::Phosphorylases}} cleave off the {{c2::ribo
se 1-sugar}} from nucleosides in order to undergo salvage pathway.
1473343244270 1421618046184 Purines in humans are degraded to {{c1::urate}}
<img src="paste-45715631898625.jpg" />
1473343274602 1421618046184 Urate turns into Uric Acid crystals and bind to
{{c1::macrophages}}, activating the inflammosome pathway. (leads to {{c2::Gout}}
)
1473343366033 1421618046184 {{c1::Hyperuricemia}} is more commonly known as
{{c2::Gout}}
1473343471375 1421618046184 The causes of hyperuricemia (gout) are due to {{
c1::decreased uric acid excretion}} or {{c2::increased uric acid production.}}
1473343508795 1421618046184 80% of gout cases are due to {{c1::decreased uri
c acid excretion}}
1473343528020 1421618046184 Increased uric acid production can be caused by
{{c1::overactivity of PRPP synthase}} or {{c1::HGPRT deficiency.}}
1473343570216 1421618046184 If you have a deficiency in the salvage pathway,
leads to {{c1::higher}} level of de novo biosynthetic pathways due to a {{c1::b
uildup}} of {{c2::PRPP}}.
<img src="paste-48524540510209.jpg" />
1473343689928 1421618046184 A treatment for {{c2::gout}} is the administrati
on of {{c1::Allopurinol}}
<img src="paste-48601849921537.jpg" />
1473343744329 1421618046184 Allopurinol has three effects:<div>{{c1::<div>de
creases urate</div><div>increases Xanthine & Hypoxanthine</div><div>decrease
s PRPP</div>}}</div>
<img src="paste-48597554954241.jpg" />
1473343790942 1421618046184 {{c2::Lesch-Nyhan syndrome}} is severe gout caus
ed by a severe {{c1::HGPRT deficiency}}
1473343829728 1421618046184 Lesch-Nyhan syndrome s genetic transmission is {
{c1::X-linked recessive}}
1473343851641 1421618046184 {{c2::Lesch-Nyhan syndrome}} leads to symptoms o
f {{c1::neurologic disability}} and {{c1::self injury}}
1473343884384 1421618046184 {{c2::Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Syndrome
(SCID)}} is caused by mutations in {{c1::Adenosine Deaminase (ADA)}}
<img src
="paste-48876727828481.jpg" />
1473343937317 1421618046184 Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Syndrome (SCID)
s genetic inheritance is {{c1::autosomal recessive}}
1473343963894 1421618046184 SCID is toxic due to the buildup in {{c1::toxic
dATP}}, which causes {{c2::apoptosis of T and B cells}} <img src="paste-48872432
861185.jpg" />
1473344519716 1421618046187 <img src="paste-49761491091457.jpg" /><div>name
this base</div> Orotic Acid
1473344580513 1421618046184 When the base is a {{c2::pyrimidine}}, the nucle
oside ends in {{c1::"IDINE" }}
<img src="paste-51926154608641.jpg" />
1473344640643 1421618046184 In {{c2::pyrimidine synthesis}}, the regulated e
nzyme is {{c1::Carbomoyl Phosphate Synthetase II}}
856449.jpg" />
1473344787893 1421618046184 In pyrimidine synthesis pathway, carbamoyl phosp
hate synthetase II is {{c1::inhibited}} by {{c2::UTP}}. <img src="paste-52020643
889153.jpg" />
1473344823235 1421618046184 In pyrimidine synthesis pathway, carbamoyl phosp
hate synthetase II is {{c1::activated}} by {{c2::ATP}} & {{c2::PRPP}}.
<img src="paste-52205327482881.jpg" />
1473344846721 1421618046184 The carbamoyl phosphate synthetase II reaction o
f pyrimidine synthesis occurs in the {{c1::cytosol}}. <img src="paste-52201032
515585.jpg" />
1473344871336 1421618046184 The order of enzymes in pyrimidine synthesis are
<div><br /></div><div><b><u>{{c1::<div></div></u><u style="font-weight: bo
ld; ">C</u>arbomoyl Phosphate Synthetase II (CPS II)</b></div><div><u style="fon
t-weight: bold; ">A</u>spartate Transcarbamyalase (ATCM)</div><div><u style="fon
t-weight: bold; ">D</u>ihyroorotase (DHO)</div>}}
remember: CAD
1473345114437 1421618046184 In contrast to purines, pyrimidines are synthesi
zed as {{c1::free ring}}
1473345194715 1421618046184 The multifunctional enzyme in pyrimidine synthes
is is called {{c1::CAD}}
CAD is due to the three enzymatic activities:<di
v><br /></div><div><div><u style="font-weight: bold; ">C</u>arbomoyl Phosphate S
ynthase II (CPS II)</div><div><u style="font-weight: bold; ">A</u>spartate Trans
carbamyalase (ATCM)</div><div><u style="font-weight: bold; ">D</u>ihyroorotase (

DHO)</div></div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-54593329299457.jpg" /></di
v>
1473345223575 1421618046184 After CAD forms dihydroorotate, the next enzyme
is {{c1::Dihyroorotate dehydrogenase}}, which forms {{c2::Orotate}}.
<img src
="paste-54644868907009.jpg" />
1473345290218 1421618046184 In pyrimidine synthesis, {{c3::Orotate}} is turn
ed into {{c1::OMP}} by {{c2::Orotate phosphoribosyl transferase}}
<img src
="paste-62818191671297.jpg" />
1473345321638 1421373138997 <img src="9b2bd97ef63fecfb99ceff8dc3286ce9344640
a1_Q 0.svg" /> <img src="9b2bd97ef63fecfb99ceff8dc3286ce9344640a1_A 0.svg" />
<img src="9b2bd97ef63fecfb99ceff8dc3286ce9344640a1_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="9b2bd97ef63fecfb99ceff8dc3286ce9344640a1_tmpoxltto.png" />
1473345448125 1421618046184 In pyrimidine synthesis, {{c2::OMP decarboxylase
}} turns {{c1::OMP}} into {{c1::UMP}}. <img src="paste-62813896704001.jpg" />
1473345479521 1421618046184 {{c1::UMP synthase}} is made up of the two enzym
es {{c2::Orotate phosphoribosyl transferase and OMP decarboxylase}}
<img src
="paste-62813896704001.jpg" />
1473345551043 1421618046184 Low {{c1::UMP synthase}} activity, this leads to
{{c2::Orotic Aciduria}}
<img src="paste-62813896704001.jpg" />
1473345619071 1421618046184 In prokaryotic systems, the rate limiting step o
f pyrimidine synthesis is {{c1::ATC (Aspartate Transcarbmylase)}}
1473345920236 1421618046184 To go from ribonucleotides to deoxyribonucleotid
es, the two enzymes are {{c1::Ribonnucleotide Reductase}} and {{c1::Thymidylate
synthase}}
<img src="paste-63741609639937.jpg" />
1473346122312 1421618046184 {{c2::Ribonucleotide reductate}} turns an {{c1::
OH}} on ribonucleoside diphosphate into an {{c1::H,}} making it a deoxyribonucle
oside diphosphate
<img src="paste-63737314672641.jpg" />
1473346270067 1421618046184 Ribonucleotide reductase is {{c1::inhibited}} by
{{c2::dATP}}
1473346287443 1421618046184 Ribonucleotide reductase is {{c1::activated}} by
{{c2::ATP}}
1473346300890 1421618046184 Thymidylate synthase prevents {{c1::incorpation
into RNA}}
<img src="paste-63737314672641.jpg" />
1473346334129 1421618046184 5-Fluoro-Uracil (5-FU) is a simple derivat
ive of {{c1::Uracil}} and is a {{c2::chemotherapy drug}}
1473346699067 1421618046184 The drugs {{c1::Methotrexate}} and {{c1::Aminopt
erin}} inhibit {{c2::Dihydrofolate reductase}} <img src="paste-64467459112961.j
pg" />
1473346827962 1421618046184 AZT inhibits {{c1::HIV reverse transcriptase}}
It causes chain termination and blocks viral replication
1473347805416 1421618046184 In the {{c2::intestines}}, ammonia is formed by
the action of {{c1::bacterial urease}}.
1473348115745 1421618046184 {{c1::Periportal hepatocytes}} in the {{c3::live
r}} is where the {{c2::ammonia}} is produced. <img src="paste-67293547593729.j
pg" />
1473348529318 1421618046184 The urea cycle occurs in {{c1::periportal hepato
cytes}} <img src="paste-67289252626433.jpg" />
1473348545985 1421618046184 In the Urea cycle the {{c1::Carbamoyl phosphate
synthetase 1 (CPS 1)}} enzyme and the {{c1::ornithine transcarbamyolase (OTC)}}
are found in the {{c2::mitochondria}}. <img src="paste-67516885893121.jpg" />
1473348703993 1421618046184 <div>One nitrogen of the urea is derived from {{
c1::free ammonia}} and the </div><div>other nitrogen from {{c1::aspartate}}

. </div>
1473348749817 1421618046184 {{c2::Orotic Aciduria}} can be caused by defects
in the Uric Acid cycle due to {{c1::CPS1 leakage from mito to cytoplasm.}}
1473348820057 1421618046184 In the urea cycle, {{c2::Ornithine transcarbamyo
lase (OTC)}} converts {{c1::ornithine}} to {{c1::citrulline}} <img src="paste67757404061697.jpg" />
1473348915106 1421618046184 {{c1::Arginosuccinate synthetase}} converts {{c2
::citrulline}} into {{c2::arginosuccinate}} using the amino acid {{c3::aspartate
}}.
<img src="paste-67903432949761.jpg" />
1473349099288 1421618046184 {{c1::Arginossucinate lyase}} converts {{c2::Arg
inosuccinate}} into {{c2::arginine}}, releasing a {{c3::fumarate}}
<img src
="paste-67899137982465.jpg" />
1473349144713 1421618046184 {{c1::Arginase}} converts {{c2::Arginine}} into
{{c2::Ornithine}}, releasing {{c3::UREA!}}
<img src="paste-67899137982465.j
pg" />
1473349188429 1421618046184 In the Urea cycle, {{c1::Arginine}} can also be
converted to {{c2::Citrulline}}, releasing {{c2::NO}}. <img src="paste-68457483
730945.jpg" />
1473349329175 1421618046184 Arginine {{c1::positively}} activates the synthe
tase which converts {{c2::glutamate}} into {{c2::N-Acetylglutamate}}
<img src
="paste-68547678044161.jpg" />
1473349410458 1421618046184 N-acetylglutamate is a {{c1::positive}} alloster
ic activator of {{c2::CPS I}} <img src="paste-68543383076865.jpg" />
1473349469360 1421618046184 Mutations in the enzymes of the {{c2::urea cycle
}} leads to {{c1::hyperammonemia}}, the most common mutation being in {{c2::OTC}
}
<img src="paste-68998649610241.jpg" />
1473354078699 1421618046184 How to calculate BMI in kg and meters:<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Kg/(meters in height ^2)}}</div>
1473355278616 1421618046184 How to calculate BMI in lbs and inches:<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::(weight/(height^2))*705}}</div>
1473355317743 1421618046184 Calories from fat are {{c1::9 kcal/g}}
1473355390573 1421618046184 Calories from carbs and proteins are {{c1::4 kca
l/g}}
1473355407018 1421618046184 Alcohol s energy yield is {{c1::7 kcal/g}}
1473355465457 1421618046184 {{c1::Trans unsaturated fatty acids}} resemble s
aturated fatty acids in their {{c2::physical properties}} and {{c2::impact on th
e cardiovascular system}}.
1473355742864 1421618046184 Melting points of trans unsaturated fatty acids
are {{c1::higher}}
1473355765187 1421618046184 partially hydrogenated vegetable oils have some
{{c1::trans unsaturated}} fatty acids. done in order to increase their melting
point<div>e.g. is margarine</div>
1473355858463 1421618046184 cis in the molecule gives a {{c1::kink}} to the
fatty acid, {{c1::lowering}} melting point.
1473355915345 1421618046184 Digestion is {{c1::more}} rapid for monosacchari
des and disaccharides than for polysaccharides
1473356233239 1421618046184 Most fiber consists of polysaccharides that are
{{c1::not substrates}} for mammalian enzymes
1473356441025 1421618046184 Gelatin derived from collagen has a low biologic
al value due to its {{c1::limited amino acid composition.}}
Usually, biologi
cal value is greater for animals than plant proteins
1473356730284 1421618046184 {{c2::Marasmus}} is a disease similar to Kwashio
rkor, but in addition to protein deficiency, there is also a {{c1::caloric defic
iency}}.
1473471820018 1421618046184 Caffeine is a derivative of {{c1::Adenine}} and
works as an {{c2::antagonist}}.
1473471923573 1421618046184 {{c3::Hypoxanthine}} leads to the formation of t
he base {{c1::Adenine}}, using the amino acid {{c1::Aspartate}} as the N source.
<img src="paste-108568183308289.jpg" />
1473472322112 1421618046184 {{c1::Xanthine}} leads to {{c2::Guanine}}, using

the amino acid {{c2::Glutamine}} for the N source.
8340993.jpg" />
1473472377928 1421618046184 Inosine can be formed from what two molecules?&n
bsp;<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IMP}} or {{c1::Adenosine}}</div> <img src
="paste-108894600822785.jpg" />
1473472606081 1421618046184 Inosine (after one intermediate) eventually lead
s to {{c1::Xanthine}}. <img src="paste-108894600822785.jpg" />
1473517739685 1421618046184 In Purine degradation, Guanine and Hypoxanthine
eventually lead to {{c1::Xanthine}} (the penultimate product) <img src="paste108894600822785.jpg" />
1473517799486 1421618046184 In Purine degradation, {{c2::Xanthine}} is conve
rted to Urate via {{c1::Xanthine Oxidase}}
<img src="paste-108894600822785.
jpg" />
1473517831953 1421618046184 Glutamine provides the amino group for 3 reactio
ns in purine metabolism:<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<div>Xanthine to Guanine</di
v><div>XMP to GMP</div><div>PRPP to 5-phosphoribosylamine</div>}}</div>
1473518057752 1421618046184 Aspartate provides the amino group for two react
ions in purine metabolism:<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<div>IMP to Adenylosuccina
te</div><div>Hypoxanthine to Adenine</div>}}</div>
1473685233594 1421618046184 {{c2::Vitamin A}} can be in two interconvertable
forms: {{c1::Retinol}} and {{c1::Retinal}}. These can be oxidized to {{c3::reti
noic acid}}, which is {{c3::irreversible}}.
1473685838549 1421618046184 A deficiency in {{c2::Vitamin A}} leads to {{c1:
:night blindness and keratinization of epithelial cells.}}
1473685873006 1421618046184 Sources of Vitamin A are {{c1::vegetables, fish
liver oil.}} (2)
<br /><div><br /></div><div>AVFlo</div>
1473685902528 1421618046184 RDA for Vitamin A is {{c1::1 mg.}}
1473685940607 1421618046184 Excess of Vitamin A is toxic and leads to {{c1::
higher intercranial pressure.}}
1473686029300 1421618046184 {{c2::Beta carotene}} is a precursor for the for
mation of {{c1::retinal}}
<img src="paste-375994321993729.jpg" />
1473686072418 1421618046184 A form of Vitamin A used in vision is {{c1::11-c
is-retinal.}} It is converted to all-trans retinal by photoisomerization.<div>
1473686288012 1421618046184 Retinol is stored as {{c2::retinyl esters}} main
ly in {{c1::liver and adipose tissue.}} (2) <--- what places in the body
<img src="paste-376260609966081.jpg" />
1473686445563 1421618046184 Dietary retinol is transported as {{c1::retinyl
esters}} in {{c2::chylomicrons}}.
<img src="paste-376256314998785.jpg" />
1473686497990 1421618046184 Retinol is secreted by liver in association with
{{c1::plasma retinol binding proteins (RBP)}} <img src="paste-376256314998785.
jpg" />
1473686550413 1421618046184 In target tissues, Retinol is oxidized to {{c1::
retinoic acid}}, which binds to {{c2::nuclear receptors}}, {{c2::activating}} th
em. This {{c3::stimulates responsive genes}}. <img src="paste-376256314998785.
jpg" />
1473686615178 1421618046184 {{c1::All-trans retinoic acid}} binds to {{c2::R
AR receptors}} whereas {{c1::9-cis retinoic acid}} binds to {{c2::RXR receptors.
}}
<img src="paste-378021546557441.jpg" />
1473686753815 1421618046184 {{c1::Thiamine}} is converted to {{c2::thiamine
pyrophosphate (TPP)}} which is a cofactor for {{c3::oxidative decarboxylation of
alpha keto acids}} and a cofactor for {{c4::transketolase}}.
1473686899626 1421618046184 Sources of thiamine are {{c1::beans, nuts, fruit
s, etc.}} (3)
1473686922632 1421618046184 RDA of Thiamine is {{c1::1.5 mg/day}}
1473686944527 1421618046184 Thiamine is also known as {{c1::Vitamin B1}}
1473687035184 1421618046184 {{c2::Vitamin B2}} is known commonly as {{c1::Ri
boflavin}}
1473687061075 1421618046184 {{c2::Riboflavin}} is a precursor for coenzymes
{{c1::FMN}} and {{c1::FAD}}

<img src="paste-380224864780289.jpg" />
1473687087548 1421618046184 Effect of Riboflavin deficiency is {{c1::skin le
sions.}}
1473687100914 1421618046184 Sources of Riboflavin are {{c1::milk, liver, gre
en vegetables.}} (3)
1473687119014 1421618046184 RDA of Riboflavin is {{c1::1.7 mg/day}}
1473687161926 1421618046184 Niacin is sometimes referred to as {{c1::Vitamin
B3}}
1473687382696 1421618046184 {{c2::Niacin}}, as {{c3::nicotinic acid}} or {{c
3::nicotinamide}}, it is a precursor for the coenzymes {{c1::NAD}} and {{c1::NAD
P}}.
<img src="paste-380461087981569.jpg" />
1473687455209 1421618046184 Effect of {{c2::Niacin}} deficiency leads to {{c
1::Pellagra}}. Pellagra involves dermatitis, dirrhea, dementia, and if severe,
death.<div>The 3 "D" s of Pellagra. Sometimes you get the BIG D: Death.</div>
1473687521487 1421618046184 Sources of Niacin are {{c1::legumes}} and {{c1::
meat}}.
1473687591727 1421618046184 RDA of Niacin is {{c1::19 mg/day}}
1473687602926 1421618046184 Having a good source of {{c1::tryptophan}} in th
e diet means you won t need as much Niacin.
<img src="paste-381028023664641.
jpg" />
1473687975264 1421618046184 {{c2::Pantothenic Acid}} deficiency leads to no
known symptoms, maybe stomach ache or nausea
1473688005426 1421618046184 Source of pantothenic acid is {{c1::synthesized
by intestinal bacteria.}}
1473688026724 1421618046184 RDA of pantotthenic acid {{c1::has not been esta
blished.}}
1473688047596 1421618046184 {{c1::Vitamin B6}} is also known as {{c2::pyrido
xine}}.
1473688213121 1421618046184 {{c3::Pyridoxine}} is a precursor of {{c2::pyrid
oxal phosphate (PLP)}}, which is a coenzyme for enzymes catalyzing {{c1::transam
ination, deamination, decarboxylation}} (3), and for {{c1::glycogen phosphorylas
e}}.
1473688303954 1421618046184 Effects of {{c2::Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine)}} defic
iciency are {{c1::hypoglycemia, dermatitis, convulsions, microcytic anemia}} (4)
.
for hypoglycemia see Lippincott text<div><br /></div><div><br /></div><d
iv>B6 <u style="font-weight: bold; ">h</u>as <u style="font-weight: bold; ">d</u
>a <u style="font-weight: bold; ">c</u>razy <u style="font-weight: bold; ">a</u>
ss </div>
1473688380037 1421618046184 Sources of Vitamin B6 are {{c1::liver, fish, nut
s, whole grain cereals}} (4)
1473688406294 1421618046184 RDA of Vitamin B6 is {{c1::2 mg/day}}
1473688418585 1421618046184 {{c2::Isoniazid}} is a {{c3::anti-tuberculosis d
rug}}, which is an antagonist of {{c1::Vitamin B6.}}
0259713.jpg" />
1473688624775 1421618046184 {{c1::Biotin}} acts as a coenzyme in {{c2::carbo
xylation reactions in covalent linkage to lysine side chains}} for enzymes.&nbsp
;
1473689128767 1421618046184 {{c2::Dermatitis, anorexia, muscle pain, nausea}
} are indicative of a {{c1::Biotin}} deficiency <br /><div><br /></div><div>DAMN
B</div>
1473689169956 1421618046184 Sources of Biotin are {{c1::intestinal microorga
nisms, liver, vegetables.}} (3) Biotin is my last victory
1473689190824 1421618046184 RDA for Biotin {{c1::has not been established.}}
1473689207877 1421618046184 {{c1::Avidin}} in raw eggs has tight binding for
{{c2::biotin}}, and in high amounts can cause a {{c2::biotin}} deficiency.
1473689242914 1421618046184 {{c1::Folic Acid}} is a precursor for {{c2::THF}
}, which {{c3::carries one carbon units at different levels of oxidation.}}
1473689422146 1421618046184 Deficiency of {{c2::Folic Acid}} will lead to {{
c1::megaloblastic anemia}} and {{c1::GI disturbances.}} <u style="font-weight: b
old; ">F</u>olic <u style="font-weight: bold; ">A</u>cid will lead to <u style="
font-weight: bold; ">F</u>arts and mega <u style="font-weight: bold; ">A</u

>nemia<div><br /></div><div>Farts --> refers to GI disturbances </div><d
iv>Anemia --> megaloblastic anemia</div>
1473689457445 1421618046184 Sources of {{c2::Folic Acid}} are {{c1::intestin
al bacteria, liver, yeast, and green vegetables.}} (4) Folic Acid = Farts and A
nemia --> GI disturbances and mega Anemia<div><br /></div><div>Farts and Anem
ia happen when you don t <b><u>L</u></b>et <b><u>Y</u></b>our <b><u>G</u></b>as
<b><u>B</u></b>reathe</div>
1473689499689 1421618046184 RDA of Folic Acid is {{c1::400 ug/day}} u = micr
o, the mu character
1473689633506 1421618046187 Describe the steps of Tetrahydrofolate synthesis
.
<img src="paste-384889199263745.jpg" /><br /><div><br /></div><div>This
is a bad card but sometimes evil is necessary.</div>
1473689733872 1421618046184 {{c2::Dihydropteroate synthetase}} in THF synthe
sis is inhibited by {{c1::Sulfanilamide}}.
4296449.jpg" />
1473689778773 1421618046184 {{c1::Dihydrofolate reductase}} in THF synthesis
is inhibited by {{c2::methotrexate}}. <img src="paste-384884904296449.jpg" />
1473689808776 1421618046184 {{c1::Methotrexate}} has been used to effect the
{{c2::remission of acute leukemia in children}}
4296449.jpg" />
1473689922208 1421618046184 {{c1:: BACTERIAL Dihydrofolate reductase}} is in
hibited by {{c2::Trimethoprim}} <img src="paste-385258566451201.jpg" /><
div><br /></div><div>Trimethoprim is a good chemo agent for bacteria.</div>
1473689999158 1421618046184 {{c1::Methyl-THF}} is formed in a {{c2::irrevers
ible}} reaction and its purpose is to convert {{c3::homocysteine}} to {{c3::meth
ionine}}, a reaction which requires {{c4::Vitamin B12.}}
<img src="paste385529149390849.jpg" />
1473690187780 1421618046184 A {{c1::B12 deficiency}} leads to an accumulatio
n of {{c2::Methyl-THF. }} <div><br /></div><div>This is known as the folat
e trap.</div><div><br /></div><img src="paste-385524854423553.jpg" /><div><br />
</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1473690235572 1421618046184 {{c2::Vitamin B12}} is a complex multiple ring s
tructure which includes a {{c1::cobalt}} atom.
1473690260407 1421618046184 Vitamin B12 derived cofactors are used for two i
mportant enzymes:<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<div>methylmalonyl CoA Isomerase</d
iv><div>Homocysteine: THF methyl transferase</div>}}</div>
B12 is for <b><u
>m</u></b>aking <b><u>c</u></b>razy <b><u>i</u></b>cecream for <b><u>h</u></b>um
ans <u style="font-weight: bold; ">t</u>o <b><u>m</u></b>aybe <b><u>t</u></
b>aste
1473690358318 1421618046184 {{c2::Methylmalonyl CoA isomerase}} requires the
derived cofactor of B12 known as {{c1::5-deoxyadenosyl cobalamin.}}
<u style
="font-weight: bold; ">m</u>aking <u style="font-weight: bold; ">c</u>razy <u st
yle="font-weight: bold; ">i</u>cecream needs <u style="font-weight: bold; ">5</u
> <u style="font-weight: bold; ">d</u>umps-<b><u>a</u></b>-<u style="font-w
eight: bold; ">c</u>um-balamin
1473690387843 1421618046184 {{c2::Vitamin B12}} deficiency leads to {{c1::pe
rnicious anemia and degeneration of spinal cord neurons.}} (2)
1473690425351 1421618046184 Sources of Vitamin B12 are {{c1::milk and meat}}
. (2) You need milk from meat to make that crazy ice cream (methylmalonyl CoA
isomerase)
1473690440434 1421618046184 RDA of Vitamin B12 is {{c1::3 ug/day.}}
1473690451147 1421618046184 {{c1::Intrinsic factor}} is required for the abs
orption of vitamin B12. <img src="paste-387406050099201.jpg" />
1473690491015 1421618046184 Intrinsic Factor comes from {{c1::Parietal cells
in the stomach.}}
<img src="paste-387401755131905.jpg" />
1473690517072 1421618046184 {{c1::Vitamin C}} is a {{c2::water soluble antio
xidant}} and it promotoes the {{c2::hydroxylation of proline residues of collage
n.}}
1473691109614 1421618046184 {{c2::Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C)}} is also requir
ed in the synthesis of {{c1::carnitine, dopamin, and bile acids.}} (3) <u style
="font-weight: bold; ">c</u> your way into the back room where we synthesiz
e some <u style="font-weight: bold; ">d</u>ope <u style="font-weight: bold; ">c<
/u>rack so you can trip on the <u style="font-weight: bold; ">b</u>est <u s
tyle="font-weight: bold; ">a</u>cid
1473691144866 1421618046184 Effect of Vitamin C deficiency is {{c1::scurvy}}
.
1473691159688 1421618046184 Source of Vitamin C are {{c1::Fruits and Vegetab
les.}}
1473691176463 1421618046184 RDA of Vitamin C is {{c1::60 mg/day}}
1473691329387 1421618046187 Describe the metabolism of Vitamin C
<img src
="paste-388187734147073.jpg" />
1473691351597 1421618046184 Vitamin D is important for the {{c1::regulation
of Calcium levels}}
1473691389110 1421618046184 {{c1::Vitamin D3}} ({{c2::cholecalciferol}}) req
uires conversion to the {{c1::1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D3}} to form active compoun
d.
1473691446604 1421618046184 Effects of {{c2::Vitamin D}} deficiency are {{c1
::rickets}} and {{c1::osteomalacia}}. No <u style="font-weight: bold; ">D</u>&
nbsp;means you be <u style="font-weight: bold; ">r</u>iling for <u style="font-w
eight: bold; ">o</u>ral <u style="font-weight: bold; ">m</u>asturbation
1473691472569 1421618046184 Sources of vitamin D are {{c1::UV irradiat
ion of 7-dehydrocholesterol in the skin}}, {{c1::fish liver oils,}} and {{c1::su
pplemented milk}}.
To get the <u style="font-weight: bold; ">D</u>, <u styl
e="font-weight: bold; ">U </u>have to <u style="font-weight: bold; ">7DC </
u> the <u style="font-weight: bold; ">S, </u>and <u style="font-weight
: bold; ">FLO </u>for the<u style="font-weight: bold; "> milk</u>
1473691524424 1421618046184 RDA of Vitamin D is {{c1::15 ug/day}}
1473691541440 1421618046184 The hydroxylation of cholecalciferol occurs at t
he {{c1::25 carbon}} in the {{c2::liver}} and the {{c1::1 carbon}} in the {{c2::
kidney}}, forming the active Vitamin D. <img src="paste-389025252769793.jpg" />
1473691709340 1421618046184 The effect of active Vitamin D on the bone is th
e {{c1::increase of Ca2+ and HPO4 2- release}} <img src="paste-389020957802497.
jpg" />
1473691737969 1421618046184 Vitamin E ({{c2::Tocopherol}}) is a lipid solubl
e antioxidant that {{c1::prevents lipid damage.}}
1473691765707 1421618046184 {{c2::Vitamin E}} deficiency is associated with
{{c1::lysis of erythrocytes.}}
1473691792744 1421618046184 Sources of Vitamin E are {{c1::vegEtables and wh
Eat germ oil.}} (2)
1473691808922 1421618046184 RDA of Vitamin E are {{c1::15 international unit
s}}
1473691824104 1421618046184 {{c2::Vitamin K}} is a coenzyme for the {{c1::ca
rboxylation of glutamic acid side chains of blood clotting factors (prothrombin,
factors VII, IX, X)}}
1473691924171 1421618046184 A deficiency of {{c2::Vitamin K}} leads to {{c1:
:prolonged blood clotting times.}}
1473691947610 1421618046184 Source of Vitamin K is {{c1::intestinal bacteria
}}
1473691969900 1421618046184 RDA for Vitamin K {{c1::has not been established
.}}
1473692069141 1421618046184 Heme is a molecule which has {{c1::conjugated do
uble bonds}} which gives it {{c1::color}}.
<img src="paste-390343807729665.
jpg" />
1473692873286 1421618046184 The first reaction of Heme synthesis occurs in t
he {{c1::mitochondria}}.
1473693261175 1421618046184 In the first step of heme synthesis, {{c1::Succi
nyl-CoA + Glycine}} become {{c2::ALA}} via the enzyme {{c3::ALAS}}, which is reg
ulated by {{c4::heme}} itself. <img src="paste-390790484328449.jpg" />
1473693322629 1421618046184 The rate limiting step of heme synthesis is the
{{c1::first step that produces ALA.}} <img src="paste-390790484328449.jpg" />

1473693347056 1421618046184 ALAS requires {{c1::Vitamin B6}} and {{c1::pyrid
oxal phosphate (PLP)}}
1473693453841 1421618046187 Describe the overall reactions of Heme synthesis
and their locations. <img src="paste-391086837071873.jpg" /><div>1. ALAS</div
><div>2. ALA dehydratase</div><div>3. Porphobilinogen deaminase a.k.a. HMB synth
ase</div><div>4. Uroporphyrinogen III synthase</div><div>5. Uroporphyrinogen III
decarboxylase</div><div>6. Coproporphyrinogen III oxidase</div><div>7. Protopor
phyrin IX Oxidase</div><div>8. Ferrochelatase</div>
1473693537478 1421618046184 There are two isoforms of ALAS, {{c1::ALAS1}} in
{{c2::all cells,}} and {{c1::ALAS2}} in {{c2::fetal liver & bone marrow.}}
1473693552614 1421618046184 {{c2::ALAS1}} is a housekeeping gene which is fe
edback inhibited by {{c1::heme}}.
1473693583491 1421618046184 ALAS2 is an {{c2::X linked}} gene which is feedb
ack inhibited by {{c1::iron}}.
1473693617950 1421618046184 <div>{{c2::X-linked sideroblastic anemia (XLSA)}
}: a {{c1::heme biosynthesis}} disease, not strictly a porph
yria</div>
1473693670740 1421618046184 <div>{{c2::X-linked dominant erythropoietic prot
oporphyria}}: due to {{c1:: excess ALAS2 }}</div>
1473693706688 1421618046184 Low {{c1::heme}} levels can increase {{c2::porph
yria}} severity. This is treated by {{c3::hemin therapy}}.
1473693738528 1421618046184 Step 2 of heme synthesis involves the conversion
of {{c2::ALA}} into {{c2::porphobilinogen}} via {{c3::ALA dehydratase}}, which
is inhibited by {{c1::Pb}}
<img src="paste-392212118503425.jpg" />
1473694129045 1421618046184 {{c1::Vitamin B6 deficiency}} is caused by {{c2:
:reduced ALAS activity}} and leads to {{c3::microcytic hypochomic anemia.}}
1473694212561 1421618046184 {{c1::Lead Toxicity}} is caused by defects in {{
c2::ALA dehydratase}} and {{c2::ferrochelatase}}, which leads to the accumulatio
n of {{c3::ALA}} and {{c3::Zn protoporphyin IX}}
The protoporphyrin IX gr
abs a Zn instead of an Fe
1473694294421 1421618046184 {{c2::Porphyrias}} are usually due to a partial
deficiency of a {{c1::heme biosynthetic enzyme.}}
1473694343813 1421618046184 Porphyria symptoms involve {{c1:: purple/red uri
ne, photosensitivity, skin lesions, increased hair growth,}} (4)
1473694397062 1421618046184 The most common type of porphyria is {{c2::Porph
yria Cutanea Tarda}}, which is caused by a {{c1::defect in Uroporphyrinogen III
decarboxylase}}
1473694664156 1421618046184 {{c1::Hepatic Porphyria}} sees heme precursor ac
cumulation in the {{c2::liver}} and is characterized by {{c3::rapid onset of neu
ropsychiatric symptoms}}
1473694737188 1421618046184 {{c1::Erythropoietic Porphyria}} has heme precur
sor accumulation in the {{c2::bone marrow/RBCs,}} and is characterized by {{c3::
cutaneous photosensitivity.}}
1473694803610 1421618046184 {{c1::Porphyria Cutanea Tarda}} is caused by def
ect in {{c2::uroporphyrinogen III decarboxylase}} and lead to {{c3::skin symptom
s}}.
<img src="paste-395197120774145.jpg" />
1473694908683 1421618046184 In {{c3::Porphyria Cutanea Tarda}}, {{c1::uropor
phyrins}} accumulate in {{c2::liver, plasma, urine, stool.}} (4)
<img src
="paste-395192825806849.jpg" />
1473694954061 1421618046184 {{c1::Acute Intermittent Porphyria}} occurs due
to a result of {{c2::porphobilinogen deaminase mutations.}}, which leads to find
ing {{c3::ALA and porphobilonogen in plasma and urine}}.
<img src="paste395192825806849.jpg" />
1473695040554 1421618046184 First step of heme degradation is oxidative clea
vage by {{c1::heme oxygenase}}, turning heme into {{c2::biliverdin}}. <img src
="paste-395776941359105.jpg" />
1473695140670 1421618046184 Heme oxygenase uses the cofactor {{c1::NADPH}}.
<img src="paste-395910085345281.jpg" />
1473695242817 1421618046184 Heme Oxygenase degradation of Heme into Biliverd
in leads to the formation of {{c1::Fe3+ and CO}}

0377985.jpg" />
1473695277540 1421618046184 {{c1::Biliverdin}} is converted into {{c1::Bilir
ubin}} via {{c2::Biliverdin Reductase}}, which uses {{c3::NADPH}} as a cofactor.
<img src="paste-395905790377985.jpg" />
1473695318550 1421618046184 The {{c2::Heme oxygenase}} in heme degradation i
s rate limiting and is induced by {{c1::heme, heavy metals, and stress.}} (3)
<img src="paste-395905790377985.jpg" />
1473695378241 1421618046184 Bilirubin is {{c1::insoluble}}, due to which it
must bind to {{c2::albumin}} in transport to the liver. <img src="paste-39590579
0377985.jpg" />
1473695418769 1421618046184 In the {{c2::liver}}, Bilirubin is turned into {
{c1::Bilirubin diglucuronide and Bilirubin monoglucuronide}} (2).
<img src
="paste-399874340159489.jpg" />
1473695478769 1421618046184 Bilirubin diglucuronide and Bilirubin monoglucor
onide is sent to the Intestine, where its glucose molecules are chopped off to t
urn back into {{c1::Bilirubin}}, which is converted into {{c2::Urobillinogen and
Stercobilinogen.}} (2) <img src="paste-399870045192193.jpg" />
1473695555903 1421618046184 Urobillinogen is converted to {{c1::Urobilin}} i
n the {{c1::kidney}} and excreted in {{c3::urine}}.
5192193.jpg" />
1473695597183 1421618046184 Sterobilin is excreted as {{c1::feces}} <img src
="paste-399870045192193.jpg" />
1473695612301 1421618046184 {{c2::Jaundice}} reults from {{c1::hyperbilirubi
nemia}}.
1473695638935 1421618046184 {{c1::Excessive rbc lysis}} leads to {{c2::Pre-h
epatic}} Jaundice
1473695661421 1421618046184 {{c1::Impaired or Inadequate Liver function}} le
ads to {{c2::Hepatic}} Jaundice
1473695681810 1421618046184 {{c1::Bile duct obstruction}} leads to {{c2::Pos
t Hepatic}} Jaundice
1473695699188 1421618046184 {{c1::Pre-hepatic}} jaundice is usually {{c2::he
molytic}}, leads to accumulation of {{c3::bilirubin}} and its derivatives
<img src="paste-400711858782209.jpg" />
1473703799305 1421618046184 Pantothenic acid is a precursor of {{c1::pentoth
eine}}. This structure forms {{c2::part of coenzyme A}} and a {{c2::part of one
of the subunits of Fatty Acid Synthase}}
1473734030035 1421618046184 The effect of active vitamin D on the intestine
is {{c1::increased Ca2+ and HPO4 2- absorption.}}
7802497.jpg" />
1473734073027 1421618046184 The effect of active Vitamin D on the kidney is
{{c1::decreased Ca2+ and HPO4 2- excretion.}} <img src="paste-389020957802497.
jpg" />
1473748558079 1421618046184 On the way to forming OAA, {{c1::Asparagine}} ca
n be metabolized to form {{c2::aspartate}} by {{c1::Asparaginase}}.
<img src
="paste-802119502266369.jpg" />
1473772028685 1421618046184 The difference between Marasmus and Kwashiorkor
is that Marasmus has {{c1::low calories AND low protein.}}
A marasmus child
may become a kwashiorkor child if there is a maladaption.
1473772242355 1421618046184 Foul smelling diarrhea that leads to pancreatic
insufficiency and decreased lipase is an indication of {{c1::fat malabsorption}}
. This is an indication of a deficiency in {{c1::Fat Soluble Vitamins (ADEK)}}
1473772394238 1421618046184 Vitamin B12 i also known as {{c1::Cobalamin}}.
1473772630726 1421618046184 The symptoms of Pellagra are {{c1::Diarrhea, Dem
entia, and Dermitis.}} Pellagra is caused by Niacin deficiency.
1473772800345 1421618046184 When you are diagnosing vitamin deficiencies:<di
v><br /></div><div>Bone deformity/Rickets == Vitamin D, however what must also b
e considered?</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::If bone mineralization is normal,
but there is a defect in bone matrix (soft tissue) formation, it is a Vitamin C
deficiency since Vitamin C is important for synthesis of collagen.}}</div>
1473773101465 1421618046184 Perifollicuar bleeding and bleeding gums are ind

icative of a deficiency in {{c1::Vitamin C}}
indicative of scurvy<div><br /><
/div><div>NOT Vitamin K (normally associated with bleeding)</div>
1473773283275 1421618046184 Mean Corpuscular Volume is a measure of {{c1::RB
C size}}
microcytic = small MCV
1473773555008 1421618046184 {{c1::Wet beri-beri}} is associated with high ou
tput congestive heart failure from peripheral vasodilation.
associated with
Thiamine deficiency
1473773763545 1421618046184 {{c1::Dry beri beri}} is characterized by neurop
athy. Thiamine deficiency.
1473773800037 1421618046184 Alcohol leads to a {{c1::thiamine}} deficiency b
ecause it empties calories, displaces food, decreases absorption, and enhances e
xcretion.
1473773841448 1421618046184 Symtoms of {{c1::Wenicke s encephalopathy}} are
confusion, loss of muscle coordination, and vision changes
Wernicke s is in
dicative of Thiamine deficiency<div><br /></div><div>Abnormal eye movments are b
ack and forth and referred to as nystagmus.</div>
1473773982886 1421618046184 Severe memory loss, hallucinations and confabula
tion are symptoms of {{c1::Korsakoff psychosis}}.
confabulation = making u
p stories.
1473774101455 1421618046184 Liver disease is indicative of {{c1::Vitamin K}}
deficiency.
1473775266530 1421618046184 Muscle weakness and lysis of erythrocytes are ch
aracteristic of {{c1::Vitamin E}} deficiency
<div><br /></div><div><br /></di
v><div>Note: Vitamin E has antioxidant and antiaging</div>
1473775559291 1421618046184 The three basic methods of public health nutriti
on are to:<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<div>1) Improve quality and safety of food
</div><div>2) Increase availability of food</div><div>3) Increase knowledge abou
t food</div>}}</div>
1473776192749 1421618046184 Salt was fortified by adding {{c1::Iodine}}.
1924
1473776235883 1421618046184 Margarine, Milk, & Flour were fortified with
{{c1::Riboflavin, Iron, Niacin, and Thiamine.}} (4)
<br /><div><br /></div><
div>MMF were fortified with RINT</div>
1473776266058 1421618046184 Grain products were fortified with {{c1::folate}
}
1473776281521 1421618046184 The two basic types of food borne illness in the
US are {{c1::infections}} and {{c1::intoxications}}.
1473776711093 1421618046184 The three groups most affected by food borne ill
ness are {{c1::young children, elderly, and immuno compromised.}}
1473776760237 1421618046184 The leading cause of serious food borne infectio
ns in the US is {{c1::Salmonella}}.
1473776802895 1421618046184 The 2011 FDA {{c1::Food Safety Modernization Act
(FSMA)}} set {{c2::produce safety standards}}, food companies needed {{c2::writ
ten plans}}, {{c2::mandatory recalls}} if needed, {{c2::importer}} inspections.
1473776911039 1421618046184 Listeriosis outbreak in 2011 was caused by {{c1:
:cantaloupes}}.
1473776940781 1421618046184 Summer 2015 salmonella outbreak was due to {{c1:
:Cucumbers}} from Mexico
Most cases were children < 18 yrs <div><
br /></div>
1473777073581 1421618046184 Increase food availability by doing 2 things in
general: <div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lower cost}} of healthy foods</div><di
v>{{c1::tax}} unhealthy foods</div>
1473777126913 1421618046184 Two targeted approaches to improve food availabi
lity are:<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<div>SNAP (food stamps) & WIC</div><div
>School breakfast/lunch programs</div>}}</div>
1473777165998 1421618046184 Dietary reference intakes consist of four number
s:<div><br /></div><div>EAR = {{c1::Est Average Req}}</div><div>RDA = {{c2::Rec
Dietary Allowance}}</div><div>AI = {{c3::Adequate Intake}}</div><div>UL = {{c4::
Tolerable Upper Intake Level}}</div>
1473777579360 1421618046184 <div>DA = {{c1::EAR + 2 SD (EAR)}} or

RDA = {{c1::1.2 x EAR}} (2 equations)</div> <div><br /></div><div><b
r /></div><div>Meets requirements of 97-98% of population goal fo
r individual intakes; aim for this intake</div>
1473777637508 1421618046184 {{c1::AI}} Set instead of RDA if sufficient
evidence <div>not available to {{c2::calculate RDA}}</div>
1473777661941 1421618046184 RDA for Calcium is {{c1::1000 - 3000 mg/day}}, c
an lead to {{c2::kidney stones}} in excess
1473778024999 1421618046184 Manganese RDA are {{c1::2 mg/day}} for {{c2::chi
ldren ages 1-3}}, and {{c1::11 mg/day}} for {{c2::adults}}, excess can lead to {
{c3::neurotoxicity}}
1473778098980 1421618046184 Zinc RDA is {{c1::40 mg/day}} for age 19+ ; an e
xcess will lead to {{c2::Copper}} deficiency
1473778134516 1421618046184 Margin of Safety between AI and UL is {{c1::tigh
ter}} in the {{c2::younger}} age groups.
<img src="paste-46248207843329.j
pg" />
1473778318190 1421618046184 The underconsumed nutrients include:<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Vitamins A,C,D,E, folate, calcium, magnesium, potassium, fiber}}
</div> <img src="paste-46806553591809.jpg" />
1473779349536 1421618046184 Most common overconsumed nutrients are {{c1::sat
urated fat and sodium}}
1473779457841 1421618046184 For adults, moderate aerobic exercise at {{c1::3
-5.9}} METS is >= {{c1::150}} min/week and vigorous aerobic is >= {{c1::6}
} METS, at >= {{c1::75}} min/week
1473779666635 1421618046184 1 MET is a {{c2::metabolic equivalent}} = {{c1::
3.5 ml oxygen/kg/minute}}
1473779722308 1421618046184 In the ATBC study, Beta-carotene {{c1::increased
incidence of lung cancer.}}
1473810712832 1421618046184 polyneuritis, cardiac pathology, and edema are a
ll characteristic of {{c1::Thiamine}} deficiency.
1475335208182 1421618046187 Concentrations of:<div><br /></div><div>Sodium,
Potassium, Chlorine, Magnesium, Calcium, and pH</div><div><br /></div><div>insid
e and outside the cell?</div><div><br /></div><div>Voltage gradient for cell ove
rall?</div>
<img src="paste-3770981285889.jpg" />
1475335803241 1421618046187 Ion, pH and voltage gradients for organelles? (3
) Why do they have those specific values? <img src="paste-3766686318593.jp
g" />
1475336969674 1421618046187 State the equations related to Diffusion (4)
<img src="paste-7000796692481 (1).jpg" /><div><img src="paste-7318624272385.jpg"
/><br /><div><br /></div></div>
1475360254245 1471105979384 {{c1::Simple squamous epithelium}} is single fla
t layer of cells. It lines body cavities and covers organs as {{c1::mesothelium}
}. Lines heart and blood vessels as {{c1::endothelium}} <img src="paste-75587129
442305.jpg" />
1475360339308 1471105979384 Tight junctions are focal aggregates of {{c1::in
tercellular adhesion proteins}} in cell membranes. They are part of the contigou
s {{c1::squamous}} cells in the endothelium and mesothelium.
1475360432986 1471105979384 Endocrine glands secrete into the {{c1::bloodstr
eam}}
1475360456404 1471105979384 Exocrine glands secrete into the {{c1::duct syst
em}}
1475360473843 1471105979384 {{c1::Cuboidal epithelium}} forms circular acini
of all glands. It also lines the ducts of {{c1::exocrine}} glands.
1475360573649 1471105979394 What are microvilli?
<div><span class="Appletab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Short cellular projections along the f
ree (apical surface) of the epithelium. </div><div><span class="Apple-tab-s
pan" style="white-space:pre"> </span>They create vast surface areas for absorpti
on and secretion</div><div>Ex: Simple columnar epithelium like the stomach, inte
stines, uterine tubes and uterus</div>
1475360581277 1471105979394 <div>How are cuboidal and columnar epithelial ce
lls linked together?</div><div><br /></div>

Linked firmly by tight junctions
just like the squamous epithelial cells
1475360593076 1471105979394 What makes up the pseudostratified epithelium?
Cuboidal and Columnar Epithelial cells
1475360619837 1471105979384 A goblet cell is a {{c1::columnar cell}} that is
filled with mucus
1475360719214 1471105979394 <div>In pseudostratified epithelium, how are the
cuboidal and columnar cells arranged?</div>
" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Cuboidal cells form a single layer of ba
sal cells on the basement membrane</div><div>Columnar cells (also are in contact
with basement membrane) express MOBILE CILIA on their apical surface.</div>
1475360736406 1471105979394 Describe the makeup of the respiratory epitheliu
m and how the different cell types function.
" style="white-space:pre"> </span>The respiratory epithelium is pseudostratified
. Recall that this means its made up of cuboidal and columnar epithelial cells.<
/div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Mucus fro
m the goblet cells (mucus filled columnar cells) covers the apical surface to en
trap inspired particulates and pathogens. </div><div>Rhythmic beating of th
e cilia moves the debris laden mucus toward the oral cavity.</div>
1475360755362 1471105979394 What is non keratinized squamous epithelium? Wha
t s the function?
Consists of multiple layers of cuboidal cells COVERED by
several layers of squamous cells. This provides a protective lining of organs s
uch as the esophagus and vagina.
1475360885985 1471105979384 {{c1::Keratinzed stratified}} squamous epitheliu
m makes up the epidermis of the skin. It contains several apical layers of {{c1:
:anucleate squamous}} cells, which are filled with the protein {{c1::keratin}}
1475360915429 1471105979384 {{c1::Loose connective tissue}} in the dermis un
derlies the epidermis and the basement membrane of the skin.
1475360996814 1471105979394 What are the roles of basement membranes?
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>-Supports all
epithelia</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span
>-Selective filtration barrier</div><div>-Controls epithelial differentiation</d
iv>
1475361085442 1471105979384 {{c1::Fibroblast derived collagen fibers}} provi
de tensile strength to the dermis. {{c1::Fibroblast derived elastic fibers}} pro
vide passive recoil properties of the skin.
1475361087151 1471105979384 <div>Endothelium-lined capillaries are widely di
stributed throughout the {{c1::Dermis}}</div><div><br /></div>
1475361118442 1471105979384 Interstitial fluid is made from {{c1::capillary
filtrates}} and it it mainly occupies the {{c1::loose connective tissue}}
1475361167263 1471105979384 Dense connective tissue primarily makes up {{c1:
:tendons and ligaments}}. It is different from loose connective tissue because i
t has more {{c1::collagen fibers}}, less {{c1::cells}}, and less {{c1::interstit
ial fluid.}}
1475361310952 1471105979394 How do mast cells contribute to edema formation
in the loose connective tissue during the inflammatory response to injury?
Mast cells release contents of their granules (which are histamine and other sto
red molecules). Histamine dilates small blood vessels increase their permeabilit
y so that plasma leaks out. This causes the skin to appear edematous and red.&nb
sp;
1475361376790 1471105979384 Cells can differentiate into the all cell types
in the {{c1::2-8 }} cell stage cycle. These cells can become {{c1::either the em
bryo or the placenta}}. These cells are referred to as {{c1::totipotent.}}
1475365998830 1471105979394 <div>Where is the zygote 3 days after fertilizat
ion? How many cells is it?</div>
"white-space:pre"> </span>It resides at the junction of the uterine tube</div><d
iv>12-16 cell stage </div>
1475366006370 1471105979394 <div>How is the blastocyst cavity formed? When t
hats formed, what else is formed?</div><div><br /></div>
After entering the uteru
s, fluid secretions from the uterine epithelium penetrate between the cells of t
he zygote to create the blastocyst cavity. They also create the inner cell mass
and outer cell mass.
1475366016157 1471105979394 What is the difference between the outer cell ma
ss and the inner cell mass of the blastocyst? <div><span class="Apple-tab-span
" style="white-space:pre"> </span>The inner cell mass becomes the embryoblast wi
th PLURIPOTENT cells ( can differentiate into all cells of the embryo but not th
e placenta)</div><div>The outer cell mass becomes the trophoblast </div>
1475366024622 1471105979394 What is the function of the trophoblast?
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Forms the wall
of the blastocyst cavity</div><div>Penetrates into the simple columnar epitheli
um of the uterus </div>
1475366041466 1471105979384 The trophoblast penetrates the simple columnar e
pithelium of the uterus during week {{c1::1}}
1475366061994 1471105979384 The trophoblast during week 2 {{c1::expands into
the loose connective tissue of the uterine wall }}
1475366105588 1471105979394 How are lacunae formed? When the trophoblast exp
ands into the uterine wall, the uterine wall is occupied by edema from the engor
ged capillaries. The edema then penetrates into the <b>TROPHOBLAST</b> and creat
es fluid filled lacunae.
1475366177117 1471105979384 The embryoblast differentiates into {{c1::epibla
st}} and {{c1::hypoblast}} which constitute the {{c1::bilaminar germ disk}}
1475366190102 1471105979394 What are the functions of the epiblast and the h
ypoblast after blastocyst implantation. <div><span class="Apple-tab-span
" style="white-space:pre"> </span>The epiblast contains the amniotic cavity whic
h is filled by uterine edema. </div><div>The hypoblast proliferates and cre
ates the cellular lining of the blastocyst cavity turning it into the YOLK SAC.<
/div>
1475366215065 1471105979384 The {{c1::hypoblast}} forms the extraembryonic m
esoderm. {{c1::Uterine edema}} infiltrates the mesoderm to form {{c1::fluid-fill
ed lacunae}}
1475366414491 1471105979394 How does maternal blood enter the trophoblastic
lacunae.
During week 2, the trophoblast erodes the endothelium of the eng
orged uterine capillaries allowed the maternal blood to enter the trophobl
astic lacunae.
1475366420464 1471105979394 <div>What is the chorionic cavity? How is it for
med?</div><div><br /></div>
pace:pre"> </span>It is formed by the joining of the lacunae from the mesoderm t
o form the large extraembryonic cavity (chorionic).</div><div>It surrounds the y
olk sac and the amniotic cavity. </div>
1475366479466 1471105979384 At the end of week 2, the {{c1::primitive streak
}} creates a linear groove in the surface of the epiblast that faces the {{c2::a
mniotic cavity }}
1475366480795 1471105979384 The primitive streak resides in the {{c1::caudal
region}} of the germ disk (closer to future lower limbs). The other side of the
bilaminar disk is the {{c1::cranial region}} at the opposite end of the germ di
sk.
1475366566445 1471105979394 Why do cells of the inner cell mass have clinica
l potential?
The inner cell mass contains the embryonic stem cells with are p
luripotent. They can be used to form almost any cell type and can be used potent
ially to cure a number of diseases.
1475366612213 1471105979384 The embryonic period begins in week {{c1::3}}
1475366613060 1471105979384 Cells of the {{c1::epiblast}} proliferate and vi
a a process called {{c1::gastrulation}}, they pass through the primitive streak
to form mesoderm cells (AKA {{c1::Mesenchymal cells}}) between the hypoblast and
the epiblast
1475366692916 1471105979384 Some mesenchymal cells can form {{c1::endoderm c
ells}} to replace the cells of the hypoblast in the {{c2::yolk sac}}
1475366738269 1471105979384 The {{c1::epiblast}} is solely responsible for t
he development of the ectoderm, endoderm, and the mesoderm.
1475366772270 1471105979394 How do the epiblast cells form the ectoderm, mes
oderm and endoderm.

pace:pre"> </span>The cells that pass through the primitive streak through gastr
ulation form the mesoderm cells (mesenchymal cells)</div><div><span class="Apple
-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Some of the mesenchymal cells form en
doderm cells which replace the hypoblast in the yolk sac</div><div>The cells tha
t remain in the epiblast form the ectoderm.</div>
1475366799132 1471105979384 <div>The {{c1::primitive streak}} disappears aft
er the formation of the trilaminar germ disc.</div><div><br /></div>
1475366810773 1471105979394 What is a teratoma?
Its when remnants of the
primitive streak persist in the sacrococcygeal region. These clusters of plurip
otent cells proliferate and form tumors. That is also why the tumors have multip
le tissue types.
1475366816066 1471105979394 Which germ layer forms the neural tube? The ecto
derm
1475366837311 1471105979384 {{c1::Mesenchymal cells}} create longitudinal co
lumns parallel to the long axis of the germ disk. This is known as the {{c1::par
axial mesoderm}}
1475366867543 1471105979384 <div>The {{c1::paraxial mesoderm}} forms block-l
ike somites adjacent to the neural tube</div><div><br /></div>
1475366895740 1471105979384 The germ layer that forms the epidermis of the s
kin is the {{c1::ectoderm}}
1475366917596 1471105979384 <div>The germ layer forms the simple columnar ep
ithelium that lines the gut tube is{{c1:: Endoderm}}</div><div><br /></div>
1475366950818 1471105979384 Mesenchymal cells of the {{c1::visceral mesoderm
}} form the smooth muscle and connective tissue in the wall of the gut tube
1475367001833 1471105979394 <div>What do the mesenchymal cells of the pariet
al mesoderm form?</div> They form the dermis of the skin, skeletal muscles, and
bones of the body wall and extremities
1475367084627 1471105979384 The primitive cardiovascular system forms during
week {{c1::3}} in the {{c1::cranial}} region of the {{c1::trilaminar}} germ dis
c.
1475367114037 1471105979384 The gut tube consists of the {{c1::cranial forgu
t}}, {{c1::midgut}} and {{c1::caudal hindgut}}
1475367142338 1471105979384 The heart tube forms adjacent to the {{c1::foreg
ut}}
1475367174635 1471105979394 What is the function of the vitelline duct?
It joins the midgut to the yolk sac<div><img src="paste-14027363189006.jpg" /></
div>
1475367179346 1471105979394 <div>What is the function of the vitelline arter
y?</div><div><br /></div>
pace:pre"> </span>Transports blood from the embryonic aorta to the capillaries i
n the yolk sac wall</div><div><br /></div>
1475367187563 1471105979394 <div>What is the function of the vitelline vein?
</div><div><br /></div> <div>Nutrients in the lumen of the yolk sac enter the ca
pillaries of the yolk sac for return via the vitelline vein to the embyonic circ
ulation</div><div><br /></div>
1475367195938 1471105979394 <div>When is the embryo most susceptible to tera
togens?</div><div><br /></div> <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-s
pace:pre"> </span>During the embryonic period which is in week 3 to 8</div><div>
<br /></div>
1475367223842 1471105979384 <div>The umbilical vessels, yolk sac, vitelline
duct and the vitelline vessels all reside in the {{c1::Connecting stalk}}</
1475367233890 1471105979394 <div>Why is continued embryonic development depe
ndent on the umbilical circulation?</div><div><br /></div>
The growth of th
e embryo and expansion of the chorionic cavity compress the yolk sac, the vitell
ine duct and the vitelline vessels leaving only the umbilical circulation.
1475367238158 1471105979394 What must happen for maternal blood to directly
enter the trophoblastic lacunae? In which week? During week 2, the trophoblast e
rodes the endothelium of the engorged uterine capillaries.
1475367287544 1471105979394 <div>During week 3, the lacunae coalesce/merge.

What does this cause?</div><div><br /></div>
This causes the trophoblast to r
eshape into trophoblastic villi separated by blood-filled intervillous spaces<di
1475367306457 1471105979384 The intervillous spaces receive blood from the {
{c1::branches of the uterine artery}}. The {{c1::tributaries of the uterine vein
}} return the blood to maternal circulation.
1475367386774 1471105979384 The role of the umbilical artery is to deliver b
lood to the {{c1::umbillical capillaries}} in the {{c1::trophoblastic villi.}} T
he role of the umbilical vein is to return the blood to the {{c1::embryonic circ
ulation. }}
1475367581469 1471105979394 How are O2, nutrients and metabolic wastes excha
nged between embryonic blood and maternal blood? Which week does this happen?
The umbilical capillaries (embryonic blood) are separated from the intervillous
space (maternal blood) by two thin layers of trophoblastic cells which allow for
this exchange<div>Week 4</div><div><img src="paste-14263586390547.jpg" /></div>
<div><br /></div>
1475367629222 1471105979384 The fetal period begins in week {{c1::9}}
1475367640985 1471105979384 Expansion of the {{c1::trophoblastic villi and i
ntervillous spaces}} forms the fetal portion of the placenta
1475367679496 1471105979394 <div>What forms the maternal portion of the plac
enta?</div><div><br /></div>
pace:pre"> </span>Decidua Basalis</div><div>This is a compact layer of uterine e
pithelium-derived decidual cells filled with lipids and glycogen</div>
1475367683659 1471105979394 <div>How is the large amniotic cavity formed?</d
iv><div><br /></div>
Fusion of the amniotic and chorionic cavities.
1475367690905 1471105979394 <div>How is the amniotic fluid maintained? What
are its uses?</div><div><br /></div>
"white-space:pre"> </span>It establishes the swallowing reflex of the fetus</div
><div>Fetal urine maintains the fluid volume, the wastes of the fluid are remove
d by the placenta. </div>
1475367701643 1471105979394 <div>What are oligohydramnios and polyhydramnios
?</div><div><br /></div>
pace:pre"> </span>Oligo- too little amniotic fluid, if the kidneys can form, can
t create urine, can t maintain amniotic fluid volume</div><div>Poly- too much f
luid, fetus isn t swallowing fluid to maintain the volume.</div>
1475373918736 1471105979384 A connecting stalk is a derivative of the {{c1::
extraembryonic}} mesoderm which joins the germ disc with the {{c1::trophoblast}}
<img src="paste-19885698581028.jpg" />
1475423906179 1421618046187 Explain each part of Fick s first law of Diffusi
on and the overall consequence mathematically. <img src="paste-6678674145281.jp
g" />
1475424126868 1421618046187 On a cellular scale, what is the relative speed
of diffusion? <img src="paste-6996501725185 (1).jpg" />
1475424212579 1421618046187 Explain the equation related to diffusion across
biological membranes, and all relevant factors in the equation and how they are
found. Lastly explain the overarching concept behind the subfactor in the equat
ion.
<img src="paste-7237019893761.jpg" />
1475424958121 1421618046187 <div>What are the four general types of molecule
s and describe the crossing of each across biological membranes in decreasing or
der of permeability. For the least permeable, explain why that is.</div><div><di
v><br /></div><div>What is the relationship between permeability coefficient and
the oil-water partition coefficient?</div></div><div><br /></div><div>In passiv
e diffusion across membranes, what factors affect permeability and how? </d
iv>
<img src="paste-7434588389377.jpg" />
1475425528047 1421618046187 Describe membrane crossing for weak acids and ba
ses in terms of permeability and the permeability of each part. <img src="paste7692286427137.jpg" />
1475425933727 1421618046187 Define:<div><br /></div><div>Electrical Potentia
l</div><div>Electric Field</div><div>Electroneutrality Principle</div> <img src
="paste-7902739824641.jpg" />
1475439855744 1421618046187 Discuss Diffusion potentials in the case that th
e positive ion diffuses more rapidly than the negative ion in a theoretical situ
ation <img src="paste-11136850198529.jpg" />
1475439938725 1421618046187 What are membrane potentials and how are they ge
nerated? What does membrane potential oppose? <img src="paste-11317238824961.j
pg" />
1475441066910 1421618046187 Describe the chemical potential. What is it anal
ogous to and why? <div><br /></div><div>What is the formula for chemical po
tential and what is the only thing it can be used for?</div><div><br /></div><di
v>Explain the details of the equation and the three cases.</div>
<img src
="paste-14925011353601.jpg" />
1475456636861 1421618046187 Chemical potential of H2O is affected by what an
d in what ways?<div><br /></div><div>H20 Chemical potential equation?</div>
<img src="paste-36086315220993.jpg" />
1475457159189 1421618046187 What properties are affected by solutes in water
?<div><br /></div><div>Which specific properties are affected and in what way?</
div>
<img src="paste-36558761623553.jpg" />
1475464041995 1421618046187 Impact of increased pressure on the inside of a
membrane system where the membrane is permeable only to water, and there are sol
utes on the inside?<div><br /></div><div>How does osmotic pressure change the ch
emical potential of water equation?</div><div><br /></div><div>What equation is
used to find osmotic pressure?</div>
<img src="paste-40136469381121.jpg" />
1475522039884 1421618046187 In the van t Hoff equation, what values would yo
u use for C if solute was NaCl or MgCl2?<div><br /></div><div>Units for osmolari
ty? osmolality?</div><div><br /></div><div>Why do we use osmolarity instead of o
smolality?</div><div><br /></div><div>How is van t hoff equation affected when t
here is non-ideal behavior?</div><div><br /></div><div>How do you measure osmola
rity?</div>
<img src="paste-10299331575809.jpg" />
1475522493137 1421618046187 What equation to use when there is a membrane wh
ich separates two solutions of different osmolarities?<div><br /></div><div><img
src="paste-10819022618625.jpg" /></div><div>What are the C (osmolarities) of ea
ch side? Which way will water flow? How do you apply the above equation here?</d
iv>
<img src="paste-10690173599745.jpg" />
1475522806412 1421618046187 Describe the membrane reflection coefficient and
the eqn it is in.<div><br /></div><div>What does it correct for? Describe the m
eanings of different values it can have.</div><div><br /></div><div>What are sol
utes with the coefficient less than 1 called and why?</div>
<img src="paste10952166604801 (1).jpg" />
1475523388663 1421618046187 Describe the two routes for osmotic water moveme
nt across membranes<div><br /></div><div>How is water permeability regulated and
where?</div> <img src="paste-11209864642561.jpg" />
1475523750729 1421618046187 Osmolarity of blood plasma is?<div><br /></div><
div>Explain isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions.</div><div><br /></div
><div>Values for:</div><div>Isotonic saline </div><div>Hypotonic: Hemolysis
occurs when</div>
<img src="paste-11398843203585.jpg" />
1475524816614 1421618046187 What kind of effect is on water movements due to
permeable solutes?<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-11918534246401.jpg" /><
/div><div><br /></div><div>Due to this effect, what is urea known as?</div>
<img src="paste-13009455939585.jpg" />
="paste-13219909337089.jpg" />
1475531315226 1421618046187 <div>Water movements due to permeable solutes</d
iv><img src="paste-13275743911937 (1).jpg" /> <img src="paste-13288628813825.j
pg" />
1475531365148 1421618046187 A _________ is required for osmotic stability.
external impermeable solute<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-13396002996225.
jpg" /></div>
1475531390734 1421618046187 Why do cells regulate volume (due to what?)?<div
><br /></div><div>What is it called when they increase volume? What are the thre
e examples of the exchange processes used?</div><div><br /></div><div>What is th

e mechanism of action?</div>
<img src="paste-13748190314499.jpg" />
1475532125166 1421618046187 <div>What is it called when cells decrease volum
e? What are the three examples of the exchange processes used?</div><div><br /><
/div><div>What is the mechanism of action?</div>
927105.jpg" />
1475532221576 1421618046187 What can a concentration gradient be balanced by
? <div>How is that represented in the chemical potential equation?</div><di
v><br /></div><div>What is the Nernst equation?</div> <img src="paste-14332305
866753.jpg" />
1475532727618 1421618046187 What is the equilibrium potential?
<img src
="paste-14637248544769.jpg" />
1475532980552 1421618046187 What is Ohm s law? Give both of it s forms and t
ell what each variable is.<div><br /></div><div>What is Ohm s law for membranes?
Describe what each term means.</div><div><br /></div><div>Describe the three ca
ses of Ohm s law for membranes.</div><div><br /></div><div>Give the conventions
for current used in this class.</div> <img src="paste-14993730830337.jpg" />
1475533690522 1421618046187 When solving Gibbs-Donnan Equilibrium problems,
what are the Donnan Ratios used for:<div><br /></div><div>Na, H, Cl, HCO3, Calci
um, Sulfate? </div>
<img src="paste-15178414424065.jpg" />
1475535642261 1421618046187 How to calculate Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium Membra
ne potential? <img src="paste-15281493639169.jpg" />
1475535695801 1421618046187 How to do the Gibbs-Donnan Equilibrium calculati
on?<div><img src="paste-15354508083201.jpg" /></div>
985089 (1).jpg" />
1475535802272 1421618046187 What is the final Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium chara
cterized by?<div><br /></div><div>The membrane potential has the same sign as?</
div><div>The osmotic pressure reflects?</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pas
te-15534896709633.jpg" />?</div>
<img src="paste-15513421873153.jpg" />
1475536444616 1421618046187 Cells are stabilized osmotically by what molecul
e? How?<div><br /></div><div><br /></div><div> What inhibits the pump? What
is the result of inhibition?</div>
<img src="paste-15732465205249.jpg" />
1475536535974 1421618046187 What inhibits the Na-K pump? What occurs as a re
sult? <div>ouabain</div><img src="paste-15899968929793 (1).jpg" />
1475623195148 1421618046187 Give all the glucose numbers and describe the da
ngerous symptoms associated.
<div>Insulin production decreases = 85</div><div
>Epinephrine & glucagon production increases = 67</div><div>Growth hormone p
roduction increases = 65</div><div>Cortisol production increases = 58</div><div>
Adrenergic Symptoms begin = 55</div><div>Neuroglycopenia symptoms begin = 50</di
v><div><br /></div><div>Adrenergic Symptoms: Anxiety, Palpitation, Tremor, Sweat
ing</div><div>Neuroglycopenia symptoms: headache, confusion, slurred speech, sei
zures, coma, death</div><div><br /></div><div>Diabetes</div><div>greater than 12
6, in fasting</div><div>greater than 200, in random testing situation</div>
1475625373065 1421618046187 Glucose has what effect on pancreas and where sp
ecifically in the pancreas?
<img src="paste-27788438405121.jpg" />
1475626037979 1421618046187 Describe the activated liver pathways and name t
he five enzymes involved during a fed state.
<img src="paste-28071906246657.j
pg" />
1475626801293 1421618046187 What are the down regulated pathways in liver du
ring a fed state?
<div>fed state = high glucose</div><img src="paste-28256
589840385.jpg" />
1475627266522 1421618046187 Describe the activated pathway in resting skelet
al muscle during a fed state, and the overall effect. <img src="paste-29901562
314753.jpg" />
1475627947290 1421618046187 Describe the REPRESSED pathway in resting skelet
al muscle during a fed state, and the overall effect. <img src="paste-30313879
175169.jpg" /><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1475628446990 1421618046187 What are the activated vs represed pathway overa
ll effects in a fed state in ADIPOSE TISSUE?
<img src="paste-30687541329921.j
pg" /><img src="paste-30700426231809.jpg" />
1475628679849 1421618046187 When fed, what does the brain metabolize? What a
bout when extreme fasting?
Fed = only glucose<div>extreme fasting = glucose
and ketone bodies</div>
1475628799114 1421618046187 In signaling, what does Insulin activate? What h
appens after that?
Insulin is a dimer that activates a Receptor Tyrosine Ki
nase.<div><img src="paste-31018253811713.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-39749
922324481.jpg" /></div>
1475629016444 1421618046187 Discuss the relative speed of tyrosine kinase do
main activation and experimentation.
<div>They activate rapidly</div><img src
="paste-31091268255745.jpg" /><div><br /></div>
1475632174250 1421618046187 What kind of enzyme activity do Receptor Tyrosin
e Kinases (RTKs) have?<div><br /></div><div>What are three RTK roles?</div>
They have intrinsic activity<div><br /></div><div>3 roles:</div><div>Carb utiliz
ation & protein synthesis</div><div>Regulation of cell growth & survival
(e.g. EGF, IGF from cancer lectures)</div><div>Angiogenesis (development of blo
od vessels) (e.g. VEGF)</div>
1475632371622 1421618046187 <img src="paste-41648297869313.jpg" /> A
1475632452832 1421618046187 How do the Adaptor proteins bound to the phospho
rylated receptor relay the signal?
<img src="paste-41841571397633.jpg" />
1475632779031 1421618046187 Other than RTKs, what hormone receptors have int
rinsic enzyme activity? Give examples for each. <img src="paste-42026254991361.j
pg" />
1475633221479 1421618046187 As blood glucose drops, what happens to plasma f
ree fatty acids, blood ketone bodies, plasma insulin, plasma glucagon, liver gly
cogen? <img src="paste-42494406426625.jpg" />
1475633365238 1421618046187 Fasting metabolism in the liver, overall effects
?
<img src="paste-43117176684545.jpg" />
1475645473024 1421618046187 Fasting metabolism in adipocytes, overall effect
s?
<img src="paste-43207370997761.jpg" />
1475645518797 1421618046187 Fasting metabolism in muscle, overall effects?
<img src="paste-43263205572609.jpg" />
1475646901861 1421618046187 Fasting metabolism in the brain, overall effects
?
<img src="paste-43469364002817.jpg" />
1475646929632 1421618046187 In a starvation situation, what kicks in, and wh
at does it do? Kidney; produces 40% of glucose utilized during starvation<div><
br /></div><div><img src="paste-43615392890881.jpg" /></div>
1475687388347 1421618046187 Differences/Similarities between Diabetes mellit
us and Starvation
<img src="paste-3229815406593 (1).jpg" /><div>The last o
ne is DM-tripolypud</div>
1475687534681 1421618046187 Type I diabetes: describe it and what is the met
abolic cause and give the three effects.
<div>pancreas cannot create insu
lin, due to the autoimmune destruction of Beta cells</div><img src="paste-367649
2005377.jpg" /><div>ketone bodies: body thinks it hasn t been fed-->ketoacido
sis</div>
1475687917133 1421618046187 Type II diabetes: describe it and what is the me
tabolic cause and give the five effects.
g" />
1475687980151 1421618046187 Metabolic syndrome is what? And what are the cli
nical manifestations of it?
<img src="paste-4050154160129.jpg" />
1475688042354 1421618046187 Mutations in what 3 things cause MODY and what d
oes it stand for? Also give examples for each cause of MODY
<div>1) Transcri
ption Factors that control expression of metabolism genes: HNF1A/HNF4A, PDX1, NE
UROD1, KLF11, PAX4</div><div>2) Metabolic enzymes: glucokinase, CEL, diabetes-pa
ncreatic exocrine dysfunction syndrome (DPEDS)</div><div>3) Signaling defects: I
NS, TK, BLK</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-4239132721153.jpg" /></di
v>
1475688323184 1421618046187 What does Metformin do? And what is the overall
effect of that? <img src="paste-4853313044481.jpg" />
1475688396673 1421618046187 Hemoglobin A1c is normally what level? What is d
one to it and what are the implications?
g" />
1475688548157 1421618046187 Compare and Contrast Diabetes I and II. <img src
="paste-5179730558977.jpg" /><div>I on left, II on right</div>
1475688787568 1421618046187 <img src="paste-5428838662145 (1).jpg" />
<img src="paste-5450313498625.jpg" />
1475688859427 1421618046187 Endocrine VS paracrine VS autocrine
<div>End
ocrine - pancreas to distant organs</div><div>Paracrine - more local signaling</
div><div>Autocrine - signal that a cell makes but then the signal binds to the c
ell; self- affecting</div>
1475688885328 1421618046187 Differences between Peptide and Steroid Hormones
<img src="paste-14439680049153.jpg" />
1475689470453 1421618046187 Give the four steroid hormones, number of carbon
s, where synthesized, where it affects, and the effect. <img src="paste-14615773
708289.jpg" />
1475689612456 1421618046187 Give the defining structural features of each st
eroid hormone. <img src="paste-14821932138497.jpg" /><img src="paste-1483481704
0385.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-14847701942273.jpg" /><img src="paste-148605868
44161.jpg" /></div><div><br /><div><br /></div></div>
1475689887056 1421618046187 Describe cortisol synthesis.
<img src="paste15045270437889.jpg" />
1475690211553 1421618046187 <img src="paste-15229954031617.jpg" /><img src="
paste-15242838933505.jpg" /><div>These are the clinical manifestations of what d
isease? What is it caused by? Give relevent details.</div>
<img src="paste15371687952385.jpg" />
1475690627150 1421618046187 Describe what enzymes are used for the synthesis
of steroids. <img src="paste-16024522981377.jpg" />
1475692125138 1421618046187 What enzyme conveys Testosterone to Estradiol?
Aromatase
1475692142089 1421618046187 <div>Since steroids are derived from cholesterol
and therefore water insoluble, how are they transported? Give specifics of what
is being transported as well.</div>
Transported by being bound to plasma pro
teins<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-16295105921025.jpg" /></div>
1475693201739 1421618046187 What leads to the specificity of steroid hormone
action? discuss all relevant specifics <img src="paste-17008070492161.jpg" />
1475693406355 1421618046187 Discuss the steroid hormone receptor structure a
nd all relevant details It has a DNA binding domain and a hormone binding domain
<div><br /></div><div>DNA binding domain has zinc fingers that recognize D
NA sequence</div><div>Hormone binding domain can be bound to by Coactivators, wh
ich have Histone acetyltransferase activity and affect RNA Pol II.</div>
1475693869247 1421618046187 What is the significance of receptors connected
to Breast tumors?
If Patient was Estrogen Receptor Positive --> greater
probability of responding to hormone ablative therapy (anti estrogen) --> us
ed for pre-menopausal --> example: tamoxifen<div><br /></div><div>If post-men
opausal --> Aromatase inhibitor --> example: letrozole</div><div>Note: Aro
matase is responsible for estradiol synthesis</div><div>Aromatase Inhibitors cau
se bone mineralization --> can be reduced by taking a bisphosphonate</div>
1475694999654 1421618046187 What is the normal serum calcium and in what for
ms is it found (with percents)? 10mg/100ml <div><br /></div><div>51% free c
alcium</div><div>46% bound to protein</div><div>3% bound to other ions</div>
1475695982605 1421618046187 What hormones regulate Ca2+ homeostasis and in w
hat way?
PTH increases serum calcium<div>Calcitonin decreases serum calci
um</div><div>Vitamin D increases serum calcium</div>
1475696012301 1421618046187 Describe why PTH is synthesized, where, its effe
cts, and how it is regulated. <img src="paste-21079699488769.jpg" />
1475696311104 1421618046187 Describe the mode of action of PTH on the <u sty
le="font-weight: bold; ">BONE</u>.
<img src="paste-21165598834689.jpg" />
1475696625551 1421618046187 Describe the mode of action of PTH on <b><u>KIDN
EY</u></b>
<img src="paste-21595095564289.jpg" />
1475696920945 1421618046187 Describe the mode of action of PTH on the <b><u>
INTESTINE</u></b>
<img src="paste-21835613732865.jpg" />
1475697254227 1421618046187 Describe what PTHrP is and does.

Parathyr
oid hormone gene related peptide<div><br /></div><div>similar but not identical
substance to PTH<div><br /></div><div>was being secreted from kidney and lung tu
mors</div><div><br /></div><div>PTHrP leads to the hypercalcemia of malignancy</
div></div>
1475697629149 1421618046187 Calcitonin is what kind of hormone and synthesiz
ed where?<div>Describe Calcitonin main effects on bone, kidney, intestine.</div>
<img src="paste-22711787061249.jpg" />
1475698253236 1421618046187 Describe Vitamin D Metabolism. <img src="paste23003844837377.jpg" />
1475698963394 1421618046187 What does 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 act similarly
as? what does it do? Steroid hormone; binds to a Vitamin D receptor<div>Stero
id-receptor complex enters nucleus</div><div>Increases transcription of genes in
volved in intestinal calcium absorption</div>
1475699214968 1421618046187 In the <u style="font-weight: bold; ">Intestine<
/u>, what does 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 do? describe any further details.
<div>increased synthesis of Calcium binding protein - Calbindin</div><div>i
ncreased synthesis of Calcium channel - TRPV6</div><div>Increased Ca & Phosp
hate absorption</div><div><br /></div><div><div>Increased synthesis of this chan
nel leads to increased calcium entry into the intestine mucosa. Then calbindin w
ill bind to calcium and transport the calcium into the blood</div></div>
1475699970536 1421618046187 In the <u style="font-weight: bold; ">kidney</u>
, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 has what effects?
acts at the distal tubule and en
hances the action of PTH to increase calcium reabsorption.
1475701036732 1421618046187 In the <u style="font-weight: bold; ">bone</u>,
1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 has what effect?
<div>In the bone, the intracellu
lar receptors are in the osteoblast, and results in increased synthesis of RANKL
(different mechanism from PTH)</div><div><br /></div><div>VitD response element
s in the RANKL gene, increases transcription by binding to the RANKL genes &nbsp
; > together with pre-osteoclasts, leads to an increased number of osteo
clasts</div>
1475774595079 1421618046187 What is the overall equation for pharmacodynamic
s and pharmacokinetics mode of action?<div><br /></div><div>What s a drug recept
or, as defined in these fields?</div> <img src="paste-49645526974465.jpg" />
1475775162284 1421618046187 What are the four kinds of Classical or physiolo
gic receptors relevant to drug recepto mediated actions of drugs? Describe the d
etails of each. <img src="paste-49731426320385.jpg" /><div><img src="paste-49744
311222273.jpg" /></div><div><br /><div><img src="paste-49757196124161.jpg" /></d
iv></div><div><img src="paste-49778670960641.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1475775670403 1421618046187 What are the two kinds of Non-Classical receptor
s relevant to drug receptor mediated actions of drugs? Describe the details of e
ach.
1475775818706 1421618046187 What are the two kinds of Non-receptor mediated
actions of drugs? Describe in detail. <img src="paste-50268297232385.jpg" /><d
1475776031203 1421618046187 what are the assumptions in Receptor binding kin
etics? <img src="paste-50465865728001.jpg" />
1475776129471 1421618046187 What are the rates of the Drug Receptor interact
ion reaction? What is the Drug Receptor Kinetics eqn? <div>How do you find
Kd, numerically and graphically? Explain what Kd means</div>
<img src="paste50616189583361.jpg" /><br /><div><img src="paste-50603304681473.jpg" /></div><di
1475776574047 1421618046187 Graded Dose Response curve equation?<div>Single
person vs Population?</div><div>Why do you get a rectangular hyperbola?</div><di
v>What is EC50?</div> <img src="paste-50921132261377.jpg" />
1475776685525 1421618046187 Compare Kd and EC50<div>Compare RsubT and Emax</
div>
<img src="paste-52458730553345.jpg" />
1475776814183 1421618046187 Potency vs Efficacy: Describe the difference and
the difference in graphs
<img src="paste-52639119179777.jpg" />
1475776918242 1421618046187 Describe the difference between Full Agonists, P

artial Agonists, and Antagonists and what the graph will look like.<div><br /></
div><div>The response being measured in the graph comes from what?</div>
<img src="paste-52845277609985.jpg" />
1475777043946 1421618046187 If someone overdoses on opiate, you can give the
m what and why?<div><br /></div><div>See the following graph. True or False: Asp
irin has less efficacy and less potency than the other three.</div><div><img src
="paste-53060025974785.jpg" /></div>
<img src="paste-53077205843969.jpg" /><d
iv>If someone has overdoses on opiate, you can give them <u><b>naloxone</b></u>,
which will block the receptor for opiods</div><div><br /></div><div>Can t say t
hat Aspirin has less efficacy and less potency because it acts through a differe
nt receptor than the opiates </div>
1475777172158 1421618046187 What models explain how drugs acting at the same
receptor have different efficacies?
Two models explain this:<div><br /></div
><div>Induced Fit Model - Conformation Induced Activation</div><div>Conformation
Selected Model - conformation stabilized</div>
1475777302420 1421618046187 Describe the Induced Fit model and how it explai
ns that drugs acting at the same receptor can have different efficacies.<div><br
/></div><div>Give the example of the estrogen dependent breast cancers in relat
ion to this.</div><div>Describe the normal situation. </div><div>Then descr
ibe the situation with the antagonist involved. </div><div>Finally, describ
e the same situation with the antagonist at the uterine lining. </div>
<div>When a drug binds in the receptor, there is a conformational change in 3D s
hape, which initiates the series of events that leads to the biological effects
observed.</div><div><br /></div><div>Tamoxifen is used to treat estrogen depende
nt breast cancers. Breast cancer tumor cell estrogen receptors have to be activa
ted in order for the tumors to form. Tamoxifen will act as an antagonist at thos
e estrogen receptors. Estradiol is the full agonist, binds to its receptor, mono
mer complexes comes together to becomes dimers. The complex binds 2 coregulator
proteins, which come together and now have HISTONE TRANSACETYLASE activity. The
coregulators are specific for tissues. This complex can acetylate certain histon
e proteins on DNA, causing part of the strand to unwind, leading to increased tr
anscription.</div><div><br /></div><div>In estrogen dependent breast cancer cell
s, Tamoxifen binds and the complex dimerizes, but when they try to bind to the c
oregulators, they can t because the necessary conformational change doesn t occu
r. Now when the complex binds to the estrogen response element, it doesn t acety
late the DNA</div><div><br /></div><div>At the uterine lining, there are estroge
n receptors there and tamoxifen is a partial agonist there. The tamoxifen dimeri
zes and goes into the nucleus. The coregulators here are different and they can
bind to the tamoxifen-receptor complex, but not well. In the endometrium of the
uterus, the estrogen receptor, and the coregulator proteins have acetylase activ
ity, but it is much lower than if tamoxifen was replaced by estradiolmakes tamoxi
fen a partial agonist.</div>
1475778070882 1421618046187 <div>Explain how Ligand gated sodium channels wo
rk (This is what kind of model that explains how drugs acting at the same recept
or can have different efficacies?)</div><div><br /></div>What is constitutive or
basal activity?<div><br /></div><div>Describe the Two State conformation select
ed model specfically for Acetylcholine Nicotinic Receptors</div>
<div><im
g src="paste-53888954662913.jpg" /></div><div><div><br /></div><div>This is a li
gand gated sodium channel, and these sodium channels are opened by acetylcholine
, you need 2 molecules to bind and sodium can move from outside of the cell to i
nside of the cell</div></div><div><br /></div>If you have a lot of these ligand
channels, and no acetylcholine to activate, but a small number of these channels
every so often, will open by themselves without a ligand. This is called consti
tutive or basal activity. <div><br /></div><div>Receptors can exist in two
different forms. One form closed and one form opened. Without the ligand, most o
f them are in the closed state. The conformation selected model says acetylcholi
ne will bind to the R form and stabilize that form, locking it into the active
state until Ach leaves. This will draw more of the R form into the R form. The
agonist is stabilizing the already existing R form which is active. The agonist
is NOT inducing a conformation change, it is stabilizing an already existing fo

rm.</div>
1475778436611 1421618046187 Describe the two state conformation model graphi
cally and explain the five different types of Agonists/Antagonists
<img src
="paste-54168127537153.jpg" />
1475778618998 1421618046187 What is an example of constitutive activity? Des
cribe. What can bock the constitutive activity? <img src="paste-54352811130881.j
pg" />
1475778871569 1421618046187 What are the two kinds of Antagonist mechanisms?
Describe them and say what the binding is called for each?
<img src="paste54537494724609.jpg" />
1475778963517 1421618046187 What is an example of Competitive antagonists? D
escribe the details.<div>When you add the competitive antagonist, what happens t
o the dose response curve? Effect on E50/Emax?</div>
696961.jpg" />
1475779123392 1421618046187 Partial Agonists can act as ______ of a full ago
nist.<div><br /></div><div>What is the difference in efficacy in a partial agoni
st vs full agonist?</div>
<img src="paste-54971286421505.jpg" />
1475779236101 1421618046187 Give an example of noncompetitive antagonist. Wh
at does it antagonize? Describe effects graphically as well.
<img src
="paste-55525337202689.jpg" /><img src="paste-55538222104577.jpg" /><div>This is
known as negative allosteric modulation.<br /><div><img src="paste-555511070064
65.jpg" /><img src="paste-55563991908353.jpg" /><br /><div><br /></div></div></d
iv>
1475798771921 1421618046187 Give an example of a postitive allosteric modula
tor and where it works. Describe details about the modulator as well. <img src
="paste-55830279880705.jpg" />
1475798881041 1421618046187 What is tolerance?<div>Describe pharmacodynamic
tolerance VS Pharmacokinetic tolerance (and graphically)</div> <img src="paste55976308768769.jpg" />
1475799779466 1421618046187 What are 2 possible mechanisms of Pharmacodynami
c Tolerance. Give examples of each.
<img src="paste-56371445760001.jpg" />
1475800649369 1421618046187 What molecule displays pharmacokinetic and pharm
acodynamic tolerance. What does it do and and what would the dose response graph
look like
<img src="paste-56650618634241.jpg" />
1475800693443 1421618046187 What is Super-sensitivity?<div><br /></div><div>
What can cause supersensitivity and how? Describe the specific mechanism<div><br
/></div><div>What is the graphical representation?</div></div> <img src="paste56826712293377.jpg" />
1475800970727 1421618046187 What is the spare receptors phenomenon? <di
v><br /></div><div>Why does it happen (use example to explain).</div><div><br />
</div><div>Example of Spare receptor? </div>
971393.jpg" /><div>Some drugs can give a maximum response when not 100% of the r
eceptors are occupied, this phenomenon is called <u><b>spare receptors</b></u>.
(see top figure, bottom: 100% response with 50% occupancy)</div><div><br /></div
><div><u><b>Why it happens:</b></u></div><div>G protein coupled receptor. Agonis
t activates Adenylate cyclase which generates cAMP, stimulates PKA, which phosph
orylates many kinases, each kinase phosphorylates more targets> amplification<
/div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span></div><di
v>If there is a PKA deficiency, you can churn out more and more cAMP. Activate a
ll of the PKA in the cell, but it doesn t do anything because the PKA has been l
imiting. When there is something downstream that becomes rate limiting in this w
ay, that gives you spare receptors--maximum response without maximum binding sin
ce the few PKA that are active are working.</div><div><br /></div><div><u style=
"font-weight: bold; ">Example</u>: Insulin receptor is a spare receptor. W
e can get a max response when only 2-3% are occupied.</div>
1475801640572 1421618046187 What are Quantal Dose Response curves:<div>Purpo
se of them?</div><div>Describe the two kinds of graphs and how to read them. For
where it s relevant, define ED50.</div><div>Define hypersensitive vs hyposensit
ive and why that s relevant here.</div> <img src="paste-57788784967681.jpg" />
1475802189715 1421618046187 What kinds of effects can be measured by Quantal

Dose Response Curves?<div><br /></div><div>What is ED100? TD90 (could be any nu
mber)?</div><div><br /></div><div>Between the two effects, how much space do you
want?</div>
<img src="paste-58171037057025.jpg" /><div><br /></div><div>NOTE
: TD = Toxic Dose</div>
1475804470295 1421618046187 How do you calculate Therapeutic Index and Certa
in Safety Factor?<div><br /></div><div>What does the size of TI indicate?</div><
div><br /></div><div>What do you want in terms of the curves for each?</div><div
><br /></div><div>What does ED50 and TD50 mean?</div> <img src="paste-58510339
473409.jpg" /><div><br /></div><div>ED50 = lowest dose at which you get 50% resp
onse</div><div>TD50 = 50% have some adverse (toxic dose) effect</div>
1475804699034 1421618046187 <img src="paste-58948426137601.jpg" /><div>Discu
ss the implications of overlap vs non-overlap for each curve.</div>
<img src
="paste-59051505352705.jpg" />
1475805246423 1421618046187 Basic Tenet of Pharmacology: <div><br /></d
iv><div>For most drugs, their effects are directly proportional to?</div>
concentration of their active forms at the receptors<div><br /></div><div><br />
</div><div>Not all drugs are administered in the active form; some are converted
in the body into their active form</div><div><img src="paste-60125247176705.jpg
" /></div>
1475808180590 1421618046187 Describe the time response curve and all of the
three intervals. <div><br /></div><div>Why does the intensity of the respon
se increase? </div><div>When the drug concentration at the receptor peaks,
what happens?</div>
<img src="paste-60284160966657.jpg" />
1475808267355 1421618046187 Factors controlling the concentration of active
form of a drug at its receptor therefore control?<div><br /></div><div>What are
the two factors? The second factor has four parts, what are they and what do the
y mean?</div> <img src="paste-60361470377985.jpg" />
1475808668516 1421618046187 Drugs pass through membranes via ________ and __
_______ Passive Diffusion and specialized transport
1475808713252 1421618046187 What are the two kinds of Passive diffusion? wha
t do they mean?<div><br /></div><div>What kind of cells allow the second type of
passive diffusion? where can you find them?</div>
925185.jpg" />
1475808790319 1421618046187 What kind of drugs undergo passive diffusion? Ex
ample of a drug that can go though?
Neutral drugs can go straight through; E
xample is Diazepam<div><br /></div><div>Charged drugs cannot</div><div><img src=
"paste-61465276973057.jpg" /></div>
1475810964594 1421618046187 The degree of ionization is controlled by?<div><
br /></div><div>What equation is used to analyze ionization?</div><div><br /></d
iv><div>If the pKa of benzoic acid is 4, what does that mean? As pH decreases, h
ow will Benzoic Acid diffusion be affected?</div>
384385.jpg" /><div><div><img src="paste-61564061220865.jpg" /></div></div><div>I
f the pKa of Benzoic acid is 4, it means 50% of the molecules are in a charged f
orm at a pH of 4</div><div><div><br /></div><div>Benzoic acid is going to passiv
ely diffuse through membranes more and more pH decreases from 4 (the more nonion
ized molecules you have)</div></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1475814954151 1421618046187 What are the two kinds of specialized transport?
Give details <img src="paste-71163313127425.jpg" />
1475815402315 1421618046187 What is absorption? <div><br /></div><div>W
hat is the purpose of intravenous application? </div><div><br /></div><div>
In what drugs does absorption terminate therapeutic effect? What is done as a re
sult of that?</div>
<img src="paste-71356586655745.jpg" /><div>Purpose of in
travenous application is not to have absorption of drug. Most drugs have to unde
rgo absorption to exert their effect. </div><div><br /></div><div>There are
some drugs where absorption terminates their therapeutic effect (e.g. Local Ane
sthetics). Local anesthetics are applied directly at the target as close as you
can to the bundle of nerves you are trying to anesthetize. When you apply close
to the target, as its absorbed, you lose the therapeutic effect. </div>
1475816634014 1421618046187 Discuss absorption after oral administration.
Mouth: small surface area, little absorption; drugs absorbed here are very lipid
soluble<div><br /></div><div>Little absorption occurs in the stomach; tiny abso
rption of neutral compounds and weak acids due to pH of the stomach; small surfa
ce area</div><div><br /></div><div>Main site for absorption is small intestine b
ecause that is where the folds of kerckring, villi, and microvilli are. This lea
ds to a lot of surface area</div><div><img src="paste-71717363908609.jpg" /></di
v>
1475816922357 1421618046187 Can charged form of drug be absorbed in the smal
l intestine?<div><br /></div><div>What happens to the relative quantities of cha
rged vs uncharged as absorption occurs?</div> <div>The charged form, while it
s charged, can t be absorbed.</div><div>Due to the huge surface area in the smal
l intestine, the uncharged form is rapidly absorbed.</div><div><br /></div><div>
Molecules in the charged form move to the uncharged form because the uncha
rged form is being removed from the system and equilibrium must be maintained.</
1475817000236 1421618046187 What are the three factors affecting absorption?
1. gastric emptying time<div>2. drug formulation</div><div>3. blood flow</div>
1475817077635 1421618046187 How does Gastric Emptying Time affect absorption
?
<div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>If the
drug passes quickly through stomach and into small intestine, it will be absorb
ed faster than if the drug stops for a while in the stomach. </div><div><br
/></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>-Slow
er Gastric Emptying time > Slower absorption</div><div><br /></div><div><span
class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>-So taking a drug on an e
mpty stomach is the fastest gastric emptying time (because there s less of other
stuff)</div><div><br /></div>
1475817240852 1421618046187 How does Drug Formation affect gastric emptying
time? Refer to tylenol as an example
In a tablet of tylenol, there is only a
small amount of acetominophen, there is a large amount of other drugs in there,
these are chemicals called drug formulation. These are called binders, they keep
the tablet together and keep it from disintegrating during the industrial proce
ss.<div><br /><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>
-In order for absorption to take place, the tablet has to undergo disintegration
. The binding particles can slow down disintegration, slowing down absorption.</
div><div><br /></div><div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:p
re"> </span>-If you dump a capsule out, there are lots of little spheres, which
are released in your body when the outside disintegrates. Some of those particle
s are immediately released, and others will take a lot longer to go into solutio
n until the coating wears off. Manufacturers can make the coating which leads to
continuous release over time.</div></div><div><br /></div></div>
1475818437084 1421618046187 How does blood flow affect gastric emptying time
? This causes a problem for local anesthetics, how is that solved?
<div>Sin
ce most absorption occurs through passive diffusion which only goes down a conce
ntration gradient</div><div><br /></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style=
"white-space:pre"> </span>Maintaining a steep concentration gradient increases t
he absorption</div><div><br /></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whi
te-space:pre"> </span>A high blood flow mean you carry away the absorbed molecul
es quickly, maintaining the high concentration gradient</div><div><br /></div><d
iv>Problem for local anesthetics: to solve this, sometimes vasoconstrictors are
included with the local anesthetic and they reduce blood flow in the area of app
lication, so the molecules are not being carried away quickly and the concentrat
ion gradient isn t as steep</div>
1475819462917 1421618046187 Most common route of drug administration? Why?
Subcutaneous is the most common route of administration when you can t do oral.
(insulin)<div><br /></div><div>Subcutaneous is relatively safe, you just p
inch a handful of skin, pick it up, take a short needle and it s safe because th
ere s no major blood vessels you can hit</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-72692321484801.jpg" /></div>
1475819515365 1421618046187 Why are intramuscular injections dangerous?<div>
<br /></div><div>What are the 2 reasons that intramuscular injections are done?<
/div> Intramuscular injections are dangerous because you can hit major blood v
essel<div><br /></div><div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:
pre"> </span>1. Need to be injected because drugs are water soluble. They will u
ndergo paracellular diffusion in the skeletal muscle capillaries. </div><di
v><br /></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>
2. If someone is highly allergic to start to have a highly allergic reaction, yo
u take epinephrine and immediately do an intramuscular injection you can t wait
to get to the hospital to do an intravenous one. You will get a rapid response b
ecause the absorption of epinephrine will be very fast because the epinephrine w
ill undergo transcellular and paracellular diffusion.</div><div><img src="paste72688026517505.jpg" /></div></div>
1475819697176 1421618046187 Transdermal delivery system works for what kind
of drug? how does it work
highly lipid soluble; The drug will diffuse
in via a reservoir on the patch
1475819772126 1421618046187 Describe implantation form of drug delivery.
Implantation is injected subcutaneously and give a slow release of the drug whic
h can last over days
1475819979254 1421618046187 Describe pulmonary absorption form of drug deliv
ery.
<div>Pulmonary absorption most of what we inhale don t make it into the
alveoli. It has to be a small molecule and a gas. For gaseous anesthetics.</div>
<div><br /></div>
1475875592462 1421618046187 What three hormones/substrates activate Receptor
Tyrosine Kinases?
<img src="paste-89017492176897.jpg" />
1475950931347 1471141547999 What is included in the peripheral nervous syste
m?
Cranial nerves, spinal nerves, ganglia, autonomic nervous.
1475950996480 1471141547999 What is the difference between a multipolar and
pseudounipolar neuron? Mulitpolar neurons can recieve synapses at the dendrites
of the soma and then conduct the AP down their axons and synapse at another den
drite. Pseudounipolar neurons have a cell body in the middle of their axon
and convey the signal from the central axon terminals to the receptor organ etc
.
1475951134781 1471141547999 How are sensations such as touch, pain, and temp
erature from muscles, bones, and skin percieved? How are muscular and skel
etal organs signaled to react? Pseudounipolar neurons convey the signal to the
DRG via the peripheral axon (where the cell body resides) and will continu
e into the central axon which also resides in the DRG and forms the posterior ro
ot of the spinal nerve (this is somatic afferent neuronal signaling). In t
he anteror root of the spinal nerve multipolar somatic efferent (motor) axons wi
ll voluntarily activate skeletal muscles.
1475951483935 1471141547999 Which neurons are effected by ALS and why is thi
s fatal?
<div>ALS is the selective degeneration of motor neurons which wi
ll cause muscle wasting until finally respiratory muscles become unresponsive an
d the patient suffocates to death.</div>
1475951520532 1471141547999 Where do autonomic nerves reside and how do they
work. The multipolar presynaptic neuron resides in the CNS and the postsynapti
c neuron resides in the autonomic ganglia of the PNS. They contain viscera
l efferent axons that involuntarily regular internal organs, glands, and smooth
muscle.
1475951703311 1471141547999 What type of neurons reside in the DRG, are they
covered by anything? Pseudounipolar neurons occupy the DRG and are enclosed b
y continuous rings of satellite cells, as well as covered by dense connective ti
ssue forming a protective capsule.
1475952121169 1471141547999 How are sympathetic ganglia in the ANS covered a
nd why is this important?
They are incompletely invested by satellite cell
s, which allows presynaptic sympathetic fibers to synapse with the postsynaptic
neurons of the sympathetic ganglia.
1475952197018 1471141547999 Where does the CNS originate. It originates as
a slipper shaped thickening of the ectoderm called the neural plate which is in
dented by the neural groove to create bilateral neural folds.
1475952276642 1471141547999 What happens after the neural folds fuse to form
the neural tube?

The free edges of the folds form neural crest cells whic
h migrate laterally. These cells form neuroblasts that differentiate into
the postsynaptic neurons of the sympathetic ganglia and the sensory neurons of t
he DRG.
1475952602072 1471141547999 What forms the neuroepithelium and what does it
do?
It is formed by the ectoderm and lines the lumen of the neural tube.
1475952985227 1471141547999 The does the lining of the neural tube do?
The lining, which is the neuralepithelium, forms the neuroblasts that differenti
ate into the somatic motor neurons, the presynaptic sympathetic neurons, and int
erneurons during transformation of the neural tube into the spinal cord.
<div>They lose their abi
lity to divide once they form a neuron. This means that clinically damage
to neurons cannot be healed without surgical intervention.</div><div><br /></div
>
1475953825280 1471141547999 What are the two parts of spinal cord grey matte
r and what resides in the grey matter and surrounding white matter?
Anterior
and posterior horns, multipolar neurons reside in the grey matter and the surro
unding white matter has anterior and posterior roots of the spinal nerves.
1475953886739 1471141547999 What are the sections of the spinal cord, and ho
w many spinal vertabrae are there?
8 Cervical spinal cord segments, 12 thor
acic, 5 lumbar, and 5 sacral. There are the same number of spinal vertebra
e except there are only 7 cervical vertebrae.
1475954007154 1471141547999 Where is the conus medullaris in childhood? &nbs
p;Adulthood? What is it? What is the consequence of this change in locatio
n?<br /><div><br /></div>
Between L3 and 4 vertabrae at birth but it ascen
ds with the elongation of the spinal column and onset of erect posture to reside
between L1 and L2. This ascension accounts for the long roots of the lumb
ar and sacral spinal nerves constituting the cauda equina.
1475954132045 1471141547999 What types of tissue make up the dura and arachn
oid layer?<br />
Dense connective in the dura, loose connective in the ar
achnoid
1475954313725 1471141547999 What is the meningeal pia?
2-3 cell layers
that closely follow the surface contours of the spinal cord.
1475954338503 1471141547999 Where does CSF exist in the spinal cord?
In the subarachnoid space and presses the arachnoid against the dura.
1475954376636 1471141547999 Why is lumbar puncture an important diagnostic t
ool and why are different vertebral levels used for infants and adults? <div>It
is used for evaluating central nervous system disorders since diseases can alter
the cells in the CSF or change the concentration makeup. It can also show
if blood is present in the fluid. In adults the spinal cord terminates around L
1/L2, so it is safe to draw CSF from L3/L4. In children the the spinal cor
d terminated around L3/L4 since the vertebral column has not elongated, so to be
safe you need to draw fluid below this around L5.</div><div><br /></div>
1475954442196 1471141547999 What supplies the superior part of the spinal co
rd with blood?<div><br /></div><div>What provides blood to the rest of the spina
l cord?</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div> The anterior and bilateral poste
rior spinal arteries.<div><br /></div><div>The anterior and posterior segmental
medullary arteries, which arise from adjacent arteries, will anastamose with spi
nal arteries to reinforce their blood flow. The great anterior segmental m
edullary artery (of Adamkiweicz) is so large it actually reinforces the circulat
ion to two thirds of the spinal cord.</div>
1475955025791 1471141547999 Where are the arteries and veins in the spinal c
ord? Where do the veins drain?
They reside in the subarachnoid space, a
nd the veins drain into the internal vertebral venous plexus that resides in the
epidural space.
1475955069587 1471141547999 What is the clinical consequence of obstructive
disease of the great anterior segmental artery? <div>The decreased circulation i
n the spinal cord will cause spinal cord atrophy due to ischemia, causing the pa
tient to lose sensation in the peripheral structures that were innervated by tha
t section of the spinal cord. This can lead to muscle weakness and paralys
is.</div><div><br /></div>
1475955100875 1471141547999 What types of fibers do the posterior and anteri
or roots of the spinal nerves contain? The posterior roots contain somatic affe
rent fibers and the anterior roots contain efferent fibers.
1475955149766 1471141547999 What protects the sensory roots, DRG, and motor
roots? The vertebral column
1475955200328 1471141547999 Where do the spinal nerves devide and what do th
ey split into? They divide immediately after emerging from the vertebral column
into the posterior rami (branches) which supply the posterior body wall, and th
e anterior rami which supply the anterolateral body wall and extremeties.
1475955271811 1471141547999 Where do central axons from the DRG synapse? &nb
sp;Where do interneurons synapse?
On the multipolar neurons in the posteri
or horns of the spinal cord. Interneurons synapse with motor neurons in th
e adjacent anterior horns.
1475955325981 1471141547999 What releases neurotransmitters to bind dendrite
s of motor neurons?
Interneuronal axons.
1475955360599 1471141547999 How is pain percieved? Afferent information rel
ayed by the central axons of the pseudounipolar cells will synapse onto interneu
rons in the posterior horn of the spinal grey matter, some of which contribute t
o activation of the pain centers in the brain
1475955480615 1471141547999 Where do presynaptic sympathetic neurons reside?
In the lateral horns of the spinal cord segments T1-L2
1475955528837 1471141547999 How do sympathetic ganglia recieve efferant info
rmation?
Presynaptic fibers from the lateral horns enter the anterior roo
ts to join spinal nerves T1-L2 before synapsing the sympathetic ganglia.
1475955847116 1471141547999 What are the paravertebral ganglia?
The gang
lia that link together along the vertebral column to form bilateral sympathetic
trunks/chains. There are 3 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar and 5 sacral pa
ravertebral ganglia.
1475955961976 1471141547999 What synapses on the Paravertebral ganglia? &nbs
p;What leaves them?
Presynaptic fibers form white communicating rami to leav
e spinal nerves T1-L2 to synapse the paravertebral ganglia. The postsynapt
ic fibers form Gray communicating rami, leave the sympathetic ganglia, and rejoi
n the spinal nerves.
1475956045690 1471141547999 What do postsynaptic sympathetic fibers in the s
pinal nerves activate? Sweat glands, smooth muscle contraction of local arterie
s, and regulate blood flow to the body wall/extremeties.
1475956361251 1471141547999 What types of fibers are bundled together by sle
eves of connective tissue in the spinal nerves? Somatic afferent/efferent fibers
, and postsynaptic sympathetic fibers.
1475956417436 1471141547999 What is the outer epineurium? It forms a stron
g cylindrical sheath around the whole nerve and extends inward to bind bundles (
fascicles) of mixed fibers together. These fascicles are enclose by perine
urium.
1475956474828 1471141547999 What is the endoneurium and what forms it?
It occupies the space between fibers in the spinal nerves and is made of loose c
onnective tissue.
1475956516570 1471141547999 What invests Schwann cells?
They are investe
d by the basal lamina, or a basement membrane.
1475956552797 1471141547999 Which types of fibers are unmyelinated? Pain and
temperature afferents, efferent interneurons, and postsynaptic sympathetic moto
r fibers. Not schwann cells still cover these neurons in the PNS, they jus
t dont wrap tightly around them.
1475956625024 1471141547999 How does perineurium contribute to the blood ner
ve barrier.
<div>It acts as a selective diffusion barrier to regulate the in
ternal environment of the nerve. They surround each fascicle of the
nerve in several concentric layers. </div><div><br /></div>
1475956747378 1471141547999 Why does a cutting nerve injurym but not a crush
ing one, require surgery?
<div>Compressed nerve injuries leave the connect
ive tissue coverings and cell bodies intact, so the regeneration of the nerve ca
n occur without surgery. Cutting injury will disconnect the cut ends, effe
ctively killing the nerves ability to regrow itself using the connective tissue
covering as a guide. Surgery is needed to realign the two ends. </div
><div><br /></div>
1475956779612 1471141547999 How do schwann cells assist in axonal regenerati
on?
<div>They aid in debris removal and can serve as guides for sprouts of r
egenerating axons after injury.</div><div><br /></div>
1475956801100 1471141547999 What is the clinical significance of the basment
membrane of schwann cells, and the oligodendrocytes lack of one?
<div>If
Schwann cells are destroyed, but the basil lamina is left in tact, the axon can
use that as a guide for regeneration and Schwann cells will eventually migrate t
o the site of regeneration. If oligodendrocytes are damaged and die with n
erve damage, then the nerve has no guide to regenerate and will ultimately die.<
1476136994564 1421618046187 What factors control drug distribution? <img src
="paste-36155034697729.jpg" />
1476137183430 1421618046187 What drug is sometimes used to induce general an
esthesia? What has it been replaced by in recent years?<div><br /></div><div>Wha
t is a notable property of the first drug? What is a result of that property?</d
iv><div><br /></div><div>What controls the diffusion of the drug? What is this c
alled?</div>
Thiopental, replaced by propathol<div><br /><div>one of the most
lipid soluble drugs; easily undergoes passive diffusion across any cell membran
e</div><div><br /></div></div><div>Blood flow: High blood flow = lot of thiopent
al, low blood flow = not a lot</div><div>This is called perfusion limited distri
bution</div>
1476137710670 1421618046187 Describe thiopental distribution graphically and
in terms of the three places it goes<div><br /></div><div>Make note of where th
iopental will stay for a long time</div>
<img src="paste-36782099922945.j
pg" />
1476137761274 1421618046187 What drug is an example of capillary permeabilit
y? What kind of distribution is it called?<div><br /></div><div>What kind of tis
sues does that drug distribute to the best? Why? What specific tissues?</div><di
v><br /></div><div>Where is it excluded from and why?</div>
<img src="paste37121402339329.jpg" /><div><br /></div><div>distributes best through tissues tha
t allow paracellular because it s water soluble and therefore can t go through c
ell membranes (required for transcellular)</div>
1476138020385 1421618046187 What is an example of "Binding of Drugs to Prote
in/Tissue components?"<div><br /></div><div>Describe the mechanism of this in re
lation to equilibrium/distribution.</div>
<img src="paste-37490769526785.j
pg" />
1476138764678 1421618046187 Describe hepatic first pass effect in terms of a
dministration<div><br /></div><div>What is bioavailability?</div><div><br /></di
v><div>Most of the time you can increase therapeutic dose, but why can t you wit
h drugs hat show hepatic first pass effect?</div>
962049.jpg" />
1476139658302 1421618046187 What s the purpose of Enterohepatic cycling?&nbs
p;<div><br /></div><div>Describe Enterohepatic cycling in terms of drug administ
ration.<div><br /></div><div>What kind of transport brings things into the canal
iculi?</div></div><div><br /></div><div>What is the significance of this?</div>
<img src="paste-38311108280321.jpg" />
1476140335401 1421618046187 Describe renal excretion of drugs.<div><br /></d
iv><div>What other kinds of excretion can you have? example?</div>
<img src
="paste-38723425140737.jpg" />
1476140692771 1421618046187 Describe details of renal excretion for water so
luble vs lipid soluble drug.
If drug = water soluble, it will remain trapped
in the nephron and eventually be secreted with urine<div><br /></div><div><div>I
f you have a lipid soluble drug, it can enter the nephron, it is filtered throug
h, but it doesn t have any trouble passively diffusing through the membrane of t
he cells of the nephron. It undergoes <u><b>tubular reabsorption</b></u> (goes b
ack into the blood)</div></div>

1476141449884 1421618046187 If you have a drug that s a weak acid and goes i
nto the nephron, whether or not it undergoes significant tubular reabsorption de
pends on? Why?<div><br /></div><div>How do you take advantage of this in individ
uals who have ODed on drugs? Give cases for weak base and acid. When is the only
time this works?</div><div><br /></div>
Depends on how many molecules ar
e charged vs uncharged <u style="font-weight: bold; ">because</u> the charg
ed molecules are trapped in the nephron because they are too water soluble to un
dergo tubular reabsorption. Vice-versa for uncharged<div><br /></div><div>If the
drugs are weak bases, you can <u><b>accelerate the renal excretion</b></u> by a
cidifying the urine with ascorbic acid, dropping the pH, which drives the weak b
ase molecules into the charged form, trapping them (called <u><b>ion trapping</b
></u>)</div><div><br /></div><div>For acids, the opposite is true, you make urin
e basic using sodium carbonate</div><div><br /></div><div>Only works when pKa is
around 6-8</div>
1476142357549 1421618046187 Where does tubular secretion occur? What does th
e tubular secretion and into where? <div><br /></div><div>Implications of t
ubular secretion based on charge?</div> <div>We also have tubular secretion that
can occur in the nephron.</div><div><br /></div><div>There are two families tha
t exist in the proximal tubule of the nephron</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-s
pan" style="white-space:pre"> </span>One pumps weak acids into the proximal tubu
le</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>The ot
her does this for weak bases</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white
-space:pre"> </span></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:p
re"> </span>Skips over the glomerulus and goes straight into the blood</div><div
><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span></div><div>Once th
e weak acid or base is inside the nephron, if it s charged, then it s trapped an
d will excrete into the urine</div><div>If its uncharged, it will undergo tubula
r reabsorption</div><div><br /></div>
1476142537350 1421618046187 What drug is an example of one that undergoes tu
bular secretion?<div><br /></div><div>Why did this drug lead to a problem? How w
as it solved? What is the metabolics behind the solution?</div> <div>Penicillin
is a weak acid, transported into the tubule quickly, water soluble, rapidly elim
inated in urine</div><div><br /></div><div>To make penicillin stay in the body l
onger, probenecid was given</div><div><br /></div><div><div>If you give a patien
t 2 weak acids or 2 weak bases, they will compete for the active transporters an
d inhibit the elimination of the other-->known as drug drug interaction</div>
</div>
1476142907798 1421618046187 What does the WHO recommend for a flu pandemic a
nd why? <div>WHO says: if we have a flu pandemic, we don t have enough tamiflu (
oseltamivir) to cover people in the world</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span"
style="white-space:pre"> </span>You could add probenecid to tamiflu (both weak
acids) </div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </s
pan>Slows down excretion of probenecid</div><div><br /></div><div>From graph, ta
miflu given with probenecid, keeps the levels of tamiflu higher</div><div><br />
1476143059299 1421618046187 <div>Some enzymes found in liver can biotransfor
m many drugs, which are converted to some metabolite or series of metabolites.</
div><div><br /></div><div>When that happens, that drug is considered to be <u><b
>________</b></u></div><div><br /></div><div>How do we have enzymes that can met
abolize chemicals that didn t exist before our birth?</div>
<div><b><u>elimi
nated</u></b></div><div><br /></div>With drug metabolizing enzymes, they don t h
ave high specificity. They are just looking for certain key functional groups
1476143181107 1421618046187 what is the purpose of metabolism?<div><br /></d
iv><div>Sometimes the parent compound doesn t have biological activity until it
is metabolized, that is called an ____________</div><div><br /></div><div><div>W
hen you have a series of reactions, and when A is converted to B, but B doesn t
have activity while A did, that s a _________ pathway</div></div>
to make
a compound more water soluble <div><br /></div><div>activation reaction</di
v><div><br /></div><div>detoxification, but if B is then turned into C and it al
so doesn t have activity, it s not a detox rxn</div>

1476153618748 1421618046187 What 2 categories are all drug metabolizing reac
tions in?
Synthetic and Nonsynthetic Reactions
1476153762425 1421618046187 Synthetic reactions are also known as?<div><br /
></div><div>What are the two kinds of synthetic reaction? Give all details: reac
tant, enzyme, product</div><div>----What do these enzymes recognize? What do the
y avoid and due to what?</div> <div>Synthetic Reactions (Also called Conjugatio
n Rxns or Phase II Rxns)</div><div><br /></div><div><div><span class="Apple-tabspan" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Two kinds of conjugation (there are total
of 5 or 6)</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </spa
n></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>1)&nbs
p;Glucuronyl Conjugation - attaching a glucuronide</div><div><span class="Appletab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span
" style="white-space:pre"> </span>2) Sulfotransferase - attaches a sulfate
group</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span></d
iv><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>These enzym
es recognize OH groups and COOH groups</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" st
yle="white-space:pre"> </span>Another carboxyl group at the 17 C, it doesn t get
conjugated due to steric hindrance</div></div><div><br /></div><img src="paste59433757442049.jpg" />
1476153990892 1421618046187 What conjugation/synthetic reaction is different
from the other ones?<div><br /></div><div>What is the important part of this mo
lecule that is being added?</div><div><br /></div><div>Give a specific example o
f this kind of conjugation. Include reactant & enzyme</div><div><br /></div>
<div>Why is this initial reactant dangerous (what kind of molecule is it)?</div>
<div><br /></div><div>If a metabolite is HIGHLY reactive, what can happen?</div>
<div>Important part of Glutathione is the free sulfhydryl group of the cysteine<
/div><div><img src="paste-59828894433281.jpg" /></div><div><span class="Apple-ta
b-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span"
style="white-space:pre"> </span>When you have metabolites that are epoxides (lik
e NAO), it is highly dangerous because it can bind to the amino group of guanine
on DNA and lead to tumor formation</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style
="white-space:pre"> </span></div><div>If the metabolite is HIGHLY reactive, glut
athione can bind to it without the enzyme</div>
1476154430210 1421618046187 What are the nonsynthetic reactions?<div><br /><
/div><div>What s another name for nonsynthetic reactions?</div> Oxidations and R
eductions and Hydrolyses<div><br /></div><div>Phase I reactions</div>
1476154571717 1421618046187 Most commonly occuring oxidation reactions are c
atalyzed by?<div><br /></div><div>Most drugs are metabolized by what form of tha
t enzyme?</div><div><br /></div><div>Give examples of 2 reactions catalyzed by t
his enzyme. Describe them.</div>
Cytochrome P450s; P450 3A5 is most commo
n<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-62281320759297.jpg" /></div>
1476154799789 1421618046187 Hydrolysis reactions are done by what two enzyme
s?<div><br /></div><div>What drug undergoes hydrolysis and what does that produc
e?</div>
<img src="paste-64669322575873.jpg" />
1476155051280 1421618046187 Describe the Acetominophen biotransformation
<div>As the dose of Acetominophen increases, you get more and more glucuronic ac
id synthesis</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </s
pan>Eventually, you decreases the liver stores of sulfate</div><div><span class=
"Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>That s okay because you will st
ill produce O-glucuronic acid</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whit
e-space:pre"> </span>Eventually you can deplete the liver store of glucuronic ac
id too</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Th
en, Acetominophen starts to be metabolized by mostly Cyt 2E1</div><div><span cla
ss="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Produces NAPQI, highly react
ive molecule</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </s
pan>Looks for biological molecules to form a bond with</div><div><span class="Ap
ple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>Initially glutatione will form a c
onjugate to protect the hepatocytes</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style
="white-space:pre"> </span>Eventually, the liver supply of glutatione can be dep
leted if dose is high enough</div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white

-space:pre"> </span>Then you start to form covalent bonds with macromolecules, i
f the dose is high enough, the patient goes into liver failure</div><div><img sr
c="paste-66395899428865.jpg" /></div>
1476155445670 1421618046187 Why do you have to use acetominophen in children
?<div><br /></div><div>What drug is used to counter Acetominophen toxicity? Why
does it work?</div>
Due to reyes synrome<div><br /></div><div>Muconyst, simi
lar to glutathione in that it has 3 sulfhydryl groups</div>
1476155674018 1421618046187 Describe the factors affecting biotransformation
in full detail.
<img src="paste-66971425046529.jpg" /><div><img src="pas
te-66992899883009.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-67095979098113.jpg" /></div>
<div>4. Disease and Drug Metabolism -- sometimes if you re really sick, you real
ly have to cut back on the dose of a drug</div><div><img src="paste-671131589672
97.jpg" /></div>
1476235906569 1471105979384 The transmitter of the neuromuscular junction is
{{c1::acetylcholine (ACh)}} and the receptor is {{c1::nicotinic acetylcholine r
eceptor (nAChR)}}<div><br /></div><div>The axons are {{c1::myelinated::myelinate
d/unmyelinated }}</div><div><br /></div><div>The target is always going to
be {{c1::skeletal muscle::organ/tissue type}}</div><div><br /></div><div>The tra
nsmission type is {{c1::excitatory::inhibitory/excitatory }}</div> <img src
="paste-25147033518512.jpg" />
1476236186885 1471105979384 The transmitters in the autonomic system are rel
eased from {{c1::varicosities }} which are {{c1::unmyelinated::myelinated/u
nmyelinated}}<div><br /></div><div><br /></div> <img src="paste-25524990640558.j
pg" />
1476236494775 1471105979394 What is a visceral reflex arc? It is the feedba
ck response that you get in organs. Think about the bladder.<div><br /></div><di
1476236531451 1471105979384 In the somatic nervous system, the neurotransmit
ter is {{c1::ACh}} and the receptor is a {{c1::nicotonic receptor}}
<img src="paste-26220775342181.jpg" />
1476236736582 1471105979384 In the parasympathetic division of the autonomic
nervous system, the preganglionic neurotransmitter is {{c1::ACh}} and the gangl
ionic receptor is {{c1::nicotinic::receptor type}}<div><br /></div><div>The post
ganglionic neurotransmitter is {{c1::ACh}} and the effector organ receptor is {{
c1::muscarinic::receptor type }}</div>
<img src="paste-26280904884339.j
pg" />
1476237013910 1471105979384 In the sympathetic division of the autonomic ner
vous system:<div>The ganglionic transmitter is {{c1::ACh}} while the receptor is
{{c1::nicotinic::receptor type.}}</div><div>The effector organ transmitter is {
{c1::norepinephrine}} and the effector organ receptor is {{c1::adrenergic::recep
tor type }}</div> <img src="paste-27337466839239.jpg" /><div><br /></div>
1476237612714 1471105979384 {{c1::False::True/False}}<div><br /></div><div>T
he parasympathetic nervous system innervates skin but not skeletal muscle</div>
So false, it innervates glands and organs (never skin or skeletal muscle)<div><b
1476238031710 1471105979384 The parasympathetic nervous system stems from {{
c1::Cranial Nerves 3,7,9 and 10 as well as Sacral S2-S4::Spinal locations}}
<img src="paste-27535035335076.jpg" />
1476238140874 1471105979384 Tell me what each cranial nerve does/is<div>(3)
III- {{c1::Oculomotor Nerve}}</div><div>(7) VII- {{c1::Facial expressions, tears
, saliva, tase}}</div><div>(9) IX- {{c1::Glossopharyngeal- taste, senses carotid
blood pressure}}</div><div>(10) X- {{c1::Vagus Nerve- Heart, upper abdomen&nbsp
;}}</div><div><br /></div>
<img src="paste-28196460298666.jpg" />
1476238565232 1471105979384 There are two ganglia classes in the autonomic s
ympathetic nervous system, they are {{c1::paravertebral (sympathetic chain gangl
ion) and prevertebral (collateral) }}<div><br /></div><div>While we re on the to
pic, the sympathetic nervous system stems from {{c1::T1-L3::spinal location}}</d
iv>
<img src="paste-28394028794447.jpg" />
1476239072901 1471105979384 The prevertebral ganglion of the {{c1::sympathet
ic}} nervous system include the<div>{{c1::<div>Celiac Ganglion</div><div>Superio

r Mesenteric Ganglion</div><div>Inferior Mesenteric Ganglion::give me the names<
/div>}}</div> <img src="paste-28673201668468.jpg" />
1476239342525 1471105979384 The white ramus take the neuron from {{c1::the s
pinal cord to the ganglion}}<div>The gray ramus {{c1::takes it from the ganglion
elsewhere }}</div>
Too white <div>gray away </div><div><b
1476239717418 1471105979384 {{c1::True::True/False}}<div><br /></div><div>Th
e sympathetic system innervates skin and skeletomuscular vasculature</div>
<div>Fight or flight</div><div>Would be weird if it didn t innervate the skeleta
l system</div><img src="paste-29497835389350.jpg" /><div><br /></div>
1476240310078 1471105979384 In the autonomic sympathetic nervous system whic
h synapses on the {{c1::adrenal medulla}} also:<div> the preganglionic fibe
r synapses on the {{c1::chromafin}} cells </div> <img src="paste-29832842
838424.jpg" />
1476240712442 1471105979384 {{c1::False::True/False}}<div><br /></div><div>N
orepinephrine is pretty much always released at concentrations that will induce
a physiological response </div>
Its actually epinephrine and this makes
sense because NE is always released so it would be inefficient for it to always
have some effect<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-30159260352949.jpg" /></di
v>
1476241597245 1471105979384 The enteric nervous system regulates the {{c1::G
I tract}}
<img src="paste-30382598652310.jpg" />
1476241724563 1471105979384 The 3 ways that neurotransmitters are cleared fr
om the synapse are<div>{{c1::<div>Diffusion</div><div>Enzymatic Breakdown</div><
div>Reuptake into presynaptic terminal </div>}}</div>
<img src="paste30537217475134.jpg" />
1476241900488 1471105979384 Acetylcholine is synthesized from the combinatio
n of {{c1::Acetyl-Coa and Choline}}<div><br /></div><div>Its degraded in the syn
aptic cleft by {{c1::acetylcholinesterase}} into {{c1::choline and acetate
}}</div><div><br /></div><div>Acetycholine can target {{c1::muscarinic and
nicotinic}} receptors</div>
<img src="paste-30760555774385.jpg" />
1476242561045 1471105979394 What is the difference between how adrenergic an
d cholinergic are degraded?
The main difference is that the adrenergic is de
graded after reuptake into the presynaptic terminal while the cholinergic i
s degraded in the synaptic cleft<div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-3097530413
9189.jpg" /></div>
1476242688697 1471105979384 Norepinephrine is synthesized from tyrosine via
the enzme {{c1::tyrosine hydroxylase}}.<div><br /></div><div>Then it forms DOPA
which becomes {{c1::dopamine}}</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dopamine beta hy
droxylase::enzyme}} converts dopamine into norepinephrine </div><div><br />
</div><div>Epinephrine is synthesized from norepinephrine via the enzyme {{c1::p
henyethanolamine methyltransferase}}</div><div><br /></div><div>Once released th
e norepinephrine is taken up into the presynaptic terminal. There the two enzyme
s that degrade it are {{c1::monoamine oxidase (MAO) (mitochondria)}} and {{c1::c
atechol-O-methyltransferase (cytosol) (COMT) }}</div> <img src="paste-31361851
195833.jpg" />
1476243339662 1471105979384 {{c1::Nicotinic}} Receptors are fast; the types
are: {{c1::ligand gated or ionotrophic}} <div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Muscar
inic}} and the {{c1::catecholamine}} receptors are slow; the types are {{c1::g p
rotein coupled receptors or metabotrophic }}</div><div><br /></div><div><br
/></div>
<img src="paste-31593779429812.jpg" />
1476287316490 1471105979384 <u>Nicotinic receptors</u><div>{{c1::Activated b
y Acetylcholine::neurotransmitter type }}</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Linked to non selective cation channel::membrane protein type}} </div><div>
{{c1::Excitatory::inhibitory/excitatory}}</div><div><br /></div><div>Found in:</
div>{{c1::<div>Skeletal Muscle</div><div>ANS Ganglia</div><div>Adrenal Medulla</
div><div>}} </div> <img src="paste-32564442038440.jpg" />
ittter type: {{c1::Acetylcholine }}</div><div><u><br /></u></div><div>{{c1:
:G-protein coupled::membrane protein type }}</div><div>{{c1::Inhibitory::In

hibitory/Excitatory }}</div><div><br /></div><div>Found in {{c1::postsynapt
ic and autoreceptors::areas}}</div><div><br /></div><div>Effector Organs/Glands
(include function):</div><div>{{c1::Cardiac Muscle- slows down heart rate, decre
ases atrial force, slows AV conduction}}</div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sphinc
ters of the GI and GU, causes relaxation }}</div> <img src="paste-32624571
580545.jpg" />
ittter type: {{c1::Acetylcholine }}</div><div><br /></div><div>Membrane pro
tein type: {{c1::Gq coupled}}</div><div>{{c1::Excitatory:: Excitatory/Inhibitory
}}</div><div><br /></div><div>Found in (glands/organs) with function:</div
><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Smooth muscle walls of viscera- for contraction}}</
div><div>and</div><div>{{c1::Glands- secretion including sweat glands }}</d
iv>
<img src="paste-33668248633495.jpg" />
1476318313233 1471105979384 Alpha receptor (<sub>1</sub>) <div><br /></d
iv><div>Receptor type: {{c1::Adrenergic}}</div><div>Binds with: {{c1::Epinephrin
e nd Norepinephrine (but Epi is more potent tht NE)}}</div><div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Excittory::Excittory/Inhibitory }}</div><div><br /></div><div>Re
sults in:</div><div>{{c1::Contrction of vsculr nd genitourinry smooth muscl
e }}</div><div><div><br /></div></div>
<img src="pste-35257386532946.j
pg" />
1476318597343 1471105979384 Alph Receptor (<sub>2</sub>) <div>Receptor
type: {{c1::Adrenergic}}</div><div><br /></div><div>Wht binds to it? {{c1::Epin
ephrine nd norepinephrine (but Epi is more potent) }}</div><div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Inhibitory::Excittory/Inhibitory}} (chieves this vi {{c1::decre
sed cAMP}})</div><div><br /></div><div><div>Whts the exception bout it?</div><
div>{{c1::It it usully inhibitory but on vsculr nd GU smooth muscle cells it
is usully excittory nd cuses contrction vi C2+}}</div></div><div><br /><
/div><div>Presynptic/Postsynptic? {{c1::Could be both}}</div><div><br /></div>
<div><br /></div>
<img src="pste-35536559407307.jpg" />
1476319156296 1471105979384 Lets tlk bout Bet receptors ()<div><r /></div
><div><div><su>1</su>&nsp;</div></div><div>{{c1::Excitatory::Excitatory/Inhii
tory}}&nsp;</div><div>Potentcy of Epinephrine vs Norepinephrine: {{c1::Epi=NE}}
</div><div>Effect: {{c1::Positive inotropic (force) and chronotropic (rate) effe
cts on the heart&nsp;}}</div><div><r /></div><div><div><div>2&nsp;</div></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhiitory::Excitatory/Inhiitory&nsp;}}</div><div>Potentcy of Epine
phrine vs Norepinephrine: {{c1::Epi>NE}}</div></div><div>Effect: {{c1::Relax
vascular, ronchial, gastrointestinal and genitourinary smooth muscle, causes va
sodilation in specific vascular eds, stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogene
sis}}</div><div><r /></div><div><div>3</div></div><div>{{c1::Excitatory::Excitat
ory/Inhiitory}}&nsp;</div><div>Potentcy of Epinephrine vs Norepinephrine: {{c1
::Epi>Ne}}</div><div>Effect: {{c1::Lipolysis in adipose tissue}}</div>
<img src="paste-35914516529359.jpg" />
1476319596817 1471105979384 Autoreceptors work y {{c1::inhiiting the relea
se of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic cleft&nsp;}}<div><r /></div><div>
An example of this is seen with&nsp;{{c1::the&nsp;<sub>2</sub> receptor wh
ich slows the relese of NE }}</div>
<img src="pste-36120674959764.j
pg" />
1476319719628 1471105979384 The hypothlmus controls 5 bsic physiologicl
needs:<div>{{c1::<div>Blood Pressure nd Electrolyte Composition</div><div>Body
Temperture</div><div>Energy Metbolism</div><div>Reproduction</div><div>Emergen
cy Response to Stress</div>}}</div>
<img src="pste-36292473651628.jpg" />
1476320043477 1471105979384 The utonomic brinstem reflexes re(6):<div>{{c
1::<div>Regultion of blood pressure</div><div>Control of respirtion</div><div>
Slivry secretion</div><div>Vomiting</div><div>Swllowing</div><div>Eye refexes
</div>}}</div>
<img src="pste-36447092474281.jpg" />
1476320239806 1471105979384 Inhibitory "tone" is provided by contrcting sph
inctors nd relxing wlls, this is done by the {{c1::sympthetic nervous system
::pr/sym nervous system}}<div><br /></div><div>Erection reflex is cused by th
e {{c1::prsympthetic nervous system::pr/sym}}</div><div><br /></div><div>Ej
cultion Reflex is cused by {{c1::sympthetic nervous system::pr/sym}}<

/div> <img src="pste-674309865895.jpg" />
1476321435369 1471105979384 Lets tlk bout the hert:<div><br /></div><div>
The sympthetic nerves of the hert come from: {{c1::cervicl nd thorcic chin
gngli}}</div><div><br /></div><div>The sympthetic nerves innvervte the {{c1
::whole myocrdium (SA nd AV nodes, tri, ventricles nd blood vessels)::prts
}}</div><div><br /></div><div>The receptors involved re {{c1::1::rece
ptor type}} which act to(3)</div><div>{{c1::<div>increase HR,&nsp;</div><div>in
crease contractile force</div><div>increase velocity of conduction through purki
nje fiers</div>}}</div><div><r /></div><div>-----------------------</div><div>
The parasympathetic nerves of the heart {{c1::come from vagus nerve::location}}<
/div><div><r /></div><div>The nerves innervate {{c1::SA and AV nodes, atria ut
NOT ventricles}}</div><div><r /></div><div>The {{c1::muscarinic::receptor}} ty
pe act y (3)&nsp;</div><div>{{c1::<div>Decreasing heart rate</div><div>Decreas
e conduction velocity</div><div>and decrease atrial contractile force</div>}}</d
iv>
<img src="paste-16213501542829.jpg" />
1476324596132 1471105979384 Which has a greater effect on resting heart rate
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vagal tone::Vagal tone or Sympathetic tone}}</div>
<img src="paste-16247861280866.jpg" />
1476324654220 1471105979384 Vascular smooth muscle has what type of innervat
ion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sympathetic::Sympathetic/parasympathetic}}</div>
<div><r /></div><div>Exception?</div><div>{{c1::es, male and female erectile o
rgans are parasympathetic&nsp;}}</div> <img src="paste-16771847290968.jpg" />
1476325524199 1471105979384 Cardiovascular Blood Vessels<div><r /></div><di
v>All vascular smooth muscle posseses&nsp;{{c1::1}} receptors which cuse {{c1::
vsoconstriction}} with incresed {{c1::sympthetic::sym/pr}} tone</div><div><
br /></div><div>However there re {{c1::2}} receptors which are present in some v
ascular eds (ex: {{c1::coronary and skeletal muscle vessels}}). Recall that thi
s receptor causes {{c1::vasodilation}} which is important during exercise.&nsp;
</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
<img src="paste17248588661163.jpg" />
1476326376833 1471105979384 Sympathetic tone refers to a constant low level
of activity<div><r /></div><div>Constriction is an {{c1::increase::increase/dec
rease}} in tone while dilation is a {{c1::decrease::increase/decrease}} in tone<
/div> <>In</>crease Constrict<>ion</> &nsp;&nsp;<div><>D</>ilation <>
D</>ecrease</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17489106829754.jpg" /></
div>
1476327185712 1471105979384 {{c1::Circulating lood factors}} can activate a
n endothelial cell receptor which can then lead to the activation of {{c1::Nitri
c Oxide Synthase}} to produce {{c1::nitric oxide}} which in turn causes vasodila
tion
<img src="paste-17648020619733.jpg" />
1476327304244 1471105979384 As far as the lungs go<div><r /></div><div>The
sympathetic nervous system works y:</div><div>{{c1::Upper thoracic chain gangli
a}} innervating the vasculature of the lungs to cause {{c1::dilation}}</div><div
>The ronchioles themselves are {{c1::dilated::constricted/dilated}} y&nsp;{{c
1::2}} Receptors (these are lood carried)</div><div><r /></div><div>The parasym
pathetic system works y</div><div>{{c1::Vagus Nerve::innervation}}</div><div>It
s {{c1::constricts::dilates/constricts}} ronchiolar smooth muscle via {{c1::mus
carinic}} receptors</div><div><r /></div><div>The autonomic nervous system can
<img src="pastee overidden y {{c1::locally released cytokines}}</div>
18030272709051.jpg" />
1476328321870 1471105979384 <u>Saliva (compostition and secretion)</u><div><
r /></div><div>Saliva secretion is maintained mostly y {{c1::parasympathetic n
ervous system::sym/para}}</div><div><r /></div><div><>The sympathetic system</
></div><div>Causes {{c1::contraction of myoepithelial cells}}</div><div>Produce
s {{c1::thick viscous saliva}}</div><div>(think aout what happens when you're n
ervous)</div><div><r /></div><div><>The parasympathetic system</></div><div>A
ll salivary glands posses {{c1::M3}} and {{c1::M2}} receptors</div><div>{{c1::Hy
pothalamus}} is the primary saliva control center in the rain</div><div>Causes
{{c1::contraction of myoepithelial cells}}</div><div>Produces {{c1::copious wate
ry saliva}}</div><div>(think aout her cats relaxing)</div>

<img src="paste18296560681399.jpg" />
1476328737427 1471105979384 <u>Autonomic Control of the Eye</u><div><u><r /
></u></div><div>Everything is controlled y the {{c1::oculomotor complex}} near
{{c1::cranial nerve III(3)}}</div><div><r /></div><div>Light stimuli is receive
d from the {{c1::retina}} through the {{c1::optic nerve}}</div><div><r /></div>
<div>The sympathetic control is found at the {{c1::superior cervical ganglion::l
ocation}} and it works in order to {{c1::dilate::dilate/constrict}} the pupil&n
sp;</div><div><r /></div><div>The parasympathetic control is found at the {{c1:
:cranial nerve III(3)::location}} and it works in order to {{c1::constrict::cons
trict/dilate}} the pupil&nsp;</div>
<img src="paste-18743237280187.jpg" />
1476329936809 1471105979384 Mydriasis is defined as {{c1::wide::wide/narrow}
} pupil<div>Involves contraction of the {{c1::radial}} muscle and relaxation of
the {{c1::sphincter}} muscle&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><div>Miosis is defined
as {{c1::narrow::wide/narrow}} pupil</div><div>Involves contraction of the {{c1:
:sphincter}} muscle and relaxation of the {{c1::radial}} muscle&nsp;</div>
<img src="paste-19189913878647.jpg" /><div>Sultanos refers to sphincter muscle a
s constrictor muscle</div><div>Radial muscle as dilator muscle&nsp;</div>
1476330067656 1471105979384 <u>Autonomic Control of Sweat Glands (Eccrine Gl
ands)</u><div><u><r /></u></div><div>Controlled y the {{c1::sympathetic::sym/p
ara}} nervous system</div><div><r /></div><div>Neurons innervating the sweat gl
ands are {{c1::cholinergic::adrenergic/cholinegic}} and release {{c1::ACh}} whic
h interacts with {{c1::muscarinic}} receptors</div><div><r /></div><div>The {{c
1::hypothalamus}} contains thermosensitive neruons&nsp;</div><div><r /></div><
div>Cold sweat is caused y an {{c1::adrenergic::cholinergic/adrenergic}} respon
se to act on&nsp;{{c1::1}} receptors which re ctivted during stress</div><div
><br /></div><div>Wht might cuse one to pper cold nd clmmy during stress?<
/div><div>{{c1::Generl sympthetic dischrge lso cuses vsoconstriction s we
ll s cold sweting}}</div><div><br /></div>
<img src="pste-19739669692802.j
pg" />
1476331130721 1471105979384 Piloerection mens {{c1::rising of skin/fur/goo
sebumps}}<div>Activted by {{c1::sympthetic::sym/pr}} nervous system</div>
<img src="pste-19877108645971.jpg" />
1476635552048 1421618046187 Wht crnioscrl nerves re in the prsympthe
tic nervous system?
<img src="pste-53395033423873.jpg" />
1396928173024 1395802358422 {{c1::Dimercprol}} nd {{c1::EDTA}} re th
e 1st line tretments in Led poisoning.
1381345897520 1358629116480 Subcutneous tissue edem is potentil sign of
underlying {{c1::crdic}} or {{c1::renl}} disese.
1397010543343 1395802358422 {{c1::Sulf Drugs}} nd {{c1::Antimlrils
}} re <b>types</b> of drugs tht clssiclly cuse oxidnt stress in G6PD
Deficiency.
1396880705193 1395802358422 {{c1::Histminse}} nd {{c1::Arylsulftse
}} re enzymes produced by Eosinophils tht function to limit the rection follo
wing Mst Cell degrnultion.
1397155143713 1395802358422 {{c1::Adult T-Cell Lymphom}} nd {{c1::Myc
osis Fungoides (Sezry Syndrome)}} re the 2 types of Non-Hodgkin Lymphom tht
involve neoplsi of T-cells.
1381342330584 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydroperitoneum}} or {{c1::Ascites}}
re the collection of edemtous fluid in the bdomen.
1389923405904 1358629116480 Wht is the most common presenttion of ADHD in
dults?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Predominntly Inttentive}}</div>
1389923686803 1358629116480 Which sex is more commonly ffected by ADHD?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mles (4:1;M:F)}}</div>
1389923728182 1358629116480 Wht is the mjor nd most pprent problem sso
cited with ADHD in students?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acdemic difficulties}}
</div>
1389923952991 1358629116480 Which 2 neurotrnsmitters re found to be in def
icits in ptients with ADHD?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dopmine nd NE}}</div>
1389923997779 1358629116480 The dignosis of ADHD requires {{c1::6}} in
<br /><d
ttentive symptoms nd/or {{c2::6}} hyperctive/impulsive symptoms.
iv><i>After 17 y/o, 5 symptoms re required. Severl symptoms must hve st
rted before 12y/o, nd must be present in two or more settings (e.g., t home,
school, or work).</i></div>
1389924939532 1358629116480 {{c1::Seprtion Anxiety Disorder}} is n nxiet
y disorder chrcterized by excessive fer or nxiety of seprtion from, hrm t
o nd loss of n ttchment figure.
1389925300955 1358629116480 In psychitric sense, {{c1::fer}} is def
iend s n emotion seen in response to rel or perceived <b>imminent</b> th
ret.
1389925347222 1358629116480 In psychitric sense, {{c1::nxiety}} is
defined s n emotion in response to the <b>nticiption</b> of <b>future
</b> thret.
1389925377207 1358629116480 {{c1::Selective Mutism}} is n nxiety disorder
defined s filure to spek in socil situtions when expected to. But the pt
ient is ble to spek in other situtions.
1389925424042 1358629116480 A {{c1::Specific Phobi}} is defined s fer, n
xiety or voidnce of circumscribed object or sitution. The rection is often
out of proportion.
1389925503321 1358629116480 Wht is the most common <b>type</b> of spec
ific phobi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Animl}}</div>
1389925513673 1358629116480 Tretment of specific phobis is through behv
iourl therpy process clled {{c1::systemtic desensitiztion}}.
1389925572704 1358629116480 {{c1::Socil Anxiety Disorder}} is type of soc
il phobi defined s fer, nxiety or voidnce of socil situtions tht invol
ve being scrutinized or embrssed.
<br /><div><i>The clssic exmple is f
er of public speking.</i></div>
1389925997696 1358629116480 Wht is the most common Socil Anxiety Disorder?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Public Speking}}</div>
1389926017633 1358629116480 {{c1::Pnic Disorder}} is n nxiety disorder th
t is defined by recurrent <b>unexpected</b> pnic ttcks.
1389926055837 1358629116480 A {{c1::pnic ttck}} is sudden, brupt
surge of intense fer or discomfort tht peks within minutes. It my be expecte
d.
1389926106234 1358629116480 {{c1::Generlized Anxiety Disorder}} is n nxie
ty disorder defined by excessive fer nd nxiety bout vrious different domin
s.
<br /><div><i>i.e. not specific domin</i></div>
1389926173945 1358629116480 {{c1::Body Dysmorphic Disorder}} is type of ps
ych disorder defined s preoccuption with perceived defects or flws in one's
physicl ppernce, typiclly fetures tht re not observble or re only sli
ght to others.
1389926646738 1358629116480 {{c1::Hording Disorder}} is psychitric disor
der defined s persistent difficulty prting with possessions. More common in
the elderly.
1389926817671 1358629116480 {{c1::Trichotillomni}} is psychitric disord
er defined s recurrent pulling out of hir resulting in hir loss despite repe
ted ttempts to stop.
1389926852567 1358629116480 {{c1::Excorition}} is psychitric disorder de
fined s recurrent picking of skin resulting in skin lesions. The picked skin c
n be helthy, lesioned, scbbed, etc.
1389926882959 1358629116480 Wht is the durtion of Acute Stress Disorder?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::3 dys - 1 month}}</div>
1389926939752 1358629116480 Wht is the durtion of Posttrumtic Stress Dis
order (PTSD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::> 1 month}}</div>
1389926953570 1358629116480 {{c1::Instrusion Symptoms}} is symptom seen in
stress disorders involving memories, drems, flshbcks or rections to reminde
rs of the stressful event.
1389927019384 1358629116480 {{c1::Avoidnce}} is symptom seen in stress di
sorders defined s persistent voidnce of stimuli ssocited with the event.
<br /><div><i>e.g. distressing memories, loctions, sounds, people, ctivities,
etc</i></div>
1389927062276 1358629116480 {{c1::Negtive Congitions/Mood}} is symptom se
en in stress disorders involving the inbility to recll the spects of the even
t, negtive beliefs, blming, negtive emotions, etc.
1389927111118 1358629116480 {{c1::Arousl/Rectivity}} is symptom seen in
stress disorders involving irritbility, nger, recklessness, hypervigilnce, et
c.
1389927138838 1358629116480 {{c1::Dissocitive Symptoms}} is symptom seen
in stress disorders involving depersonliztion, dereliztion nd dissocitive
<br /><div><i>More common in Acute Stress Disorder.</i></div>
mnesi.
1390099156016 1358629116480 At which blood lcohol concentrtion (BAC) does
someone exhibit impired vitls nd hve high risk of deth?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::> 300 mg/dL}}</div>
1390100994366 1358629116480 {{c1::Fetl Alcohol Syndrome}} is congenitl d
isorder resulting from lcohol buse by the mother during gesttion.<div><br /><
/div><div><img src="pste-1644972474794.jpg" /></div>
1390101175626 1358629116480 {{c1::Aspirtion Pneumoni}} is respirtory di
sorder tht cn occur due to vomiting following lcohol consumption nd spirti
on of the vomit.
1390101392124 1358629116480 Wht is the best lb/enzyme mrker tht indicte
s recent lcohol consumption?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gmm Glutmyltrnsfer
se (GGT)}}</div>
1390101448625 1358629116480 The {{c2::wet}} form of Beri-Beri is the on
e tht involves edem nd crdic problems.
1390101483931 1358629116480 The {{c1::dry}} form of Beri-Beri is the fo
rm tht involves neurologicl deficits.
1390101493778 1358629116480 Wht vitmin deficient in Beri-Beri?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::B1; Thimine}}</div>
1390101514643 1358629116480 Wht is the tretment for Beri-Beri?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Thimine (Vit B1)}}</div>
1390101598420 1358629116480 {{c1::Wernicke-Korskoff}} Syndrome is neurolo
gicl disorder due to bilterl lesion to the mmmillry bodies following Thi
mine (B1) deficiency nd excessive, consistent lcohol consumption.
1390101665558 1358629116480 Wht is the tretment for Wernicke-Korskoff Syn
drome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thimine BEFORE Glucose}}</div>
1390101692919 1358629116480 Wht is the key clinicl feture of Korskoff's
psychosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Confbultion}}</div>
1390101753315 1358629116480 {{c1::Amnesi}} is symptom in Korskoff's psyc
hosis tht is cused by hemorrhging into the mmmillry bodies nd periqueduct
l gry.
1390101799613 1358629116480 {{c1::Heptic Encephlopthy}} is CNS complic
tion of lcohol buse chrcterized by confusion, disorienttion nd sterixis d
ue to cute liver dmge nd its inbility to metbolize mmoni to ure.
1390101918394 1358629116480 {{c1::Asterixis}} is symptom seen in Heptic E
ncephlopthy nd is chrcerized s "flpping tremor" of the hnd.
1390102012216 1358629116480 Wht type of seizures re seen in Alcohol Withdr
wl?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tonic-Clonic}}</div>
1390318161055 1358629116480 A ptient described s "indifferent" my hve&nb
sp;{{c1::Schizoid}} personlity disorder.
1390318756762 1358629116480 A ptient decribed s "weird" my hve {{c1
::Schizotypl}} personlity disorder.
1390318768813 1358629116480 A ptient described s "submissive" my hve&nbs
p;{{c1::Dependent}} personlity disorder.
1390318789795 1358629116480 A ptient described s "melodrmtic" my hve&n
bsp;{{c1::Histrionic}} personlity disorder.
1390318810304 1358629116480 A ptient described s "nl-retentive" my hve
{{c1::Obsessive-Compulsive}} personlity disorder.
1390318830111 1358629116480 A ptient described s "frgile" my hve {
{c1::Avoidnt}} personlity disorder.
1390318847438 1358629116480 A ptient described s "immorl" my hve {
{c1::Anti-Socil}} personlity disorder.

<br /><div><i>i.e. Sociopth</i>
</div>
1390318867733 1358629116480 A ptient described s "egotisticl" my hve&nb
sp;{{c1::Nrcissistic}} personlity disorder.
1390318888428 1358629116480 A ptient described s "unstble" my hve
{{c1::Borderline}} personlity disorder.
1390318914923 1358629116480 Cluster {{c1::A}} personlity disorders des
cribe ptients tht re sid to be odd nd eccentric.
1390319014066 1358629116480 Cluster {{c1::B}} personlity disorder desc
ribe ptients tht re sid to be drmtic, emotionl, errtic nd impulsive.
1390319033610 1358629116480 Cluster {{c1::C}} personlity disorders des
cribe ptients tht re sid to be nxious nd ferful.
1390319076284 1358629116480 Wht cluster personlity disorder is Prnoid PD
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::A}}</div>
1390324222954 1358629116480 Wht cluster personlity disorder is Schizoid PD
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::A}}</div>
1390324237358 1358629116480 Wht cluster personlity disorder is Schizotypl
PD?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::A}}</div>
1390324246358 1358629116480 Wht cluster personlity disorder is Antisocil
PD?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::B}}</div>
1390324257111 1358629116480 Wht cluster personlity disorder is Borderline
1390324265313 1358629116480 Wht cluster personlity disorder is Histrionic
1390324274335 1358629116480 Wht cluster personlity disorder is Nrcissisti
c PD?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::B}}</div>
1390324282843 1358629116480 Wht cluster personlity disorder is Avoidnt PD
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C}}</div>
1390324295823 1358629116480 Wht cluster personlity disorder is Dependent P
D?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C}}</div>
1390324303549 1358629116480 Wht cluster personlity disorder is Obsessive-C
ompulsive PD (OCPD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C}}</div>
1390324322723 1358629116480 {{c1::Prnoid PD}} is Type A personlity diso
rder chrcterized by pervsive distrust nd suspiciousness of others.
1390324406905 1358629116480 {{c1::Schizotypl PD}} is Type A personlity d
isorder chrcterized by eccentricity, odd behviour nd discomfort with or redu
ced cpcity for close reltionships.
1390324479020 1358629116480 {{c1::Schizoid PD}} is Type A personlity diso
rder chrcterized by pervsive detchment from socil reltions nd restricte
d expression of emotion.
<br /><div><i>i.e. indifferent</i></div>
1390324539545 1358629116480 {{c1::Antisocil PD}} is Type B personlity di
sorder chrcterized by disregrd for nd violtion of the rights of others.
<br /><div><i>i.e. Hnnibl</i></div>
1390324609102 1358629116480 Ptients with Antisocil PD must be t lest&nbs
p;{{c1::18}} yers old.
1390324630954 1358629116480 Ptients with Antisocil PD hve often hd pre
vious dignosis of {{c1::Conduct Disorder}} before the ge of 18.
1390324657632 1358629116480 {{c1::Borderline PD}} is Type B personlity di
sorder chrcterized by instbility/polriztion in reltionships &mp; self-im
ge. They hve poor control over impulses.
<br /><div><i>i.e. unstble; ver
y difficult to tret</i></div>
1390324808448 1358629116480 {{c1::Histrionic PD}} is Type B personlity di
sorder chrcterized by pervsive pttern of excessive emotionlity nd ttent
ion-seeking. They re often sexully provoctive.
1390324987640 1358629116480 {{c1::Nrcissistic PD}} is Type B personlity
disorder chrcterized by pervsive pttern of grdiosity, need for dmirtion
nd lck of empthy. <br /><div><i>i.e. DiCprio in The Wolf of Wll Street</
i></div>
1390325159365 1358629116480 {{c1::Avoidnt PD}} is Type C personlity diso
rder chrcterized by socil inhibition, feelings of indequcy nd hypersensiti
vity to negtive evlution.

<br /><div><i>i.e. frgile</i></div>
1390325231440 1358629116480 {{c1::Dependent PD}} is Type C personlity dis
order chrcterized by the need to be tken cre of, submissive/clinging behvio
ur nd fer of seprtion.
<br /><div><i>High risk of being victimized by c
luster B.</i></div>
1390325302580 1358629116480 {{c1::Obsessive-Compulsive PD}} is Type C pers
onlity disorder chrcterized by preoccuption with orderliness, perfectionis
m nd mentl/interpersonl control t the expense of fleixibility, openness nd
efficiency.
<br /><div><i>Common in med school nd medicl professionls.</i
></div>
1390608145597 1358629116480 Discrete episodes of symptoms in Mjor Depressiv
e Disorder must lst for t lest {{c1::2}} weeks before dx cn be given.
<br /><div><img src="pste-60090887438742.jpg" /></div>
1390608218663 1358629116480 {{c1::Anhedoni}} is defined s loss of intere
st or the bility to feel plesure.
1390608273042 1358629116480 If ptient is experiencing mixture of sdnes
s nd more plesnt emotions, they likely hve {{c1::grief}} insted of dep
ression.
1390610364874 1358629116480 In depression, nguish nd pin is typiclly con
tinuous rther thn in wves or pngs such s in {{c1::grief}}
1390610391960 1358629116480 A grieving ptient typiclly remins hopeful nd
is consolble wheres ptient with {{c1::depression}} is uniformly gloom
nd does not respond to consoltion.
1390610438104 1358629116480 {{c1::Persistent Depressive Disorder (or Dysthym
i)}} is more chronic nd milder form of depression tht lsts t lest {{c2::
2}} yers.
1390610905287 1358629116480 Which sex is more commonly ffected by Mjor Dep
ression?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Femles (10-25%)}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-60086592471446.jpg" /></div>
1390611336113 1358629116480 {{c1::Men}} re more likely to hide their feelin
gs thn women, nd hence resort to drinking, irritbility nd lcoholism s oppo
sed to flling into Dx of depression.
1390611414888 1358629116480 Which sex exhibits higher risk of <b>suicide
ttempts</b> in depression?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Women}}</div>
1390611455325 1358629116480 Which sex exhibits higher risk of <b>suicide c
ompletion</b> in depression?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Men}}</div>
1390611468423 1358629116480 {{c1::Disruptive Mood Dysregultion Disorder}} i
s depressive disorder tht ffects kids 6 to 18 y/o.
1390611559354 1358629116480 {{c1::Disruptive Mood Dysregultion Disorder}} i
s depressive disorder tht is chrcterized by temper outbursts tht re gross
ly out of proportion in intensity or durtion to the sitution or provoction.
1390611607602 1358629116480 {{c1::Premenstrul Dysphoric Disorder}} is dep
ressive disorder tht often follows ovultion nd remits within few dys of me
nses nd hs mrked impct on functioning.
1390611740394 1358629116480 {{c1::Substnce/Drug-Induced Depressive Disorder
}} is depressive disorder tht is induced by drug, substnce or mediction.
1390611767236 1358629116480 Wht is the <b>nonphrmcologicl</b> tret
ment of depression?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cognitive-Behviourl Therpy}}</
div>
1390613288394 1358629116480 {{c1::Cognitive Restructuring}} is prt of Cog
nitive Behviourl Therpy (CBT) tht involves identifiction nd chnging of in
ccurte negtive thoughts tht contribute to the development of depression.
1390613710428 1358629116480 A {{c1::Mnic Episode}} is distinct perio
d of bnormlly nd persistently elevted, expnsive or irritble mood with gol
-oriented ctivity/energy tht lsts t lest {{c2::<b>1}} week.</b>
<br /><div><i>It is present for most of the dy, nerly every dy. And must incl
ude t lest 3 mnic symptoms (DIG FAST)</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-597902
39727860.jpg" /></i></div>
1390615550388 1358629116480 A {{c1::Hypomnic Episode}} is distinct p
eriod of bnormlly nd persistently elevted, expnsive or irritble mood with
gol-oriented ctivity/energy tht lsts t lest {{c2::4}} consecutive dy

s.
<br /><div><i>Plus 3 of DIG FAST.</i></div>
1390615593128 1358629116480 Wht is the core syndrome of Bipolr I disorder?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mnic Episodes}}</div>
1390615613855 1358629116480 Wht is the core syndrome of Bipolr II disorder
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hypomnic Episodes}}</div>
1390615629349 1358629116480 {{c1::Mnic}} Episodes re the core syndrome of
Bipolr I disorder.
1390615641227 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypomnic}} Episodes re the core syndrome
of Bipolr II disorder.
1390615653820 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypomnic}} episodes re commonly seen in
bipolr disorders but re not severe enough to cuse mrked impirment in socil
/occuptionl functioning or to necessitte hospitliztion.
1390615827893 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypomnic}} episodes re commonly seen in
bipolr disorders but re not severe enough to involve psychotic fetures.
1390616203097 1358629116480 {{c1::Cyclothymic Disorder}} is bipolr disord
er where for <b>t lest 2 yers</b> there is numerous periods with hypomni n
d numerous periods of depressive symptoms.
<br /><div><i>But they hve neve
r met criteri for mnic, hypomnic or mjor depressive episodes.</i></div>
1390616796409 1358629116480 {{c1::Interpersonl &mp; Socil Rhythm Therpy}
} is form of psychotherpy (non-phrmcologicl) specificlly designed for pt
ients with bipolr disorders.
1390617765411 1358629116480 {{c1::Somtic Symptom}} disorder is somtoform
disorder chrcterized by one or more symptoms tht produce cliniclly signific
<br /><d
nt levels of distress or impirment for over {{c2::6}} months.
iv><img src="pste-61392262529570.jpg" /></div>
1390619825210 1358629116480 {{c2::Brief Somtic Symptom}} disorder is som
toform disorder where symptoms re present for less thn {{c3::<b>6}} month
s.</b>
1390619938478 1358629116480 A {{c1::Somtoform Disorder}} is psychitric d
isorder tht involves symptoms tht cnnot be explined by generl medicl con
dition or direct effect of substnce. The symptoms re <b>not flsified</b>.
<br /><div><i>Medicl complints re typiclly in excess of wht would be expect
ed</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-61392262529570.jpg" /></i></div>
1390620206909 1358629116480 {{c1::Conversion Disorder}} is somtoform diso
rder tht involves sudden loss of sensory or motor function, typiclly followi
ng n cute stressor. <br /><div><img src="pste-61392262529570.jpg" /></div>
1390620702131 1358629116480 {{c1::L Belle Indifference}} is phenomenon se
en in ptients with Conversion Disorder where the ptient is wre of their symp
toms but indifferent towrds them.
1390620765950 1358629116480 {{c1::Illness Anxiety Disorder (hypochondrisis)
}} is somtoform disorder defined s preoccuption with fer of hving or c
quiring serious disese for t lest {{c2::6}} months. <br /><div><img
src="pste-61392262529570.jpg" /></div>
1390621157969 1358629116480 A {{c1::Fctitious Disorder}} is psychit
ric disorder defined s <b>intentionl</b> flsifiction of physicl or psy
chologicl symptoms in order to gin medicl ttention. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-61392262529570.jpg" /></div>
1390621257905 1358629116480 {{c1::Mlingering}} is defined s conscious f
king of disorders in order to ttin specific secondry gin. It is not ment
<br /><div><i>Such s drugs, money, skipping work, etc</i></div>
l disorder.
<div><i><img src="pste-61396557496866.jpg" /></i></div>
1390621334336 1358629116480 {{c1::Munchusen's Syndrome}} is <b>chronic</b
> form of fctitious disorder with predominntly physicl signs nd symptom
s.
1390621376441 1358629116480 {{c1::Munchusen's Syndrome by proxy}} is fct
itious disorder involving hrm to child or elderly person in other to ssume
sick role.
1390621643695 1358629116480 {{c1::Dissocitive Identity Disorder}} is diss
ocitive disorder defined s the presence of 2 or more distinct identities or pe
rsonlity sttes with recurrent gps in reclling events nd informtion.

<br /><div><i>k Multiple Personlity Disorder</i></div>
1390622237248 1358629116480 {{c1::Dissocitive Identity Disorder}} is diss
ocitive disorder tht is often ssocited with history of sexul or physicl
buse s child.
1390622782868 1358629116480 {{c1::Dissocitive Amnesi}} is dissocitive d
isorder defined s the inbility to recll importnt informtion usully of tr
umtic nture tht is not consistent with ordinry forgetting. <br /><div><i>M
y be ccompnied by dissocitive fugue.</i></div>
1390622857232 1358629116480 {{c1::Dissocitive Fugue}} is dissocitive dis
order chrcterized by brupt chnges in geogrphicl loction with no memory of
the pst nd confusion.
<br /><div><i>Often involves the ssumption of
new identity.</i></div>
1390622931086 1358629116480 {{c1::Depersonliztion Disorder}} is dissoci
tive disorder is chrcterized by experiences of unrelity or being detched fro
m one's thoughts, feelings, senstions or ctions.
<br /><div><i>i.e. feeli
ng like n outside observer</i></div>
1390665198419 1358629116480 In depression, genetics nd dverse life events
contribute towrds stress tht increses the levels of the hormone {{c1::CR
F; Corticotropin Relesing Fctor}}, thereby incresing glucocorticoid levels do
wnstrem.
<br /><div><i>Thereby leding to downstrem biologicl nd behv
iourl effects</i></div>
1390665407553 1358629116480 In depression, stress leds to n increse in gl
ucocorticoid levels tht then led to decrese in the growth fctor {{c1::BDNF
}}, thereby leding to neuronl trophy.
1390665511245 1358629116480 The entire bsis of ntidepressnt therpy is th
eir bility to increse levels of the growth fctor {{c1::BDNF}} through 5HT nd NE medited depression of glucocorticoid levels.
1390665568077 1358629116480 In depression there is reduction of gry mtte
r round the brin, especilly t the {{c1::Anterior Cingulte Cortex (ACC)
}}, the re tht ssesses emotionl nd motivtionl informtion.
1390666532831 1358629116480 Inflmmtion hs mjor role in depression. Ele
vted levels of IL1, TNF-lph nd IL-6 interfere with hippocmpl plsticity n
d reduce levels of the growth fctor {{c1::BDNF}}
1390666598813 1358629116480 {{c1::Interferon-lph}} is n nti-virl drug o
ften given for Heptitis which gretly increses the levels of TNF-lph nd IL6, mking depression common side effect.
1390666655294 1358629116480 The monomines 5-HT nd NE hve downstrem effec
ts t postsynptic neurons tht increse CREB levels nd ultimtely the expressi
on of the growth fctor {{c1::BDNF}}. Hence, they re used in depression.
1390762282537 1358629116480 {{c1::Delirium}} is psychitric disorder defin
ed s <b>trnsient</b> disorder of cognition, <b>rousl nd ttention</b> wit
h disturbnces of the sleep-wke cycle nd psychomotor behviour.
1390763147713 1358629116480 Confusion or delirium is not disese but &nbs
p;{{c1::syndrome}} or symptom of nother underlying cuse.
1390763181023 1358629116480 {{c1::Brief Psychotic Disorder}} is psychotic
disorder defined s trnsient (<b>< 1 month</b>), cute psychotic syndrome
with <b>no ttention problems</b> nd <b>cler sensorium</b>.
1390764020618 1358629116480 {{c1::Delirium}} is cognitive disorder tht is
gretly chrcterized by disturbnce in consciousness with n <b>cute onset<
/b>.
<br /><div><i>Attention nd rousl.</i></div>
1390764293858 1358629116480 The {{c1::sensorium}} is defined s the sum
of n orgnism's perception.
1390764367698 1358629116480 Which neurons re most vulnerble to toxic-metb
olic disturbnces?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Reticulr Activting System (RAS)}
}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence, n cute confusionl stte cn occur following nyt
hing tht disturbs the body's homeostsis</i></div>
1390765236962 1358629116480 The most common cuses of cute confusionl stt
es re {{c1::toxic}} or {{c2::metbolic}} in nture.
1390765648209 1358629116480 Wht vitmin is deficient in Wernicke-Korskoff
syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thimine (Vit B1)}}</div>

1390768007682 1358629116480 Wht is the cuse of Wernicke-Korskoff Syndrome
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thimine Deficiency}}</div>
1390768778620 1358629116480 Wht type of mnesi is more commonly seen in Ko
rskoff's Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anterogrde}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Retrogrde still seen, just not s often.</i></div>
1390768820803 1358629116480 Where is the lesion primrily locted in Wernick
e-Korskoff syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mmillry Bodies}}</div>
1390769160609 1358629116480 Petechie cn often be seen t the {{c1::M
millry Bodies}} in Wernicke-Korskoff Syndrome.<div><br /></div><div><img src="
pste-2319282340069.jpg" /></div>
1390769224139 1358629116480 The petechie nd hemorrhging t the mmillry
bodies in Wernicke-Korskoff Syndrome often becomes {{c1::hemosiderosis}}
s the blood pools/collects.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-2362232013029.j
pg" /></div>
1390769263629 1358629116480 Wht is the clssic trid of symptoms seen in We
rnicke's Encephlopthy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Confusion, txi nd ophth
lmoplegi}}</div>
1391385138620 1358629116480 A {{c1::delusion}} is key feture of psychosis
tht involves fixed beliefs not menble to chnge even in the fce of conflict
ing evidence.
1391385202985 1358629116480 Wht is the most common type of delusion?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Persucutory}}</div>
1391385218807 1358629116480 A {{c1::persecutory delusion}} is type of
delusio tht involves the belief tht one is going to be hrmed.
1391385260269 1358629116480 A {{c1::referentil delusion}} is delusio
n tht involves the belief tht certin gesture, comment, environmentl cue, e
tc re directed t oneself.
1391385294089 1358629116480 A {{c1::grndiose delusion}} is delusion
tht involves belief tht one hs exceptionl bilities, welth or fme.
1391385321629 1358629116480 A {{c1::Erotomnic delusion}} is delusio
n tht involves flse belief tht nother person is in love with oneself.
1391385344689 1358629116480 A {{c1::Nihilistic delusion}} is type of
delusion tht involves the conviction tht mjor ctstrophe will occur.
1391385372338 1358629116480 A {{c1::somtic delusion}} is type of del
usion tht involves preoccuptions with helth nd orgn function.
1391385386680 1358629116480 A {{c1::jelousy delusion}} is delusion t
ht involves erroneous beliefs tht one's spouse or lover is unfithful.
1391385415303 1358629116480 {{c1::Bizrre delusions}} re type of delusion
tht involves beliefs tht re clerly implusible nd not understndble to s
me-culture peers. They do not derive from ordinry life experiences.
1391385463621 1358629116480 A {{c1::hllucintion}} is key feture of psyc
hosis tht involves perception-like experiences tht occur <b>without</b> extern
<br /><div><i>This is different from n <b>illusion</b>, which i
l stimuli.
s misinterprettion of stimuli tht <b>re present</b></i></div>
1391385553518 1358629116480 Wht type of hllucintions re the most common
in Schizophreni nd relted psychotic disorders?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aud
itory}}</div>
1391385580117 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypngogic}} hllucintions re type of
hllucintion tht occur <b>while flling sleep</b>. <br /><div><i>Here, REM
sleep essentilly strts before you even sleep nd is rther bnorml.</i></div>
<div><i>Hypngogic hllucintions re stple of <b>nrcolepsy</b>.</i></div>
1391385617063 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypnopompic}} hllucintions re type of
hllucintion tht occur while wking up.
As you wke from REM sleep, some lingering dreming cn mnifest s hllucinti
ons s REM "shuts off". This is typiclly norml.</i></div>
1391385753945 1358629116480 {{c1::Disorgnized Thinking/Speech}} is key fe
ture of psychosis tht involves derilment, loose ssocitions, tngentility
nd incoherence.
1391385792137 1358629116480 {{c1::Cttoni}} is psychologicl disorder de
scribed s mrked decrese in rectivity to the environment, loss of motor s

kill or constnt hyperctive motor ctivity.
1391385927646 1358629116480 {{c1::Disorgnized/Abnorml motor behviour}} is
key feture of psychosis tht involves disorgnized or bnorml behviour nd
cttoni.
1391385996749 1358629116480 {{c1::Alogi}} is psychitric syndrome defined
s poverty of speech nd dimished speech output.
1391386033345 1358629116480 {{c1::Delusionl Disorder}} is psychotic disor
der tht involves <b>> 1 month</b> of delusions but no other psychotic sympto
ms.
<br /><div><i>e.g. me thinking tht I m ctully mrried to Olivi Wild
e, when i'm not.</i></div>
1391386083540 1358629116480 {{c1::Schizophreniform Disorder}} is time-limi
ted psychotic disorder tht involved symptomtic presenttion equivlent to schi
zophreni but for less thn {{c2::<u><b>6}} months</b></u> nd with n bse
nce of declining function.
<br /><div><img src="pste-61942018343281.jpg" /
></div>
1391386152774 1358629116480 How long must symptoms be present for dignosi
s of Schizophreni to be given?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::6 months}}</div>
1391386209896 1358629116480 {{c1::Schizoffective}} disorder is time-depen
dent psychotic disorder tht involves ctive-phse symptoms of schizophreni occ
uring together with mood episode followed/preceded by <b>t lest 2 weeks</b>
of delusions/hllucintions without prominent mood symptoms.
<br /><div><img
src="pste-61946313310577.jpg" /></div>
1391386889244 1358629116480 {{c1::Drug-induced Psychotic Disorder}} is psy
chotic disorder brought upon by drug use.
1391387422304 1358629116480 Which Dopmine pthwy of the brin is ssocite
d with the positive symptoms of Schizophreni (hllucintions, delusions)?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesolimbic}}</div>
1391387467670 1358629116480 Which Dopmine pthwy of the brin is ssocite
d with the negtive symptoms of Schizophreni?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoco
rticl (to the Dorsolterl PFC)}}</div>
1391387493361 1358629116480 Schizophreni is thought to be due to n incres
e in the neurotrnsmitter {{c1::Dopmine}} in the mesolimbic res due to h
ypoctive NMDA receptors.
<br /><div><i>NMDA receptors would normlly put
brek on dopmine relese nd ction.</i></div>
1391387736856 1358629116480 Schizophreni is thought to be ssocited with
loss of the neurotrnsmitter {{c1::dopmine}} in the prefrontl cortex nd othe
r corticl res.
<br /><div><i>Remember, there is n increse in dopmine
in the mesolimbic re.</i></div>
1391387811592 1358629116480 The decrese in dopmine t the prefrontl corte
x in Schizophreni is thought to be due to Vl for {{c2::Met}} substitution in
the {{c1::COMT}} gene.
1391387964688 1358629116480 In Schizophreni, Vl for Met substitution of
the COMT gene results in incresed COMT ctivity nd hence incresed metbolism
of {{c1::Dopmine}} t the prefrontl cortex.
1391388008760 1358629116480 Which genetic polymoprhism is ssocited with n
incresed occurrence nd risk for Schizophreni?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vl
for Met substitution in the COMT gene}}</div>
1405830620663 1395802358422 Wht is the most common buser in <b>physicl</b
> child buse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Biologicl mother}}</div>
1405830957882 1395802358422 Wht is the most common buser in <b>sexul</b>&
nbsp;child buse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Person known to the victim, usully
mle}}</div>
1405830984179 1395802358422 {{c1::Rett Disorder}} is n X<b>-linked</b> perv
sive developmentl disorder seen lmost exclusive in girls tht involves <b>reg
ression chrcterized by loss of development, verbl bilities nd congition</b>
s well s <b>txi </b>nd <b>stereotyped hnd-wringing</b>.
<br /><d
iv><i>It is not seen in mles becuse they die in utero or shortly fter birth.<
/i></div>
1405831176364 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Rett Disorder
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked}}</div>
1405831188067 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly ffected by Autism Sp
ectrum Disorder?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Boys}}</div>
1405831204775 1395802358422 {{c1::Autism Spectrum Disorder}} is pervsive
developmentl disorder tht involves <b>poor socil interctions, communiction
deficits, repetitive/ritulized behviours</b> nd <b>restricted interests<
/b>.
<br /><div><i>Rrely ccompnied by unusul bilities (svnts).</i></di
v><div><i><br /></i></div>
1405831259921 1395802358422 Wht spect of orienttion is lost first?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Time --> plce --> person}}</div>
<div><br /></div
>
1405831292513 1395802358422 {{c1::Tctile hllucintions}} is type of hll
ucintion commonly seen in <b>lcohol withdrwl</b> or <b>cocine use</b>&
nbsp;tht involves the senstion of bugs crwling on the skin.
1405832065679 1395802358422 {{c1::Mternl/Postprtum Blues}} is postprtu
m mood distrubnce tht is chrcterized by <b>depressed ffect, terfulness</
b> nd <b>ftigue</b> tht <b>usully resolves within 10 dys</b>.
1405833106916 1395802358422 {{c1::Postprtum depression}} is postprtum mo
od disturbnce tht is chrcterized by <b>depressed ffect, nxiety</b>
nd <b>poor concentrtion</b> within 4 weeks of delivery tht cn <b>lst 2
weeks to yer or more</b>.
1405833158746 1395802358422 {{c1::Postprtum Psychosis}} is rre postprtu
m mood distrubnce tht involves <b>delusions, hllucintions, confusion, unusu
l behviour</b> nd <b>possible homicidl/suicidl idetions/ttempts</b>&n
bsp;tht usully lsts <b>4-6 weeks</b>.
1405833206501 1395802358422 {{c1::Obsessive-compulsive disorder}} is pnic
disorder tht involves <b>reucrring intrusive thoughts/feeling/senstions </b>(
obsessions) tht cuse severe distress nd re relieved in prt by the performt
ion of <b>repetitive ctions</b> (compulsions).
1405833311161 1395802358422 {{c1::Adjustment Disorder}} is type of nxiety
disorder tht involves <b>emotionl symptoms</b> cusing impirment follow
ing n <b>identifible psychosocil stressor</b> tht lsts <b>< 6 month
s</b>.
1405833382137 1395802358422 {{c1::Agorphobi}} is n exggerted fer of op
en or enclosed spces, using public trnsporttion, being in line/crowds or lev
ing home lone.
1405833421728 1395802358422 {{c1::Anorexi Nervos}} is n eting disorder t
ht involves excessive dieting due to the intense fer of gining weight nd dis
tortion of body imge. <br /><div><i>My or my not involve purging.</i></div>
1405833802016 1395802358422 {{c1::Lnugo}} is feture of Anorexi Nervos
tht is described s <b>fine body hir</b>.
1405833824292 1395802358422 {{c1::Bulimi Nervos}} is n eting disorder th
t involves <b>binge eting</b> following by <b>self-induced vomiting or us
e of lxtives/diuretics/emetics</b>. <br /><div><i>However,<b> body weig
ht is often mintined in norml rnge.</b></i></div>
1405833877594 1395802358422 {{c1::Russell Sign}} is cutneous feture of B
ulimi Nervos tht is described s <b>dorsl hnd cllouses from induced vomiti
ng</b>.
1405833906411 1395802358422 {{c1::Gender Dysphori}} is psych disorder th
t involves s<b>trong persistnt cross-gender identifiction</b> due to <b>p
ersistent discomfort with one's ssigned sex t birth</b>.
<br /><div><i>Su
ch individuls re referred to s <b>trnsgender</b>.</i></div>
1405833977403 1395802358422 {{c1::Trnsexulism}} is type of gender dyspho
ri tht involves the desire to live t the <b>opposite sex</b>, typiclly throu
gh surgicl or hormonl tretment.
1405834009639 1395802358422 {{c1::Trnvestism}} is type of gender <b>prp
hili</b> tht involves wering clothes of the opposite sex.
1405880845528 1395802358422 {{c1::Sleep Terror Disorder}} is psych disorde
r tht involves <b>periods of terror with screming in the middle of the night</b
>, typiclly in children.
1405881039136 1395802358422 During which phse of sleep does Sleep Terror Di

sorder mnifest?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Slow wve (delt) sleep}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence, erlier in the night, s REM sleep is more predominnt lte
r in the night.</i></div><div><i>This is lso why there is <b>no memory of rous
l or the drem itself</b> (vs. drems tht occur in REM which we remember)
</i></div>
1405881075328 1395802358422 Which stge of sleep is ssocited with nightmr
es?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::REM sleep}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Typiclly
norml.</i></div><div><i>Night terrors = delt (NREM) sleep</i></div>
1405881159001 1395802358422 {{c1::Nrcolepsy}} is sleep disorder tht invo
lves disordered regultion of the sleep-wke cycle, primrily involving <b>exces
sive dytime sleepiness</b>.
<br /><div><i>I'm looking t you Nmn..... mn
cn sleep through n ir rid.</i></div>
lves decrese in <b>orexin</b> production in the lterl hypothlmus.
1405881320827 1395802358422 Which neurotrnsmitter deficiency in the hypoth
lmus is ssocited with Nrcolepsy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Orexin}}</div>
lves sleep episodes tht <b>strt off</b> with REM sleep. <br /><div><i>N
rcolepsy is essentilly REM sleep gone wild.</i></div>
1405881956361 1395802358422 {{c1::Ctplexy}} is possible compliction of
Nrcolepsy tht involves <b>loss of muscle tone following strong emotionl sti
mulus</b>, such s lughter.
1405881987105 1395802358422 {{c1::Modfinil}} is drug used to tret Nrcol
epsy through <b>inhibition of DA reuptke, GABA ntgonism</b> nd <b>Glut
mte ctivtion</b>.
1405882040293 1395802358422 Wht re the stges of chnge in overcoming subs
tnce ddiction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="pste-3126736191801.jpg" /
>}}</div>
1405882918885 1395802358422 {{c1::Methdone}} is long-cting orl opite t
ht is used for heroic detoxifiction or long-term mintennce.
1405882962419 1395802358422 {{c1::Nltrexone}} is long-cting opioid ntg
onist used for relpse prevention once heroin detoxifiction is completed.
1405882988417 1395802358422 {{c1::Disulfirm}} is drug used to tret lcoh
olism s it conditions the ptient to bstin from lcohol use.
1405883946474 1395802358422 {{c1::Delirium tremens (DTs)}} is life-threte
ning lcohol withdrwl syndrome tht peks 2-5 dys fter the lst drink nd pr
esents with <b>utonomic hyperctivity, psychosis</b> nd <b>confusion</b>.
1405884119094 1395802358422 Wht type of drugs re used to tret Delirium Tr
emens (DTs)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Benzodizepines}}</div>
1396878226295 1395802358422 Wht is the life spn of Erythrocytes?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::120 dys}}</div>
1396878244547 1395802358422 Wht is the primry source of energy for Erythro
cytes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose}}</div>
<br /><div><i>90% is use
d in Glycolysis, 10% is used in the HMP shunt</i></div>
1396878284412 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythrocytosis (Polycythemi)}} is hemt
ologicl disorder tht is primrily chrcterized by n <b>elevted</b> hem
tocrit.
1396878419942 1395802358422 {{c1::Anisocytosis}} is hemtologicl disorder
tht is chrcterized by vrying Erythrocyte <b>size</b>.
1396878441656 1395802358422 {{c1::Poikilocytosis}} is hemtologicl disord
er tht is described by vrying Erythrocyte <b>shpe</b>.
1396878470660 1395802358422 A(n) {{c1::Reticulocyte}} is n immture erythro
cyte tht is commonly used s mrker of erythroid prolifertion.
1396878511436 1395802358422 Which precursor cell re Pltelets (Thrombocytes
) derived from?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Megkryocytes}}</div>
1396878580550 1395802358422 Wht is the life spn of Pltelets (Thrombocytes
)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::8-10 dys}}</div>
1396878596280 1395802358422 Which lymphoid orgn stores pproximtely 1/3 of
the pltelet pool?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Spleen}}</div>
1396878965203 1395802358422 Which pltelet receptor does von Willebrnd's F

ctor (vWF) bind to?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GpIb}}</div>
1396879047967 1395802358422 Which pltelet receptor does Fibrinogen bind to?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GpIIb/III}}</div>
1396879228618 1395802358422 Wht is the most bundnt Leukocyte in norml
person?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neutrophils (54-62% of totl WBCs)}}</div>
<div><div clss="pge" title="Pge 397"><div clss="section"><div clss="lyoutA
re"><div clss="column"><p><spn style="font-size: 10.000000pt;font-fmily: 'El
ectrLH';font-weight: 700;color: rgb(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">N</spn
><spn style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-fmily: 'ElectrLH'">eutrophils (5462%
) </spn></p><p><spn style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-fmily: 'ElectrL
H'; font-weight: 700; color: rgb(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">L</spn><sp
n style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-fmily: 'ElectrLH'">ymphocytes (2533%)&nb
sp;</spn></p><p><spn style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-fmily: 'ElectrLH';
font-weight: 700; color: rgb(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">M</spn><spn s
tyle="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-fmily: 'ElectrLH'">onocytes (37%) </sp
n></p><p><spn style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-fmily: 'ElectrLH'; font-wei
ght: 700; color: rgb(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">E</spn><spn style="fo
nt-size: 10.000000pt; font-fmily: 'ElectrLH'">osinophils (13%) </spn></p>
<p><spn style="font-size: 10.000000pt; font-fmily: 'ElectrLH'; font-weight: 7
00; color: rgb(70.000000%, 0.000000%, 10.000000%)">B</spn><spn style="font-siz
e: 10.000000pt; font-fmily: 'ElectrLH'">sophils (00.75%) </spn></p>
</div>
</div>
</div>
</div></div>
1396879515608 1395802358422 Which vitmin deficiency is ssocited with the
presence of hypersegmented Neutrophils with 5+ lobes?<div><br /></div><div><img
src="pste-2173253451950.jpg" /><br /><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B12 (C
oblmin) Deficiency; Vitmin B9 (Folte) Deficiency}}</div></div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hence these re seen in Megloblstic Anemi</i></div>
1396879521588 1395802358422 Wht is n increse in the number of Bnd Cells
(immture Neutrophil) indictive of?<div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myeloid Pro
lifertion}}</div></div>
<br /><div><i>Cn be due to bcteril infectio
n or CML</i></div>
1396879666428 1395802358422 Wht do Monocytes differentite into once they e
nter tissue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mcrophges}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.
e. Monocytes re <b>only found in the blood</b> nd Mcrophges re <b>only
found in tissue</b></i></div>
1396879730590 1395802358422 Which type of Interferon ctivtes Mcrophges?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::gmm-Interferon}}</div>
1396879797069 1395802358422 Which cell surfce mrker (CD) is expressed min
ly by Mcrophges?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD14}}</div>
<br /><div><i>It
is involved in the detection of bcteril LPS.</i></div>
1396879950180 1395802358422 Which MHC molecule is found on Mcrophges?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::MHC II}}</div>
1396880031833 1395802358422 Which Leukocyte is the primry defense ginst H
elminthic infections?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Eosinophils}}</div>
1396880210877 1395802358422 Which substnce from Eosinophils is primrily in
volved in fighting Helminthic infections?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mjor Bsic
Protein}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Helminthic infections refer to infections
vi prsitic worms.</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>Note: Mjor Bsic
Protein (MBP) is lso known s Proteoglycn 2 (PRG2)</i></div>
1396880890336 1395802358422 Which Leukocyte is primrily involved in mediti
ng llergic rections?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bsophils}}</div>
1396880945282 1395802358422 Which Leukotriene is commonly found in the grnu
les of Bsophils?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LTD4}}</div>
1396881008712 1395802358422 {{c1::Heprin}} is n nticogulnt tht is foun
d in the densely bsophilic grnules of Bsophils.
1396881011799 1395802358422 {{c1::Histmine}} is vsodiltor tht is commo
nly found in the densely bsophilic grnules of Bsophils.

1396881033662 1395802358422 Which leukocyte is involved with mediting ller
gic rections t <b>locl tissue</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mst Cells}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><i>Mst Cells re similr in structure nd function to Bsoph
ils but re different cell type.</i></div>
1396881143091 1395802358422 Which type of immunoglobulin binds to Mst Cells
to sensitize them to degrnultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IgE (vi the F<s
ub>c</sub> portion)}}</div>
1396881277956 1395802358422 Which immunoglobulin bound on the surfce of Ms
t Cells will cross-link upon ntigen binding nd trigger degrnultion?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::IgE}}</div>
1396881397054 1395802358422 {{c1::Cromolyn Sodium}} is Mst Cell stbilize
r used for sthm prophylxis s it prevents Mst Cell degrnultion.
1396881537399 1395802358422 {{c1::Dendritic Cells}} re type of highly ph
gocytic Antigen Presenting Cell tht function s the link between innte nd d
ptive immune systems. <br /><div><i>k Lngerhns Cell t the skin</i></div>
1396881625698 1395802358422 Where in the body do B Cells mture?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Bone Mrrow}}</div>
1396881930365 1395802358422 Wht do B Cells differentite into when they enc
ounter n ntigen t peripherl lymphoid tissue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pls
m Cells}}</div>
1396881983638 1395802358422 Which MHC molecule is found on B Cells?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::MHC II}}</div>
1396882048513 1395802358422 Where in the body do T Cells mture?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Thymus}}</div>
1396882081154 1395802358422 Wht is the most bundnt Lymphocyte in norml
person?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T cells (80%)}}</div>
1396882108788 1395802358422 Which cell surfce mrker is ssocited with cyt
otoxic T Cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD8}}</div>
1396882129253 1395802358422 Which cell surfce mrker is ssocited with hel
per T Cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD4}}</div>
1396882141444 1395802358422 Which cell surfce mrker intercts with b7 for
regultory T Cell differentition from nive CD4+ T Cells? <br /><br />{{c1::CD2
8}}
1396882161143 1395802358422 Which type of T Cell is the primry trget of HI
V?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD4+ helper T cells}}</div>
1396882263664 1395802358422 {{c1::Mutiple Myelom}} is Plsm Cell Cncer.
1396882322233 1395802358422 {{c1::Plsm Cells}} re n immune cell tht dif
ferentite from B Cells nd produce lrge mounts of ntibody specific to prt
iculr ntigen.
1396882358169 1395802358422 Which immune cell is ssocited with clock-fc
e distrubution of chromtin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Plsm Cells}}</div>
1396882419626 1395802358422 Which blood group ntibody is found in person
with Group A blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-B}}</div>
with Group B blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-A}}</div>
with Group AB blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::None}}</div>
1396883218290 1395802358422 Which blood group is the universl <b>recipient<
/b> of <b>RBCs</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AB}}</div> <br /><div><i>Be
cuse the ptient's plsm lcks ntibodies ginst blood group ntigens.</i></d
iv>
1396883287334 1395802358422 Which blood group is the universl <b>donor</b>&
nbsp;of <b>plsm</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AB}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Be
cuse the ptient's plsm lcks ntibodies ginst blood group ntigens.</i></d
iv>
with Group O blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both Anti-A nd Anti-B}}</di
v>
1396883360161 1395802358422 Which blood group is the universl <b>donor</b>&
nbsp;of <b>RBCs</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::O}}</div>

<br /><div><i>Be
cuse the ptient's RBCs lck A nd B ntigens.</i></div>
1396883373663 1395802358422 Which blood group is the universl <b>recipient<
/b> of <b>plsm</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::O}}</div> <br /><div><i>Be
cuse the ptient's RBCs lck A nd B ntigens.</i></div>
1396883453618 1395802358422 Which type of immunoglobulins re Anti-A nd Ant
i-B blood group ntibodies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IgM}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hence the <b>cnnot cross the plcent</b></i></div>
1396883508977 1395802358422 Which type of immunoglobulin re Anti-Rh blood g
roup ntibodies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence they
<b>cn cross the plcent</b>.</i></div>
1396883552377 1395802358422 Which cogultion fctor is deficient in Hemoph
ili A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::VIII}}</div>
1396884336778 1395802358422 Which cogultion fctor is deficient in Hemoph
ili B (Christms Disese)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IX}}</div>
1396884359219 1395802358422 How do ACE-Inhibitors ffect Brdykinin levels?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This is why ptien
ts receiving ACE Inhibitors hve n "ACE Inhibitor cough."</i></div>
1396884385283 1395802358422 Which enzyme reduces Vitmin K so tht it cn c
t s cofctor in cogultion fctor synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Epox
ide Reductse}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is the enzyme inhibits by Wrfrin</i
></div>
1396884585917 1395802358422 Which cogultion fctors require Vitmin K s
cofctor in their synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fctors II, VII, IX nd
X (s well s Protein C nd Protein S)}}</div>
1396884648381 1395802358422 Which cogultion fctor is crried by von Wille
brnd's Fctor (vWF)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fctor VIII}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><br /></div>
1396884682904 1395802358422 Which cogultion fctors re inctivted by Pro
tein C?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fctors V<sub></sub> nd VIII<sub></su
b>}}</div>
1396884946509 1395802358422 Which enzyme cleves the Fibrin mesh, thereby br
eking down clots?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Plsmin}}</div>
1396884999133 1395802358422 Which cogultion fctors re inhibited by Antit
hrombin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fctors II, VII, IX, X, XI, nd XII}}<
/div>
1396885149021 1395802358422 {{c1::Heprin}} is n nticogulnt drug enhnce
s the ctivity of ntithrombin.
1396885172691 1395802358422 Wht re the 2 principl trgets of ntithrombin
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fctor II<sub></sub> (Thrombin) nd Fct
or X<sub></sub>}}</div>
1396885194671 1395802358422 Wht is Fctor V Leiden?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::Fctor V tht is resistnt to inctivtion by Protein C}}</div>
1396885230664 1395802358422 {{c1::Fctor V Leiden}} is mutnt form of cog
ultion Fctor V tht is resistnt to inhibition by ctivted Protein C.
1396885261026 1395802358422 {{c1::Tissue Plsminogen Activtors (tPA's)}} r
e <b>clss</b> of nticogulnt drugs tht function s thrombolytics by
ctivting Plsminogen into Plsmin.
1396885390251 1395802358422 In pltelet dhesion, wht receptor does von Wil
lebrnd's Fctor (vWF) bind to on Pltelets?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GpIb}}</
div>
1396885458748 1395802358422 In pltelet ctivtion, which molecule binding
t the Pltelet surfce induces the movement of GpIIb/III receptors to the Plte
let surfce?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ADP}}</div>
1396885564750 1395802358422 In pltelet ggregtion, which receptor does Fib
rinogen bind to on Pltelets in order to link them together?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::GpIIb/III}}</div>
1396885615272 1395802358422 Wht hppens first in Pltelet Plug Formtion, P
ltelet Adhesion or Pltelet Aggregtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Adhesion}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>D's before G's, brh.</i></div>
1402168772948 1395802358422 {{c1::Peptidoglycn}} is bcteril structure t

ht gives ripid support to the bcteri nd protects ginst osmostic pressure.
1402169985256 1395802358422 {{c1::Cell wll/membrne}} is bcteril struct
ure seen in <b>grm-positive</b> bcteri tht functions s the mjor surf
ce ntigen.
1402170021178 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipoteichoic Acid}} is component of the
cell wll/membrne of <b>grm-positive</b> bcteri tht induces TNF nd IL
-1.
1402170192781 1395802358422 The {{c1::outer membrne}} is bcteril s
tructure seen in <b>grm-negtive</b> bcteri tht is the site of endotoxi
n (lipopolyscchride; LPS).
></div>
1402170231877 1395802358422 The {{c1::outer membrne}} is bcteril s
tructure in <b>grm-negtive</b> bcteri tht functions s the mjor surf
ce ntigen.
1402170250338 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipid A}} is component of the outer memb
rne in <b>grm-negtive</b> bcteri tht induces TNF nd IL-1. <br /><d
1402170293953 1395802358422 {{c1::O polyscchride}} is component of the o
uter membrne of <b>grm-negtive</b> bcteri tht functions s the surfc
e ntigen.
1402170335667 1395802358422 Which ribosoml subunits mke up bcteril ribos
omes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::30S; 50S}}</div>
1402171292092 1395802358422 The {{c1::periplsm}} is bcteril structure t
ht is described s the spce between the cytoplsmic membrne nd the other mem
brne in <b>grm-negtive</b> bcteri.
<div><br /></div><i>Mny hydroly
tic enzymes re found here, especilly bet-lctmse.</i><br /><div><img src="p
ste-18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402171353900 1395802358422 The {{c1::cpsule}} is bcteril structur
e externl to peptidoglycn tht protects the bcteri from phgocytosis.
1402171468077 1395802358422 The bcteril cpsule is normlly mde of polys
cchrides, except in {{c1::<i>Bcillus nthrcis</i>}} whose cpsule conti
ns D-glutmte.
1402171506190 1395802358422 Which mino cid is key component of the bcte
ril cpsule in <i>Bcillus nthrcis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D-glutmt
e}}</div>
1402171526417 1395802358422 The {{c1::pilus/fimbri}} is bcteril st
ructure tht functions to medite the dherence of the bcteri to cell surfces
.
1402172216575 1395802358422 The {{c1::pilus}} is bcteril structure
tht forms n ttchment between 2 bcteri during conjugtion. <br /><div><img
src="pste-18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402172235744 1395802358422 The {{c1::glycoclyx}} is bcteril struc
ture consisting of polyscchrides tht medites dherence to surfces, especil
ly foreign surfces
<i><div></div></i><i><br /></i>Such s indwelling cthet
ers.
1402172315718 1395802358422 The {{c1::spore}} is bcteril structure
tht is resistnce to dehydrtion, het nd chemicls due to its kertin-like co
t nd composition of peptidoglycn nd dipicolinic cid.
1402172371311 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipoteichoic Acid}} is component of the
bcterl cell wll tht is described s combintion of lipids nd teichoic ci
d.
<div><br /></div><i><b>Unique to grm-positive</b> bcteri.</i><br
/><div><img src="pste-18820546691584.jpg" /></div>
1402172441531 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Stphylococcus</i>?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173770131 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Streptococcus</i>?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173776778 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Clostridium</i>?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173785195 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Corynebcterium</i>
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173794129 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Bcillus</i>?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173800127 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Listeri</i>?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402173806778 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Mycobcterium</i>?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive; lso cid fst}}</div>
1402173817142 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Grdnerell</i>?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vrible}}</div>
1402173824237 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Actinomyces</i>?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive; lso filmentous}}</div>
1402173877553 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Nocrdi</i>?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive; lso wekly cid fst}}</div>
1402173888408 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Mycoplsm</i>?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::None; it doesn't stin s it lcks cell wll}}</div>
1402173905774 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Neisseri</i>?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Negtive}}</div> <br /><div><i>Neisseri is lso bsicll
y the only cliniclly relevnt grm-negtive <b>coccus</b>.</i></div>
1402173993961 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Escherichi coli</i
>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Negtive}}</div>
1402174006464 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Shigell</i>?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Negtive}}</div> <div><i><br /></i></div>
1402174016838 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of the Enteric bcteri?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Negtive}}</div>
1402174029401 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Slmonell</i>?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Negtive}}</div>
1402174037055 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Yersini</i>?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Negtive}}</div>
1402174042162 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Klebsiell</i>?<div
1402174047882 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Proteus</i>?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Negtive}}</div>
1402174054743 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Enterobcter</i>?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Negtive}}</div>
1402174067366 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Serrti</i>?<div><
1402174073541 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Vibrio</i>?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Negtive}}</div>
1402174078026 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Cmpylobcter</i>?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Negtive}}</div>
1402174087282 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Helicobcter</i>?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Negtive}}</div>
1402174096558 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Pseudomons</i>?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Negtive}}</div>
1402174102130 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Bcteroides</i>?<di
1402174109313 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Hemophilus</i>?<di
1402174120219 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Legionell</i>?<div
1402174127053 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Bordetell</i>?<div
1402174132880 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of the Zoonotic bcteri?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Negtive}}</div>
1402174142112 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Frncisell</i>?<di
1402174178686 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Brucell</i>?<div><
1402174183830 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Psteurell</i>?<di

1402174191153 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Brtonell</i>?<div
1402174196783 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of the Spirochetes?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Negtive}}</div> <br /><div><i>Borreli, Leptospir, Trep
onem</i></div>
1402174232195 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Borreli</i>?<div><
1402174240659 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Leptospir</i>?<div
1402174248064 1395802358422 Wht is the grm stin of <i>Treponem</i>?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Negtive}}</div>
1402174257516 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycoplsm spp.</i>}} is bcteril sp
ecies tht contins sterols in their cell membrne.
1402174904523 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycobcteri</i>}} is bcteril speci
es tht contins <b>mycolic cid</b> in its cell wll.
1402174930840 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>Treponem</i><b style="font-style
: itlic; "> </b>grm stin well?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Too thin to be
visulized}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Treponemes require drk-field microscopy
nd fluorescent ntibody stining.</i></div>
1402175557494 1395802358422 Why dont Mycobcteri grm stin well?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Rich lipid content in cell wll}}</div>
<br /><div><i>De
tected by <b>Crbolfuschin in n cid-fst stin</b>.</i></div>
1402175604132 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>Mycoplsm</i> grm stin we
ll?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No cell wll}}</div>
1402175618870 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>Legionell pneunophil</i> g
rm stin well?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Primrily intrcellulr orgnism}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><i>Legionell requires silver stin.</i></div>
1402175654023 1395802358422 Wht type of stin is used to visulize <i>Legio
nell</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Silver stin}}</div>
1402175671704 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>Rickettsi</i> grm stin ce
ll?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Intrcellulr prsite}}</div>
1402175764388 1395802358422 Why doesn't <i>Chlmydi</i> grm stin wel
l?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Intcellulr; <b>lcks murmic cid</b> in th
e cell wll}}</div>
1402175838315 1395802358422 Which stin is used to best visulize <i>Chlmyd
i</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Giems stin}}</div> <div><br /></div><img sr
c="pste-23106924052545.jpg" />
1402176460130 1395802358422 Which stin is used to best visulize <i>Borreli
<br /><div><img src="ps
</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Giems}}</div>
te-23106924052545.jpg" /></div>
1402176473561 1395802358422 Which stin is best used to visulize<i> </
i>Rickettsie?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Giems}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-23106924052545.jpg" /></div>
1402176494851 1395802358422 Which stin is used to visulize Trypnosomes?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Giems}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-23106
924052545.jpg" /></div>
1402176519075 1395802358422 Which stin is used to visulize <i>Plsmodium</
i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Giems}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-23106
924052545.jpg" /></div>
1402176532694 1395802358422 The {{c1::PAS (Periodic-cid Schiff) stin}
} is dignostic stin tht stins for <b>glycogen</b> nd mucopolyscchr
ides. <br /><div><i><b>PAS</b>s the <b>sugr</b> (glycogen).</i></div>
1402176592476 1395802358422 Which stin is used to dignose Whipple Disese
(<i>Tropherym whipplei</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PAS stin}}</div>
1402176630985 1395802358422 Which stin is used to visulize <i>Tropherym w
hipplei</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PAS stin}}</div>
1402176649533 1395802358422 Which stin is used to visulize cid-fst orgn
isms (<i>Mycobcterium, Nocrdi</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ziehl-Neelsen
(crbol fuschin) stin}}</div>

1402176691861 1395802358422 Which stin is used to visulize <i>Cryptococcus
neoformns</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Indi ink}}</div> <br /><div><i>Mu
cicrmine cn lso be used to stin think polyscchride cpsule red.</i></div>
1402176732162 1395802358422 Which stin is used to visulize <i>Helicobcter
pylori</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Silver stin}}</div>
1402176747181 1395802358422 Which stin is used to visulize fungi (e.g. <i>
Pneumocystis</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Silver stin}}</div>
1402176772054 1395802358422 Which stin is used to visulize <i>Legionell</
i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Silver stin}}</div>
1402176794486 1395802358422 Which specil culture medi/gr is used to isol
te <i>Hemophilus influenze</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chocolte grs wi
th Fctors V (NAD) nd X (Heme)}}</div>
te <i>Neisseri gonorrhoee</i> or <i>Neisseri meningitidis</i>?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Thyer-Mrtin (VPN) medi}}</div>
<br /><div><i>To connect
to Neisseri, plese use your <b>VPN</b> client:</i></div><div><i>V =
Vncomycin which inhibits grm-positive orgnisms</i></div><div><i>P = Polymyxi
n which inhibits grm-negtive orgnisms except for Neisseri</i></div><div><i>N
= Nysttin which inhibits fungi</i></div>
1402177650176 1395802358422 {{c1::Vncomycin}} is n ntibiotic tht is used
in Thyer-Mrtin (VPN) medi s it inhibits grm-positive orgnnisms.
1402177678285 1395802358422 {{c1::Polymyxin}} is n ntibiotic used in Thye
r-Mrtin (VPN) medi tht inhibits grm-negtive orgnisms except for <i>Neisser
i</i>.
1402177702503 1395802358422 {{c1::Nysttin}} is n ntifungl used in Thyer
-Mrtin (VPN) medi tht inhibits fungi.
te <i>Bordetell pertussis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bordet-Gengou (pott
o) gr}}</div> <br /><div><i><b>BORDET</b>ell.</i></div>
te <i>Corynebcterium diphtherie</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tellurite g
r; Loffler medium}}</div>
te <i>Mycobcterium tuberculosis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lowenstein-Jen
sen gr}}</div>
te <i>Mycoplsm pneumonie</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Eton gr (s <i>M
ycoplsm </i>requires cholesterol)}}</div>
te Lctose-fermenting enteric bcteri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::McConkey Ag
<br /><div><i>Growth will pper s pink colonies s lctose fer
r}}</div>
menttion cuses cidity, thereby turning the colony pink.</i></div>
1402177955539 1395802358422 Which specil culture medi/gr other thn McC
onkey gr is used to isolte <i>Escherichi coli</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Eosin-Methylene Blue (EMB) s <u>green-metllic sheen</u>}}</div>
te <i>Legionell</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chrcol yest gr (buffered
with cysteine nd iron)}}</div>
<br /><d
te fungi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sbourud gr}}</div>
iv><i><b>Sb</b> is <b>fun-guy</b>!</i></div>
1402332226256 1395802358422 Wht is the oxygen dependency of <i>Nocrdi</i>
<i>spp.</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Obligte erobe}}</div> <br /><d
iv><img src="pste-579820585086.jpg" /></div><div><img src="pste-592705486895.j
pg" /></div>
1402333336345 1395802358422 Wht is the oxygen dependency of <i>Pseudomons
<br /><d
eruginos</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Obligte erobe}}</div>
iv><div><img src="pste-579820585086.jpg" /></div><div><img src="pste-592705486
895.jpg" /></div></div>
1402333378017 1395802358422 Wht is the oxygen dependency of <i>Mycobcteriu

m tuberculosis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Obligte erobe}}</div> <br /><d
iv><div><img src="pste-579820585086.jpg" /></div><div><img src="pste-592705486
895.jpg" /></div></div>
1402333396116 1395802358422 Where in the lungs does <i>Mycobcterium tubercu
losis </i>rectivte?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The lung pices due to high P<s
ub>O2</sub> levels}}</div> <br /><div><i>Rectivtion typiclly occurs fte
r immune compromise or TNF-lph inhibitor use.</i></div>
1402333708217 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomons eruginos</i>}} is grmnegtive obligte erobe tht is often seen in burn wounds.
<br /><div><img
src="pste-1670742278313.jpg" /></div>
1402343309593 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomons eruginos</i>}} is grmnegtive obligte erobe tht is often seen s compliction in dibetes.
1402343335968 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomons eruginos</i>}} is grmnegtive obligte erobe tht often cuses nocosomil pneumoni.
1402343358391 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomons eruginos</i>}} is grmnegtive obligte erobe tht is often ssocited with pneumoni in Cystic Fibro
sis ptients. <br /><div><img src="pste-1666447311017.jpg" /></div>
1402343381461 1395802358422 Wht is the oxygen dependency of <i>Clostridium<
/i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Obligte nerobe}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><img src="pste-1971389988896.jpg" /><div><img src="pste-1984274890974.jpg" />
</div>
1402343491814 1395802358422 Wht is the oxygen dependency of <i>Bcteroides<
<br /><div><br /
></div><div><img src="pste-1971389988896.jpg" /><div><img src="pste-1984274890
974.jpg" /></div></div>
1402343508003 1395802358422 Wht is the oxygen dependency of <i>Actinomyces<
<div><br /></div
><div><img src="pste-1971389988896.jpg" /><div><img src="pste-1984274890974.jp
g" /></div></div>
1402343536706 1395802358422 {{c1::Ctlse}} nd/or {{c2::Superoxide di
smutse}} re enzymes involved with the detoxifiction of ROS tht re often <b>
bsent</b> in obligte nerobes. <div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-19
71389988896.jpg" /><div><img src="pste-1984274890974.jpg" /></div></div>
1402343617358 1395802358422 Which 2 gses re often produced in tissue by ob
ligte nerobic bcteri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CO2; H2}}</div> <br /><d
iv><img src="pste-1971389988896.jpg" /><div><img src="pste-1984274890974.jpg"
/></div></div>
1402343664468 1395802358422 {{c1::Aminoglycosides}} re clss of ntibioti
cs tht re <b>ineffective ginst nerobic bcteri</b> s they require O
<sub>2</sub> to enter bcteril cells.
<br /><div><i>Amin<b>O</b><sub s
tyle="font-weight: bold; ">2</sub>glycosides require <b>O</b><sub style="font-we
ight: bold; ">2</sub> to enter bcteri.</i></div>
1402344288287 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Rickettsi spp.</i>}} nd {{c2::<i
>Chlmydi spp.</i>}} re <b>obligte intrcellulr</b>, pleomorphic, grm-negt
ive bcteri tht cnnot mke their own ATP.
26326172.jpg" /></div>
1402347084540 1395802358422 Wht is the First Aid mnemonic for <b>fculttiv
e intrcellulr</b> bcteri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="pste-27
18714298532.jpg" />}}</div>
<br /><div><br /></div>
1402347087961 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumonie</i>}} nd&nbsp
;{{c2::Group B <i>Streptococcus </i>(<i>Streptococcus glctie</i>)}} re 2 sp
ecies of <i>Streptococcus</i> tht re encpsulted.
<div><br /></div
><img src="pste-2911987826721.jpg" /><br /><div><img src="pste-2899102924926.j
pg" /></div>
1402347655665 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Hemophilus influenze</i> type B}
} is species of <i>Hemophilus</i> tht is encpsulted. <br /><div><img
src="pste-2911987826721.jpg" /><br /><div><img src="pste-2899102924926.jpg" />
</div></div>
1402347679561 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Neisseri meningitidis</i>}} is speci

es of <i>Neisseri</i> tht is encpsulted.
te-2911987826721.jpg" /><br /><div><img src="pste-2899102924926.jpg" /></div></
div>
1402347707244 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Escherichi coli</i>}} is species of
<i>Escherichi</i> tht is encpsulted. <br /><div><img src="pste-29119
87826721.jpg" /><br /><div><img src="pste-2899102924926.jpg" /></div></div>
1402347826775 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Klebsiell pneumonie</i>}} is specie
s of <i>Klebsiell</i> tht is encpsulted.
te-2911987826721.jpg" /><br /><div><img src="pste-2899102924926.jpg" /></div></
div>
1402347845933 1395802358422 The {{c1::cpsule}} is bcteril structur
e tht functions s n nti-phgocytic virulence fctors.
1402347877791 1395802358422 Which orgn is responsible for clering opsonize
d encpsulted bcteri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Spleen}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hence, plenics hve decresed opsonizing nd clering bility, thereby gi
ving them significntly incresed risk for severe infection. Such ptients sho
uld receive S. pneumonie, H. influenze nd N. meningitidis vccintions.</i></
div>
1402347997872 1395802358422 {{c1::Ctlse}} is n enzyme found in mny bct
eri tht degrdes H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> before it cn be mde into n
timicrobil products by Myeloperoxidse.
<br /><div><i>Remember, Myeloper
oxidse in phgocytes mkes HOCl from H2O2.</i></div>
1402349330844 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Grnulomtous Disese}} is n immu
ne disorder tht involves deficiency of NADPH Oxidse nd subsequent recurrent
infections with ctlse-positive orgnisms. <br /><div><img src="pste-37666
86318661.jpg" /></div><div><img src="pste-3779571220525.jpg" /></div>
1402349542264 1395802358422 Wht is the ctlse expression of <i>Pseudomon
s</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<br /><div><div><img src
="pste-3766686318661.jpg" /></div><div><img src="pste-3779571220525.jpg" /></d
iv></div>
1402349557832 1395802358422 Wht is the ctlse expression of <i>Listeri</
i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div> <br /><div><div><img src="pste3766686318661.jpg" /></div><div><img src="pste-3779571220525.jpg" /></div></div
>
1402349567633 1395802358422 Wht is the ctlse expression of <i>Aspergillu
s</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<br /><div><div><img src
iv></div>
1402349580052 1395802358422 Wht is the ctlse expression of <i>Cndid</i
>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div> <br /><div><div><img src="pste3766686318661.jpg" /></div><div><img src="pste-3779571220525.jpg" /></div></div
>
1402349588984 1395802358422 Wht is the ctlse expression of <i>Escherichi
coli</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div> <br /><div><div><img src
iv></div>
1402349603442 1395802358422 Wht is the ctlse expression of <i>Stphyloco
ccus spp.</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<br /><div><div>
<img src="pste-3766686318661.jpg" /></div><div><img src="pste-3779571220525.jp
g" /></div></div>
1402349622197 1395802358422 Wht is the ctlse expression of <i>Serrti</
i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402349631858 1395802358422 Wht is the ctlse expresison of <i>Neisseri<
/i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b>"Stph<
/b>'s <b>N</b>' <b>Enterobcteri</b> <b>A</b>re <b>List</b>ed <b>C</b>tl
se <b>P</b>ositive"</i></div><div><i>Stphylococcus</i></div><div><i>Neisseri<
/i></div><div><i>Enterobcteri</i></div><div><i>Aspergillus</i></div><div><i>Li
steri</i></div><div><i>Cndid</i></div><div><i>Pseudmons</i></div><div><i>(n
d MTB)</i></div>
1402349703816 1395802358422 A {{c1::conjugte vccine}} is type of v

ccine tht contins polyscchride bcteril cpsule ntigens conjugted to c
rrier protein, thereby enhncing its immunogenicity by promoting T-cell ctivti
on nd clss switching. <br /><div><i>A polyscchride ntigen lone cnnot be p
resented to T-cells.</i></div><div><i>Such vccines exist for Pnemococcus, Menin
gococcus nd H. influenze type B.</i></div>
1402351906729 1395802358422 Wht is the urese expression of <i>Cryptococcus
</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
te-4569845203063.jpg" /></div>
1402352669308 1395802358422 Wht is the urese expression of <i>Helicobcter
pylori</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-4565550235767.jpg" /></div>
1402352685232 1395802358422 Wht is the urese expression of <i>Proteus</i>?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
50235767.jpg" /></div>
1402352694298 1395802358422 Wht is the urese expression of <i>Ureplsm s
pp</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
te-4565550235767.jpg" /></div>
1402352707385 1395802358422 Wht is the urese expression of <i>Nocrdi spp
</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
te-4565550235767.jpg" /></div>
1402352717906 1395802358422 Wht is the urese expression of <i>Klebsiell s
pp.</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
te-4565550235767.jpg" /></div>
1402352728938 1395802358422 Wht is the urese expression of <i>Stphylococc
us epidermidis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402352742276 1395802358422 Wht is the urese expression of <i>Stphylococc
us sprophyticus</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<br /><d
1402352758008 1395802358422 Wht colour pigment is ssocited with <i>Stphy
lococcus ureus</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Yellow}}</div> <br /><div><i>Au
reus is ltin for gold.</i></div>
1402352820920 1395802358422 Wht colour pigment is ssocited with <i>Pseudo
mons eruginos</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blue-green}}</div>
1402352852109 1395802358422 Wht colour pigment is ssocited with <i>Serrt
i mrcescens</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Red}}</div>
1402352877134 1395802358422 Wht colour pigment is ssocited with <i>Actino
mycess isrelii</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Yellow "sulfur" grnules compose
d of filments of bcteri}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Isrel hs yellow snd.</i
></div>
1402352995706 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Actinomyces isrelii</i>}} is grm-po
sitive, nerobic, filmentous bcteri tht yields <b>yellow "sulfur" grnul
r pigment</b> composed of filments of bcteri.
1402353078926 1395802358422 {{c1::Protein A}} is virulence fctor expresse
d by <i>Stphylococcus ureus</i> tht <b>binds to the F<sub>c</sub> r
egion of IgG</b> thereby preventing opsoniztion nd phgocytosis.<b>
</b>
1402353650255 1395802358422 {{c1::IgA Protese}} is bcteril virulence f
ctor tht functions to cleve IgA, thereby llowing for coloniztion of the resp
irtory mucos. <br /><div><img src="pste-5299989643301.jpg" /></div>
1402353710712 1395802358422 {{c1::M Protein}} is virulence fctor expresse
d by Group A <i>Streptococcus</i> (<i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>) spec
ies tht functions to prevent phgocytosis.
1402405792394 1395802358422 {{c1::Endotoxin}} is virulence fctor found in
the <b>outer cell membrne</b> of most <b>grm-negtive</b> bcteri.
<b>grm-negtive</b> bcteri mde of <b>lipopolyscchride (LPS)</b>
, the structurl prt of bcteri.
<br /><div><i>It is relesed when the b
cteri is lysed.</i></div>
1402410541171 1395802358422 Wht is the toxicity of bcteril exotoxins?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::High; ftl doses re on the order of 1 ug}}</div>

1402412496200 1395802358422 Wht is the toxicity of bcteril endotoxins?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Low; ftl doses re on the order of hundreds of microg
rms}}</div>
the outer cell membrne of grm-negtive bcteri tht <b>induces TNF, IL-1 </b
>nd<b> IL-6.</b>
<br /><div><i>It lso cuses fever, shock, DIC.</i></div
>
1402412580738 1395802358422 {{c1::Exotoxins}} re secreted virulence fctors
from bcteri tht induce high-titer ntibody response clled ntitoxins.
<div><br /></div><i>Toxoids cn hence be used s vccines.</i><br /><div><i>Endo
toxin on the other hnd is poorly ntigenic nd no toxoids/vccines re vilbl
e.</i></div>
1402412686790 1395802358422 At which temperture do most exotoxins get destr
oyed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::60 C}}</div> <br /><div><i>The exception is s
tphylococcl enterotoxins.</i></div><div><i>Endotoxins re stble t 100 C for
1 hour.</i></div>
1402413735630 1395802358422 {{c1::Diphtheri toxin}} is n exotoxin from <i>
Corynebcterium diphtherie</i> tht inctivtes elongtion fctor 2 (EF2),
thereby inhibiting protein synthesis.
1402414258300 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Diphtheri Toxin from <i>Cory
nebcterium diphtherie</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inctivtion of elongti
on fctor 2 (EF2) vi <b>ADP ribosyltion</b>, thereby inhibiting protein synthe
sis}}</div>
1402414335997 1395802358422 {{c1::Diptheri Toxin}} is n exotoxin from <i>C
orynebcterium diphtherie</i> tht cuses <b>phryngitis</b> with <b>
pseudomembrnes in the throt</b> nd <b>severe lymphdenopthy</b> ("
bull neck").
1402414406806 1395802358422 {{c1::Exotoxin A}} is n exotoxin from <i>Pseudo
mons eruginos</i> tht inctivted elongtion fctor 2 (EF2) through ADP
ribosyltion, thereby inhibiting protein synthesis nd cusing cell deth.
1402414446987 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Exotoxin A from <i>Pseudomon
s eruginos</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inctivtion of elongtion fctor 2
(EF2) vi ADP ribosyltion, thereby inhibiting protein synthesis nd cusing ce
ll deth}}</div>
1402414488645 1395802358422 {{c1::Shig Toxin (ST)}} is n exotoxin from <i>
Shigell spp.</i> tht inctivtes the 60S ribosoml subunit by removing d
enine from rRNA.
<br /><div><i>Thereby cuses GI mucosl dmge, dysenter
y nd possibly hemolytic uremi syndrome (HUS).</i></div>
1402415821176 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Shig Toxin (ST) from <i>Shig
ell spp.</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inctivtion of the 60S ribosome by re
moving denine from rRNA}}</div>
Shigell spp.</i> tht cuses GI mucosl dmge nd subsequent <b>dysentery
</b>due to inctivtion of the 60S ribosome.
Shigell spp.</i> tht cn enhnce cytokine relese, thereby cusing Hemoly
tic Uremi Syndrome (HUS).
1402415921334 1395802358422 {{c1::Shig-like Toxin (SLT)}} is n exotoxin fr
om Enterohemorrhgic <i>Escherichi coli</i> (EHEC) tht inctivtes the 60
S ribosome by removing denine from rRNA.
<br /><div><i>Includes the O157:
H7 strin.</i></div>
1402416008097 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Shig-like Toxin (SLT) from&n
bsp;Enterohemorrhgic <i>Escherichi coli</i> (EHEC)?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inctivtion of the 60S ribosoml subunit by remocing denine from rR
NA}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Results in enhnced cytokine relese nd Hemolytic
Uremi Syndrome (HUS).</i></div>
1402416054795 1395802358422 {{c1::Shig-like Toxin (SLT)}} is n exotoxin fr
om Enterohemorrhgic <i>Escherichi coli</i> (EHEC) tht cn cus
e Hemolytic Uremi Syndrome (HUS) by enhncing cytokine relese.
<br /><d
iv><i>Especilly the O157:H7 strin.</i></div><div><i><b>EHEC does not invde ho

st cells like Shigell.</b></i></div>
1402416127072 1395802358422 {{c1::Het-lbile toxin (LT)}} is n exotoxin fr
om Enterotoxigenic <i>Escherichi coli</i> (ETEC) tht overctivtes denyl
te cyclse, thereby cusing incresed Cl secretion nd H2O efflux t the gut.
<div><br /></div><i>Incresed cAMP = incresed Cl secretion nd H2O efflux = wt
ery dirrhe</i><br /><div><img src="pste-8662949036137.jpg" /></div>
1402416857407 1395802358422 {{c1::Het-stble Toxin (ST)}} is n exotoxin fr
om Enterotoxigenic <i>Escherichi coli</i> (ETEC) tht overctivtes Gunyl
te cyclse, thereby <b>decresing</b> NCl nd H2O resorption t the gut.
<div><br /></div><i>Incresed cGMP = decresed NCl nd H2O resorption = wtery
dirrhe</i><br /><div><img src="pste-8658654068841.jpg" /></div>
1402416975554 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Het-<b>lbile</b> Toxin
from Enterotoxigenic <i>Escherichi coli </i>(ETEC)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Overctivtion of denylte cyclse, thereby incresing cAMP levels nd incres
ing Cl secretion nd H2O efflux in the gut}}</div>
te-8658654068841.jpg" /></div>
1402417045996 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Het-<b>stble</b> Toxin
from Enterotoxigenic <i>Escherichi coli</i> (ETEC)?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Overctivtion of Gunylte cyclse, thereby cusing incresed cGMP levels
nd <b>decrese</b> in NCl nd H2O resorption t the gut}}</div>
1402417106874 1395802358422 {{c1::Het-<b>lbile</b> toxin}} nd {
{c2::Het-<b>stble </b>toxin}} re 2 exotoxins from Enterotoxigenic <i>Escheric
hi coli</i> (ETEC) tht cn cuse wtery dirrhe by incresing fluid secr
etion t the GI epithelium.
1402417490502 1395802358422 {{c1::Edem Fctor}} is n exotoxin from <i>Bci
llus nthrcis</i> tht mimics Adenylte Cyclse, thereby incresing cAMP l
evels.
1402417553807 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Edem Fctor toxin from <i>B
cillus nthrcis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mimicry of Adenylte Cyclse, t
hereby incresing cAMP levels}}</div>
1402417601645 1395802358422 {{c1::Edem Fctor toxin}} is n exotoxin from <
i>Bcillus nthrcis</i> tht is likely responsible for the chrcteristic
edemtous borders of blck eschrs seen in cutneous nthrx.
1402417635906 1395802358422 {{c1::Choler Toxin}} is n exotoxin from <i>Vib
rio cholere</i> tht overctivtes Adenylte Cyclse through permnent ct
ivtion of the G<sub>s</sub> subunit vi ADP ribosyltion, thereby incresi
ng Cl secretion nd H2O efflux t the gut.
<br /><div><i>Yields "rice-wter
" dirrhe.</i></div>
1402417716210 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Choler Toxin from <i>Vibrio
cholere</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Overctivtion of Adenylte Cyclse by
permnently ctivting the G<sub>s</sub> subunit vi ADP ribosyltion}}</di
v>
<br /><div><i>This thereby cuses n increse in Cl secretion nd H2O ef
fluc t the gut.</i></div>
1402417771627 1395802358422 {{c1::Choler Toxin}} is n exotoxin from <i>Vib
rio cholere</i> tht cuses voluminous <b>"rice-wter" dirrhe</b> d
ue to overctivtion of denylte cyclse through permnent ctivtion of the G<
sub>s</sub> subunit.
1402417815559 1395802358422 {{c1::Pertussis Toxin}} is n exotoxin from <i>B
ordetell pertussis</i> tht overctivtes denylte cyclse by disbling t
he G<sub>i</sub> subunit, thereby impiring phgocytosis. <br /><div><i>Pe
rmits the survivl of the microbe.</i></div>
1402418691832 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Pertussis Toxin from <i>Borde
tell pertussis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Overctivtion of denylte cycl
se by disbling the G<sub>i</sub> subunit, thereby impiring phgocytosis}
}</div> <br /><div><i>Occurs vi ADP Ribosyltion</i></div>
1402418737393 1395802358422 {{c1::Pertussis Toxin}} is n exotoxin from <i>B
ordetell pertussis</i> tht cuses <b>whooping cough</b>.
1402418770100 1395802358422 {{c1::Whooping cough}} is respirtory disorder
cused by Pertussis Toxin from <i>Bordetell pertussis</i> nd involves

cough on expirtion nd "whoop" on inspirtion.
<br /><div><i>Typiclly
ffects children.</i></div><div><i>Toxin my not ctully be cuse of the coug
h.</i></div><div><i>Cn cuse "100-dy cough" in dults.</i></div>
1402418941004 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetnospsmin}} is n exotoxin from <i>Clo
stridium tetni</i> tht cleves SNARE proteins required for neurotrnsmitt
er relese.
1402418986922 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Tetnospsmin toxin from <i>C
lostridium tetni</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clevge of SNARE proteins req
uired for neurotrnsmitter relese}}</div>
1402419013400 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetnus}} is neurologicl disorder cuse
d by Tetnospsmin toxin from <i>Clostridium tetni</i> tht involves <b>sp
sticity, risus srdonicus</b> nd <b>"lockjw"</b>.
1402419160022 1395802358422 {{c1::Risus Srdonicus}} is feture of Tetnus
tht is described s fcil spsms tht often follow trismus (lockjw).
1402419199569 1395802358422 {{c1::Trismus}} is feture of Tetnus tht is
lso referred to s Lockjw
1402419218807 1395802358422 Which neurotrnsmitter's relese is <b>prevented
</b> by the Tetnospsmin toxin from <i>Clostridium tetni</i>?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::GABA; Glycine}}</div> <br /><div><i>Tetnus = spstic prlysi
s. Hence, there must be <b>lck of inhibitory neurotrnsmitters</b>.</i></div>
1402419296796 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetnus}} is neurologicl disorder cuse
d by <i>Clostridium sp.</i> nd is chrcterized by <b>spstic prlys
is</b> due to <b>inhibition of inhibitory neurotrnsmitter relese</b>&nbsp
;(GABA; Glycine) from Renshw cells of the spinl cord.
1402419379737 1395802358422 {{c1::Botulinum Toxin}} is n exotoxin from <i>C
lostridium botulinum</i> tht cleves SNARE proteins required for neurotrn
smitter relese.
1402419529008 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Botulinum toxin from <i>Clost
ridium botulinum</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clevge of SNARE proteins requ
ired for neurotrnsmitter relese}}</div>
1402419564804 1395802358422 {{c1::Botulism}} is neurologicl disorder cus
ed by the Botulinum toxin from <i>Clostridium botulinum</i> tht presents w
ith <b>flccid prlysis</b> or s <b>Floppy Bby Syndrome</b> in inf
nts.
1402419652276 1395802358422 Which neurotrnsmitter's relese is <b>prevented
</b> by the Botulinum toxin from <i>Clostridium botulinum</i>?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::ACh}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Botulism = flccid prlysis. Henc
e there must be <b>lck of stimultory neurotrnsmitters</b>.</i></div>
1402419732306 1395802358422 {{c1::Botulism}} is neurologicl disorder cus
ed by <i>Clostridium sp.</i> nd is chrcterized by <b>flc
cid prlysis</b> due to <b>inhibition of stimultory neurotrnsmitter
relese</b> (ACh) t the neuromusculr junction.
1402428216177 1395802358422 {{c1::Alph Toxin}} is n exotoxin from <i>Clost
ridium perfringens</i> tht cts s phospholipse (Lecithinse) tht degr
des tissue nd cell membrnes.
1402428313614 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Alph Toxin from <i>Clostridi
um perfringens</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phospholipse (Lecithinse) ctio
n, thereby leding to degrdtion of tissue nd cell membrnes}}</div>
1402432070114 1395802358422 {{c1::Alph toxin}} is n exotoxin from <i>Clost
ridium perfringens</i> tht degrdes phospholipids, thereby cusing myonecr
osis ("gs gngrene") nd hemolysis.
<br /><div><i>The hemolysis is "double
zone" of hemolysis on blood gr.</i></div>
1402432155838 1395802358422 {{c1::Streptolysin O}} is n exotoxin from <i>St
reptococcus pyogenes</i> tht functions to degrde the cell membrne.
1402432207851 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Streptolysin O from <i>Strept
ococcus pyogenes</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Degrdtion of the cell membrn
e, thereby cusing cell lysis}}</div>
1402432235029 1395802358422 {{c1::Streptolysin O}} is n exotoxin mde by <i
>Streptococcus pyogenes</i> tht functions to lyse RBCs, thereby contributi
ng to bet-hemolysis.
1402432533724 1395802358422 Which disorder is ssocited with ASO (Anti-Stre
ptolysin O) ntibodies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rheumtic fever}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, Streptolysin O is from Streptococcus pyogenes.</i></div>
1402432627607 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin (TSST-1)}} is
superntigen exotoxin from <i>Stphylococcus ureus</i> tht brings MHC II
nd T-cell receptors in close proximity to the ntigen binding site, thereby c
using overwhelming IFN-gmm nd IL-2 relese. <br /><div><i>Thereby cusing sh
ock.</i></div>
1402432761359 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Toxic Shock Syndrome Toxin (T
SST-1) from <i>Stphylococcus ureus</i>?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Bringing of M
HC II nd T-cell receptors in proximity to outside of the ntigen binding site,
thereby cusing overwhelming relese of IFN-gmm nd IL-2}}</div>
<br><div
><i>And subsequent shock.</i></div>
1402432829156 1395802358422 Which cytokines re involved in the induction of
Toxic Shock Syndrome by superntigen exotoxins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IFNgmm; IL-2}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Thereby inducing fever, rsh nd shock.</i
></div>
1402432869781 1395802358422 {{c1::Exfolitin}} is n exotoxin from <i>Stphy
lococcus ureus</i> tht cuses Stphylococcl Sclded Skin Syndrome (SSSS)
.
1402432972801 1395802358422 {{c1::Exotoxin A}} is superntigen exotoxin fr
om <i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i> tht brings MHC II nd T-cell receptors in
proximity to the ntigen binding site, thereby cusing toxic shock syndrome.
1402433021202 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Exotoxin A from <i>Streptococ
cus pyogenes</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Superntigen; MHC II nd TCR ctiv
tion, thereby cusing mssive relese of IFN-gmm nd IL-2}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Not to be confused with Exotoxin A from Pseudomons eruginos which funct
ions to inctivte EF2 nd protein synthesis.</i></div>
grm-negtive bcteri tht is mde of Lipopolyscchride (LPS)
<br /><d
1402433697999 1395802358422 Which ctivted complement protein is chemotcti
c for neutrophils?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C5}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-14748917694943.jpg" /></div>
1402433732008 1395802358422 {{c1::Trnsformtion}} is bcteril genetic pr
ocess through with nked DNA is tken up from the environment. <br /><div><i>Es
pecilly seen with <b>S</b>treptococcus pneumonie, <b>H</b>emophilus <b>i</b>n
fluenze type B nd <b>N</b>eisseri spp. (<b>SHiN</b>).</i></div>
1402434152550 1395802358422 The {{c1::F+ plsmid}} is bcteril plsm
id tht contins genes required for sex pilus nd conjugtion.
1402435735347 1395802358422 A {{c1::High-frequency recombintion (Hfr)
cell}} is bcteril cell whose <b>F+ plsmid hs become incorported into the
bcteril chromosoml DNA</b>. <br /><div><i>Hence when the plsmid DNA is repl
icted, some flnking chromosoml DNA is likely to be s well. Therefore, plsmi
d nd chromosoml genes re trnsferred.</i></div>
1402436340967 1395802358422 A {{c1::trnsposon}} is segment of DNA th
t cn "jump" from one loction to nother vi excision nd reintegrtion.
<br /><div><i>Through this, genes cn be trnsferred from plsmid to chromosome
nd vice vers.</i></div><div><i>Excision cn include flnking chromosoml DNA w
hich cn be incorported into plsmid nd trnsferred to nother bcterium. Th
is is wy ntibiotic resistnce cn be trnsmitted.</i></div>
1402439166361 1395802358422 {{c1::Generlized trnduction}} is type of bc
teril trnsduction tht involves clevge of bcteril DNA nd prtil pckgin
g of bcteril chromosoml DNA into bcteriophge cpsids following <b>lytic ph
ge</b> infection. <br /><div><i>The phge then infects nother bcterium,
trnsferring the genes.</i></div>
1402441659957 1395802358422 {{c1::Specilized trnsduction}} is type of b
cteril trnsduction tht involves <b>lysogenic phge</b> infects bcte
rium nd incorportes virl DNA into the bcteril chromosome. <br /><div><i>Wh
en phge DNA is excised, flnking bcteril genes my be excised with it nd pc
kged into virl cpsids.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-16896401342650.jpg" /
></i></div>
1402441976942 1395802358422 Wht is the Novobiocin sensitivity of <i>Stphyl
ococcus sprophyticus</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Resistnt}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i><b>"NO S</b>t<b>RES</b>s"</i><br /><div><img src="pste-172528836282
84.jpg" /></div>
1402442693838 1395802358422 Wht is the Novobiocin sensitivity of <i>Stphyl
ococcus epidermidis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sensitive}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>"<b>NO</b> <b>S</b>t<b>RES</b>s"<br /></i><div><img src="pste17248588660988.jpg" /></div>
1402442749529 1395802358422 Wht is the Optochin sensitivity of Viridns Str
eptococci (<i>Streptococcus mutns</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Resistnt}}<
/div> <br /><div>"<b>OV</b>e<b>RP</b><b>S</b>s"</div><div><img src="pste-172
48588660988.jpg" /></div>
1402442905229 1395802358422 Wht is the Optochin sensitivity of <i>Streptoco
ccus pneumonie</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sensitive}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i>"<b>OV</b>e<b>RP</b><b>S</b>s"</i><br /><div><img src="pste-172485
88660988.jpg" /></div>
1402442951231 1395802358422 Wht is the Bcitrcin sensitivity of Group B St
rep (<i>Streptococcus glctie</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Resistnt}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><i>"<b>B-BRAS</b>"</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-172485886
60988.jpg" /></i></div>
1402443067677 1395802358422 Wht is the Bcitrcin sensitivity of Group A St
rep (<i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sensitive}}</div
>
<br /><div><i>"<b>B-BRAS</b>"</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-172485886
60988.jpg" /></i></div>
1402452771084 1395802358422 Wht type of hemolysis is ssocited with the fo
rmtion of green ring round colonies on blood gr?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Alph-hemolysis}}</div>
1402453279253 1395802358422 Wht type of hemolysis is exhibited by <i>S
treptococcus pneumonie</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alph-hemolysis}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Ctlse-negtive</i></div><div><i>Optochin sensitive</i></div>
1402453919315 1395802358422 Wht type of hemolysis is exhibited by Viridns
streptococci (e.g.<i> Streptococcus mutns</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Alph-hemolysis}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Ctlse-negtive</i></div><div><i
>Optochin resistnt</i></div>
1402453965830 1395802358422 Which type of hemolysis is ssocited with the f
ormtion of <b>cler re</b> of hemolysis on blood gr?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Bet-hemolysis}}</div>
1402454001343 1395802358422 Wht type of hemolysis is exhibited by <i>Stphy
lococcus ureus</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bet-hemolysis}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Ctlse-positive</i></div><div><i>Cogulse-positive</i></div>
1402454023825 1395802358422 Wht type of hemolysis is exhibited by Group A S
trep (<i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bet-hemolysis}
}</div> <br /><div><i>Ctlse-negtive</i></div><div><i>Bcitrcin sensitive</i
></div>
1402454109380 1395802358422 Wht type of hemolysis is exhibited by Group B S
trep (<i>Streptococcus glctie</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bet-hemolysi
s}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Ctlse-negtive</i></div><div><i>Bcitrcin resi
stnt.</i></div>
1402454204136 1395802358422 Wht type of hemolysis is exhibited by <i>Lister
i monocytogenes</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bet-hemolysis}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Tumbling motility; meningitis in newborns; unpsteurized milk.</i></div>
1402454541483 1395802358422 Wht type of hemolysis is ssocited with Group
D Strep (nd <i>Enterococcus feclis</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gmm-hem
olysis}}</div>
1402454604773 1395802358422 Wht type of hemolysis is ssocited with <i>Str
eptococcus bovis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gmm-hemolysis}}</div>
1402454645478 1395802358422 Where in the respirtory trct does <i>Stphyloc
occus ureus</i> commonly colonize?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-22

982370001162.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nose}}</div>
1402455154189 1395802358422 {{c1::Protein A}} is virulence fctor from <i>
Stphylococcus ureus</i> tht binds to the F<sub>c</sub> portion of I
gG, thereby inhibiting complement ctivtion nd phgocytosis.
1402456144030 1395802358422 Which exotoxin from <i>Stphylococcus ureus</i>
cuses Toxic Shock Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Toxic Shock Syndro
me Toxin (TSST-1)}}</div>
cuses Stphylococcl Sclded Skin Syndrome (SSSS)?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Exfolitin}}</div>
cuses rpid-onset food poisoning?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Stphylococc
l enterotoxins}}</div> <br /><div><i>Incubtion period is very short (2-6 hrs)
due to the toxins being pre-formed. The enterotoxin is het stble nd hence is
not destroyed by cooking.</i></div>
1402456305846 1395802358422 {{c1::Pneumoni}} is respirtory compliction
of <i>Stphylococcus ureus</i> infection tht commonly rises fter n inf
luenz virus infection.
1402456347862 1395802358422 {{c1::Methicillin-resistnt <i>Stphylococcus u
reus</i> (MRSA)}} is form of <i>Stphylococcus ureus</i> tht is re
sistnt to methicillin nd nfcillin due to ltered penicillin-binding proteins.
<br /><div><i>MRSA is n importnt cuse of serious nocosomil nd community-cq
uired infections.</i></div>
1402456529801 1395802358422 How does vginl or nsl tmpon use influence t
he risk of getting Toxic Shock Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</
div>
1402456890495 1395802358422 Wht is the ctlse expression of <i>Stphyloco
ccus ureus</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402456952709 1395802358422 Wht is the cogulse expression of <i>Stphyloc
occus ureus</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div> <br /><div><i>Co
gulse helps Stphylococcus ureus form fibrin clots round itself, forming s
ort of bscess.</i></div>
1402456998509 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Stphylococcus epidermidis</i>}} is <
i>Stphylococcus</i> species tht commonly infects prosthetic devices nd i
ntrvenous ctheters by producing dherent biofilms.
<br /><div><i>Component
of norml skin flor.</i></div><div><i>Contmintes blood cultures.</i></div><di
v><i>Novobiocin sensitive.</i></div>
1402457468984 1395802358422 Which <i>Stphylococcus </i>species is the <b>2n
d most common</b> cuse of uncomplicted UTI in young women?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::<i>Stphylococcus sprophyticus</i>}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Es
cherichi coli is the most common.</i></div>
1402457591435 1395802358422 Which bcteri is the most common cuse of menin
gitis?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-26530012987655.jpg" /><br /><div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumonie</i>}}</div></div>
<br /><d
1402457846530 1395802358422 Which bcteri is the most common cuse of otiti
s medi in children?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-26525718020359.jpg" />
<br /><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumonie</i>}}</div></div>
1402457866068 1395802358422 Which bcteri is the most common cuse of pneum
oni?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-26525718020359.jpg" /><br /><div><br
<br /><d
1402457903262 1395802358422 Which bcteri is the most common cuse of sinus
itis?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-26525718020359.jpg" /><br /><div><br
<br /><d
1402458991108 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumonie</i>}} is ln
cet-shped <i>Streptococcus</i> species tht is ssocited with <b>"ru
sty" sputum</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-26525718020359.jpg" /></di

v>
<br /><div><i>Encpsulted</i></div><div><i>IgA Protese positive.</i></
div>
1402459120332 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumonie</i>}} is ln
cet-shped <i>Streptococcus</i> species tht is ssocited with sepsis in s
ickle cell nemi nd splenectomy.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-2652571
8020359.jpg" /></div> <br /><div><i>Encpsulted.</i></div><div><i>IgA Protes
e positive.</i></div>
1402519769834 1395802358422 Where re Viridns Streptococci normlly found i
n the body?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Orophrynx}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"V
iridns Strep live in the mouth becuse they re not frid <b>of-the-chin</b>&n
bsp;(<b>optochin</b> resistnt)"</i></div>
1402519840481 1395802358422 Which species of Viridns Streptococci commonly
cuses dentl cries?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus mutns</i>}}</
div>
1402519869398 1395802358422 Which species of Viridns Streptococci is known
to cuse subcute bcteril endocrditis t dmged vlves?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus snguinis</i>}}</div> <br /><div><i>Snguis = blood =
hert = endocrditis</i></div>
1402519948842 1395802358422 {{c1::Dextrns}} is virulence fctor from <i>S
treptococcus snguinis </i>tht binds to fibrin-pltelet ggregtes on dmged h
ert vlves, thereby llowing for bcteril endocrditis.
1402520542547 1395802358422 Which <i>Streptococcus</i> species is consi
dered Group A Strep?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>}}<
/div>
1402520588882 1395802358422 Which <i>Streptococcus </i>species is considered
Group B Strep?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus glctie</i>}}</di
v>
1402520605294 1395802358422 Which <i>Streptococcus </i>species is
known to cuse Scrlet Fever?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus p
yogenes</i> (Group A Strep)}}</div>
1402521425886 1395802358422 Which <i>Streptococcus </i>species is known to c
use Necrotizing Fsciitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pyogenes
</i> (Group A Strep)}}</div>
known to cuse Rheumtic Fever?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pyog
enes</i> (Group A Strep)}}</div>
1402521470315 1395802358422 Antibodies to {{c1::M Protein}}, virulence fc
tor from <i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>, enhnces host defenses ginst the bcte
ri but cn give rise to Rheumtic Fever.
ssocited with n increse in ASO titers?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Strepto
coccus pyogenes</i>}}</div>
<br /><div><i>ASO titers re indictive of recen
t S. pyogenes infection.</i></div>
1402521567796 1395802358422 {{c1::Rheumtic Fever}} nd {{c2::cute glo
merulonephritis}} re 2 immunologicl complictions of phryngitis cused by <i>
Streptococcus pyogenes</i>.
<br /><div><i>"Strep <b>PH</b>ryngitis cn beco
me Rheumtic <b>PH</b>ever nd glomerulone<b>PH</b>ritis."</i></div>
1402522057796 1395802358422 {{c1::Scrlet Fever}} is toxigenic complictio
n of <i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i> infection tht involves <b>scrlet rs
h</b> with <b>sndpper-like texture</b>, <b>strwberry tongue</b>
nd <b>circumorl pllor</b>.
1402522205348 1395802358422 {{c1::Polyrthritis}} is musculoskeletl fetu
re of Rheumtic Fever tht involves inflmmtion t multiple joints.
<br /><d
1402522246576 1395802358422 {{c1::Pncrditis}} is crdic compliction of
Rheumtic Fever tht involves inflmmtion of ll 3 lyers of the hert.
1402522355051 1395802358422 {{c1::Subcutneous nodules}} is cutneous comp
liction of Rheumtic Fever.
<br /><div><img src="pste-3728031613172.jpg" />
</div>
1402522361498 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythem mrgintum}} is cutneous compl
iction of Rheumtic Fever tht is described s n <b>nnulr, nonpruritic rsh<
/b> with <b>erythemtous borders</b>.
<br /><div><i>Commonly seen t t
he trunk nd limbs.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-3728031613172.jpg" /></i></
div>
1402522678704 1395802358422 {{c1::Sydenhm Chore}} is neurologicl compli
ction of Rheumtic Fever tht involves rpid, involuntry muscle movements.
1402522704864 1395802358422 Where is Group B Strep (<i>Streptococcus glct
ie</i>) normlly found in the body?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vgin}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Streptococcus <b>VAG</b>lctie</i></div><div><i>Pregnnt women
re screened for Streptococcus glctie t 35-37 weeks of gesttion. Ptients w
ith positive culture receive intrprtum penicillin prophylxis.</i></div>
1402522917302 1395802358422 Which "group" of <i>Streptococcus</i> bcte
ri re known to cuse pneumoni, meningitis nd sepsis minly in <b>bbies</b>?
<div><br />{{c1::<i>Streptococcus glctie</i> (Group B Strep)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Group <b>B</b> is for the <b>B</b>bies.</i></div>
1402523212304 1395802358422 {{c1::CAMP Fctor}} is protein produced by <i>
Streptococcus glctie</i> (Group B Strep) tht functions to enlrgen the
<br /><div><i>CA
re of hemolysis yielded by <i>Stphylococcus ureus</i>.
MP cAMP.</i></div>
1402523420232 1395802358422 Wht Hippurte Test result is yielded by <i>Stre
ptococcus glctie</i> (Group B Strep)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positi
ve}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The Hippurte Test guges whether or not the orgn
ism cn hydrolyze hippurte.</i></div>
1402524036532 1395802358422 Where in the body re Group D Streptococci (<i>E
nterococcus feclis</i> nd <i>Enterococcus fecium</i>) normlly found?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Colon}}</div> <br /><div><i>Group D streptococci inclu
de:</i></div><div><i>Enterococcl</i></div><div><i>Non-enterococcl (Streptococc
us bovis)</i></div>
1402524179050 1395802358422 {{c1::Subcute endocrditis}} is crdic compl
iction cused by Group D Streptococci (<i>Enterococcus feclis</i>
nd <i>Enterococcus fecium</i>) following GI/GU procedures.
1402524276587 1395802358422 Where in the body is Non-enterococcl Group
D Streptococci (<i>Streptococcus bovis</i>) normlly found?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::GI}}</div>
1402524394914 1395802358422 Wht type of cncer is ssocited with <b>bcter
emi</b> nd <b>subcute endocrditis</b> cused by Non-enterococ
cl Group D Streptococci (<i>Streptococcus bovis</i>)?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Colon cncer}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b>B</b>ovis in the <b>B</b>lood =
<b>C</b>ncer in the <b>C</b>olon.</i></div>
1402524441767 1395802358422 Which grm-positive bcteri cuses Diphtheri t
hrough potent extoxin tht inhibits protein synthesis vi ADP ribosyltion of
EF-2?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Corynebctrium diphtherie</i>}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>The toxin is encoded by bet-prophge.</i><div><i>Toxoid v
ccine cn prevent Diphtheri.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-7400228651293.jpg"
/></div></div>
1402525073764 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudomembrnous phryngitis}} is fetur
e of Diphtheri tht involves <b>gryish-white membrne</b> forming in th
e phrynx.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-7194070221082.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>There is lso lymphdenopthy, myocrditis nd rrhythmis.</i></d
iv>
1402525174067 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Corynebcterium spp.</i>}} is grm-po
sitive, <b>club shped</b> bcteri tht yields <b>blck colonies</b>
on cystine-tellurite gr.
<div><br /></div><i>It lso hs metchromtic (b
lue nd red) grnules nd positive Elek test for the toxin.</i><br /><div><img
src="pste-7404523618589.jpg" /></div>
1402525322268 1395802358422 Which chemicl compound found in the core of bc
teril spores functions to contribute to their het resistnce?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Dipicolinic Acid}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Spores must be utoclved
to be killed (stemed t 121 C for 15 min).</i></div><div><i>Spore forming grmpositives in soil:</i></div><div><i>- Bcillus nthrcis</i></div><div><i>- Clos
tridium perfringens</i></div><div><i>- Clostridium tetni</i></div><div><i>Other
spore forming bcter:</i></div><div><i>- Bcillus cereus</i></div><div><i>- Cl
ostridium botulinum</i></div><div><i>- Coxiell burnetti</i></div>
1402526056674 1395802358422 Which toxin from <i>Clostridium tetni</i>
cuses Tetnus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tetnospsmin}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Remember, tetnospsmin cleves SNARE proteins involved in neurotrnsmissi
on. It prevents the relese of GABA nd Glycine, 2 inhibitory neurotrnsmitters,
thereby cusing <b>spstic prlysis</b>, trismus nd risus srdonicus.</i></di
v>
1402526161207 1395802358422 {{c1::Floppy Bby Syndrome}} is form of Botuli
num tht is seen in bbies following ingestion of spores in honey.
<div><br
/></div><i><b>BOT</b>ulinum is from bd <b>BOT</b>tles of food nd honey.</i><b
r /><div><i>In dults, the preformed toxin is ingested to cuse Botulinum.</i></
div>
1402527211303 1395802358422 Which exotoxin from <i>Clostridium perfringens</
i> functions s phospholipse, thereby cusing myonecrosis (gs gngrene)
nd hemoylsis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alph-toxin}}</div> <br /><div><i>Ph
ospholipse, lecithinse ctivity.</i></div><div><i><b>PERF</b>ringens <b>PERF</
b>ortes gngrenous leg.</i></div>
1402527467355 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxin A}} is n enterotoxin from <i>Clostr
idium difficile</i> tht binds to the brush border of the gut.
1402527707136 1395802358422 Which exotoxin from <i>Clostridium difficile </i
>functions to bind to the brush border of the gut?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::To
xin A}}</div>
1402527727710 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxin B}} is cytotoxin from <i>Clostridi
um difficile</i> tht cuses cytoskeletl disruption vi ctin depolymeriz
tion, thereby cusing <b>pseudomembrnous colitis</b> nd <b>dirrhe</b>.
<br /><div><i><b>DI</b>fficile cuses <b>DI</b>rrhe.</i></div>
1402527819144 1395802358422 Which exotoxin from <i>Clostridium difficile</i>
cuses cytoskeletl disruption vi ctin depolymeriztion?<div><br />{{c1:
:Toxin B}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Thereby cuses <b>pseudomembrnous colitis
</b> nd <b>dirrhe</b>.</i></div>
1402528301015 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Clostridium</i> often c
uses infection following ntibiotic use, especilly clindmycin or mpicillin?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Clostridium difficile</i>}}</div>
1402528339247 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Clostridium diffici
le</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Metronidzole; Orl Vncomycin}}</div>
<br /><div><i>For recurring cses, fecl trnsplnt my prevent relpse.</i></
div>
1402528453642 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Bcillus nthrcis</i>}} is grm-posi
tive, spore-forming rod tht cuses Anthrx vi the nthrx toxin.<div><br /></d
iv><div><img src="pste-10857677324705.jpg" /></div>
1402529845478 1395802358422 Wht is the only bcterium with polypeptide c
psule?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Bcillus nthrcis</i>}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>It contins D-glutmte</i></div>
1402529871324 1395802358422 Which mino cid mkes up the polypeptide cpsul
e of <i>Bcillus nthrcis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D-glutmte}}</div>
1402529904606 1395802358422 {{c1::Cutneous Anthrx}} is type of nthrx t
ht presents with <b>boil-like lesions</b> nd <b>ulcers with blck eschrs
</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-11132555231651.jpg" /></div> <br /><d
iv><i>The boils/ulcers re pinless but necrotic.</i></div><div><i>Very uncommon
ly does cutneous nthrx progress to bcteremi nd deth.</i></div>
1402530028091 1395802358422 Wht type of Anthrx presents with cutneous ulc
ers with blck eschrs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cutneous Anthrx}}</div><div
><br /></div><div><img src="pste-11128260264355.jpg" /></div>
1402530059278 1395802358422 {{c1::Pulmonry Anthrx}} is type of Anthrx t
ht is obtined vi inhltion of spores.
1402530422851 1395802358422 {{c1::Pulmonry Anthrx}} is type of Anthrx t

ht presents with <b>flu-like symptoms</b> tht rpidly progress to fever,
pulmonry hemorrhge, medistinitis nd shock.
1402530947653 1395802358422 Wht type of Anthrx is obtined through the inh
ltion of <i>Bcillus nthrcis</i> spores?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pul
monry nthrx}}</div>
1402530981575 1395802358422 {{c1::Woolsorters' Disese}} is type of pulmon
ry nthrx tht is obtined from the inhltion of spores from contminted woo
l.
1402538199987 1395802358422 Wht type of food is ssocited with <i>Bcillus
cereus</i> food poisoning?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rice}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence "<u>Reheted Rice Syndrome</u>".</i></div><div><i>Spores sur
vive the cooking of rice.</i></div><div><i>Keeping rice wrm results in germint
ion of the spores nd subsequent enterotoxin formtion.</i></div>
1402538430203 1395802358422 {{c1::Cereulide}} is n enterotoxin from <i>Bci
llus cereus</i> tht cuses the <b>Emetic</b> type of <i>Bcillus cere
us</i> food poisoning.
1402538473732 1395802358422 Which exotoxin from <i>Bcillus cereus</i>
cuses the <b>emetic type</b> of <i>Bcillus cereus</i> food poisoning
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cereulide}}</div>
1402538510274 1395802358422 Which type of <i>Bcillus cereus</i> f
ood poisoning hs the shortest incubtion period?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Eme
tic type}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Emetic type = nuse nd vomiting 1-5 hrs
post consumption</i></div><div><i>Dirrhel type = wtery, nonbloody dirrhe wi
th GI pin 8-18 hrs post consumption</i></div>
1402538581035 1395802358422 The {{c1::Emetic}} type of <i>Bcillus
cereus</i> food poisoning presents with <b>nuse</b> nd <b>vomiting
</b> within <b>1-5 hrs</b> of consumption.
1402538632896 1395802358422 The {{c1::Dirrhel}} type of <i>Bcil
lus cereus</i> food poisoning presents with <b>wtery, nonbloody dirrhe</
b> nd <b>GI pin</b> within 8-18 hrs of consumption.
1402539907068 1395802358422 Wht foods re ssocited with cquisition of <i
>Listeri monocytogenes</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Unpsteurized diry; del
i mets}}</div>
1402539931229 1395802358422 Besides ingestion of contminted food, how is <
i>Listeri monocytogenes</i> trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trnsp
lcentlly; vginlly during childbirth}}</div> <br /><div><i>Listeri monocytog
enes cn cuse mnionitis, septicemi nd spontneous bortion in pregnnt women
.</i></div>
1402540262016 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Listeri monocytogenes</i>}} is grmpositive fculttive intrcellulr bcteri tht forms <b>"rocket tils"</b>&nbs
p;vi mnipultion of ctin filments, thereby llowing them to move through the
cytoplsm nd cell-to-cell without entering the ECF. <br /><div><i>This wy,
Listeri is ble to void ntibodies.</i></div>
1402540339170 1395802358422 Wht type of motility does <i>Listeri monocytog
enes</i> hve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tumbling}}</div>
1402540355262 1395802358422 Wht is the only grm-positive bcteri to produ
ce lipopolyscchride (LPS)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Listeri monocytogene
s</i>}}</div>
1402540822790 1395802358422 {{c1::Grnulomtosis Infntiseptic}} is compl
iction of fetomternl listeriosis (<i>Listeri monocytogenes</i>) seen in neon
tes tht involves the formtion of pyogenic grnuloms distributed over the who
le body.
1402540925193 1395802358422 Which ge group is commonly ffected by meningit
is cused by<i> Listeri monocytogenes</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neon
tes; Newborns}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, Listeri cn be cquired trnsv
ginlly during childbirth.</i></div>
1402541050124 1395802358422 How does Listeriosis (<i>Listeri monocytogenes<
/i>) commonly present in helthy individuls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mild g
stroenteritis}}</div>
1402541083693 1395802358422 Wht is the <b>empiricl</b> tretment for

infnts, immunocompromised ptients nd the elderly with suspected meningitis fr
om <i>Listeri monocytogenes</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ampicillin}}</div>
1402592222774 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Actinomyces spp.</i>}} nd {{c2::<
i>Nocrdi spp.</i>}} re both grm-positive bcteri tht form long, brnching
filments resembling fungi.
1402593371183 1395802358422 Wht is the oxygen dependency of <i>Actinomyces<
/i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anerobe}}</div>
te-790273982886.jpg" /></div>
1402593397734 1395802358422 Where in the body is <i>Actinomyces</i> nor
mlly found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Orl cvity}}</div>
1402593709544 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Actinomyces spp.</i>}} is grm-positi
ve, filmentous bcteri tht cuses orl/fcil bscesses tht drin through th
e sinus trcts. <br /><div><img src="pste-785979015590.jpg" /></div>
1402593749717 1395802358422 Wht type of pigment is ssocited with <i>Actin
omyces spp</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Yellow "sulfur grnules"}}</div>
1402593770382 1395802358422 Which grm-positive, filmentous bcteri is ss
ocited with yellow "sulfur grnules"?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Actinomyces
spp.</i>}}</div>
1402593795360 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Actinomyces spp.</i
> infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillin}}</div>
1402593810596 1395802358422 Wht is the oxygen dependency of <i>Nocrdi spp
</i>.?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aerobe}}</div>
te-1331439862178.jpg" /></div>
1402594064144 1395802358422 Which stin (other thn Grm) is required to vis
ulize <i>Nocrdi spp.</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acid Fst; <i>Nocrdi</
i> is wekly cid fst}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1327144894882.jpg" />
</div>
1402594106515 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Nocrdi spp.</i>}} is grm-positive,
filmentous bcteri tht is normlly found in soil.<div><br /></div><div><img
src="pste-1327144894882.jpg" /></div>
1402594127203 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Nocrdi spp.</i>}} is grm-positive,
filmentous bcteri tht cuses pulmonry infections in the immunocompromised
nd cutneous infections fter trum in the immunocompetent.<div><br /></div><d
1402594170914 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Nocrdi spp.</i>&n
bsp;infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sulfonmides}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.
g. Sulfmethoxzole (SMX)</i></div>
1402594286235 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Primry nd Secondry Tu
berculosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycobcterium tuberculosis</i>}}</div>
1402595044576 1395802358422 Which demogrphic is commonly ffected by Primr
y Tuberculosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Non immune host (i.e. children); Immu
nocompromised}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1683627180800.jpg" /></div>
1402595083354 1395802358422 Which re of the lung is the Ghon focus usully
found in Primry Tuberculosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Middle}}</div>
1402595520978 1395802358422 Where in the lung does <b>rectivtion</b>
of Tuberculosis normlly occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Upper lobe}}</div>
1402595580027 1395802358422 {{c1::Pott Disese}} is possible compliction
of extrpulmonry Tuberculosis tht involves spred of infection to vertebrl bo
dies. <br /><div><img src="pste-1683627180800.jpg" /></div>
1402595697031 1395802358422 {{c1::Cseting Grnuloms}} re feture of se
condry tuberculosis described s fibrocseous cvitry lesions with centrl nec
rosis nd multinucleted Lngerhns gint cells.<div><br /></div><div><img src="
pste-2241972928930.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Centrl pinkish region is
the necrosis.</i></div><div><i>Arrow points to the Lngerhns cell.</i></div>
1402596041435 1395802358422 Which Mycobcteri species is known to cuse Tub
erculosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycobcterium tuberculosis</i>}}</div>

<br /><div><i>Often resistnt to mny drugs.</i></div>
1402597026328 1395802358422 Which Mycobcteri species cuses pulmonry <b>T
B-like</b> symptoms (but not TB)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycobcteri
um knssii</i>}}</div> <br /><div><i>TB-like symptoms include fever, night swe
ts, weight loss nd hemoptysis.</i></div>
1402597472014 1395802358422 Which Mycobcteri species cuses disseminted,
non-TB disese in AIDS ptients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycobcterium vi
um-intrcellulre</i>}}</div> <br /><div><i>Often resistnt to multiple drugs.
</i></div>
1402597564621 1395802358422 Which stin is required to visulize ll <i>Myco
bcterium</i> <i>spp.</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acid-fst}}</div>
1402597655383 1395802358422 {{c1::Cord Fctor}} is virulence fctor in vir
ulent <i>Mycobcterium sp.</i> tht <b>inhibits mcrophge mturtion</b>&n
bsp;nd <b>induces the relese of TNF-lph</b>.
1402597710214 1395802358422 {{c1::Sulftides}} re surfce glycolipids found
on <i>Mycobcterium sp.</i> tht inhibit phgolysosoml fusion.
1402597758898 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Leprosy (Hnsen Disese)
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycobcterium lepre</i>}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Acid-fst.</i></div><div><i>Loves cool tempertures.</i></div>
1402598428843 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycobcterium lepre</i>}} is n cid-f
st bcillus tht cuses Leprosy (Hnsen Disese).
1402599041268 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycobcterium lepre</i>}} is the bc
teril cuse of Leprosy tht <b>likes cool tempertures</b>, thereby resulting i
n infection of the skin nd superficil nerves. <br /><div><i>This leds to <b
>"glove nd stocking" loss of senstion.</b></i></div><div><i>This is lso mens
tht Mycobcterium lepre cnnot be grown in vitro.</i></div>
1402599265400 1395802358422 {{c1::"Glove nd Stocking" senstion loss}} is
neurologicl compliction of Leprosy due to preferrentil infection of the skin
nd superficil nerves by <i>Mycobcterium lepre</i>. <br /><div><i>Remember,
this is becuse Mycobcterium lepre likes cool tempertures (i.e. the surfce
nd extremities of the body).</i></div>
1402599332424 1395802358422 Which niml is the reservoir for <i>Mycobcteri
um lepre</i> in the USA?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Armdillo}}</div>
1402599360392 1395802358422 Which form of Leprosy (Hnsen Disese) is lethl
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lepromtous form}}</div>
1402599578849 1395802358422 Which form of Leprosy presents diffusely over th
e skin with <b>leonine (lion-like) fcies</b>?<div><br /></div><div><img sr
c="pste-4913442586912.jpg" /><br /><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lepromtous}}</d
iv></div>
1402599681991 1395802358422 Which form of Leprosy presents with <b>"glove
nd stocking" </b>distribution of digit deformtion?<div><br /></div><div><img s
rc="pste-4956392260002.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lepromtous}}</
div>
<br /><div><i>This is due to sensory loss nd repetes trum in the ext
remities.</i></div><div><i>Remember, Mycobcterium lepre likes cooler tempertu
res nd hence infects the skin nd superficil nerves t the extremities.</i></d
iv>
1402599771427 1395802358422 Which form of Leprosy is chrcterized by <b>low
cell-medited immunity</b> with <b>humorl Th<sub>2</sub> response<
/b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lepromtous}}</div>
1402599929170 1395802358422 Which form of Leprosy is chrcterized by <b>hig
h cell-medited immunity </b>with lrgely <b>Th<sub>1</sub> immune respon
se</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tuberculoid}}</div>
1402600174598 1395802358422 The {{c1::Tuberculoid}} form of Leprosy is the f
orm limited to few <b>hypoesthetic, hirless skin plques</b>.
1402600204809 1395802358422 Which form of Leprosy is limited to few <b>hyp
oesthetic, hirless skin plques</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tuberculoid}}</
div>
1402600237041 1395802358422 {{c1::Dpsone}} nd {{c2::Rifmpin}} re 2
nti-mycobcteril drugs used to tret the Tuberculoid form of Leprosy. <br /><d
iv><i>The Tuberculoid form is treted with 6 month regimen of Dpson nd Rifm
pin.</i></div>
1402600753865 1395802358422 {{c1::Dpsone}}, {{c2::Rifmpin}}, nd&nbsp
;{{c3::Clofzimine}} re nti-mycobcteril drugs used to tret the Lepromtous
form of Leprosy.
<br /><div><i>The Lepromtous form is treted with 2-5
yer regimen of Dpsone, Rifmpin nd Clofzimine.</i></div>
1402600814505 1395802358422 Wht colour colonies do lctose-fermenting enter
ic bcteri yield on McConkey gr?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b>"</b>M<b>C</b>on<b>KEE</b>'<b>S</b>"</i></div><div><i><b>- C</
b>itrobcter</i></div><div><i>- <b>K</b>lebsiell</i></div><div><i>- <b>E</b>nte
robcter</i></div><div><i>- <b>E</b>scherichi</i></div><div><i>- <b>S</b>errti
(wek fermenter)</i></div>
1402613840602 1395802358422 Wht colour colonies do <i>Citrobcter spp.
</i> yield on McConkey Agr?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Due to lctose fermenttion.</i></div>
1402613877962 1395802358422 Wht colour colonies do <i>Klebsiell spp.</i>&n
bsp;yield on McConkey Agr?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Due to lctose fermenttion.</i></div>
1402613902009 1395802358422 Wht colour colonies do <i>Enterobcter spp.</i>
yield on McConkey Agr?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div> <br /><d
1402613927906 1395802358422 Wht colour colonies do <i>Serrti spp.</i>&nbs
p;yield on McConkey Agr?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pink}}</div>
<br /><d
1402613946370 1395802358422 {{c1::Bet-glctosidse}} is n enzyme produced
by <i>Escherichi coli</i> tht breks down lctose into glucose nd glc
tose.
1402619093228 1395802358422 Wht colour colonies do lctose fermenting bcte
ri yield on Eosin-Methylene Blue (EMB) gr?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Purple/
blck}}</div> <br /><div><i>Escherichi coli grows purple colonies with gree
n sheen.</i></div>
1402619167193 1395802358422 How does Penicillin G ffect grm-negtive bcte
ri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No effect}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Grm-negt
ives re resistnt to Penicillin G s the outer membrne lyer inhibits entry.</
i></div>
1402620434178 1395802358422 How does Vncomycin influence grm-negtives bc
teri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No effect}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The outer
membrne lyer of grm-negtive bcteri does not let Vncomycin enter.</i></div
>
1402674610539 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Neisseri</i> ferments
glucose <b>only</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseri gonorrhee</i>}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><i><b>G</b>onococcus = <b>G</b>lucose only</i></div>
1402675610097 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Neisseri</i> ferments
glucose <b>nd</b> mltose?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseri meningi
tidis</i>}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b>M</b>enin<b>G</b>ococcus = <b>M</b>lto
se nd <b>G</b>lucose</i></div>
1402675655473 1395802358422 {{c1::IgA Protese}} is protein secreted by <i
>Neisseri spp.</i> tht functions to cleve secreted host IgA.
1402676290201 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Neisseri</i> is often
found intrcellulrly in neutrophils?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-10222
02216727.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseri gonorrhee</i>}}<
/div>
1402676332023 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Neisseri</i> hs pol
yscchride cpsule?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseri meningitidis</i>}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>Gonococcus <b>does not</b> hve polyscchride cps
ule.</i></div>
1402676915794 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Neisseri gonorrhoee</i>}} is specie
s of <i>Neisseri</i> tht hs no vccine due to rpid ntigenic vrition
of pilus proteins.
1402676951058 1395802358422 Which serotype of <i>Neisseri meningitidis</i>&

nbsp;lcks vccine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type B}}</div>
1402676962607 1395802358422 How is <i>Neisseri gonorrhoee</i> trnsmi
tted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sexully}}</div>
1402677908050 1395802358422 How is <i>Neisseri meningitidis</i> trnsm
itted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Respirtory nd Orl secretions}}</div>
1402677924333 1395802358422 {{c1::Fitz-Hugh-Curtis Syndrome}} is rre comp
liction of pelvic inflmmtory disese (PID) cused by <i>Neisseri gonorrhoee
</i> tht involves inflmmtion of the liver cpsule nd formtion of dhes
ions.
1402678005051 1395802358422 {{c1::Neontl Conjunctivitis}} is n oculr inf
ection seen in neontes due to <i>Neisseri gonorrhoee</i> infection durin
g childbirth.
1402678045935 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Gonorrhe?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseri gonorrhoee</i>}}</div>
1402678070433 1395802358422 {{c1::Septic Arthritis}} is musculoskeletl co
mpliction of <i>Neisseri gonorrhoee</i> infection.
1402678102937 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of meningococcemi?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseri meningitidis</i>}}</div>
1402678464715 1395802358422 {{c1::Wterhouse-Friderichsen Syndrome}} is co
mpliction of meningococcemi tht is described s <b>drenl glnd filure</b>&
nbsp;due to <b>hemorrhging into the drenl glnds.</b>
1402678661954 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Neisseri meningiti
dis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ceftrixone (or Penicillin G)}}</div>
1402678713631 1395802358422 How is <i>Hemophilus influenze</i> trnsm
itted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aerosol}}</div>
1402679622262 1395802358422 Which strin of <i>Hemophilus influenze</i>&nb
sp;cuses the most invsive disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type B}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>The H. influenze vccine contins Type B cpsulr polyscch
rides conjugted to diphtheri toxoid or nother protein. It is given between 2
nd 18 months.</i><br /><div><i>The non-typeble strins cuse mucosl infectio
ns (e.g. otitis medi, conjunctivitis, bronchitis).</i></div>
1402679705999 1395802358422 {{c1::IgA Protese}} is protein mde by <i>He
mophilus influenze</i> tht functions to cleve secreted host IgA.
1402679943109 1395802358422 Which gr is required to culture <i>Hemophilus
influenze</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chocolte gr}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Chocolte gr contins the required Fctor V (NAD+) nd Fctor X (Hemtin
)</i></div>
1402680098931 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Stphylococcus ureus</i>}} is grm-p
ositive bcteri tht cn be used to grow <i>Hemophilus influenze</i> due
to its bility to provide Fctor V (NAD+).
1402680179686 1395802358422 {{c1::"Thumbprint Sign"}} is feture of Epiglo
ttitis cused by <i>Hemophilus influenze</i> tht is seen on lterl ne
ck x-ry.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-3904125272481.jpg" /></div>
1402680282680 1395802358422 {{c1::Epiglottitis}} is compliction of <i>He
mophilus influenze</i> infection tht often presents s "cherry red" epi
glottis in children.<div><br /><div><img src="pste-3990024618262.jpg" /></div><
/div> <br /><div><i>H<b>EMOP</b>hilus influenze:</i></div><div><i>- <b>E</b>
piglottitis</i></div><div><i>- <b>M</b>eningitis</i></div><div><i>- <b>O</b>titi
s medi</i></div><div><i>- <b>P</b>neumoni</i></div><div><i>H. influenze does
not cuse the flu. Tht is the influenz virus.</i></div>
1402680394869 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <b>mucosl</b> <i
>Hemophilus influenze</i> infections?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Amoxicil
lin (+/- Clvulnte)}}</div>
1402680440254 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for meningitis cused by <
i>Hemophilus influenze</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ceftrixone}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Rifmpin cn be used for prophylxis following close contct.</i><
/div>
1402681890002 1395802358422 Wht stin is required to properly visulize <i>
Legionell pneumophil</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Silver stin}}</div>
1402682772705 1395802358422 Wht culture/gr is required to grow <i>Legione

ll pneumophil</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chrcol yest extrct with iron
nd cysteine}}</div> <br /><div><i>Legionell is cliniclly detected by the p
resence of ntigen in the urine.</i></div>
1402682850107 1395802358422 How is <i>Legionell pneumophil</i> trnsm
itted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aerosol from environmentl wter source to hb
itt}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.g. ir conditioning unit; hot wter tnks</i></d
iv><div><i>There is no person-to-person trnsmission</i></div>
1402683018488 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Legionell pneumoph
il</i> infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mcrolides or Quinolones}}</d
iv>
1402683040477 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Legionnires' Disese?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Legionell pneumophil</i>}}</div>
1402683239774 1395802358422 {{c1::Legionnires' Disese}} is respirtory d
isorder cused by <i>Legionell pneumophil</i> tht presents with <b>sever
e pneumoni</b>, fever, <b>GI</b> nd <b>CNS </b>symptoms.
1402683305813 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Pontic Fever?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::<i>Legionell pneumophil</i>}}</div>
1402683318268 1395802358422 {{c1::Pontic Fever}} is fever cused by <i>Le
gionell pneumophil</i> tht presents s <b>mild flu-like syndrome</b>.
1402683374374 1395802358422 Which electrolyte imblnce is seen in the lbs
of ptient with <i>Legionell pneumophil</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hypo
ntremi}}</div>
1402683406615 1395802358422 Wht is the oxygen dependency of <i>Pseudomons
<br /><div><i>Ps
eruginos</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aerobic}}</div>
eudomons <b>AER</b>uginos = <b>AER</b>obic</i></div>
1402683469962 1395802358422 Wht is the oxidse expression of <i>Pseudomons
eruginos</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402683513183 1395802358422 Which pigment mde by <i>Pseudomons eruginos<
/i> gives it its blue-green pigment?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-7
387343749400.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pyocynin}}</div>
1402683543013 1395802358422 Wht type of odour is ssocited with <i>Pseudom
ons eruginos</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Grpe-like odour}}</div>
1402683559398 1395802358422 Which exotoxin from <i>Pseudomons eruginos</i
> functions to inctivte EF-2 vi ADP Ribosyltion?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Exotoxin A}}</div>
1402683605448 1395802358422 Which grm-negtive bcteri is ssocited with
wound nd burn infections?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomons eruginos<
/i>}}</div>
pneumoni in cystic fibrosis ptients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomons
eruginos</i>}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Chronic pneumoni in cystic fibrosis
ptients is ssocited with biofilms, n re in which Pseudomons is str.</
i><br /><div><img src="pste-8053063680208.jpg" /></div>
mlignnt Otitis Extern in dibetics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomons
eruginos</i>}}</div>
hot tub folliculitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomons eruginos</i>}}
</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-8053063680208.jpg" /></div>
Dibetic Osteomyelitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomons eruginos</i>
}}</div>
Ecthym Gngrenosum?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-8529805050270.jpg" /><
br /><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomons eruginos</i>}}</div></div>
1402684461597 1395802358422 {{c1::Ecthym Gngrenosum}} is cutneous disor
der cused by <i>Pseudomons sp.</i> tht is described s rpidly progressi
ve, necrotic cutneous lesions.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-85255100829
74.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Typiclly seen in immunocompromised ptien
ts.</i></div>
1402684552834 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Pseudomons erugin
os</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bet-lctm ( Aminoglycoside)}}</div>
1402684942766 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <b>UTI</b>&nbsp
;cused by <i>Pseudomons eruginos</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ciprofloxc
in}}</div>
1402701900936 1395802358422 Which virulence fctor from <i>Escherichi coli<
/i> llows it to cuse cystitis nd pyelonephritis?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::Fimbrie}}</div>
1402702796660 1395802358422 Which virulence fctor from <i>Escherichi
coli</i> llows it to cuse pneumoni nd neontl meningitis?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::K cpsule}}</div>
1402702816170 1395802358422 Which virulence fctor from <i>Escherichi
coli</i> llows it to cuse septic shock?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LPS en
dotoxin}}</div>
1402702831849 1395802358422 {{c1::Enteroinvsive <i>Escherichi coli</i>&nbs
p;(EIEC)}} is strin of <i>Escherichi coli</i> tht <b>invdes</b> the i
ntestinl mucos, thereby cusing necrosis nd inflmmtion nd subsequent dysen
tery.
1402702967849 1395802358422 {{c1::Enteroinvsive <i>Escherichi coli</i
> (EIEC)}} is strin of <i>Escherichi coli</i> tht cliniclly pres
ents similr to <i>Shigell</i> infection.
1402702989205 1395802358422 {{c1::Enterotoxigenic <i>Escherichi coli </i>(E
TEC)}} is strin of <i>Escherichi coli</i> tht produces both <u>het-l
bile</u> nd <u>het-stble</u> enterotoxins. <br /><div><i>Does not c
use inflmmtion nd <u>is not invsive</u>.</i></div>
1402703101476 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Trvelers' Dirrhe?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Enterotoxigenic <i>Escherichi coli </i>(ETEC)
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Wtery dirrhe.</i></div><div><i>E<b>T</b>EC = <b
>T</b>rvelers' Dirrhe</i></div>
1402703136653 1395802358422 {{c1::Enteropthogenic <i>Escherichi coli</i>&n
bsp;(EPEC)}} is strin of <i>Escherichi coli</i> tht <b>dheres to the
picl surfce of GI epithelium, flttens villi</b> nd thereby cuses <b>m
<br /><div><i>Cuses wtery dirrhe, typiclly in child
lbsorption</b>.
ren.</i></div><div><i>E<b>P</b>EC = <b>P</b>editric ptients</i></div>
1402703308145 1395802358422 {{c1::Enterohemorrhgic <i>Escherichi coli</i>&
nbsp;(EHEC)}} is strin of <i>Escherichi coli</i> tht produces <b>Shi
g-like toxin</b> tht cuses Hemolytic Uremi Syndrome (HUS).
<br /><div><i>The toxin lone cuses necrosis nd inflmmtion, thereby cusing
dysentery.</i></div>
1402703401230 1395802358422 Wht is the most common serotype of Enteroh
emorrhgic <i>Escherichi coli</i> (EHEC)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
O157:H7}}</div>
1402703433847 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemolytic Uremi Syndrome (HUS)}} is hem
tologicl/renl compliction of Enterohemorrhgic <i>Escherichi coli
</i> (EHEC) infection tht involves trid of <b>nemi, thrombocyto
peni</b><i style="font-weight: bold; "> </i>nd <b>cute renl filure</b
>.
<br /><div><i>Microthrombi form on endothelium tht is dmged by the Sh
ig-like toxin. This then cuses mechnicl hemolysis nd formtion of schistocy
tes. Tht lso cuses decrese in renl blood flow.</i></div><div><i>Addition
lly, the microthrombi results thrombocytopeni due to the pltelet usge.</i></
div>
1402703499005 1395802358422 {{c1::Enterohemorrhgic <i>Escherichi coli
</i> (EHEC)}} is strin of <i>Escherichi coli</i> tht is lso refe
rred to s Shig toxin-producing <i>Escherichi coli</i>.
1402703632090 1395802358422 Which mjor strin of <i>Echerichi coli</i>&nbs
p;<b>does not</b> ferment Sorbitol?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Enterohemorr
hgic <i>Escherichi coli</i> (EHEC)}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is ho
w you differentite EHEC from other Escherichi coli strins.</i></div>
1402704125904 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Klebsiell</i>}} is grm-negtive ins
testinl bcteri tht cuses lobr pneumoni in lcoholics nd dibetics when
spirted.
<div><br /></div><i>Also cuse of nocosomil UTIs.</i><br /><d
1402705097593 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Klebsiell spp.</i>}} is grm-negtiv
e intestinl flor tht grows very mucoid colonies due to n bundnce of polys
cchride cpsules.
1402705143390 1395802358422 Which grm-negtive intestinl flor is ssocit
ed with <b>red "currnt jelly"</b> sputum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Kl
ebsiell spp.</i>}}</div>
></div>
1402705195876 1395802358422 Wht type of motility does <i>Slmonell</i>&nbs
p;hve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Flgell}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"Slmon c
n swim" (i.e. Slmonell hs flgell)</i></div><div><i>Shigell <b>does not</
b> hve flgell.</i></div>
1402705418836 1395802358422 How does <i>Slmonell</i> disseminte in t
he body?<div><br />{{c1::Hemtogenously}}</div>
1402705440214 1395802358422 How does <i>Shigell</i> disseminte in the
body?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cell to cell}}</div> <br /><div><i>It <b>does
not</b> spred hemtogenously (Slmonell does).</i></div>
1402705480143 1395802358422 {{c1::Hydrogen sulfide}} is chemicl compound
with chrcteristic smell of rotten eggs. It is <b>mde by </b><i style="fontweight: bold; ">Slmonell</i>, but <b>not <i>Shigell</i>.</b>
1402706128586 1395802358422 How do ntibiotics influence the durtion of fec
l excretion of <i>Slmonell</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Prolongtion}}</di
v>
1402706169399 1395802358422 How do ntibiotics influence the durtion of fec
l excretion of <i>Shigell</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Shortening}}</div>
1402706193971 1395802358422 Wht type of immune response is seen once <i>Sl
monell</i> invdes the intestinl mucos?<div><br />{{c1::Monocytic respon
se}}</div>
1402707681139 1395802358422 Wht type of immune response is seen when <i>Shi
gell</i> invdes the intestinl mucos?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PMN Inf
iltrtion}}</div>
1402707714140 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology for Typhoid Fever?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Slmonell typhi</i>}}</div>
1402708338576 1395802358422 {{c1::Typhoid Fever}} is fever cused by <i>S
lmonell typhi</i> tht presents with <b>rose spots on the bdomen</b>, fev
er, hedche nd dirrhe.
1402708366492 1395802358422 Wht is the reservoir for <i>Slmonell typhi</i
>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Humns only}}</div>
<br /><div><i>It cn rem
in in the gllbldder nd cuse crrier stte.</i></div>
1402708857743 1395802358422 How is <i>Cmpylobcter jejuni</i> trnsmit
ted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fecl-orl}}</div>
1402708942499 1395802358422 Wht foods re ssocited with <i>Cmpylobcter
jejuni</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Poultry; Met; Unpsteurized Milk}}</div>
1402708972493 1395802358422 Wht type of dirrhe does <i>Cmpylobcter jeju
ni</i> cuse?<div><br />{{c1::Bloody; especilly in children}}</div>
1402708990506 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cmpylobcter jejuni</i>}} is <b>comm
</b> or <b>S-shped</b> grm-negtive bcillus tht is mjor cuse
of bloody dirrhe, especilly in children.
1402709037963 1395802358422 Wht is the Oxidse expression of <i>Cmpylobct
er jejuni</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402709054386 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cmpylobcter jejuni</i>}} is <b>comm
</b> or <b>S-shped</b> grm-negtive bcillus tht grows t 42 C.
<br /><div><i><b>CAMP</b>ylobcter likes the hot <b>CAMP</b>fire.</i></div>
1402709619219 1395802358422 Which grm-negtive bcillus is common nteced
ent to <b>Guillin-Brre Syndrome</b> nd rective rthritis?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Cmpylobcter jejuni</i>}}</div>
1402709659136 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Vibrio cholere</i>}} is <b>comm-sh
ped</b> grm-negtive bcillus tht produces profuse rice-wter dirrhe vi
n enterotoxin tht permnently ctivtes the G<sub>s</sub> subunit, thereby

incresing cAMP.
<br /><div><i>Endemic in developing ntions.</i></div><d
iv><i>Prompt orl rehydrtion is necessry.</i></div>
1402710228196 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Choler toxin from <i>Vibrio
cholere</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Permnent ctivtion of the G<sub>s</su
b> subunit leding to overctivity of Adenylte Cyclse nd incresed cAMP}
}</div>
1402710260851 1395802358422 Wht is the oxidse expression of <i>Vibrio chol
ere</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402711710666 1395802358422 Wht type of medi is required to culture <i>Vib
rio cholere</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::An lkline medi}}</div>
1402711752320 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Yersini enterocolitic</i>}} is grm
-negtive bcteri tht cuses mesenteric denitis tht cn mimic Crohn Dises
e or Appendicitis in its presenttion.
1402711796664 1395802358422 How is <i>Yersini enterocolitic</i> trns
mitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pet feces; Contminted Milk; Pork}}</div>
1402711828007 1395802358422 Wht type of gstrointestinl ulcer is most comm
only ssocited with <i>Helicobcter pylori</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Duod
enl}}</div>
1402712439398 1395802358422 Wht is the Oxidse expression of <i>Helicobcte
r pylori</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402712470507 1395802358422 Wht is the Ctlse expression of <i>Helicobct
er pylori</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1402712488672 1395802358422 Wht is the Urese expression of <i>Helicobcter
pylori</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
<br /><div><i>A
Urese breth test or fecl ntigen test cn be used for dignosis.</i></div>
1402712523662 1395802358422 How does the pH of the stomch chnge with <i>He
licobcter pylori</i> infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::More lkline (
incresed pH)}}</div>
1402712733388 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Helicobcter pylori
</i> infection?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-16664473108755.jpg" />
<br /><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Triple therpy: PPI + Clrithromycin + Amoxici
llin/Metronidzole}}</div></div>
1402712785869 1395802358422 The {{c1::Spirochetes}} re group of bct
eri tht re spirl-shped with xil filments.<div><br /></div><div><img src=
"pste-16707422781769.jpg" /></div>
<div><br /></div><b><i>BLT</i></b><br />
<div><i>It includes <b>B</b>orreli (big), <b>L</b>eptospir, <b>T</b>reponem.<
/i></div>
1402712865855 1395802358422 Which is the only Spirochete tht cn be visuli
zed using nilin dyes (Wright or Giems) in light microscopy?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::<i>Borreli</i>}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, Borreli is the
biggest spirochete.</i></div>
1402712913007 1395802358422 Wht type of microscopy is required to visulize
the Spirochete <i>Treponem</i>?<div><br />{{c1::Drk-field microscopy}}</
div>
1402712939269 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Leptospirosis?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::<i>Leptospir interrogns</i>}}</div> <br /><div><i>Leptospiro
sis presents with flu-like symptoms, jundice, photophobi with conjunctivl suf
fusion (erythem without exudte).</i></div>
1402713050920 1395802358422 Which Spirochete is found in wter contminted
with niml urine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Leptospir interrogns</i>}}</d
iv>
1402713110665 1395802358422 {{c1::Leptospirosis}} is n infectious disese c
used by <i>Leptospir interrogns</i> tht presents with <b>flu-like sympt
oms, jundice</b> nd <b>photophobi with conjunctivl suffusion</b> (
erythem without exudte).
1402713162648 1395802358422 Which demogrphic shows high prevlence of Lep
tospirosis (<i>Leptospir interrogns</i>)?<div><br />{{c1::Surfers; Tropics}}</
div>
<br /><div><i>Hence Hwii is big hot spot.</i></div>
1402713204303 1395802358422 {{c1::Weil Disese (Icterohemorrhgic Leptospiro
sis)}} is severe form of Leptospirosis tht presents with <b>jundice</b>&nbsp

;nd <b>zotemi</b> from liver nd renl dysfunction.
<br /><div><i><u
>Also involves fever, hemorrhge nd nemi</u>.</i></div>
1402775605621 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Lyme Disese?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::<i>Borreli burgdorferi</i>}}</div>
1402779671287 1395802358422 How is Lyme Disese (<i>Borreli burgdorferi</i>
) trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::vi the <i>Ixodes</i> tick}}</div
>
1402779699146 1395802358422 Which vector trnsmits Lyme Disese (<i>Borreli
burgdorferi</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ixodes</i> tick}}</div>
1402779720891 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Bbesi</i>}} is species of protozo
trnsmitted by the <i>Ixodes</i> tick tht cuses hemtologicl infection
.
1402779823546 1395802358422 Which niml is the nturl reservoir for <i>Bor
reli burdorferi</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mouse}}</div> <br /><div><i>Mi
ce re importnt in the tick life cycle.</i></div>
1402780394007 1395802358422 In which re of the United Sttes is Lyme Dise
se common?<div><br />{{c1::Northestern United Sttes}}</div>
1402780493044 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythemi Chronicum Migrns}} is n <b>ini
til</b> cutneous feture of Lyme Disese tht is described s n expnding <b>
"bull's eye", red, trget</b> rsh.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-25
76980378017.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Other initil fetures include flu
-like symptoms nd fcil nerve plsy.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-32427003
08685.jpg" /></i></div>
1402780699113 1395802358422 Which nerve plsy is potentil <b>initil</b>&
nbsp;symptom of Lyme Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fcil Nerve Plsy}}</d
iv>
1402782513236 1395802358422 {{c1::Arthritis}} is musculoskeletl complict
ion seen in Lyme Disese.
<br /><div><i>Monorthritis in lrge joints.</i>
</div><div><i>Migrtory polyrthritis elsewhere.</i></div><div><i><img src="pst
e-3242700308685.jpg" /></i></div>
1402782559050 1395802358422 Which crdic conduction disorder is seen in <b>
lte</b> Lyme Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AV nodl block}}</div>
1402782592347 1395802358422 {{c1::Fcil Nerve Plsy}} is neurologicl sym
ptom seen in <b>lte</b> Lyme Disese tht presents longside <b>encephlop
thy</b> nd <b>polyneuropthy</b>.
00308685.jpg" /></div>
1402783498648 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Lyme Disese?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Doxycycline; Ceftrixone}}</div>
1402783520457 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Syphilis?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::<i>Treponem pllidum</i>}}</div>
1402784024193 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Syphilis?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Penicillin G}}</div>
1402784054464 1395802358422 {{c1::Primry Syphilis}} is type of Syphilis t
ht presents with loclized, <b>pinless</b> chncres.<div><br /></div><div
><img src="pste-4118873637280.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Sorry, but you kne
w there ws going to be dick pic when it cme to Syphilis...</i></div>
1402785088773 1395802358422 Wht type of microscopy is required to visulize
<i>Treponem pllidum</i> in the fluid from Syphilis chncres?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Drk-field microscopy}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-42649
02525152.jpg" /></div>
1402785400150 1395802358422 {{c1::Secondry Syphilis}} is form of Syphilis
tht presents s disseminted disese with <b>mculoppulr rsh</b>&n
bsp;on the <b>plms</b> nd <b>soles</b>. <br /><div><i><b>S</b>econdry =
<b>S</b>ystemic</i></div>
1402785772078 1395802358422 {{c1::Secondry Syphilis}} is form of Syphilis
tht presents with <b>condylomt lt</b>.
<br /><div><i>These cn lso be
confirmed vi drk-field microscopy once the Treponemes hve been smpled.</i></
div><div><i><b>S</b>econdry = <b>S</b>ystemic</i></div>
1402786184387 1395802358422 {{c1::Tertiry Syphilis}} is form of Syphilis
tht presents with <b>Gumms</b> (chronic grnuloms tht form).
1402786224435 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortitis}} is compliction of <b>Tertir
y</b> Syphilis tht presents due to <b>destruction of the vs vsorum</b>&
nbsp;t lrge blood vessels.
1402786292768 1395802358422 {{c1::Tertiry Syphilis}} is form of Syphilis
tht presents with <b>ortitis</b> tht occurs due to destruction of the v
s vsorum.
1402786405306 1395802358422 {{c1::Tbes Dorslis (Syphilitic Myelopthy)}} i
s feture of <b>Tertiry</b> Syphilis tht presents with <b>generl
presis</b> nd <b>loss of senstion</b> due to slow degenertion of t
he dorsl column of the spinl cord.
1402786769436 1395802358422 {{c1::Argyll-Robertson pupil}} is feture of <
b>Tertiry</b> Syphilis tht is described s pthologicl pupil tht <b>s
hows ccommodtion</b> but <b>does not rect to light</b>. <br /><div><i>i.
e. the pupil constricts to focus on ner object, but <u>does not contrict</u>&
nbsp;when exposed to bright light.</i></div><div><i>k <b>Prostitute</b> P
upil (lol, no lie, it's on pge 142 of first id)</i></div>
1402787091177 1395802358422 Wht form of Syphilis is ssocited with <b>bro
d-bsed txi</b> nd <b>positive Romberg sign</b>?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Tertiry syphilis; Neurosyphilis}}</div>
1402787284311 1395802358422 Wht form of Syphilis is ssocited with <b>Chr
cot joint </b>(Neuropthic rthropthy)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tertiry Syp
hilis; Neurosyphilis}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Chrcot joint involves progressive
degenertion of weight bering joint due to decresed peripherl senstion/pr
oprioception/motor control (e.g. Neurosyphilis).</i></div>
1402787503569 1395802358422 Which form of Syphilis presents with <b>stroke w
ithout hypertension</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tertiry Syphilis}}</div>
1402787527065 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenitl Syphilis}} is form of syphili
s tht presents with <b>sber shin </b>nd <b>sddle nose</b>. <br /><div><i>Co
ngenitl syphilis cn be prevented by erly tretment in the mother, s plcent
l trnsmission typiclly occurs <u>fter</u> the first trimester.</i></div>
1402787736314 1395802358422 {{c1::Sber shin}} is morphologicl feture of
Congenitl Syphilis tht presents s shrp nterior bowing of the tibi.
1402787765159 1395802358422 {{c1::Sddle Nose}} is morphologicl feture o
f Congenitl Syphilis tht presents with loss of height of the nose due to c
ollpsed nose bridge (nsl dorsum).
1402787831199 1395802358422 Which form of Syphilis is ssocited with <b>CN
VIII (Vestibulocochler Nerve) Defness</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Congenit
l syphilis}}</div>
1402787876141 1395802358422 {{c1::Hutchinson teeth}} is morphologicl fet
ure of Congenitl Syphilis tht is described s teeth tht re <b>notched</b>,&n
bsp;<b>smller</b> nd <b>more widely spced</b> thn norml.<div><br /></div><d
1402787985378 1395802358422 Which type of Syphilis is ssocited with <b>Hut
chinson teeth?</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div>{{c1::Congenitl Syphilis}}</div>
1402788064471 1395802358422 {{c1::Mulberry molrs}} re morphologicl fet
ure of Congenitl Syphilis tht re described s multiple rounded rudimentry en
mel cusps on the permnent first molrs.
1402788779441 1395802358422 {{c1::VDRL}} is non-specific test for Syphilis
tht detects nonspecific ntibody tht rects with beef crdiolipin.
1402789401319 1395802358422 {{c1::VDRL}} is non-specific test for Syphilis
tht involves mny flse positive test results.
te-7962869367009.jpg" /></div>
1402789442508 1395802358422 {{c1::Jrisch-Herxheimer Rection}} is flu-lik
e syndrome tht presents fter ntibiotics re dministered in ptient due to
widespred relese of pyrogens from killed bcteri.
1402789637427 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Anplsmosis?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::<i>Anplsm spp.</i>}}</div>
1402794149604 1395802358422 How it Anplsmosis (<i>Anplsm spp.</i>) trn

smitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ixodes</i> tick (which lives on deer
nd mice)}}</div>
1402794189885 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Ct Scrtch Disese?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Brtonell spp.</i>}}</div>
1402794201690 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Bcillry Angiomtosis?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Brtonell spp.</i>}}</div>
1402794228777 1395802358422 How is Bcillry Angiomtosis (<i>Brtonell spp
.</i>) trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ct scrtch}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Brtonell lso cuses ct scrtch disese.</i></div>
1402794276603 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Relpsing Fever?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Borreli recurrentis</i>}}</div>
1402794294219 1395802358422 How is Relpsing Fever (<i>Borreli recurrentis<
/i>) trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Louse}}</div>
1402794315636 1395802358422 The {{c1::louse}} is n insect tht serves
s the vector for <i>Borreli recurrentis</i> (Relpsing Fever) s it hs v
<br /><div><i>The ntigen vribility mkes it r
rible surfce ntigens.
ecurrent.</i></div>
1402794360559 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Brucellosis?<div><br />{
{c1::<i>Brucell spp.</i>}}</div>
1402794808165 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Undulent Fever?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Brucell spp.</i>}}</div>
1402794822559 1395802358422 Wht food is ssocited with <i>Brucell spp.</i
> infection?<div><br />{{c1::Unpsteurized diry}}</div>
1402794842557 1395802358422 Wht type of dirrhe is ssocited with <i>Cmp
ylobcter jejuni</i>?<div><br />{{c1::Bloody dirrhe}}</div>
1402795042313 1395802358422 Which pet nimls re ssocited with <i>Cmpylo
bcter</i> infection?<div><br />{{c1::Puppies}}</div>
1402795071306 1395802358422 Aside from puppies, how else is <i>Cmpylobcter
spp.</i> trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Livestock (fecl-orl vi
ingestion of undercooked met)}}</div>
1402795398398 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Psittcosis?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlmydophil psittci</i>}}</div>
1402795417638 1395802358422 How is Psittcosis (<i>Chlmydophil psittci</i
>) trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Prrots</u> or other birds}}<
/div>
1402795442685 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Q Fever?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::<i>Coxiell burnetti</i>}}</div>
1402795461611 1395802358422 How is Q Fever (<i>Coxiell burnetti</i>) trnsm
itted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aerosols of cttle/sheep mniotic fluid}}</div
>
1402795486165 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Erlichiosis?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::<i>Erlichi chffeensis</i>}}</div>
1402795514168 1395802358422 How is Erlichiosis (<i>Erlichi chffeensis</i>)
trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lone Str ticks}}</div>
1402795542279 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Tulremi?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Frncisell tulrensis</i>}}</div>
1402795561828 1395802358422 How is Tulremi (<i>Frncisell tulrensis</i>)
trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Rbbits</u>, ticks, deer fly}}</div>
1402795592883 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of <b>Epidemic </b>Typhus?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Rickettsi prowzekii</i>}}</div> <br /><div><i>E<
b style="text-decortion: underline; ">P</b>idemic = <b style="text-decortion:
underline; ">P</b>rowzeki</i></div>
1402795760707 1395802358422 Wht is the vector for <b>Epidemic</b> Typh
us (<i>Rickettsi prowzeki</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Humn Body Lou
se}}</div>
1402796062112 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Rocky Mountin Spotted F
ever?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Rickettsi rickettsii</i>}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>All Rickettsie re <b>Obligte intrcellulr orgnism</b> s th
ey require CoA nd NAD+. They cnnot synthesize ATP.</i></div>
1402796136402 1395802358422 Wht is the vector for Rocket Mountin Spotted F

ever (<i>Rickettsi rickettsii</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Dermcentor</
i> ticks}}</div>
1402796160322 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of <b>Endemic</b> Typh
us?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Rickettsi typhi</i>}}</div>
1402796183971 1395802358422 Wht is the vector for <b>Endemic</b> Typhu
s (<i>Rickettsi typhi</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fles}}</div>
1402796200016 1395802358422 Wht is the cuse of Bubonic Plgue?<div><br />{
{c1::<i>Yersini pestis</i>}}</div>
1402796398454 1395802358422 How is Bubonic Plgue (<i>Yersini pestis</i>) t
rnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fles}}</div>
1402796422932 1395802358422 Wht nimls re the reservoir for <i>Yersini p
estis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rts; Pririe Dogs}}</div>
1402796444702 1395802358422 Which pleomorphic, grm-<b>vrible</b> rod
is known to be involved in <b>vginosis</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Grd
nerell vginlis</i>}}</div> <div><br /></div>
1402796626970 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Grdnerell vginlis</i>}} is pleomo
rphic bcillus tht cuses vginosis tht presents with <b>gry vginl disc
hrge</b> tht hs <b>fishy</b> smell.
<br /><div><i>Associted
with sexul ctivity, but is not sexully trnsmitted.</i></div>
1402796857261 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Grdnerell vginlis</i>}} is pleomo
rphic, <b>grm-vrible</b> bcillus tht yields <b>nonpinful</b> vgino
sis.
<br /><div><i>The nonpinful point is importnt s vginitis presents wi
th pin.</i></div>
1402796943140 1395802358422 {{c1::Clue cells}} re cells tht feture vgino
sis cused by <i>Grdnerell vginlis</i> nd re described s <b>vginl
epithelil cells covered with </b><i><b>Grdnerell vginlis</b>.</i><div><i><b
r /></i></div><div><i><img src="pste-11751030522135.jpg" /></i></div> <br /><d
iv><i>Visible under the microscope.</i></div>
1402797071989 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for vginosis cused by <i
>Grdnerell vginlis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Metronidzole}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The nerobic overgrowth of bcteri seen longside the vginosis
cn be treted with Clindmycin.</i></div>
1402797631619 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for ll disorders cused b
y <i>Rickettsi spp</i>.?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Doxycycline}}</div>
1402797720987 1395802358422 Where in the United Sttes does Rocky Mountin S
potted Fever primrily mnifest?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::South Atlntic stte
s, especilly North Croline}}</div>
1402798047687 1395802358422 {{c1::Rocky Mountin Spotted Fever}} is zoonot
ic infection cused by <i>Rickettsi rickettsii</i> tht presents with r
sh tht typiclly strts t the <b>wrists nd nkles</b> nd then spreds t
o the <b>trunk, plms nd soles</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-131511
89860772.jpg" /></div> <br /><div><img src="pste-14160507175097.jpg" /></div>
1402799228982 1395802358422 {{c1::Typhus}} is Rickettsil disese tht pre
sents with <b>rsh tht strts centrlly nd spreds out</b>, but <b>spres th
e plms nd soles</b>. <br /><div><i><b>R</b>MSF (R. <b><u>r</u></b>icketsii) =
plms/soles/w<b>R</b>ists</i></div><div><i><b>T</b>yphus (R. typhi; R. prowzek
ii) = <b>T</b>runk</i></div>
1402799339029 1395802358422 {{c1::Ehrlichiosis}} nd {{c2::Anplsmosis}} r
e Rickettsil diseses tht presents with <b>monocytes with morule</b> in
their cytoplsm.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-14538464297377.jpg" /></di
v>
1402799415933 1395802358422 {{c1::Morule}} re <b>berry-like</b> cytoplsmi
c inclusions seen in the monocytes of ptient with Ehrlichiosis or Anplsmosi
s.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-14534169330081.jpg" /></div>
1402799666317 1395802358422 {{c1::Q Fever}} is Rickettsil disese tht c
n be obtined vi erosolized spores relesed from tick feces or cttle plcent
.
1402799860948 1395802358422 {{c1::Q Fever}} is Rickettsil disorder cused
by <i>Coxiell burnetti</i> tht presents s pneumoni. <br /><div><img
src="pste-15302968475811.jpg" /></div>
1402799896649 1395802358422 The {{c1::Elementry body}} is the morpholo
gicl form of Chlmydie tht is <b>infectious</b> nd <b>enters the host c
ell vi endocytosis</b>.
<br /><div><i><b>E</b>lementry = Is "<b>e</b>nf
ectious" nd <b>e</b>nters trget host cell vi <b>e</b>ndocytosis</i></div
>
1402800491518 1395802358422 The {{c1::Reticulte body}} is the morpholo
gicl form of Chlmydie tht <b>replictes</b> inside the trget host cell
by fission.
<br /><div><i><b>R</b>eticulte body = <b>R</b>eplictes into el
ementry bodies</i></div>
1402800544876 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Reiter Syndrome?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlmydi trchomtis</i>}}</div>
1402800583375 1395802358422 {{c1::Reiter Syndrome}} is type of rective r
thritis tht is cused by <i>Chlmydi trchomtis</i>.
1402800604002 1395802358422 Which Chlmydie orgnism is known to cuse Foll
iculr Conjunctivitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlmydi trchomtis</i>}}
</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-15921443766555.jpg" /></div>
1402800819957 1395802358422 Which Chlmydie orgnism is known to cuse nong
onococcl urethritis nd pelvic inflmmtory disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:<i>Chlmydi trchomtis</i>}}</div>
1402800864696 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Chlmydophil pneumonie</i>}} nd&nbsp
;{{c2::<i>Chlmydophil psittci</i>}} re 2 Chlmydie orgnisms tht cuse ty
picl pneumoni vi erosol trnsmission.
1402800912650 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for ll Chlmydie infecti
ons?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Azithromycin (fvoured Abx due to one-time tret
ment); Doxycycline}}</div>
1402800943048 1395802358422 {{c1::Murmic Acid}} is sugr cid commonly fo
und in bcteril cell wlls, however <b>not in Chlmydie</b>.
1402801168380 1395802358422 Which serotypes of <i>Chlmydi trchomtis</i>&
nbsp;re ssocited with chronic infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::A; B; C}}
</div>
1402801299661 1395802358422 Which serotypes of <i>Chlmydi trchomtis
</i> re ssocited with blindness due to Folliculr Conjunctivitis, especi
<br /><div><i><b
lly in Afric?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::A; B; C}}</div>
>ABC</b> = <b>A</b>fric; <b>B</b>lindness; <b>C</b>onjunctivitis/<b>C</b>h
ronic infection</i></div>
</i> re ssocited with Urethritis nd Pelvic Inflmmtory Disese (PID)?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D-K}}</div> <br /><div><i>The D--K serotypes re ss
ocited with STD/STI (nd everything else not specific to serotypes A, B, C, L13)</i></div>
</i> re ssocited with ectopic pregnncy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D-K}
}</div>
</i> re ssocited with Neontl Pneumoni (Stccto Cough)?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::D-K}}</div>
</i> re ssocited with Neontl Conjunctivitis?<div><br />{{c1::D-K}}</di
v>
<br /><div><i>Neontl disese is typiclly cquired during childbirth t
hrough the birthing cnl.</i></div>
</i> re ssocited with <b>Lymphogrnulom Venereum</b>?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::L1; L2; L3}}</div>
1402801500307 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymphogrnulom Venereum}} is n STD cuse
d by <i>Chlmydi trchomtis</i> (L1, L2, L3) tht <b>initilly </b>p
resents with <b>smll, pinless ulcers</b> on the genitls.
d by <i>Chlmydi trchomtis</i> (L1; L2; L3) tht presents with <b>swolle
n, pinful inguinl lymph nodes</b> tht ulcerte into <b>"buboes"</b>&nbsp
;in its lter stges.

1402801617772 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Lymphogrnulom Venere
um?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Doxycycline}}</div>
1402801636667 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycoplsm pneumonie</i>}} is poorly
grm-stining bcteri tht is clssic cuse of typicl <b>"wlking"</b>&nbs
p;pneumoni.
<br /><div><i>Wlking pneumoni is pneumoni with n insidious o
nset, hedche, nonproductive cough nd ptchy/diffuse interstitil infiltrte.<
/i></div><div><i>Chest x-ry often looks worse thn the ptient is.</i></div>
1402802277542 1395802358422 Which clss of immunoglobulin is found in high l
evels s cold gglutinins in typicl pneumoni cused by <i>Mycoplsm pneumoni
e</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IgM}}</div> <br /><div><i>Yes, I know this i
s terribly worded question. Just remember tht IgM titers re elevted in M. p
neumonie infection.</i></div>
1402802351448 1395802358422 Wht gr is used to grow <i>Mycoplsm pneumoni
e</i>?<div><br />{{c1::Eton gr}}</div>
1402802366199 1395802358422 How does <i>Mycoplsm pneumonie</i> grm
stin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::It doesn't; There is no cell wll}}</div>
1402802390902 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Mycoplsm pneumoni
e</i> infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mcrolide, Doxycycline, <b>or<
/b> Fluoroquinolone}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Penicillins re ineffective s the
re is no cell wll.</i></div>
1402802429526 1395802358422 Which ge group is more commonly ffected by myc
oplsml pneumoni (<i>Mycoplsm pneumonie</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::&l
t; 30 y/o}}</div>
<br /><div><i>There re frequent outbreks in militry r
ecruits nd prisons.</i></div>
1402932958917 1395802358422 Which <b>morphologicl</b> type of fungi r
e known to cuse Systemic Mycoses?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dimorphic fungi; e
xcept for Coccidiomycosis (spherule in tissue, not yest)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Remember, Dimorphic fungi re:</i></div><div><i>- <b>Mold in the Cold</b>&
nbsp;(20 C)</i></div><div><i>- <b>Yest in the Het</b> (37 C)</i></div>
1402933081425 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <b>locl</b> myco
ses?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fluconzole or Itrconzole}}</div>
1402933128075 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <b>systemic</b> m
ycoses?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Amphotericin B}}</div>
1402933148930 1395802358422 {{c1::Systemic mycoses}} is <b>brod type</b>&
nbsp;of mycosis commonly cused by dimorphic fungi.
<br /><div><i>All of the
m cn cuse pneumoni nd cn disseminte.</i></div><div><i>All cn mimic TB (gr
nulom formtion), but unlike TB, there is no person-to-person trnsmission.</i
></div>
1402933225035 1395802358422 Which Systemic Mycosis is endemic in <b>Mississi
ppi</b> nd the <b>Ohio River vlleys</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Histo
plsmosis}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Cuses pneumoni</i>.</div>
1402935063546 1395802358422 How is Histoplsmosis commonly trnsmitted?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Bird or bt droppings}}</div>
1402935087414 1395802358422 {{c1::Histoplsmosis}} is systemic mycosis th
t presents with <b>mcrophges filled with </b><i style="font-weight: bold; ">Hi
stoplsm</i>, s they re smller thn RBCs.<div><br /></div><div><img src="ps
te-7189775253731.jpg" /></div> <br /><div><i style="font-weight: bold; ">H</i><
i>isto <b>H</b>ides in mcrophges</i></div>
1402935257441 1395802358422 {{c1::Blstomycosis}} is systemic mycosis tht
is endemic in <b>sttes est of the Mississippi River</b> nd <b>Centrl A
meric</b>.
1402935487673 1395802358422 {{c1::Blstomycosis}} is systemic mycosis tht
presents with <b>brod-bse budding</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-7
988639170784.jpg" /></div>
<div><br /></div><i>Cuses inflmmtory lung dis
ese nd cn disseminte to skin nd bone.</i><div><i>Forms grnulomtous nodule
s.<br /></i><div><i>Blsto buds brodly.</i></div></div>
1402935574119 1395802358422 Which systemic mycosis involves buds tht re th
e <b>sme size s RBCs</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blstomycosis}}</div><div
1402935598377 1395802358422 Which systemic mycosis involves intrcellulr ye

st tht re <b>smller thn RBCs</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Histoplsmosis
}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-8048768712926.jpg" /></div>
1402935669129 1395802358422 {{c1::Coccidiomycosis}} is systemic mycosis th
t is endemic in the <b>Southwestern United Sttes</b> nd <b>Cliforni</b
>.
<br /><div><i>Cuses pneumoni nd meningitis.</i></div><div><i>Cn diss
eminte to bone nd skin.</i></div>
1402935858931 1395802358422 Which systemic mycoses often shows n <b>incres
e in cse rte fter erthqukes</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Coccidiomycosis
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This is due to spores in dust being thrown up into
the ir nd becoming spherules in the lungs.</i></div>
t presents with <b>spherules</b> filled with endospores. <div><br /><
/div><div><img src="pste-8680128905440.jpg" /></div>
t presents with <b>erythem nodosum</b> ("Desert bumps") nd <b>rthrlgi
s</b> ("Desert rheumtism").
1402936073073 1395802358422 {{c1::Prcoccidioidomycosis}} is systemic myc
osis tht is endemic in <b>Ltin Americ</b>.
t presents with <b>spherules</b> tht re <b>much lrger thn RBCs</b>.<di
1402936130721 1395802358422 {{c1::Prcoccidioidomycosis}} is systemic myc
osis tht presents with <b>budding yest</b> with <b>"cptin's wheel</b>
" formtion tht is <b>much lrger thn RBCs</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src=
"pste-9238474653922.jpg" /></div>
.jpg" /></div>
1402952353022 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Tine Versicolour?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mlssezi spp.</i>}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img s
rc="pste-10849087389973.jpg" /></div> <div><br /></div><i>Mlssezi furfur; M
lssezi globos; Mlssezi sympodilis</i><br /><div><i>Occurs in hot, humid
wether.</i></div>
1402954770372 1395802358422 {{c1::Tine Versicolour}} is cutneous mycosis
tht involves dmge to melnocytes nd subsequent <b>hyper- or hypopigmented p
<br /><d
tches</b> due to cids produced from degrdtion of lipids.
iv><i>Cused by </i><i>Mlssezi furfur; Mlssezi globos; Mlssezi sy
mpodilis</i></div>
1402954965425 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Tine Versicolour?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Topicl Miconzole; Selenium Sulfide (Selsun)}}</div>
1402955340863 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mlssezi spp.</i>}} is fungus tht
commonly cuses cutneous mycosis nd hs <b>"Spghetti nd metbll" ppern
ce</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-10844792422677.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Mlssezi furfur; Mlssezi globos; Mlssezi sympodilis</i><
/div>
1402955392878 1395802358422 {{c1::Tine Pedis}} is cutneous mycosis of the
foot.
1402955655158 1395802358422 {{c1::Tine Cruris}} is cutneous mycosis of the
groin.
1402955671031 1395802358422 {{c1::Tine Corporis}} is cutneous mycosis of
the body tht presents with <b>ringworm</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="p
ste-12537009537268.jpg" /></div>
1402955744163 1395802358422 {{c1::Tine Cpitis}} is cutneous mycosis th
t ffects the hed nd sclp.
1402955759642 1395802358422 {{c1::Tine Unguium (Onychomycosis)}} is cutn
eous mycosis tht is seen t the fingernils.
1402957102602 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Microsporum</i>}}, {{c2::<i>Tricho
phyton</i>}} nd {{c3::<i>Epidermophyton</i>}} re 3 species of Dermtophyt
es tht cuse cutneous mycosis tht present s pruritic lesions with centrl
clering, resembling ring.
1402957605543 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cndid lbicns</i>}} is dimorphic f
ungi tht commonly cuses orl nd esophgel thrush in the immunocompromised.<d
iv><br /></div><div><img src="pste-13146894893401.jpg" /></div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Neontes, steroids, dibetes, AIDS.</i></div>
ungi tht commonly cuses <b>vulvovginitis</b>, especilly in dibetics nd fol
lowing ntibiotic use.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-13142599926105.jpg"
/></div>
ungi tht commonly cuses diper rsh.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-1314
2599926105.jpg" /></div>
1402959009960 1395802358422 Which dimorphic fungi commonly cuses endocrdit
is in IV drug users?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Cndid lbicns</i>}}</div>
ungi tht commonly cuses opportunistic infections nd presents s <b>pseudohyph
e/budding yests</b> t 20 C nd <b>germ tubes</b> t 37 C.<div><br /
></div><div><img src="pste-13142599926105.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Ps
eudohyphe/budding yest on the left.</i></div><div><i>Germ tubes on the right.<
/i></div>
1402959230824 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Vginl Cndidisis (V
ulvovginitis)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::A topicl zole}}</div>
1402959354647 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Orl/Esophgel Cndid
isis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fluconzole; Cspofungin}}</div>
1402959387655 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Systemic Cndidisis?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fluconzole, Amphotericin B or Cspofungin}}</div>
1402959422133 1395802358422 {{c1::Aspergillosis}} is n opportunistic fungl
infection tht is commonly seen in ptients with Chronic Grnulomtous Disese.
<br /><div><i>Also seen in the immunocompromised.</i></div>
1402959831123 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Asperigllus fumigtus</i>}} is n oppor
tunistic fungl species tht cuses Aspergillosis nd presents with <b>septte h
yphe tht brnch t 45 degree ngles</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste13975823581529.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Acute ngles in Aspergillosis.</i>
</div><div><i>Not dimorphic.</i></div>
1402959935910 1395802358422 {{c1::Conidiophore}} is structurl form of <i>
Aspergillosis fumigtus </i>tht is described s rditing chins of spores.<div
1402959996837 1395802358422 {{c1::Allergic Bronchopulmonry Aspergillosis (A
BPA)}} is pulmonry disorder cused by <i>Aspergillosis fumigtus</i> th
t is ssocited with <b>sthm</b> nd <b>cystic fibrosis</b>. <br /><div><i>M
y cuse bronchiectsis nd eosinophili.</i></div>
1402960110587 1395802358422 {{c1::Bronchiectsis}} nd {{c3::eosinophil
i}} re 2 possible complictions of Allergic Bronchopulmonry Aspergillosis (AB
PA).
1402960389799 1395802358422 {{c1::Aspergilloms}} re msses of <i>Aspergill
osis fumigtus</i> tht re commonly seen in lung cvities, especilly fte
r Tuberculosis.
1402960482033 1395802358422 {{c1::Afltoxin}} is toxin produced by <i>Aspe
rgillosis sp.</i> tht is ssocited with cusing heptocellulr crcinom.
1402960556751 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cryptococcus neoformns</i>}} is hev
ily encpsulted yest tht is commonly found in soil nd pigeon droppings.<div><
br /></div><div><img src="pste-15427522527574.jpg" /></div>
1402960871101 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cryptococcus neoformns</i>}} is n opp
ortunistic fungus tht presents s 5-10 um yests with wide cpsulr hlos nd u
nequl budding.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-15423227560278.jpg" /></div
>
<br /><div><i>The stin used is Indi Ink</i></div>
1402960924078 1395802358422 Which opportunistic fungus cuses Cryptococcl M
eningitis nd Cryptococcosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Cryptococcus neoform
ns</i>}}</div>
1402960955725 1395802358422 How is <i>Cryptococcus neoformns</i> infec
tion cquired?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhltion; spreds to the meninges he
mtogenously}}</div>
1402961020774 1395802358422 Wht stin is used to visulize <i>Cryptococcus
neoformns</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Indi ink nd mucicrmine}}</div>
1402961071496 1395802358422 Which opportunistic fungus is ssocited with <b
>"sop bubble" lesions</b> in the brin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Cryp
tococcus neoformns</i>}}</div> <img src="pste-15423227560278.jpg" />
1402961188392 1395802358422 {{c1::Ltex gglutintion test}} is dignostic
test used to detect the polyscchride cpsulr ntigen of <i>Cryptococcus neof
ormns</i>.
<br /><div><i>Specific test.</i></div>
1402961229963 1395802358422 {{c1::Mucormycosis}} is n opportunistic yest i
nfection tht is mostly seen in ketocidotic dibetic nd leukemic ptients.
<div><br /></div><i>The fungi proliferte in the blood vessel wll when there is
n excess of ketones nd glucose. From there they penetrte the cribiform plte
nd enter the brin.</i><br /><div><i>Typiclly cused by Mucor sp. nd Rhizopu
s spp.</i></div>
1402961922429 1395802358422 {{c1::Mucormycosis}} is n opportunistic fungl
infections tht involves prolifertion of fungi in the blood vessel wlls due to
<br /><div><i>From there the penetrte t
n excess of ketones nd glucose.
he cribiform plte nd enter the brin.</i></div>
infection tht presents with <b>rhinocerebrl</b> nd <b>frontl lobe bsce
sses</b>.
infection tht presents with <b>hedche</b>, <b>fcil pin</b>, nd <u style
="font-weight: bold; ">blck necrotic eschr on the fce</u>. <br /><div><i>Th
ere my be crnil nerve involvement s well.</i></div>
1402962307146 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mucor spp.</i>}} is species of opport
unistic fungus tht cn cuse Mucormycosis nd presents s <b>irregulr, brod,
nonseptte hyphe</b> brnching t wide ngles.<div><br /></div><div><img s
rc="pste-17532056502616.jpg" /></div>
1402962549139 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Mucormycosis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Amphotericin B}}</div>
1402962563511 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mucor spp.</i>}} nd {{c2::<i>Rhiz
opus spp.</i>}} re 2 species of opportunistic fungus tht cn cuse Mucormycosi
s.
1402962603661 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Pneumocystis</i> cuses
<i>Pneumocystis</i> Pneumoni?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pneumocystis
jirovecii</i>}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-18120467022102.jpg" /
></div> <br /><div><i>A diffuse interstitil pneumoni seen in the immunocomprom
ised, especilly AIDS.</i></div><div><i>Most infections re symptomtic.</i></d
iv><div><i>Dignosed by lung biopsy or lvge.</i></div>
1402962790436 1395802358422 How is <i>Pneumocystis jirovecii</i> cquir
ed?<div><br />{{c1::Inhltion}}</div> <div><br /></div>
1402962938143 1395802358422 Which opportunistic fungus is ssocited with
pneumoni tht yields <b>diffuse, bilterl chest x-ry</b>?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::<i>Pneumocystis jirovecii</i>}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="p
ste-18116172054806.jpg" /></div>
1402963075669 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pneumocystis jirovecii</i>}} is n oppo
rtunistic fungus tht is <b>disc-shped yest</b> tht forms of <b>methen
mine silver stin</b> of lung tissue.<div><img src="pste-18116172054806.j
pg" /></div>
1402963154951 1395802358422 Which drugs re used s prophylxis for <i>Pneum
ocystis jirovecii</i> infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dpsone; Atovq
uone}}</div>
1402963462795 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Pneumocystis jirove
cii</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::TMP-SMX; Pentmidine}}</div>
1402963483300 1395802358422 Wht CD4 count in AIDS ptients is required befo
re strting prophylxis tretment?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::< 200 cells/mm<
sup>3</sup>}}</div>
1402963815793 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Sporotrichosis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Sporothrix schenckii</i>}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img

src="pste-19524921327895.jpg" /></div>
1402964058744 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Sporothrix schenkii</i>}} is <b>dimor
phic, cigr shped budding yest</b> tht lives on vegettion nd cuses Sp
orotrichosis.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-19520626360599.jpg" /></div>
1402964183851 1395802358422 {{c1::Sporotrichosis}} is n opportunistic fung
l infection tht is commonly cquired through trumtic introduction into the sk
in, typiclly by rose thorn. <br /><div><i>Hence, "<b>Rose Grdener's" Dises
e</b>.</i></div><div><i>Trum nd infection cuses locl pustule or ulcer wit
h nodules long drining lymphtics (i.e. Ascending Lympngitis).</i></div><div>
<i>There is little systemic illness.</i></div>
1402964283249 1395802358422 {{c1::Ascending Lymphngitis}} is compliction
of Sporotrichosis tht results from locl pustule/ulcer formtion with nodules
long drining lymphtics following trumtic infection.
1402964422607 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Sporotrichosis?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Itrconzole or Potssium Iodide}}</div>
1403021079329 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Girdisis?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::<i>Girdi lmbli</i>}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="ps
te-579820585185.jpg" /></div>
1403021176541 1395802358422 {{c1::Girdisis}} is GI protozol infection t
ht presents with <b>bloting, fltulence, </b>nd <b>foul-smelling, ftty dirr
he</b>.
1403021219016 1395802358422 Which demogrphic is often ffected by Girdisi
s (<i>Girdi lmbli</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cmpers/hikers}}</div>
1403021279364 1395802358422 Wht type of dirrhe is seen in Girdisis?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ftty, foul-smelling dirrhe}}</div>
1403021597178 1395802358422 {{c1::Girdisis}} is protozol GI infection t
ht is dignosed by trophozoites or cysts in the stool.<div><br /></div><div><im
g src="pste-1026497183966.jpg" /><img src="pste-1039382085856.jpg" /></div>
1403021659604 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Girdisis?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Metronidzole}}</div>
1403021666931 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Amoebisis?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::<i>Entmoeb histolytic</i>}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img sr
c="pste-1610612736224.jpg" /></div>
1403021940684 1395802358422 Wht type of dirrhe is seen in Amoebisis?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody dirrhe (dysentery)}}</div>
1403021960742 1395802358422 {{c1::Amoebisis}} is GI protozol infection t
ht presents with <b>liver bscess</b> tht is full of n <b>"nchovy ps
te" exudte</b>.
ht presents with <b>RUQ pin</b>.
<br /><div><i>The RUQ pin is often due
to GI ulcertion nd potentil colonic rupture.</i></div>
ht presents with <b>flsk-shped ulcers</b> t the GI Submucos. <br /><d
iv><i>Entmoeb histolytic cuses the ulcertion.</i></div>
1403022177216 1395802358422 How is Girdisis trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Cysts in wter}}</div>
1403022186025 1395802358422 How is Amoebisis (<i>Entmoeb histolytic</i>)
trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cysts in wter}}</div>
ht is dignosed by <b>trophozoites</b> in the stool tht contin <b>RBCs i
n their cytoplsm.</b><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-1606317768928.jpg" /
></div>
ht is dignosed by <b>cysts</b> with <b>up to 4 nuclei </b>in the stool.<d
1403022529724 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Amoebisis (<i>Entmoe
b histolytic</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Metronidzole}}</div>
1403022588298 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for<b> symptomtic p
ssers of <i>Entmoeb histolytic </i>cysts</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Iod
oquinol}}</div>
1403022678474 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cryptosporidium</i>}} is GI protozol
pthogen tht cuses severe dirrhe in AIDS. <br /><div><i>It cuses mild, w
tery dirrhe in the immunocompetent.</i></div>
1403022798976 1395802358422 How is <i>Cryptosporidium</i> trnsmitted?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oocysts in the wter}}</div>
1403022814289 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cryptosporidium</i>}} is GI protozol
pthogen tht is dignosed by visulizing <b>oocysts</b> on n <b style="t
ext-decortion: underline; ">cid-fst</b> stin.<div><br /></div><div><img
src="pste-2890512990431.jpg" /></div>
1403022865230 1395802358422 Wht type of stin is required to dignose <i>Cr
yptosporidium</i> infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acid-fst}}</div>
1403022896510 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Cryptosporidium</i>
infection in <b>immunocompetent</b> hosts?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::N
itzoxnide}}</div>
1403023184166 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Cryptosporidium</i>
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Prevention; vi filtering of city wter supplies}}<
/div>
1403023207692 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Toxoplsmosis?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::<i>Toxoplsm gondii</i>}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src
="pste-3345779523810.jpg" /></div>
1403023387767 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxoplsmosis}} is CNS protozol infecti
on tht presents with <b>brin bscesses</b> in HIV ptients, tht re seen
s ring-enhncing brin lesions on CT/MRI.
1403023479370 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenitl Toxoplsmosis}} is CNS protoz
ol infection tht presents with clssic trid of <b>chorioretinitis, hydrocep
hlus</b> nd <b>intrcrnil clcifictions</b>.
1403023521487 1395802358422 How is Toxoplsmosis (<i>Toxoplsm gondii</i>)
trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cysts in met; Oocysts in ct feces; Tr
nsplcentl}}</div>
1403023562093 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxoplsmosis}} is CNS protozol infecti
on tht is dignosed vi <b>tchyzoites</b> on biopsy.<div><br /></div><div
1403023588656 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Toxoplsmosis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Sulfdizine nd Pyrimethmine}}</div>
1403023615483 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Negleri fowleri</i>}} is CNS protoz
ol pthogen tht cuses <b>rpidly ftl meningoencephlitis</b>.
1403024607626 1395802358422 How is <i>Negleri fowleri</i> trnsmitted
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Swimming in freshwter lkes; enters CNS through th
e cribiform plte}}</div>
1403024642383 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Negleri fowleri</i>}} is CNS protoz
ol pthogen tht cuses rpidly ftl meningoencephlitis nd is dignosed by
<b>moebs in the spinl fluid</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-415323
3375457.jpg" /></div>
1403024689970 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Negleri fowleri</
i> infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Amphotericin B hs been effective
for few survivors}}</div>
1403024713799 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Africn Sleeping Sicknes
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Trypnosom brucei rhodiense; Trypnosom bruce
i gmbiense</i>}}</div>
1403024810280 1395802358422 {{c1::Africn Sleeping Sickness}} is CNS proto
zol infection tht presents with <b>enlrged lymph nodes</b>, <b>recurring feve
r, somnolence</b> nd <b>com</b>. <br /><div><i>The recurring fever is due
to ntigenic vrition.</i></div>
1403024874932 1395802358422 How is Africn Sleeping Sickness (<i>Trypnosom
brucei sp.</i>) trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tsetse fly}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Which pprently hs pinful bite.</i></div><div><i><br /></i></
div>
1403024912124 1395802358422 Which subspecies of <i>Trypnosom brucei</i>&nb
sp;is from <b>Est</b> Afric?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Trypnosom br

ucei rhodiense</i>}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Rhodesi ws locted in south<b>e
st</b> Afric. Kind of... w/e brh, just remember it.</i></div>
1403025021992 1395802358422 Which subspecies of <i>Trypnosom brucei</
i> is from <b>West</b> Afric?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Trypnoso
m brucei gmbiense</i>}}</div> <br /><div><i>The <b>G</b>'s re ll from the <b
>West</b> side.</i></div>
1403025074063 1395802358422 {{c1::Africn Sleeping Sickness}} is CNS proto
zol infection cused by <i>Trypnosom brucei</i> subspecies tht is dign
osed by <b>blood smer</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-4771708666084
.jpg" /></div>
1403025135197 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Africn Sleeping Sickn
ess?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Surmin for blood-borne disese <u style="font-w
eight: bold; ">or</u> Melrsoprol for CNS penetrtion}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>"It <b>sur</b>e is nice to go to sleep. <b>Mel</b>tonin cn help with th
t."</i></div>
1403040703288 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Mlri?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::<i>Plsmodium spp.</i>}}</div>
1403041120101 1395802358422 {{c1::Mlri}} is hemtologicl protozol inf
ection tht presents with <b>fever, hedche, nemi</b> nd <b>splenomeg
ly</b>.
1403041143029 1395802358422 Which <i>Plsmodium</i> species is ssocit
ed with Mlri tht hs <b>tertin (48 hour) cycle</b> of fever?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Plsmodium vivx; Plsmodium ovle</i>}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Tertin cycle includes fever on the first nd third dy, hence fevers re
ctully 48 hours prt.</i></div>
1403041275223 1395802358422 Which <i>Plsmodium</i> species is ss
ocited with <b>dormnt hypnozoites</b> in the liver?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::<i>Plsmodium vivx; Plsmodium ovle</i>}}</div>
ocited with <b>qurtn (72 hrs) cycle</b> of fever?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::<i>Plsmodium mlrie</i>}}</div>
ocited with very <b>severe</b> Mlri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pls
modium flciprum</i>}}</div>
ocited with Mlri tht hs <b>irregulr fever ptterns</b>?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::<i>Plsmodium flciprum</i>}}</div>
1403041405473 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Plsmodium flciprum</i>}} is specie
s of <i>Plsmodium</i> tht yields very severe mlri tht presents with <
b>prsitized RBCs tht occlude cpillries</b> in the <b>brin, kidneys</b
> nd <b>lungs</b>.
1403041449950 1395802358422 {{c1::Cerebrl Mlri}} is severe form of Ml
ri tht presents with occlusion of cpillries in the brin by prsitized RBC
s.
<br /><div><i>Cused by Plsmodium flciprum</i></div>
1403041479854 1395802358422 How is Mlri (<i>Plsmodium spp.</i>) trnsmit
ted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Anopheles</i> mosquito}}</div>
ection tht cn be dignosed by <b>trophozoite ring form</b> in RBCs on
peripherl blood smer.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-6575594930399.jpg"
/></div>
ection tht cn be dignosed by <b>schizonts</b> tht contin <b>merozoites
</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-6618544603358.jpg" /></div>
1403042109432 1395802358422 Wht is the initil tretment for Mlri (<i>Pl
<br /><d
smodium spp.</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chloroquine}}</div>
iv><i>Blocks Plsmodium heme polymerse.</i></div>
1403042699714 1395802358422 {{c1::Chloroquine}} is n ntiplsmodil drug us
ed s initil tretment for Mlri tht cts by blocking <i>Plsmodium</i>&nbsp
;heme polymerse.
1403042729126 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Chloroquine in the tretment

of Mlri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blocking of <i>Plsmodium</i> heme p
olymerse}}</div>
1403042765789 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <b>Chloroquine-resist
nt</b> Mlri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mefloquine or Atovquone/Progun
il}}</div>
1403042797766 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for life-thretening Mlr
i?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IV Quinidine}}</div>
<br /><div><i>However yo
u <u>must test for G6PD deficiency first</u>.</i></div>
1403042860437 1395802358422 Which ntiplsmodil drug is dded onto Chloroqu
ine in <i>Plsmodium vivx/ovle</i> infection to eliminte Hypnozoites?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Primquine}}</div>
<br /><div><i>You <u>must test f
or G6PD Deficiency first</u>.</i></div>
1403042928159 1395802358422 {{c1::Primquine}} is n ntiplsmodil drug th
t is dded onto Mlril tretment in <i>Plsmodium vivx/ovle</i> infecti
on to eliminte dormnt hypnozoites.
<br /><div><i>You <u>must test for G6PD
Deficiency first</u>.</i></div>
1403042994234 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Bbesiosis?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::<i>Bbesi spp.</i>}}</div>
1403046098517 1395802358422 Where in the United Sttes is Bbesiosis predomi
nntly found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Northestern USA}}</div>
1403046116235 1395802358422 How does Aspleni influence the risk of obtinin
g severe Bbesiosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1403046141730 1395802358422 {{c1::Bbesiosis}} is hemtologicl protozol
infection tht presents with <b>fever</b> nd <b>hemolytic nemi</b>&nbsp
;due to <i>Bbesi spp.</i> infection.
1403046196653 1395802358422 How is Bbesiosis (<i>Bbesi spp.</i>) trnsmit
ted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ixodes</i> tick}}</div> <br /><div><i>Th
is is the sme vector s Borreli burgdorferi</i> <i>which cuses Lyme Dise
se.</i></div><div><i>Co-infection is common.</i></div>
1403046255167 1395802358422 {{c1::Bbesiosis}} is hemtologicl protozol
infection tht is dignosed by <b>"Mltese cross"</b> in RBCs in periph
erl blood smer.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-7928509628642.jpg" /></di
v>
<br /><div><i>(1) shows ring form in the RBC, which is lso seen in M
lri. So be sure to either look for the Mltese cross or double check the trns
mission/presenttion to confirm tht it is Bbesiosis.</i></div>
1403046338560 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Bbesiosis (<i>Bbesi
spp.</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Atovquone + zithromycin}</div> <div><i>
<br /></i></div>
1403046880368 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Chgs Disese?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Trypnosom cruzi</i>}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img sr
c="pste-8942121910501.jpg" /></div>
1403046909909 1395802358422 {{c1::Chgs Disese}} is viscerl protozol i
nfection tht presents with <b>dilted crdiomyopthy</b>, <b>megcolon</b>&nbsp
;nd <b>megesophgus</b>.
1403046937622 1395802358422 Where does Chgs Disese predominntly occur?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::South Americ}}</div>
1403046948446 1395802358422 How is Chgs Disese (<i>Trypnosom cruzi</i>)
trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Reduviid bug (k the "kissing bug") fe
ces}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The bug bite is <b>pinless</b>.</i></div>
1403047019226 1395802358422 {{c1::Chgs Disese}} is <b>viscerl</b>&nbsp
;protozol infection tht is dignosed by the visuliztion of <i>Trypnosom cr
uzi</i> on peripherl blood smer.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-8
937826943205.jpg" /></div>
1403047048998 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Chgs Disese?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Benznidzole or Nifurtimox}}</div>
1403047067380 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Viscerl Leishmnisis (
Kl-zr)?<div><br />{{c1::<i>Leishmni donovni</i>}}</div>
1403047111558 1395802358422 {{c1::Viscerl Leishmnisis (Kl-zr)}} is
viscerl protozol infection tht presents with <b>spiking fever, heptosplenome
gly</b> nd <b>pncytopeni</b>.
1403047203565 1395802358422 How is Viscerl Leishmnisis (Kl-zr) trnsm
itted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sndfly}}</div>
<br /><div><i>All Leishm
ni re trnsmitted vi the sndfly.</i></div>
1403047376744 1395802358422 {{c1::Viscerl Leishmnisis (Kl-zr)}} is
viscerl protozol infection tht is dignosed by the visuliztion of <b>mcrop
hges contining mstigotes</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-924706458
8515.jpg" /></div>
1403047423596 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Viscerl Leishmnisis
(Kl-zr)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Amphotericin B, Sodium Stibogluconte}}
</div>
1403047466746 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Trichomons vginlis</i>}} is n STD c
using protozo tht commonly cuses vginitis tht presents with <b>foul-smelli
ng, greenish dischrge</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-9835475108072.j
pg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Do not confuse this with Grdnerell vginlis,
grm-vrible bcteri tht cuses vginosis.</i></div><div><i>Also remember the
difference between Vgin<b>itis</b> nd Vgin<b>osis</b>. Vginitis is pi
nful.</i></div>
1403047871297 1395802358422 How is <i>Trichomons vginlis</i> trnsmi
tted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sexully (it cnnot exist outside the humn bod
y s it cnnot form cysts)}}</div>
1403047901306 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Trichomons vginlis</i>}} is sexul
ly trnsmitted protoz tht is dignosed by the visuliztion of <b>mobile troph
ozoites</b> on wet mount.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-9831180140
776.jpg" /></div>
1403048000069 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Trichomons vginlis</i>}} is protoz
o tht cuses vginitis ssocited with <b>"strwberry cervix</b>".
1403048026302 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Trichomons vginl
is</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Metronidzole}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th
e ptient's sexul prtner lso receives Metronidzole s prophylxis.</i></div>
1403048054943 1395802358422 The {{c1::nemtodes}} re clss of prsi
te tht re referred to s roundworms.
1403053610031 1395802358422 The {{c1::cestodes}} re clss of prsit
e tht re referred to s tpeworms.
1403053631137 1395802358422 The {{c1::tremtodes}} re clss of prs
ite tht re referred to s the flukes.
1403053648160 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Enterobius vermiculris</i>}} is spec
ies of intestinl nemtode tht is lso referred to s <b>pinworm</b>.
1403053940991 1395802358422 How is pinworm (<i>Enterobius vermiculris</i>)
trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fecl-orl}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-13945758810291.jpg" /></div>
1403054242694 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Enterobius vermiculris</i> (pinwo
rm)}} is n intestinl nemtode tht is ssocited with cusing <b>nl pruritis
</b>.
1403054673052 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Enterobius vermiculris</i> (pinwo
rm)}} is n intestinl nemtode tht cn be dignosed vi the <b>Scotch Tpe tes
t</b>. <br /><div><i>Lulz, this is literlly wht it sounds like. Tke scotch t
pe nd see if you cn pull off pinworm eggs from the nl re.</i></div>
1403054738448 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for pinworm (<i>Enterobius
vermiculris</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bendzoles or Pyrntel pmote}}<
/div> <br /><div><i><b>BEND</b>zoles re used on worms becuse they re <b>BE
ND</b>y.</i></div>
1403054905831 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Ascris lumbricoides</i>}} is species
of intestinl nemtode tht is lso referred to s <b>gint roundworm</b>.
1403054940201 1395802358422 How is <i>Ascris lumbricoides</i> (gint r
oundworm) trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fecl-orl}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Eggs re visible in feces under the microscope.</i></div><div><i><img src=
"pste-13945758810291.jpg" /></i></div>
1403054985626 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for gint roundworm (<i>As
cris lumbricoides</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bendzoles or Pyrntel pmo
te}}</div>
1403055014571 1395802358422 How is <i>Strongyloides stercorlis</i> tr
nsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lrve in the soil penetrte the skin}}</di
v>
1403055064847 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Strongyloides stercorlis</i>}} is n i
ntestinl nemtode tht cuses n intestinl infection tht presents with vomiti
ng, dirrhe nd <b>epigstric pin tht my mimic peptic ulcer-like pin</b>.
1403055113739 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Strongyloides sterc
orlis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Albendzole; or Ivermectin}}</div>
1403055134956 1395802358422 Which 2 species of intestinl nemtode re hookw
orms?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ancylostom duodenle; Nector mericnus</i
>}}</div>
1403055168350 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Ancylostom duodenle</i>}} nd {{
c2::<i>Nector mericnus</i>}} re 2 species of intestinl nemtodes tht re r
eferred to s <b>hookworm</b>.
1403055198933 1395802358422 How is hookworm (<i>Ancylostom duodenle; Nect
or mericnus</i>) trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lrve penetrte the
skin}}</div>
1403056103275 1395802358422 {{c1::Hookworm}} is n intestinl nemtode tht
cuses intestinl infection tht yields <b>nemi</b> due to <b>blood bein
g sucked from the intestinl wlls</b>. <br /><div><i>Remember, Hookworm = Ancyl
ostom duodenle &mp; Nector mericnus</i></div>
1403056181130 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Hookworm (<i>Ancylosto
m duodenle; Nector mericnus</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bendzoles or
Pyrntel pmote}}</div>
1403056222232 1395802358422 How is <i>Ochocerc volvulus</i> trnsmitte
d?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Femle blckfly bite}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-13945758810291.jpg" /></div>
1403056263719 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of River Blindness?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Onchocerc volvulus</i>}}</div>
1403056280170 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Onchocerc volvulus</i>}} is tissue n
emtode ssocited with cusing <b>hyperpigmented skin</b> nd <b>river bli
ndness</b>.
<br /><div><i>Blck fly bite; Blck skin nodules; "Blck" sight.
</i></div><div><i>Allergic rection to the microfilri is possible.</i></div>
1403056350991 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Onchocerc volvulus
</i> infection (e.g. river blindness)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ivermecti
n}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b>IVER</b>mectin is given for r<b>IVER</b> b
lindness.</i></div>
1403056398259 1395802358422 How is <i>Lo lo</i> trnsmitted?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Deer fly; Horse fly; Mngo fly}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-13945758810291.jpg" /></div>
1403056439572 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Lo lo</i>}} is <b>tissue</b> n
emtode tht cuses swelling in the skin - worms cn lso be found in the conjun
ctiv.
1403056468069 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Lo lo</i>?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Diethylcrbmzine}}</div>
1403057110444 1395802358422 Wht is the cuse of Elephntisis?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::<i>Wuchereri bncrofti</i>}}</div>
1403058733063 1395802358422 How is Elephntisis (<i>Wuchereri bncrofti</i
>) trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Femle mosquito bite}}</div> <br /><d
1403058753804 1395802358422 {{c1::Elephntisis}} is compliction of <i>Wu
cheri bncrofti</i> infection tht involves <b>blockge of lymphtic ves
sels</b>.
<br /><div><i>Tkes 9 months to 1 yer fter n infectious bite
to becomes symptomtic.</i></div>
1403058822718 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Elephntisis?<div><br
/>{{c1::Diethylcrbmzine}}</div>
1403058844837 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Viscerl Lrv Migrns?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Toxocr cnis</i>}}</div>
1403058860859 1395802358422 How is Viscerl Lrv Migrns (<i>Toxocr cnis
</i>) trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fecl-orl}}</div>

<br /><d
1403058881367 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Toxocr cnis</i>}} is tissue nemto
de tht cuses Viscerl Lrv Migrns.
1403062744302 1395802358422 How is <i>Teni solium</i> trnsmitted?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ingestion of lrve encysted in undercooked pork; Inges
tion of eggs}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Bsiclly just remember "vi ingestion" n
d "undercooked pork" for the lrve.</i></div>
1403062905086 1395802358422 {{c1::Cysticercosis}} nd {{c2::Neurocystic
ercosis}} re 2 complictions of infection with the <u style="font-weight: bold;
">eggs</u> of <i>Teni solium</i>.
<br /><div><i>This is very impor
tnt. Only the eggs of Teni solium cuse Cysticercosis. The lrve cuse intes
tinl infection.</i></div>
1403062977570 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Cysticercosis nd Neuroc
ysticercosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The <b><u>eggs</u> </b>of <i>
Teni solium</i>}}</div>
1403063484085 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <b>intestinl infectio
n</b> cused by the lrve of <i>Teni solium</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::Prziquntel}}</div>
1403063512786 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Cysticercosis (eggs of
<i>Teni solium</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Prziquntel}}</div>
1403063531818 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Neurocysticercosis (eg
gs of <i>Teni solium</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Albendzole}}</div>
1403063577185 1395802358422 How is<i> Diphyllobothrium ltum</i> t
rnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ingestion of lrve from rw freshwter f
ish}}</div>
1403063620388 1395802358422 Which vitmin deficiency is cused by <i>Diphyll
obothrium ltum</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B12}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>The worm competes with Vitmin B12 in the intestines.</i></div><div><i>Cu
ses megloblstic nemi.</i></div>
1403063665929 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Diphyllobothrium l
tum</i><b style="font-style: itlic; "> </b>infection?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Prziquntel}}</div>
1403063680581 1395802358422 How is <i>Echinococcus grnulosus</i> trns
mitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ingestion of eggs from <b>dog feces</b>}}</di
v>
1403063707249 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Echinococcus grnulosus</i>}} is cest
ode tht yields <b>hydtid cysts</b> in the liver, thereby cusing nphyl
xis if the ntigens re relesed.
<br /><div><i>Surgeons kills the cysts b
y injecting ethnol before removl.</i></div>
1403063775190 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Echinococcus grnul
osus</i> (hydtid cysts)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Albendzole}}</div>
1403063798409 1395802358422 How is <i>Schistosom</i> trnsmitted?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Vi snils; cercrie penetrte the skin}}</div>
1403063839195 1395802358422 Which niml is the host for <i>Schistosom spp.
</i>?<div><br />{{c1::Snils}}</div>
1403063871194 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Schistosom spp.</i>}} is tremtode t
ht cuses <b>liver nd spleen grnuloms</b>, <b>fibrosis</b> nd <b>inflmmti
on</b>.
1403063925330 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Schistosom hemtobium</i>}} is spec
ies of <i>Schistosom</i> tht cn led to squmous cell crcinom of the b
ldder if there is chronic infection.
1403063970490 1395802358422 Which species of <i>Schistosom</i> is sso
cited with cusing squmous cell crcinom if there is chronic infection?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Schistosom hemtobium</i>}}</div>
1403064006246 1395802358422 Which cncer is possible compliction of chron
ic <i>Schistosom hemtobium</i> infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Squ
<br /><div><i>Presents with <b>p
mous cell crcinom of the bldder}}</div>
inless hemturi</b>.</i></div>
1403064044018 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Schistosomisis (<i>Sc
histosom</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Prziquntel}}</div>
1403064066257 1395802358422 How is <i>Clonorchis sinensis</i> trnsmitt
ed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Undercooked fish}}</div>
1403064088735 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Clonorchis sinensis</i>}} is species
of tremtode tht cuses <b>biliry trct inflmmtion</b> nd subsequent f
ormtion of <b>pigmented gllstones</b>.
1403064212687 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Clonorhis sinensis</i>}} is species o
f tremtode tht is ssocited with <b>cholngiocrcinom</b>.
1403064246575 1395802358422 Which cncer is ssocited with <i>Clonorchis si
nensis</i> infection?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Cholngiocrcinom}}</div>
1403064275815 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Clonorchis sinensis
</i> infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Prziquntel}}</div>
1403064291751 1395802358422 Which cestode (tpeworm) is ssocited with <b>b
rin cysts</b> nd <b>seizures</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Teni so
lium</i> (Cysticercosis)}}</div>
1403064353830 1395802358422 Which tremtode (fluke) is ssocited with <b>he
mturi</b> nd <b>bldder cncer</b>?<div><br />{{c1::<i>Schistosom hem
tobium</i>}}</div>
1403064383942 1395802358422 Which cestode (tpeworm) is ssocited with live
r hydtid cysts?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Echinococcus grnulosus</i>}}</di
v>
1403064411121 1395802358422 Which nemtodes re ssocited with <b>microcyti
c nemi</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Ancylostom duodenle; Nector mer
icnus</i>}}</div>
1403064575298 1395802358422 Which nemtode is ssocited with <b>perinl pr
uritis</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Enterobius vermiculris</i> (pinw
orm)}}</div>
1403064601056 1395802358422 Which tremtode (fluke) is ssocited with <b>po
rtl hypertension</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Schistosom mnsoni; Schist
osom jponicum</i>}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Schistosom is often clled <b>l
iver fluke</b>.</i></div>
1403118693070 1395802358422 In which 2 shpes re virl cspids typiclly fo
und?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Icoshedrl; Helicl}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-841813590300.jpg" /></div>
1403119676318 1395802358422 {{c1::Ressortment}} is virl genetic phenomen
on tht involves the exchnge of genetic segments mongst viruses with segmented
genomes.
<br /><div><i>This is high frequency recombintion.</i></div><di
v><i>e.g. Influenz virus; in fct, this is why there re worldwide influenz p
ndemics.</i></div>
1403120908259 1395802358422 {{c1::Complementtion}} is virl genetic pheno
menon where <b>nonmutted</b> virus complements <b>mutted</b> vir
us by mking functionl protein tht serves for both viruses. <br /><div><i>In
this cse, the mutted virus hs <b>nonfunctionl</b> version of the pro
tein,</i></div>
1403121030967 1395802358422 Wht type of immunity is induced by Live Attenu
ted Vccines?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Humorl <u style="font-weight: bold; ">
<br /><div><i>Some live ttenut
nd</u> cell-medited immunity}}</div>
ed vccines hve reverted bck to virulence, but on very rre occsions.</i></di
v><div><i>Live vccines <b>do not require boosters</b>.</i></div><div><i><img sr
c="pste-2267742732379.jpg" /></i></div>
1403122989005 1395802358422 Wht type of immunity is induced by <b>Killed/In
ctivted</b> Vccines?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Humorl immunity <b><u>o
nly</u></b>}}</div>
1403122998026 1395802358422 {{c1::Live ttenuted vccine}} is type of vc
cine tht is dngerous to give to immunocompromised ptients or their close cont
cts. <br /><div><i>The exception is MMR, which cn be given to HIV+ ptients
who do not show signs of immunodeficiency.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-2272
037699675.jpg" /></i></div>
1403123343131 1395802358422 Which types of HPV hve vilble recombinnt v
ccines?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HPV 6, 11, 16, 18}}</div>
1403123430635 1395802358422 Wht is the only DNA virus with <b>ss</b>DNA?<di

v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Prvoviride}}</div> <i><div></div></i><i><br /></i>T
he rest of the DNA viruses re dsDNA.
1403123790266 1395802358422 {{c1::Ppillomvirus}}, {{c2::Polyomvirus}
} nd {{c3::Hepdnvirus}} re the only 3 DNA viruses tht hve circulr ge
nomes. <br /><div><i>The remining DNA viruses re ll liner.</i></div>
1403123988848 1395802358422 Wht is the only RNA virus tht hs <b>ds</b>RNA
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Reoviride}}</div> <br /><div><i>All others re ssR
NA.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-3040836845726.jpg" /></i></div>
1403124101979 1395802358422 Where in the cell do DNA viruses replicte?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus, <u>except for Poxvirus</u>}}</div>
1403125210405 1395802358422 Where in the cell do RNA viruses normlly replic
te?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplsm, <u>except for Influenz virus nd Ret
roviruses</u>}}</div>
1403125256173 1395802358422 {{c1::Herpesviruses}} re clss of DNA viruses
tht cquires their envelope from the nucler membrne. All other enveloped vir
uses cquire it from the plsm membrne.
08865920.jpg" /></div>
1403126074092 1395802358422 Wht is the only DNA virus tht <b>does not</b>&
nbsp;hve n icoshedrl shpe?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Poxvirus}}</div>
1403126635353 1395802358422 Wht is the only DNA virus tht <b>does not</b>&
nbsp;replicte in the nucleus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Poxvirus}}</div>
<br /><div><i>It crries its own DNA-dependent RNA polymerse.</i></div><div><i>
<br /></i></div><div><i><img src="pste-4367981740443.jpg" /></i></div>
1403133798211 1395802358422 Wht type of nucleic cid is found in Herpesviru
ses?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136564417 1395802358422 Wht type of nucleic cid is found in Hepdnvir
us?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136569891 1395802358422 Wht type of nucleic cid is found in Poxvirus?<
div><br />{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136579174 1395802358422 Wht type of nucleic cid is found in Ppillomv
irus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136609242 1395802358422 Wht type of nucleic cid is found in Polyomvir
us?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136625776 1395802358422 Wht type of nucleic cid is found in Adenovirus
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::dsDNA}}</div>
1403136635213 1395802358422 Wht type of nucleic cid is found in Prvovirus
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ssDNA}}</div>
1403137401302 1395802358422 {{c1::HBV}} is Hepdnvirus tht cuses cute
or chronic heptitis. <br /><div><i>Not retrovirus, but hs reverse trnscri
ptse.</i></div>
1403137616859 1395802358422 Which dsDNA virus is ssocited with cusing Acu
te Hemorrhgic Cystitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Adenovirus}}</div>
1403137741089 1395802358422 Which dsDNA virus is ssocited with <b>febrile
phryngitis, pneumoni</b> nd <b>conjunctivitis</b>?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Adenovirus}}</div>
1403137771235 1395802358422 Wht is the smllest DNA virus?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Prvovirus}}</div>
1403137788786 1395802358422 {{c1::Prvovirus B19}} is ssDNA virus tht cu
ses <b>plstic crises</b> in sickle cell disese.
ses <b>"slpped cheeks" rsh (erythem infectiosum; fifth disese)</b> in c
hildren.
1403137863098 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythem Infectiosium (Fifth Disese)}} is
cutneous compliction of Prvovirus B19 infection tht presents s <b>"sl
pped cheeks" rsh</b> in children.
ses RBC destruction in fetus, thereby leding to hydrops fetlis nd deth.
ses pure RBC plsi.

ses Rheumtoid Arthritis-like symptoms in dults.
1403137951253 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Progressive Multifocl L
eukoencephlopthy (PML)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::JC virus infection in HIV}}
</div>
1403138026081 1395802358422 {{c1::JC Virus}} is dsDNA Polyomvirus tht c
uses Progressive Multifocl Leukoencephlopthy (PML) in HIV ptients..
1403138132467 1395802358422 {{c1::BK Virus}} is dsDNA Polyomvirus tht co
mmonly trgets the kidney in trnsplnt ptients.
<br /><div><i>BK = <b>B<
/b>d <b>K</b>idney</i></div><div><i>JC = <b>J</b>unky <b>C</b>erebrum (PML)</i>
</div>
1403138210850 1395802358422 {{c1::Cowpox}} is dsDNA Poxvirus tht yields "
<b>milkmid blisters</b>".
1403138249124 1395802358422 Wht is the lrgest DNA virus?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Poxviruses}}</div>
1403138257021 1395802358422 {{c1::Molluscum contgiosum}} is cutneous dis
order cused by <b>Poxviruses</b> tht presents with <b>flesh-coloured dome lesi
ons</b> with <b>centrl umbilicted dimple</b>.
1403138320042 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is ssocited with Gingivostom
titis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1}}</div>
1403139339864 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is ssocited with Kertoconju
nctivitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img sr
c="pste-7546257539403.jpg" /></div>
1403139385203 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is the most common cuse of sp
ordic encephlitis in the USA?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1}}</div>
1403139404471 1395802358422 {{c1::HSV-1}} is Herpesvirus tht cuses tempo
rl lobe encephlitis. <br><div><i>Most common cuse of spordic encephlitis i
n the USA.</i></div>
1403139452818 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Herpes Lbilis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-770946629
6652.jpg" /></div>
1403139472305 1395802358422 {{c1::HSV-1}} is Herpesvirus tht is ltent in
<b>trigeminl gngli</b>.
1403139559264 1395802358422 How is HSV-1 trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Respirtory droplets; sliv}}</div>
1403139593691 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is ssocited with Cowdry Type
A inclusions on cell smer?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1; HSV-2}}</div>
1403139633959 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Herpes Genitlis?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-2}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-79027398
24973.jpg" /></div>
1403139661451 1395802358422 {{c1::HSV-2}} is Herpesvirus tht is ltent in
<b>scrl gngli</b>.
1403139685511 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is ssocited with Neontl He
rpes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-2}}</div>
1403139710572 1395802358422 How is HSV-2 trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Sexul contct; Perintlly}}</div>
1403139730046 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Chickenpox?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::VZV (Vricell-zoster)}}</div>
1403140033058 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Shingles?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::VZV (Vricell-zoster)}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste
-8808977924430.jpg" /></div>
1403140047263 1395802358422 {{c1::VZV}} is Herpesvirus tht is ltent in <
b>dorsl root </b>or<b> trigeminl gngli</b>.
1403140106172 1395802358422 Wht is the most common compliction of Shingles
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Post-herpetic Neurlgi}}</div>
1403140124899 1395802358422 How is VZV trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Respirtory secretions}}</div>
1403140169070 1395802358422 Wht is the most common etiology of Mononucleosi
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1403140255270 1395802358422 {{c1::Mononucleosis}} is compliction of EBV i

nfection tht presents with fever, heptosplenomegly, phryngitis nd lymphden
opthy. <br /><div><i>Lymphdenopthy is especilly seen t the posterior cervic
l nodes.</i></div>
1403140435215 1395802358422 How is EBV trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Respirtory secretions; Sliv}}</div>
1403140461354 1395802358422 {{c1::Mononucleosis}} is disese cused by EBV
tht is lso commonly referred to s "<b>kissing disese</b>" s it is often se
en in teens nd young dults.
1403140508210 1395802358422 Where is EBV ltent?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
B cells}}</div> <br /><div><i>EBV infects B cells.</i></div>
1403140583915 1395802358422 Which receptor does EBV use to enter B cells?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD21 (C3d; CR2)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"You must
be <b>21</b> to drink t the <b>Epstein-Brr</b>"</i></div>
1403140620392 1395802358422 {{c1::EBV}} is Herpesvirus tht cn give rise
to <b>typicl lymphocytes (Downey Cells) on peripherl blood smer</b>.<div><
<br /><div><i>Th
e typicl cells re not B cells. <b>They re rective cytotoxic T cells</b>.</i
></div>
1403140678717 1395802358422 Which dignostic test is used to detect EBV infe
ction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Monospot Test}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Hete
rophile ntibodies re detected by gglutintion of sheep or horse RBCs.</i><br
/><div><i>Positive result = EBV infection.</i></div>
1403140742833 1395802358422 The {{c1::Monospot Test}} is dignostic t
est tht detects the <b>heterophile ntibodies</b> seen in EBV infection vi
gglutintion of sheep or horse RBCs.
1403140899061 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is ssocited with Hodgkin Lym
phom?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1403140915952 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is ssocited with endemic Bur
kitt Lymphom?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1403140930710 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is ssocited with Nsophryng
el Crcinom?<div><br />{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1403140946098 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus cuses Mononucleosis with <b
>negtive Monospot test</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CMV}}</div>
1403141234206 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is ssocited with cusing ret
initis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CMV}}</div> <br /><div><i>"Sight"-o-meglovi
rus</i></div>
1403141269124 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is ssocited with chrcteris
tic <b>Owl's Eye inclusions</b> in infected cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::CMV}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-10479720202575.jpg" /></div>
1403141305744 1395802358422 {{c1::CMV}} is Herpesvirus tht is ltent in m
ononucler cells.
1403141339702 1395802358422 How is CMV trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Congenitlly; Trnsfusion; Sexul Contct; Sliv; Urine; Trnsplnt}}</div>
1403141534427 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Roseol?<div><br />{{c1:
:HHV-6}}</div>
1403141586391 1395802358422 {{c1::Roseol}} is n infectious disorder cused
by HHV-6 tht presents with <b>high fever</b> for severl dys nd subse
quent <b>diffuse mculr rsh</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-10758893
076815.jpg" /></div>
1403141640344 1395802358422 {{c1::Seizures}} re neurologicl compliction
of Roseol due to the high fevers tht cn lst for severl dys.
1403141683332 1395802358422 How is Roseol (HHV-6) trnsmitted?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Sliv}}</div>
1403141698113 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Kposi Srcom?<div><br
/>{{c1::HHV-8}}</div>
1403141713141 1395802358422 {{c1::Kposi Srcom}} is neoplsm of endothel
il cells tht is cused by HHV-8 in HIV/AIDS nd trnsplnt ptients.
1403141780888 1395802358422 {{c1::Kposi Srcom}} is neoplsm of endothel
il cells cused by HHV-8 tht presents with <b>drk/violceous, flt</b>
nd <b>nodulr skin lesions</b> tht represent endothelil growths.<div><br

/></div><div><img src="pste-10965051507025.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Th
e GI nd Lungs cn lso be ffected.</i></div>
1403141883192 1395802358422 How is HHV-8 trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Sexul contct}}</div>
1403141901654 1395802358422 The {{c1::Tznck test}} is dignostic tes
t used to identify HSV through smer of n opened skin vesicle.<div><br /></di
v><div><img src="pste-11192684773794.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>A positive
tznck smer will show multinucleted gint cells.</i></div>
1403142018149 1395802358422 Which dignostic test is used to dignose Herpes
Encephlitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CSF PCR}}</div>
1403142048017 1395802358422 Wht type of nucleic cid is found in Reovirus?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::dsRNA}}</div>
1403144228014 1395802358422 Wht type of nucleic cid is found in Picornvir
us?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144235452 1395802358422 Wht type of nucleic cid is found in Hepevirus?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144245759 1395802358422 Wht type of nucleic cid is found in Cliciviru
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144253499 1395802358422 Wht type of nucleic cid is found in Flvivirus
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144258949 1395802358422 Wht type of nucleic cid is found in Flvivirus
??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144288238 1395802358422 Wht type of nucleic cid is found in Togvirus?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144295552 1395802358422 Wht type of nucleic cid is found in Retrovirus
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144302858 1395802358422 Wht type of nucleic cid is found in Coronviru
ses?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144312488 1395802358422 Wht type of nucleic cid is found in Orthomyxov
iruses?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Negtive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144494015 1395802358422 Wht type nucleic cid is found in Prmyxovirus
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Negtive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144822898 1395802358422 Wht type nucleic cid is found in Rhbdovirus?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Negtive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144831545 1395802358422 Wht type nucleic cid is found in Filovirus?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Negtive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144839873 1395802358422 Wht type nucleic cid is found in Arenvirus?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Negtive ssRNA}}</div>
1403144848305 1395802358422 Wht type nucleic cid is found in Bunyvirus?<d
1403144857131 1395802358422 Wht type nucleic cid is found in Deltvirus?<d
1403149724209 1395802358422 Which serologicl ntigen from EBV is produced i
f the infection is ctive nd productive?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Virl Cpsi
d Antigen (VCA)}}</div>
1403149942402 1395802358422 Which serologicl ntigen from EBV is seen in l
tent infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Epstein-Brr Nucler Antigen (EBNA)}}
</div>
1403149965943 1395802358422 {{c1::Epstein-Brr Nucler Antigen (EBNA)}} is
serologicl ntigen from EBV tht contributes to Hodgkin's or Burkitt's Lymphom
.
1403150015090 1395802358422 {{c1::Coltivirus}} is dsRNA Arbovirus nd Reov
irus tht cuses Colordo Tick Fever.
1403151607539 1395802358422 Which type Reovirus is the #1 cuse of ftl di
rrhe in children?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rotvirus}}</div>
1403151653610 1395802358422 {{c1::Poliovirus}} is Picornvirus tht cuses
Polio. <br /><div><img src="pste-17888538788154.jpg" /></div>
1403151822869 1395802358422 {{c1::Echovirus}} is Picornvirus tht cuses
septic meningitis.
1403151835081 1395802358422 {{c1::Rhinovirus}} is Picornvirus tht cuses

the "common cold".
1403151896208 1395802358422 {{c1::Coxsckievirus}} is Picornvirus tht c
uses septic meningitis, herpngin, hnd-foot-mouth disese, myocrditis nd pe
ricrditis.
1403151923416 1395802358422 {{c1::HAV}} is Picornvirus tht cuses Acute
Virl Heptitis.
1403152447932 1395802358422 {{c1::HEV}} is Hepevirus tht cuses heptitis
.
1403152475119 1395802358422 {{c1::Norovirus}} is Clicivirus tht cuses v
irl gstroenteritis.
1403152491888 1395802358422 {{c1::HCV}} is Flvivirus tht cuses heptiti
s.
1403152520861 1395802358422 {{c1::Arbovirus}} is group of viruses tht re
trnsmitted by rthropods (e.g. mosquitoes, ticks).
1403152973559 1395802358422 How re Arboviruses trnsmitted?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Arthropods (mosquitoes; ticks)}}</div>
1403153047912 1395802358422 {{c1::Yellow Fever Virus (YFV)}} is n Arbovirus
nd Flvivirus tht cuses Yellow Fever.
1403153074969 1395802358422 {{c1::Dengue virus (DENV)}} is n Arbovirus nd
Flvivirus tht cuses Dengue.
1403153097390 1395802358422 {{c1::St. Louis Encephlitis Virus (SLEV)}} is
n Arbovirus nd Flvivirus tht cuses St. Louis Encephlitis.
1403153123179 1395802358422 {{c1::West Nile Virus (WNV)}} is n Arbovirus n
d Flvivirus tht cuses West Nile.
1403153151020 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubell virus}} is Togvirus tht cuses
Rubell.
1403153216093 1395802358422 {{c1::Estern Equine Encephlitis Virus (EEEV)}}
is n Arbovirus nd Togvirus tht cuses Estern Equine Encephlitis.
1403153301788 1395802358422 {{c1::Western Equine Encephlitis Virus (WEEV)}}
is n Arbovirus nd Togvirus tht cuses Western Equine Encephlitis.
1403153333497 1395802358422 {{c1::Humn T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV)}} is R
etrovirus tht cuses Adult T-Cell Leukemi/Lymphom.
1403153418832 1395802358422 {{c1::Humn Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)}} is
Retrovirus tht cuses AIDS.
1403153434915 1395802358422 {{c1::Coronvirus}} is Coronvirus tht cuses
the common cold nd SARS.
1403153483786 1395802358422 {{c1::Influenz Virus}} is n Orthomyxovirus th
t cuses the flu.
1403153501981 1395802358422 {{c1::Prinfluenzvirus}} is Prmyxovirus th
t cuses Croup.
1403153543074 1395802358422 {{c1::Respirtory Syncytil Virus (RSV)}} is P
rmyxovirus tht cuses bronchiolitis in bbies.
te-19782619365537.jpg" /></div>
1403153599484 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Respirtory Syncytil
Virus (RSV) infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ribvirin}}</div>
<br /><d
1403153616162 1395802358422 {{c1::Mesles virus}} is Prmyxovirus tht c
uses Mesles. <br /><div><img src="pste-19782619365537.jpg" /></div>
1403153633173 1395802358422 {{c1::Mumps virus}} is Prmyxovirus tht cus
es Mumps.
1403153646671 1395802358422 {{c1::Rbies virus}} is Rhbdovirus tht cuse
s Rbies.
1403153659412 1395802358422 {{c1::Ebol virus}} is Filovirus tht cuses E
bol.
1403153691369 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrburg virus}} is Filovirus tht cuses
Mrburg Hemorrhgic Fever.
1403153708859 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus (LCMV)}
} is n Arenvirus tht cuses Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis.
1403153783307 1395802358422 {{c1::Lss virus}} is n Arenvirus tht cuses
Lss Fever.
1403153795153 1395802358422 {{c1::Hntvirus}} is Bunyvirus tht cuses h
emorrhgic fever nd pneumoni.
1403153931797 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Cliforni Encephlitis?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bunyviruses}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Which re
lso Arboviruses.</i></div>
1403153959813 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Sndfly/Rift Vlley Feve
rs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bunyviruses}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Which re
lso Arboviruses.</i></div>
1403153985737 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Crimen-Congo Hemorrhgi
c Fever?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bunyviruses}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Wh
ich re lso Arboviruses<b>.</b></i></div>
1403154023641 1395802358422 {{c1::HDV}} is Deltvirus tht cuses heptiti
s <u>when there is n HBV co-infection</u>.
1403193207560 1395802358422 Negtive strnded RNA viruses must bring long
n {{c1::RNA-dependent RNA polymerse}} in order to trnscribe their negtiv
e strnd in positive strnd RNA (mRNA) <div><br /></div><img src="pste-2200311
7457455.jpg" /><br /><div><img src="pste-21994527522938.jpg" /></div>
1403195008095 1395802358422 Wht type of nucleic cid is seen in <b>ll</b>&
nbsp;segmented viruses?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::RNA}}</div> <div><br /></div
><img src="pste-22157736280214.jpg" />
1403195041732 1395802358422 How re Picornviruses trnsmitted?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Fecl-orl; ll re enteroviruses except for Rhinovirus}}</div>
<div><br /></div><img src="pste-22316650070121.jpg" /><br /><div><img src="pst
e-22303765168434.jpg" /></div>
1403195353414 1395802358422 Wht is the only Picornvirus tht <b>does not</
b> infect the GI trct?<div><br />{{c1::Rhinovirus}}</div> <br /><div><i>Th
is is becuse it is cid-lbile nd destroyed in the stomch.</i></div>
1403195537492 1395802358422 {{c1::Rhinovirus}} is Picornvirus tht is <b>
cid lbile</b> nd hence is destroyed by stomch cid nd doesn't cuse GI
infection.
1403195815189 1395802358422 How is Yellow Fever (Yellow Fever Virus) trnsmi
tted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Aedes</i> mosquito}}</div>
1403195959549 1395802358422 Wht is the reservoir for Yellow Fever Virus?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Monkeys; Humns}}</div>
1403195987559 1395802358422 {{c1::Yellow Fever}} is n infectious disorder c
used by Flvivirus (nd Arbovirus) tht presents with <b>high fever, blck vo
mitus</b> nd <b>jundice</b>.
<br /><div><i>Etiology is Yellow Fever V
irus (but I didn't wnn mke it too esy, nom syin?)</i></div>
1403196202956 1395802358422 Wht is the most importnt globl cuse of infn
tile gstroenteritis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rotvirus}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i>dsRNA Reovirus</i><div><i></i><i><b>ROTA = R</b>ight <b>O</b>ut
<b>T</b>he <b>A</b>nus</i><br /><div><img src="pste-23102629085462.j
pg" /></div></div>
1403197164365 1395802358422 {{c1::Rotvirus}} is dsRNA Reovirus tht is
mjor cuse of cute dirrhe in the USA during the winter, especilly in dy-c
re centers nd kindergrtens.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-2309833411816
6.jpg" /></div> <br /><div><i><b>ROTA = R</b>ight <b>O</b>ut <b>T</b>he <b>A</b>
nus</i></div>
1403197196511 1395802358422 {{c1::Rotvirus}} is dsRNA virus tht cuses <
b>destruction nd trophy of GI villi </b>tht leds to <b>decrese in N bso
rption</b> nd <b>loss of K</b>. <br /><div><img src="pste-2309833411816
6.jpg" /></div>
1403197495681 1395802358422 How do N levels chnge in Rotvirus infection?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese due to decrese in N bsorption (due to v
illous destruction nd trophy)}}</div>
1403197532531 1395802358422 How do K levels chnge in Rotvirus infection?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese due to K loss (s result of GI villi destru
ction nd trophy)}}</div>
1403197667789 1395802358422 {{c1::Influenz virus}} is n enveloped orthomyx
ovirus with n <b>8-segment</b> negtive ssRNA genome.

1403198437647 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemgglutinin}} is n ntigen from Influen
z virus tht functions to promote virl entry.
1403198474703 1395802358422 {{c1::Neurminidse}} is virl enzyme/ntigen
from Influenz virus tht promotes the relese of progeny virions.
1403198511652 1395802358422 The {{c1::reformulted}} flu vccine is the
flu vccine tht contins the virl strins most likely to pper during the fl
u seson.
<br /><div><i>k "the flu shot"</i></div>
1403198785505 1395802358422 The {{c1::killed virl}} flu vccine is the
form of flu vccine tht is most frequently used.
1403198804519 1395802358422 The {{c1::live, ttenuted}} flu vccine is
the flu vccine tht contins temperture-sensitive mutnt tht replicted in
the nose, but not the lungs. <br /><div><i>Administered intrnslly.</i></di
v>
1403198837444 1395802358422 {{c1::Genetic/ntigenic shift}} is genetic phe
nomenon tht cuses <b>flu pndemics</b>.
<br /><div><i>This involves the
ressortment of the virl genome. Segments undergo high-frequency recombintion
(like when humn flu A virus recombines with swine flu A virus).</i></div><div><
i></i><i><b>S</b>udden genetic <b>s</b>hifts re more dedly tht gr<b>d</
b>ul genetic <b>d</b>rifts.</i></div>
1403198971091 1395802358422 {{c1::Genetic/ntigenic drift}} is genetic phe
nomenon tht yields <b>flu epidemics</b>.
<br /><div><i>Involves minor ch
nges bsed on rndom muttions.</i></div><div><i><b>S</b>udden genetic <b>s</b>h
ifts re more dedly tht gr<b>d</b>ul genetic <b>d</b>rifts.</i></div>
1403215046161 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubell}} is n infective disorder cused
by Togvirus tht ws formerly known s Germn (3-dy) Mesles.
1403215494953 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubell}} is n infectious disorder cused
by Togvirus tht presents with fever, <b>posturiculr</b> (nd other)
lymphdenopthy, <b>rthrlgi</b> nd <b>fine rsh</b>.<div><br /></div>
<div><img src="pste-26293789786530.jpg" /></div>
1403215608761 1395802358422 {{c1::Fine (Rubell) Rsh}} is cutneous fetu
re of Rubell tht involves <b>fine mcules tht strts on the fce nd spreds
centrifuglly</b> to involve the trunk nd extremities.<div><br /></div><di
v><img src="pste-26289494819234.jpg" /></div>
1403215645008 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenitl Rubell}} is serious ToRCHeS
infection tht presents with <b>"blueberry muffin" ppernce</b> tht is
indictive of extrmedullry hemtopoeisis.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pst
e-26439818674593.jpg" /></div>
1403215711657 1395802358422 {{c1::"Blueberry Muffin" ppernce}} is cutn
eous feture of Congenitl Rubell tht is indictive of extrmedullry hemtopo
iesis.
1403215750435 1395802358422 {{c1::Croup}} is virl respirtory infection c
used by Prinfluenzvirus tht involves <b>sel-like brking cough</b>.
<br /><div><i>Commonly seen in infnts.</i></div>
1403216570764 1395802358422 {{c1::Surfce F (fusion) protein}} is surfce
protein found in ll Prmyxoviruses tht cuses respirtory epithelil cells to
fuse nd form multinucleted cells.
1403216622940 1395802358422 {{c1::Plivizumb}} is monoclonl ntibody th
t trgets the surfce F protein on prmyxoviruses, thereby preventing pneumoni
cused by RSV infection in premture infnts.
1403216662021 1395802358422 Which momoclonl ntibody is used to trget the
Surfce F protein on ll Prmyxoviruses?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Plivizumb
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>It cn prevent the pneumoni cused by RSV infecti
on in premture infnts.</i></div>
1403216716841 1395802358422 {{c1::Mesles}} is n infectious disorder cused
by Prmyxovirus tht presents with chrcteristic <b>Koplik spots</b> o
n the orl/buccl mucos.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-26976689586594.jp
g" /></div>
1403217185884 1395802358422 {{c1::Koplik Spots}} re mucosl feture of Me
sles tht is described s <b>bright red spots</b> with <b>blue-white cente
rs</b> tht precede the mesles rsh by 1-2 dys.<div><br /></div><div><img

src="pste-26972394619298.jpg" /></div>
1403217229133 1395802358422 {{c1::Mesles}} is n infectious disorder cused
by Prmyxovirus tht presents with chrcteristic <b>descending mculoppu
lr rsh</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-27131308409250.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Discrete erythemtous rsh tht presents lte nd includes the lim
bs s it spreds downwrds (vs. Rubell which involves mostly the trunk nd spre
ds centrifuglly to the extremities)</i></div>
1403217376605 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Subcute Sclerosing Pne
ncephlitis (SSPE)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesles virus}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Occurs yers lter.</i></div>
1403217416275 1395802358422 {{c1::Gint Cell Pneumoni}} is rre respirto
ry sequele of Mesles tht is seen in the immunosuppressed.
1403217532105 1395802358422 {{c1::Cough}}, {{c2::Coryz}} nd {{c3
::Conjuncitivits}} is trid of symptoms referred to s the "Three C's of Mesl
es."
1403219013819 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitmin A}} is ft soluble vitmin tht
is used to prevent severe exfolitive dermtitis in mlnourished children infect
ed with Mesles.
1403219043381 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is used to prevent sev
ere exfolitive dermtitis in mlnourished children with Mesles?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Vitmin A}}</div>
1403219447297 1395802358422 {{c1::Mumps}} is n infectious disorder cused b
y Prmyxoviruses tht presents with <b>protitis, orchitis</b> nd <b>sep
tic meningitis</b>.
<br /><div><i>"Mumps cn mke your protid glnds nd te
stes s big s <b>POM</b>-poms."</i></div><div><i><b>P</b>rotitis, <b>O</b>rchi
tis nd septic <b>M</b>eningitis.</i></div><div><i>The orchitis cn cuse steri
lity, especilly fter puberty.</i></div>
1403219565935 1395802358422 {{c1::Protitis}} is feture of Mumps tht pre
sents with <b>swollen neck nd protid glnds</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img s
rc="pste-27994596835745.jpg" /></div>
1403226827494 1395802358422 Which Rhbdovirus (negtive ssRNA) is shped lik
e bullet?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-29145648070934.jpg" /></div><di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rbies}}</div>
1403228947119 1395802358422 {{c1::Negri Bodies}} re chrcteristic cytopls
mic inclusions commonly found in <b>Purkinje cells of the cerebellum</b> n
d in <b>hippocmpl neurons</b> in ptient with Rbies.<div><br /></div><
div><img src="pste-29686813950370.jpg" /></div>
1403229150193 1395802358422 Wht is the incubtion period for Rbies?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Weeks to months before symptoms rise}}</div>
1403229165584 1395802358422 Wht is the postexposure tretment for Rbies?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Wound clening nd vccintion rbies immune globulin}
}</div>
1403229205421 1395802358422 {{c1::Rbies}} is Rhbdovirus tht trvels to
nd infects the CNS by migrting in retrogrde fshion up nerve xons.
1403229246864 1395802358422 Which niml bites re the most common cuses of
Rbies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bt, rccoon nd skunk}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Dog bites re ctully not tht common in the USA.</i></div>
1403229278593 1395802358422 {{c1::Rbies}} is CNS disorder cused by Rh
bdovirus tht presents with <b>gittion, photophobi</b> nd <b>hydrophobi
</b>. <br /><div><i><u>Disese progression</u>:</i></div><div><i>Fever, Mlis
e --> Agittion, Photophobi, Hydrophobi --> Prlysis, Com --> Deth
.</i></div>
1403229687296 1395802358422 Wht is the only DNA Heptitis virus?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::HBV}}</div>
<br /><div><i>All others re RNA viruses.</i></d
iv><div><i><img src="pste-33152852557938.jpg" /></i></div>
1403229943935 1395802358422 How do ALT levels chnge in Heptitis?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1403229952647 1395802358422 How do AST levels chnge in Heptitis?<div><br /
1403229961409 1395802358422 How is HAV trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c

1::Fecl-Orl}}</div> <br /><div><i><u>The Heptitis Worm: <b>A-B-C-D-E</
b></u></i></div><div><i>The ends hve fecl-orl trnsmission (A = mouth; E = n
us).</i></div><div><i>Everything else in between (BCD) is trnsmitted prenterl
ly.</i></div>
1403230069721 1395802358422 How is HBV trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Prenterl}}</div> <br /><div><div><i><u>The Heptitis Worm: <b>A-B-CD-E</b></u></i></div><div><i>The ends hve fecl-orl trnsmission (A = mouth; E
= nus).</i></div><div><i>Everything else in between (BCD) is trnsmitted pren
terlly.</i></div></div>
1403230087366 1395802358422 How is HCV trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Prenterl}}</div> <div><br /></div><div><div><i><u>The Heptitis Worm:&nbs
p;<b>A-B-C-D-E</b></u></i></div><div><i>The ends hve fecl-orl trnsmission (A
= mouth; E = nus).</i></div><div><i>Everything else in between (BCD) is trnsm
itted prenterlly.</i></div></div>
1403230100957 1395802358422 How is HDV trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Prenterl}}</div> <div><br /></div><div><div><i><u>The Heptitis Worm:&nbs
p;<b>A-B-C-D-E</b></u></i></div><div><i>The ends hve fecl-orl trnsmission (A
= mouth; E = nus).</i></div><div><i>Everything else in between (BCD) is trnsm
itted prenterlly.</i></div></div>
1403230118689 1395802358422 How is HEV trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Fecl-orl; especilly with wterborne epidemics}}</div>
<br /><div><div>
<i><u>The Heptitis Worm: <b>A-B-C-D-E</b></u></i></div><div><i>The ends h
ve fecl-orl trnsmission (A = mouth; E = nus).</i></div><div><i>Everything el
se in between (BCD) is trnsmitted prenterlly.</i></div></div>
1403230126896 1395802358422 Which 2 Heptitis viruses do not yield crrier s
ttus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::A nd E}}</div>
1403230464069 1395802358422 Which 2 Heptitis viruses re trnsmitted feclorlly?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HAV; HEV}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"The vowel
s hit your bowels."</i></div><div><i>They re nked viruses nd do not rely on
n envelope, hence they re not destroyed by the gut.</i></div>
1403230706101 1395802358422 Wht is the incubtion period for HAV?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Short (weeks)}}</div>
1403230758993 1395802358422 Wht is the incubtion period for HBV?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Long (months)}}</div>
147525234.jpg" /></div>
1403230766342 1395802358422 Wht is the incubtion period for HCV?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Long}}</div>
1403230790060 1395802358422 Wht is the incubtion period for HDV <b>wh
en it is superinfected on top of HBV</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Short}}</di
v>
1403230813793 1395802358422 Wht is the incubtion period for HDV <b>wh
en it cuses co-infection with HBV</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Long}}</div>
1403230847676 1395802358422 Wht is the incubtion period for HEV?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Short}}</div>
1403230932218 1395802358422 Which 2 Heptitis viruses <b>do not</b> inc
rese the risk for Heptocellulr Crcinom (HCC)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HA
V; HEV}}</div>
1403231231211 1395802358422 {{c1::HBV}} is Heptitis virus tht increses
the risk of Heptocellulr Crcinom by integrting into the host genome, thereb
y cting s n oncogene.
></div>
1403231272667 1395802358422 {{c1::HCV}} is Heptitis virus tht increses
the risk of Heptocellulr Crcinom by cusing chronic inflmmtion.
1403231301609 1395802358422 How does HDV influence the risk of Heptocellul
r Crcinom?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1403231439439 1395802358422 Which Heptitis virus is ssocited with <b>sym
ptomtic</b>, <b>cute</b> heptitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HAV}}</div
>
1403231921559 1395802358422 Which Heptitis is most commonly ssocited with
<b>chronic</b> heptitis nd subsequent <b>cirrhosis</b> or <b>crcin

om</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HCV}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-32452
772888671.jpg" /></div>
1403231965914 1395802358422 Which Heptitis virus is defective virus tht
is <b>dependent on HBV co-infection or superinfection</b>?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::HDV}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Superinfection yields worse prognosis.</
i></div>
1403232021285 1395802358422 Which Heptitis virus is ssocited with high mo
rtlity in pregnnt women?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HEV}}</div>
<br /><d
1403234379492 1395802358422 Which immunoglobulin ginst HAV indictes <b>c
tive</b> Heptitis A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-HAV IgM}}</div>
1403234473918 1395802358422 Which immunoglobulin ginst HAV indictes <b>pr
ior infection or vccintion to HAV</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-HAV IgG
}}</div>
1403234508053 1395802358422 {{c1::Anti-HAV IgG}} is n immunoglobulin gins
t HAV tht protects ginst HAV reinfection.
1403234530092 1395802358422 Which HBV ntigen indictes the <b>presence</b>&
nbsp;of n Heptitis B infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HBsAg (surfce)}}</
div>
1403234700134 1395802358422 Which ntibody ginst HBV indictes <b>immunity
to Heptitis B</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-HBsAg ntibodies}}</div>
1403234741071 1395802358422 Which HBV ntigen is ssocited with the core of
HBV?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HBcAg}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-35850
092020470.jpg" /></div>
1403235161183 1395802358422 Which ntibody is HBV is indictive of n <b>cu
te or recent infection</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-HB<u><b>c</b></u>Ag
IgM}}</div>
1403235215825 1395802358422 Which ntibody ginst HBV is indictive of <b>p
rior exposure</b> or <b>chronic infection</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::A
nti-HBcAg IgG}}</div> <br /><div><i>Positive during the window period.</i></di
v><div><i><img src="pste-35850092020470.jpg" /></i></div>
1403235269008 1395802358422 Which HBV ntigen is indictive of <b>ctive vir
<div><br /></div
l repliction</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HBeAg}}</div>
><i>A second, different ntigenic determinnt from the HBV core</i>.<br /><div><
img src="pste-35850092020470.jpg" /></div>
1403235411557 1395802358422 Which HBV ntigen is indictive of <b>high trns
missibility</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HBeAg}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-35850092020470.jpg" /></div>
1403235477151 1395802358422 Which ntibody ginst HBV is indictive of <b>l
ow trnsmissibility</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-HBeAg}}</div> <br /><d
1403235515874 1395802358422 Which type of heptitis is chrcterized by ALT
> AST?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Virl}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Vir<b>ALT<
/b>.</i></div>
1403236047548 1395802358422 Which type of heptitis is chrcterised by AST
> ALT?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alcoholic heptitis}}</div>
1403236061859 1395802358422 Which HBV ntigen ppers first in n HBV infect
ion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HBsAg}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>"<b>SE-CES</
b>" in the order of ppernce:</i><div><i>- SE re the ntigens (HBsAg; HBeAg)<
/i></div><div><i>- CES re the ntibodies<br /></i><div><img src="pste-35850092
020470.jpg" /></div></div>
1403236146801 1395802358422 Which ntibody ginst HBV will be present in
ptient tht is immunized ginst HBV?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-HBsAg}}</
div>
1403236338970 1395802358422 Which virl gene in HIV codes for the surfce gl
ycoproteins gp120 nd gp41?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>env</i>}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The protein codes for gp160 which is cleved into gp120 nd gp41.<
/i></div>
1403236458381 1395802358422 Which envelope protein on HIV functions to llow

<b>ttchment to host CD4+ T cells</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::gp120; the d
ocking glycoprotein}}</div>
></div>
1403236543841 1395802358422 Which envelope protein from HIV functions to med
ite <b>fusion nd entry</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::gp41; the trnsmembrne
glycoprotein}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-38104949850718.jpg" /></div>
1403236571738 1395802358422 Which virl gene in HIV codes for the p24 cpsid
protein?<div><br />{{c1::<i>gg</i>}}</div>
949850718.jpg" /></div>
1403236603642 1395802358422 Which virl protein in HIV functions s the cps
id protein?<div><br />{{c1::p24}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-3810494985071
8.jpg" /></div>
1403236619201 1395802358422 Which virl gene in HIV codes for its Reverse Tr
<br /><div><i>Re
nscriptse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>pol</i>}}</div>
member, Reverse Trnscriptse is n <b>RNA-dependent DNA Polymerse</b> whi
ch synthesizes dsDNA from RNA. The formed dsDNA integrtes into the host genome.
</i></div>
1403236647898 1395802358422 Which virl gene in HIV codes for its Asprtte
Protese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>pol</i>}}</div>
1403236662137 1395802358422 Which virl gene in HIV codes for its Integrse?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>pol</i>}}</div>
1403236675704 1395802358422 Which virl protein in HIV functions s the mtr
ix protein?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::p17}}</div>
te-38104949850718.jpg" /></div>
1403236800656 1395802358422 To which co-receptor does HIV bind to in <u styl
e="font-weight: bold; ">erly infection</u> to enter T cells?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::CCR5}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Alongside CD4.</i></div><div><i>Ho
mozygous CCR5 muttion = immunity.</i></div><div><i>Heterozygous CCR5 muttion =
slower disese course.</i></div>
1403236845148 1395802358422 To which co-receptor does HIV bind to in <u styl
e="font-weight: bold; ">lte infection</u> to enter T cells?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::CXCR4}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Alongside CD4.</i></div>
1403236876930 1395802358422 To which co-receptor does HIV bind to enter Mcr
ophges?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CCR5}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Alongside
CD4.</i></div><div><i><div></div></i><i>Homozygous CCR5 muttion = immunity.</i>
</div><div><i>Heterozygous CCR5 muttion = slower disese course.</i></div>
1403237004609 1395802358422 Which dignostic test is used s <b>presumptiv
e, rule-out</b> test for HIV infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ELISA}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>Sensitive; high flse-positive rte; low threshold.</i></d
1403237052080 1395802358422 Which dignostic test is used to<b> confirm
</b> positive ELISA test for HIV infection (i.e. <b>rule-in test</b>)?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Western blot ssy}}</div> <br /><div><i>Specific;
high-flse negtive rte; high threshold</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-404285
27157470.jpg" /></i></div>
1403237108201 1395802358422 Which dignostic test is used to determine the p
rognosis of HIV infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HIV PCR/virl lod test; d
etermines the mount of virl RNA in the plsm}}</div>
1403237168152 1395802358422 Which dignostic test is used to monitor the eff
ect of drug therpy in HIV infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HIV PCR/virl l
od test; determines the mount of virl RNA in the plsm}}</div>
1403237187951 1395802358422 Wht CD4+ cell count is required to mke n AIDS
dignosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:: 200 CD4+ cells/mm<sup>3</sup>}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Norml = 500-1500 cells/mm<sup>3</sup></i></div><div><i><sup><img
src="pste-40870908789351.jpg" /></sup></i></div>
1403237266319 1395802358422 Wht CD4 percentge is needed to mke dignosi
s of AIDS?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::< 14%}}</div> <br /><div><i>AIDS cn
lso be dignosed by the presence of n AIDS-defining condition (Pneumocystis pne
umoni) in n HIV+ ptient.</i></div>
1403237357017 1395802358422 Wht CD4+ cell count is indictive of <b>modert

e immunocompromistion</b> in HIV infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::&lt
; 400 CD4+ cells/mm<sup>3</sup>}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-4086661382205
5.jpg" /></div>
1403237616954 1395802358422 Where does HIV replicte during the ltent phse
of n untreted infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lymph nodes}}</div>
1403280640589 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Histoplsm cpsultum</i>}} is n oppo
rtunistic fungus tht is known to cuse <b>systemic </b>disese in HIV pti
ents tht involves <b>low-grde fevers, cough, heptosplenomegly</b> nd <
b>tongue ulcertion</b>.
<br /><div><i>CD4+ < 100 cell/mm<sup>3</sup><
/i></div>
1403283050359 1395802358422 Which CD4+ cell count is ssocited with opportu
nistic <i>Histoplsm cpsultum</i> infections in HIV ptients?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::< 100 cells/mm<sup>3</sup>}}</div>
1403283089460 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cndid lbicns</i>}} is n opportunis
tic fungus tht cuses orl thrush/esophgitis in HIV ptients tht presents wit
h fluffy white cottge-cheese lesions.
1403285170219 1395802358422 Wht CD4+ cell count is ssocited with <b>orl<
/b> thrush cused by <i>Cndid lbicns</i> in HIV ptients?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::< 400 cells/mm<sup>3</sup>}}</div>
1403285201397 1395802358422 Wht CD4+ cell count is ssocited with <b>esoph
gitis</b> cused by <i>Cndid lbicns</i> in HIV ptients?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::< 100 cells/mm<sup>3</sup>}}</div>
1403285239765 1395802358422 {{c1::Hiry Leukoplki}} is dermtologicl in
fection cused by EBV in HIV ptients tht commonly presents on the lterl tong
ue.
1403285323559 1395802358422 {{c1::Bcillry Angiomtosis}} is dermtologic
disorder cused by <i>Brtonell hensele</i> in HIV ptients nd presents
with superficil vsculr prolifertion.
<br /><div><i>Biopsy revels neu
trophilic inflmmtion.</i></div>
1403290054322 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cryptosporidium spp.</i>}} is protozo
tht cuses GI infection in HIV ptients tht presents with chronic, wtery di
rrhe. <br /><div><i>Acid fst cysts re seen in the stool.</i></div>
1403290877323 1395802358422 Wht CD4+ cell count is ssocited with <i>Crypt
osporidium spp.</i> infection in HIV ptients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::&
lt; 200 cells/mm<sup>3</sup>}}</div>
1403291284641 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Toxoplsm gondii</i>}} is protozo t
ht cuses CNS bscesses in HIV ptients tht present s ring-enhncing lesions
on imging.
1403291731134 1395802358422 Wht CD4+ cell count is ssocited with <i>Toxop
lsm gondii</i> infection in HIV ptients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<
100 cells/mm<sup>3</sup>}}</div>
1403291771962 1395802358422 {{c1::Dementi}} is CNS compliction seen in H
IV tht is directly ssocited with HIV nd must be differentited from other c
uses.
1403291810944 1395802358422 {{c1::Encephlopthy (Progressive Multifocl Leu
koencephlopthy; PML)}} is CNS disorder seen in HIV ptients tht involves th
e rectivtion of ltent JC virus nd subsequent demyelintion.
1403292436951 1395802358422 Wht CD4+ cell count is ssocited with JC virus
rectivtion in HIV ptients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::< 200 cells/mm<sup>
3</sup>}}</div>
1403292530742 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cryptococcus neoformns</i>}} is n opp
ortunistic fungus tht cuses meningitis in HIV ptients.
<br /><div><i>In
di-ink stin will revel yest with nrrow-bsed budding nd lrge cpsule.</
i></div>
1403292875373 1395802358422 Which CD4+ cell count is ssocited with <i>Cryp
tococcus neoformns</i> meningitis in HIV ptients?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::< 50 cells/mm<sup>3</sup>}}</div>
1403292900993 1395802358422 {{c1::CMV}} is Herpesvirus tht cuses <b>reti
nitis</b> in HIV ptients tht presents with <b>cotton-wool spots</b> on fu

ndoscopy.
<br /><div><i>My present with esophgitis.</i></div>
1403292961137 1395802358422 {{c1::Esophgitis}} is GI compliction tht is
often seen longside CMV Retinitis in HIV ptients.
1403293081180 1395802358422 Wht CD4+ cell count is ssocited with CMV reti
nitis in HIV ptients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::< 50 cells/mm<sup>3</sup>}}
</div>
1403293151310 1395802358422 {{c1::Lrge Cell Non-Hodgkin Lymphom}} is Non
-Hodgkin Lymphom tht is seen in HIV ptients, <b>often on the orophrynx (Wld
eyer Ring).</b> <br /><div><i>My be ssocited with EBV.</i></div>
1403294217650 1395802358422 {{c1::Primry B-cell CNS Lymphom}} is Lymphom
often ssocited with EBV in tht cn present s focl or multiple lesions, th
ereby differentiting it from Toxoplsmosis.
1403295597194 1395802358422 {{c1::Squmous Cel Crcinom}} is cncer cuse
d by HPV in HIV ptients tht often presents t the nus (in MSM's) or the cervi
x.
1403295677022 1395802358422 {{c1::Kposi Srcom}} is cncer cused by HHV
-8 in HIV ptients tht presents with superficil neoplstc prolifertions of v
sculture.
<div><br /></div><i>Biopsy will revel lymphocytic inflmmtion.
</i><br /><div><i>Do not confuse Kposi Srcom with Bcillry Angiomtosis whic
h is cused by Brtonell hensele.</i></div>
1403296022011 1395802358422 {{c1::CMV}} is Herpvesvirus tht cuses inters
titil pneumoni in HIV ptients.
<br /><div><i>Associted with owl eye in
clusions.</i></div>
1403296068600 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Aspergillus fumigtus</i>}} is n oppor
tunistic fungus tht cuses invsive Aspergillosis in HIV ptients tht presents
with pleuritic pin, hemoptysis nd infiltrtes on imging.
1403296110584 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pneumocystic jirovecii</i>}} is n oppo
rtunistic fungus tht cuses <i>Pneumocystis</i> pneumoni in HIV ptients.
<br /><div><i>Associted with ground glss ppernce on imging.</i></div>
1403296292520 1395802358422 Wht CD4+ cell count is ssocited with <i>Pneum
ocystis</i> pneumoni?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::< 200 cells/mm<sup>3</
sup>}}</div>
1403296320448 1395802358422 Wht CD4+ cell count is ssocited with <i>Strep
tococcus pneumonie</i> pneumoni in HIV ptients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::< 200 cells/mm<sup>3</sup>}}</div>
1403296589544 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycobcterium vium-intrcellulre</i>&
nbsp;(MAC)}} is Mycobcteril species tht cuses Tuberculosis-like disese in
HIV ptients.
1403296636460 1395802358422 Wht CD4+ cell count is ssocited <i>Mycobcter
ium vium-intrcellulre</i> infection in HIV ptients?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::< 50 cells/mm<sup>3</sup>}}</div>
1403296696962 1395802358422 Which form of prions re the infective, trnsmis
sible, pthogenic form of the protein?<div><br />{{c1::PrP<sup>sc</sup>}}</div>
1403296827842 1395802358422 {{c1::PrP<sup>sc</sup>}} is the <b>bet-pleted,
</b> infective nd trnsmissible form of prions tht is formed following th
e conversion from the norml, predominntly lph-helicl PrP<sup>c</sup> p
rotein.
1403296910557 1395802358422 {{c1::PrP<sup>sc</sup>}} is the pthologicl for
m of prions tht resists protese degrdtion nd hence fcilittes the conversi
on of more norml PrP<sup>c</sup> prions into the infective, trnsmissible
form.
1403296979146 1395802358422 {{c1::Creutzfeldt-Jkob Disese}} is <b>spord
ic</b> type of spongiform encephlopthy cused by prions tht is chrcterized
by rpidly progressive dementi. <br /><div><i>Spongiform encephlopthy
is chrcterized by dementi, txi nd deth.</i></div>
1403297018321 1395802358422 {{c1::Gerstmnn-Strussler-Scheinker Syndrome}}
is n <b>inherited</b> spongiform encephlopthy cused by prions. <br /><d
iv><i>Spongiform encephlopthy is chrcterized by dementi, txi nd deth.<
/i></div>
1403297078245 1395802358422 {{c1::Kuru}} is n <b>cquired</b> form of

spongiform encephlopthy tht is cused by prions.
<br /><div><i>Spongiform
encephlopthy is chrcterized by dementi, txi nd deth.</i></div>
1403297162366 1395802358422 Where on the body is <i>Stphylococcus epidermid
is </i>found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Skin}}</div>
1403298938646 1395802358422 Where in the body is <i>Stphylococcus epidermid
is</i> normlly found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nose}}</div>
1403298970960 1395802358422 Where in the body is <i>Stphylococcus ureus</i
> normlly found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nose}}</div>
1403298984246 1395802358422 Where in the body re Viridns Streptococci norm
lly found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Orophrynx}}</div>
1403299012580 1395802358422 Where in the body is <i>Streptococcus mutns </i
>normlly found in the body?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dentl plque}}</div>
1403299072684 1395802358422 Where in the body is <i>Escherichi coli</i>&nbs
p;normlly found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Colon}}</div>
1403299701687 1395802358422 Where in the body is <i>Bcteroides frgilis</i>
normlly found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Colon}}</div>
1403299725154 1395802358422 Where in the body is <i>Lctobcillus sp.</i>&nb
sp;normlly found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vgin}}</div>
1403300499736 1395802358422 Wht food source is ssocited with <i>Bcillus
cereus</i> food poisoning?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Reheted rice}}</div>
1403300910954 1395802358422 Wht food source is ssocited with <i>Clostridi
um botulinum </i>food poisoning?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Improperly cnned fo
ods}}</div>
<br /><div><i>A sign will be <b>bulging cns</b> due to the
gs production.</i></div>
1403300979026 1395802358422 Wht food source is ssocited with <i>Clostridi
um perfringens</i> food poisoning?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Reheted met
dishes}}</div>
1403301346841 1395802358422 Wht food source is ssocited with <i>Escherich
i coli</i> O157:H7 food poisoning?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Undercooked
met}}</div>
1403301402601 1395802358422 Wht food source is ssocited with <i>Slmonell
</i> food poisoning?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Poultry, met, eggs}}</div
>
1403301422588 1395802358422 Wht food source is ssocited with <i>Stphyloc
occus ureus </i>food poisoning?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mets; Myonnise; C
ustrd}}</div> <br /><div><i>Involves preformed enterotoxins</i></div>
1403301590798 1395802358422 Wht food source is ssocited with <i>Vibrio p
rhemolyticus</i> food poisoning?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Contminted
sefood}}</div>
1403302018878 1395802358422 Wht food source is ssocited with <i>Vibrio vu
lnificus</i> food poisoning?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Contminted sefoo
d}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Vibrio vulnificus lso cuses wound infections fro
m contct with contminted wter or shellfish.</i></div>
1403302057461 1395802358422 Wht type of dirrhe is cused by <i>Cmpylobc
ter spp</i>.?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div> <br /><div><i>Comm or S
-shped orgnisms tht cn grow t 42 C</i></div>
1403303093917 1395802358422 Wht type of dirrhe is cused by <i>Entmoeb
histolytic</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody (Amoebic Dysentery)}}</div>
1403303114564 1395802358422 Wht type of dirrhe is cused by EHEC?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.g. O157:H7; mkes Shig
-like toxin</i></div>
1403303139859 1395802358422 Wht type of dirrhe is cused by EIEC?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Due to invsion of the col
onic mucos</i></div>
1403303154209 1395802358422 Wht type of dirrhe is cused by <i>Slmonell
</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div> <br /><div><i>Flgellr motility
; reservoir is in nimls, especilly poultry nd eggs.</i></div>
1403303200013 1395802358422 Wht type of dirrhe is cused by <i>Shigell</
i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div> <br /><div><i>Produces Shig t
oxin.</i></div><div><i>Humn reservoir only.</i></div>

1403303227164 1395802358422 Wht type of dirrhe is cused by<i> Yersi
ni enterolytic</i>?<br /><br /><div>{{c1::Bloody}}</div>
<br /><div><i>C
uses dy-cre outbreks.</i></div><div><i>My lso cuse Pseudoppendicitis.</i>
</div>
1403303265838 1395802358422 Wht type of dirrhe is cused by <i>Clostridiu
m difficile</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Wtery}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Al
so cuses Pseudomembrnous colitis.</i></div><div><i>Occssionlly cuses bloody
dirrhe.</i></div>
1403303414091 1395802358422 Wht type of dirrhe is cused by <i>Clostridiu
m perfringens</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Wtery}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Al
so cuses gs gngrene.</i></div>
1403303430032 1395802358422 Wht type of dirrhe is cused by ETEC?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Wtery}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Cuses Trveler's dirrhe
.</i></div><div><i>Produces both het-lbile nd het-stble toxin.</i></div>
1403303580284 1395802358422 Wht type of dirrhe is cused by most protozo
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Wtery}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.g. Girdi, Cryp
tosporidium</i></div>
1403303598154 1395802358422 Wht type of dirrhe is cused by <i>Vibrio cho
lere</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Wtery}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Comm-shp
ed orgnism.</i></div><div><i>Cuses rice wter dirrhe.</i></div><div><i>Often
found in infected sefood.</i></div>
1403303643873 1395802358422 Which viruses cuse most dirrhe?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Rotvirus; Norovirus}}</div>
1403303672031 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumonie</i>}}, {{
c2::<i>Klebsiell</i>}} nd {{c3::<i>Stphylococcus sp.</i>}} re bceri k
nown to cuse pneumoni in lcoholics nd/or IV drug users.
1403304551683 1395802358422 Wht group of bcteri re ssocited with Aspir
tion Pneumoni?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anerobic bcteri}}</div>
1403304573526 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycoplsm</i>}}, {{c2::<i>Legione
ll</i>}} nd {{c3::<i>Chlmydi</i>}} re bcteri ssocited with Atypic
l Pneumoni.
1403304637189 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomons sp.</i>}}, {{c2::<i>St
phylococcus ureus</i>}} nd {{c3::<i>Streptococcus pneumonie</i>}} re b
cteri ssocited with pneumoni in Cystic Fibrosis ptients.
1403304833135 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Stphylococcus</i>}}, {{c2::<i>He
mophilus influenze</i>}} nd {{c3::<i>Streptococcus pneumonie</i>}} re b
cteril species ssocited with <b>postvirl</b> pneumoni.
1403304873280 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of bcteril menin
gitis in teens?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseri meningitidis</i>}}</div>
1403304927377 1395802358422 How does opening pressure chnge in bcteril me
ningitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-9929964388565.jpg" /></div>
1403306375270 1395802358422 How does opening pressure chnge in Fungl or TB
meningitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306391231 1395802358422 How does opening pressure chnge in virl mening
itis?<div><br />{{c1::Norml or Incresed}}</div>
te-9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306406607 1395802358422 How do the level of PMNs chnge in bcteril men
ingitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
te-9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306462804 1395802358422 How do lymphocyte levels chnge in Fungl or TB
meningitis?<div><br />{{c1::Increse}}</div>
69421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306480307 1395802358422 How do CSF lymphocyte levels chnge in virl men
ingitis?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br><div><img src="pste
-9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306514193 1395802358422 How do CSF protein levels chnge in bcteril me
ningitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306533528 1395802358422 How do CSF protein levels chnge in fungl or TB
meningitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306543116 1395802358422 How do CSF protein levels chnge in virl mening
itis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Norml or Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306580164 1395802358422 How do CSF glucose levels chnge in bcteril me
ningitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306789648 1395802358422 How do CSF glucose levels chnge in fungl/TB me
ningitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-9925669421269.jpg" /></div>
1403306805863 1395802358422 How do CSF glucose levels chnge in virl mening
itis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Norml; viruses do not use glucose, remember?}}
1403379343634 1395802358422 Which bcteri is the most common cuse of Osteo
myelitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Stphylococcus ureus</i>}}</div>
<br /><div><i>If no other informtion is vilble bout the ptient, lwys ss
ume tht Stphylococcus ureus is the cuse.</i></div>
1403379855778 1395802358422 Which bcteri is ssocited with Osteomyelitis
in sexully ctive ptients, lbeit rrely?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisse
ri gonorrhoee</i>}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Osteomyelitis is quite rre. Septi
c rthritis is fr more common.</i></div>
in dibetics nd IV drug users?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomons erugi
nos</i> (nd <i>Serrti sp.</i>)}}</div>
in Sickle Cell ptients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Slmonell sp.</i>}}</div
>
in ptients tht hve received prosthetic joint replcement?<div><br />{{c1::<
i>Stphylococcus ureus; Stphylococcus epidermidis</i>}}</div>
t the vertebre?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycobcterium tuberculosis</i>}}
</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, this is clled <b>Pott Disese</b></i></div>
in ptients tht hve received ct nd dog bites?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>
Psteurell multocid</i>}}</div>
1403382032572 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteomyelitis}} is n infectious disorder
of the bone tht often yields <b>subtle</b> lesion on x-ry, but more p
rominent lesion on MRI.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-15607911153942.jpg"
/><img src="pste-15620796055832.jpg" /></div>
1403382462738 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly ffected by UTIs?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Femles}}</div> <br /><div><i>They hve shorter urethrs
tht re colonized by fecl flor.</i></div>
1403386039275 1395802358422 How does pregnncy ffect the risk for obtining
UTI?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1403386051223 1395802358422 How does dibetes ffect the risk for obtining
UTI?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1403386063417 1395802358422 Wht is <b>positive urinry leukocyte esterse
test</b> indictive of?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bcteril UTI}}</div>
1403386313014 1395802358422 Wht is <b>positive urinry nitrite test</b>&n
bsp;indictive of?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<u style="font-weight: bold; ">Gr
m-negtive</u> bcteril UTI}}</div>
1403386334411 1395802358422 Wht kind of bcteri yield <b>positive urinr
y nitrite test</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Grm-negtive bcteri}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This is importnt. Grm-positive bcteri will not yield positiv
e nitrite test.</i></div>
1403386564988 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of UTI?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::<i>Escherichi coli</i>}}</div>
1403386615420 1395802358422 Wht is the second most common cuse of UTI in s
exully ctive women?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Stphylococcus sprophyticus
</i>}}</div>
1403386637865 1395802358422 Wht is the 3rd most common cuse of UTI?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Klebsiell pneumonie</i>}}</div>
1403386652204 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Serrti mrcensens</i>}} is species
of bcteri tht cuses UTI. Some strins produce red pigment.
<br /><d
iv><i>Often nocosomil nd drug resistnt.</i></div>
1403386842718 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Proteus mirbilis</i>}} is grm-negt
ive bcteri tht cuses UTI nd is ssocited with <b>struvite stones</b>.
1403387010200 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomons eruginos</i>}} is grmnegtive bcteri tht cuses UTI nd is ssocited with blue-green pigment n
d fruity odor. <br /><div><i>Usully nocosomil nd drug resistnt.</i></div>
1403387098106 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Proteus spp.</i>}} nd {{c2::<i>Kl
ebsiell spp.</i>}} re 2 grm-negtive bcteri known to cuse UTIs tht yield
<b>positive urinry urese test</b>.
1403387151807 1395802358422 Which bcteri re ssocited with <b>positive
urinry urese test</b> in UTI?<div><br />{{c1::<i>Klebsiell spp.; Prot
eus spp.</i>}}</div>
1403387182020 1395802358422 Which bcteri re most likely ssocited with
<b>negtive urinry urese test</b> in UTI?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::<i>Escherichi coli</i>; <i>Enterococcus spp.</i>}}</div>
1403387237718 1395802358422 {{c1::Bcteril Vginosis}} is type of vginl
infection tht presents with <b>thin, white dischrge</b> with <b>fish
y odour</b>.
1403388175462 1395802358422 {{c1::Trichomonisis}} is common vginl infec
tion tht presents with <b>frothy, grey-green, foul-smelling dischrge</b>.
1403388357800 1395802358422 {{c1::Vulvovginl Cndidisis}} is common vg
inl infection tht presents with <b>thick, white, "cottge cheese" dischrge<
/b>.
1403388703460 1395802358422 Which vginl infection is ssocited with Clue
Cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bcteril vginosis}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="pste-17733919965540.jpg" /></div>
1403388724717 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for bcteril vginosis?<d
iv><br />{{c1::Metronidzole}}</div>
0.jpg" /></div>
1403388742871 1395802358422 Wht is the vginl pH in Bcteril Vginosis?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::> 4.5}}</div>
919965540.jpg" /></div>
1403388755212 1395802358422 Wht is the vginl pH in Vginl Trichomonisis
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::> 4.5}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-17733
919965540.jpg" /></div>
1403388781335 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Vginl Trichomonisis
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Metronidzole}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The sexul
prtner must be treted s well.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-1773391996554
0.jpg" /></i></div>
1403388842309 1395802358422 Wht is the vginl pH in Vulvovginl Cndidis
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Norml (4.0-4.5)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-17733919965540.jpg" /></div>
1403388902876 1395802358422 Which common vginl infection <b>does not</b>&n
bsp;present with inflmmtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bcteril vginosis}}<
/div> <br /><div><img src="pste-17733919965540.jpg" /></div>
1403388925963 1395802358422 How re the ToRCHeS infections commonly trnsmit
ted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trnsplcentl in most cses}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>HSV-2 is commonly trnsmitted during delivery.</i></div>
1403390175556 1395802358422 Which virl infection is known to cuse Hydrops
Fetlis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Prvovirus B19}}</div>
1403390219688 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Streptococcus glctie</i>}}, {{
c2::<i>Escherichi coli</i>}}, nd {{c3::<i>Listeri monocytogenes</i>}} r

e bcteri tht ll cuse meningitis in neontes.
1403390255400 1395802358422 How is <i>Toxoplsm gondii</i> trnsmitted
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ct feces; ingestion of undercooked met}}</div>
1403392505431 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Toxoplsm gondii</i>}} is ToRCHeS in
fection tht presents s clssic trid of <b>chorioretinitis, hydrocephlus</b
> nd <b>intrcrnil clcifictions</b> in neontes.
1403392962813 1395802358422 How is Rubell trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Respirtory droplets}}</div>
1403392975603 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubell}} is ToRCHeS infection tht
presents with clssic trid of <b>Ptent Ductus Arteriosus, ctrcts</b>&nbs
p;nd <b>defness</b>. <br /><div><i>There my be <b>pulmonry rtery hypoplsi
</b> insted of PDA.</i></div><div><i>There my be <b>"blueberry muffin"
rsh</b> s well.</i></div>
1403393249459 1395802358422 Wht crdiovsculr defects re ssocited with
Congenitl Rubell (ToRCHeS)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PDA or Pulmonry Artery
Hypoplsi}}</div>
1403393286093 1395802358422 Which ToRCHeS infection is ssocited with
<b>"blueberry muffin"</b> rsh?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rubell; CMV}}
</div>
1403393437299 1395802358422 How is CMV trnsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Sexul contct; orgn trnsplnttion}}</div>
1403393439364 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubell}} nd {{c2::CMV}} re 2
ToRCHeS infections tht re ssocited with <b>"blueberry muffin</b>" rsh.
1403393464088 1395802358422 {{c1::CMV}} is ToRCHeS infection tht pre
sents with <b>hering loss, seizures, petechil rsh</b> nd <b>"blueberr
y muffin" rsh.</b>
1403393509039 1395802358422 {{c1::HIV}} is ToRCHeS infection tht pre
sents with <b>recurrent infections</b> nd <b>dirrhe</b> in neontes
.
1403393766971 1395802358422 {{c1::HSV-2}} is ToRCHeS infection tht p
resents with <b>encephlitis</b> nd <b>herpetic (vesiculr) lesions.</b>
1403394135062 1395802358422 {{c1::Syphilis}} is ToRCHeS infection th
t often results in stillbirth through <b>hydrops fetlis</b>.
<b>Hutchinson teeth</b>, congenitl dentl mlformtion involving notches, wid
ely shped centrl incisors?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-20985210208613
.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Syphilis}}</div>
1403394307733 1395802358422 {{c1::Rhgdes}} re fcil mlformtion seen
in congenitl Syphilis tht re described s <b>liner scres t the ngle of th
e mouth</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-21071109554532.jpg" /></div>
1403394374955 1395802358422 {{c1::Snuffles}} is feture of congenitl syph
ilis tht is described s <b>nsl dischrge full of syphilis spirochetes</b>.<d
1403394425500 1395802358422 Which ToRCHeS infection is ssocited with <b>CN
VIII defness</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Syphilis}}</div>
<b>sddle nose</b> nd <b>short mxill</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::S
yphilis}}</div>
<b>sber shins</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Syphilis}}</div>
1403394506409 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Hnd-Foot-Mouth Disese?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Coxsckievirus Type A}}</div>
1403397115066 1395802358422 {{c1::Hnd-Foot-Mouth Disese}} is virl disor
der cused by Coxsckievirus Type A tht presents with <b>vesiculr rsh on th
e plms nd soles</b> nd <b>vesicles/ulcers on the orl mucos</b>.<div><b
r /></div><div><img src="pste-21685289877861.jpg" /></div>
1403397223545 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Roseol?<div><br />{{c1:
:HHV-6}}</div>
1403397232102 1395802358422 {{c1::Roseol}} is virl disorder cused by HH
V-6 tht presents with mculr rsh over the body tht ppers fter severl d
<br /><div><i>Cn present with febrile seizures nd usu
ys of high fever.
lly ffects infnts.</i></div>
1403397278883 1395802358422 {{c1::Mesles (Rubeol)}} is virl infection c
used by prmyxovirus tht presents with rsh tht <b>begins t the hed n
d moves down</b>.
<br /><div><i>The rsh is preceded by cough, coryz, con
junctivitis nd Koplik spots on the buccl mucos.</i></div>
1403397342974 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Erythem Infectiosum (Fi
fth Disese)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Prvovirus B19}}</div>
1403397414579 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythem Infectiosum (Fifth Disese)}} is
virl infection cused by Prvovirus B19 tht presents with <b>"slpped chee
k"</b> on the fce.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-22157736280421.jpg
" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Prvovirus B19 cn cuse hydrops fetlis in pregn
nt women.</i></div>
1403397499519 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubell}} is virl infection tht presen
ts with <b>posturicl lymphdenopthy</b> nd <b>fine truncl rs
h</b> tht initilly begins s rsh on the hed which moves down.
1403397739006 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Scrlet Fever?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>}}</div>
1403397774456 1395802358422 {{c1::Scrlet Fever}} is n infection cused by
<i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i> tht presents with n <b>erythemtous, sndp
per-like rsh with fever nd sore throt</b>.
1403397960079 1395802358422 Wht is the cuse of Chickenpox?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::VZV (Vricell-Zoster)}}</div>
1403397976390 1395802358422 {{c1::Chickenpox}} is n infectious disorder cu
sed by VZV tht presents with <b>vesiculr rsh tht begins on the trunk tht
spreds to the fce nd extremities.</b>
1403398203672 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of AIDS?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::HIV}}</div>
1403398462881 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Chncroid?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Hemophilus ducreyi</i>}}</div>
1403398478236 1395802358422 {{c1::Chncroid}} is n STD cused by <i>Hemoph
ilus ducreyi</i> tht presents with <b>pinful genitl ulcers</b> nd
<b>inguinl denopthy</b>.
1403398503408 1395802358422 Wht is the cuse of Chlmydi?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::<i>Chlmydi trchomtis</i> serotypes D-K}}</div>
1403398588067 1395802358422 {{c1::Chlmydi}} is n STD cused by <i>Chlmyd
i trchomtis</i> tht presents with <b>urethritis, cervicitis </b>nd <b>
PID</b>.
1403398642783 1395802358422 {{c1::Conjunctivitis}} is n oculr compliction
of Chlmydi.
1403398715239 1395802358422 {{c1::Rective rthritis}} is musculoskeletl
compliction of Chlmydi.
1403398742395 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Condylom Acumint?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::HPV-6; HPV-11}}</div>
1403398772648 1395802358422 Which HPV strins cuse Condylom Acumint?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::HPV6; HPV11}}</div>
1403398790620 1395802358422 {{c1::Condylom Acumint}} is n STD cused by
HPV6 or HPV11 tht presents with <b>genitl wrts</b> nd <b>koilocytes</b>
.
1403398909721 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Genitl Herpes?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::HSV-2; less commonly HSV-1}}</div>
1403398935094 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Gonorrhe?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseri gonorrhee</i>}}</div>
1403399191015 1395802358422 {{c1::Gonorrhe}} is n STD cused by <i>Neisser
i gonorrhee</i> tht presents with <b>urethritis, cervicitis, prosttitis
</b> nd <u style="font-weight: bold; ">cremy purulent dischrge</u>.
1403399379143 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Lymphogrnulom Venereum
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlmydi trchomtis</i> serotypes L1-L3}}
</div>

d by <i>Chlmydi trchomtis</i> serotypes L1-L3 tht presents with <b>inf
ection of lymphtics</b>, <b>pinless genitl ulcers</b> nd <b>pinful lym
phdenopthy</b> (buboes).
1403399484734 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Syphilis??<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Treponem pllidum</i>}}</div>
1403399534859 1395802358422 {{c1::Primry Syphilis}} is type of Syphilis t
ht presents with <b>pinless chncres</b>.
1403399558077 1395802358422 {{c1::Secondry Syphilis}} is type of Syphilis
tht presents with fever, lymphdenopthy, skin rshes nd <b>condylomt lt<
/b>.
1403399595505 1395802358422 {{c1::Tertiry Syphilis}} is type of Syphilis
tht presents with <b>gumms, tbes dorslis, generl presis, ortitis</b>&nbsp
;nd <b>Argyll-Robertson pupil</b>.
1403399671136 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Trichomonisis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Trichomons vginlis</i>}}</div>
1403399818501 1395802358422 {{c1::Trichomonisis}} is n STD cused by <i>Tr
ichomons vginlis</i> tht presents with <b>vginitis </b>nd<b> strwber
ry cervix</b>.
1403399869171 1395802358422 Which 2 bcteri re the most common cuses of P
elvic Inflmmtory Disese (PID)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlmydi trnch
omtis</i> (subcute; often undignosed); <i>Neisseri gonorrhoee</i>}}</d
iv>
1403402930924 1395802358422 Wht is the most common bcteril STD in the Uni
ted Sttes?<div><br />{{c1::<i>Chlmydi trchomtis</i>}}</div>
1403402957857 1395802358422 Which bcteri often cuses <b>subcute</b>&nbsp
;Pelvic Inflmmtory Disese (PID) nd hence often goes undignosed?<div><br />{
{c1::<i>Chlmydi trchomtis</i>}}</div>
1403402982827 1395802358422 Which bcteri often cuses <b>cute</b> Pe
lvic Inflmmtory Disese (PID)?<div><br />{{c1::<i>Neisseri gonorrhoee</i>}}<
/div>
1403402993826 1395802358422 {{c1::Chndelier Sign}} is compliction of Pel
vic Inflmmtory Disese (PID) tht presents s cervicl motion tenderness.
1403404030220 1395802358422 {{c1::Pelvic Inflmmtory Disese (PID)}} is g
enitourinry disorder cused by <i>Chlmydi trchomtis</i> nd <i>Neisser
i gonorrhee</i> tht presents with <b>purulent cervicl dischrge</b>.<di
1403404101084 1395802358422 {{c1::Fitz-Hugh-Curtis Syndrome}} is complict
ion of Pelvic Inflmmtory Disese (PID) tht presents s n <b>infection of the
liver cpsule</b> nd subsequent <b>"violin string" dhesions peritoneum t
o liver</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-24932285153639.jpg" /></div>
1403404184255 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cndid lbicns</i>}} is nocosomil
infection tht hs <b>hyperlimenttion</b> s risk fctor.
1403404464321 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Escherichi coli</i>}} nd {{c2::<
i>Proteus mirbilis</i>}} re 2 <b>nocosomil</b> bcteril infections tht
hve urinry ctheteriztion s risk fctor.
1403404521841 1395802358422 Wht is the most common nocosomil UTI infection
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Escherichi coli</i>}}</div>
1403404531311 1395802358422 Wht is the most common nocosomil wound infecti
on?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Stphylococcus ureus</i>}}</div>
1403404543940 1395802358422 {{c1::HBV}} is virl nocosomil infection tht
hs <b>working t renl dilysis unit</b> s risk fctor.
1403404566023 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Legionell</i>}} is bcteril nocosom
il infection tht hs <b>wter erosols</b> s risk fctor.
1403404584966 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomons eruginos</i>}} is grmnegtive nocosomil bcteril infection tht hs <b>respirtory therpy equipmen
t</b> s risk fctor.
<br /><div><i>Think of Pseudomons "</i><u style
="font-weight: bold; font-style: itlic; ">ir</u><spn style="font-style: itli
c">"-uginos when <b>ir</b> or <b>burns</b> re involved.</spn></div
>
1403410271881 1395802358422 {{c1::Rubell virus}} is virus tht ffects un

immunized children nd presents with rsh tht <b>begins t the hed nd moves
down with <u>posturiculr lymphdenopthy</u>.</b>
1403410385653 1395802358422 {{c1::Mesles virus}} is virus tht ffects un
immunized children nd presents with rsh tht is <b>preceded by cough, coryz
, conjunctivitis</b> nd <b>Koplik spots</b> on the buccl mucos.
<div><br /></div><i>The rsh tht is seen strts t the hed nd moves down.</i>
<br /><div><i>Coryz = rhinitis.</i></div>
1403410485317 1395802358422 {{c1::Poliovirus}} is virus tht ffects unimm
unized children tht cuses <b>meningitis</b> nd cn lso led to <u>mylg
i</u> nd <u>prlysis</u>.
1403410692341 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Hemophilus influenze</i><i style="fon
t-weight: bold; "> </i>Type B}} is bcteri tht ffects unimmunized chil
dren tht cuses <b>epiglottitis</b> which presents with n <b>edemtous "c
herry red" epiglottis</b> nd <b>"thumbprint sign"</b> on xry.
<br /><div><i>The edemtous epiglottis cn cuse difficulty brething.</i></div>
1403410783068 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Corynebcterium diphtherie</i>}} is
bcteri tht ffects unimmunized children nd cuses <b>phryngitis</b>
tht presents wth <b>gryish orophryngel exudte</b> tht forms "<b>pse
udomembrnes</b>".
<br /><div><i>The pseudomembrnes my obstruct the irw
y. They lso cuse throt pin.</i></div>
1403410856109 1395802358422 Which bug is ssocited with <b>brnching rods i
n n orl infection</b> with <b>sulfur-contining grnules</b>?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::<i>Actinomyces isrelii</i>}}</div>
1403410907022 1395802358422 Which encpsulted microbes re ssocited with
infections in splenic ptients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pne
umonie</i> >> <i>Hemophilus influenze</i><b style="font-style: it
lic; "> </b>Type B > <i>Neisseri meningitidis</i>}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>"<b>SHiN</b>"</i></div><div><i>- <b>S</b>treptococcus pneumonie</i></div>
<div><i>- <b>H</b>emophilus <b>i</b>nfluenze</i></div><div>- <i><b>N</b>eisser
i meningitidis</i></div>
1403411003941 1395802358422 Which bugs re ssocited with infection in pti
ents with Chronic Grnulomtous Disese (CGD)?<div><br />{{c1::Ctlse positive
microbes; especilly <i>Stphylococcus ureus</i>}}</div>
1403411887468 1395802358422 Which bug is ssocited with <b>red "currnt jel
ly" </b>sputum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Klebsiell</i>}}</div>
1403411911460 1395802358422 Which bug is ssocited with dog or ct bites?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Psteurell multocid</i>}}</div>
1403411935867 1395802358422 Which bug is ssocited with cusing <b>CN VII (
Fcil Nerve) Plsy</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Borreli burgdorferi</i>&
nbsp;(Lyme Disese)}}</div>
1403411967243 1395802358422 Which fungi re ssocited with infections in ne
utropenic ptients?<div><br />{{c1::<i>Cndid lbicns; Aspergillus</i>}}</div>
1403412017761 1395802358422 Which Herpesvirus is ssocited with infecting
n orgn trnsplnt recipient?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CMV}}</div>
1403412036450 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Tropherym whipplei</i>}} is bcteri
tht cuses Whipple Disese nd yields <b>positive PAS</b> test.
1403412081384 1395802358422 Which bug is ssocited with cusing pneumoni i
n cystic fibrosis ptients nd cusing burn infections?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::<i>Pseudomons eruginos</i>}}</div>
1403412113014 1395802358422 Which bcteri is commonly ssocited with cusi
ng sepsis nd meningitis in newborns?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Group B Strep (
<i>Streptococcus glctie</i>)}}</div>
1403412187186 1395802358422 Which bcteri is ssocited with <b>surgicl wo
und infections</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Stphylococcus ureus</i>}}</d
iv>
1403412207169 1395802358422 Which bcteri is ssocited with <b>trumtic o
pen wound infection</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Clostridium perfringens</
i>}}</div>
1403412222660 1395802358422 Which bcteri is commonly ssocited with <b>ep
iglottitis</b> in peditric ptients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Hemoph

ilus influenze</i><b style="font-style: itlic; "> </b>Type B}}</div>
1403412257226 1395802358422 Which Heptitis virus is commonly ssocited wit
h cusing <b>needle pricks</b> in helth cre workers?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::HBV}}</div>
1403463223351 1395802358422 Wht is the ROA of Penicillin G?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::IV or IM}}</div>
1403464056977 1395802358422 Wht is the ROA of Penicillin V?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Orl}}</div>
1403464068204 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Penicillin?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of Trnspeptidse, thereby inhibiting peptidoglycn cross-l
inking; Activtion of utolytic enzymes}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-79886
3917541.jpg" /></div>
1403464182073 1395802358422 Which type of bcteri re treted by Penicillin
G nd V?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mostly grm-positive(<i>Streptococcus pneum
onie; Streptococcus pyogenes; Actinomyces</i>); Also <i>Neisseri meningitidis<
/i> nd <i>Treponem pllidum</i>}}</div>
1403464336533 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemolytic nemi}} is hemtologicl com
pliction of Penicillin G nd V use.
1403464350534 1395802358422 {{c1::Penicillinse}} is type of bet-lctms
e bcteri seen in bcteri tht cleves bet-lctm rings nd cuses Penicillin
resistnce.
1403464401468 1395802358422 {{c1::Ampicillin}} nd {{c2::Amoxicillin}}
re <b>minopenicillins</b> tht re sensitive to penicillinse but hve
wider spectrum. <br /><div><i><b>AM</b>ino<b>P</b>enicillins re <b>AMP</b>ed up
penicillins.</i></div>
1403465941752 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Ampicillin?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of Trnspeptidse, thereby inhibiting peptidoglycn cross-l
inking}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-798863917541.jpg" /></div>
1403465981600 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Amoxicillin?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhibition of Trnspeptidse, thereby inhibiting peptidoglycn crosslinking}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-798863917541.jpg" /></div>
1403466059983 1395802358422 {{c1::Clvulnic Acid}} is bet-lctmse inhi
bitor tht is often dministered with Ampicillin nd Amoxicillin s they re pen
icillinse sensitive.
1403466131627 1395802358422 Which Aminopenicillin hs greter orl biovil
bility?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Amoxicillin}}</div> <br /><div><i>Am<b>O</b>
xicillin hs greter <b>O</b>rl biovilbility.</i></div>
1403466221895 1395802358422 {{c1::Ampicillin}} nd {{c2::Amoxicillin}}
re minopenicillins tht re used to kill <i>Hemophilus influenze, Escherichi
coli, Listeri monocytogenes, Proteus mirbilis, Slmonell</i> nd <i>Sh
igell</i> nd enterococci.
<br /><div><i>"Aminopenicillins <b>HELPS
S</b> kill <b>enterococci</b>"</i></div>
1403466367536 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudomembrnous colitis}} is GI complic
tion of Aminopenicillin use (Amoxicillin/Ampicillin) tht results from overgrow
th of <i>Clostridium difficile</i> in the GI trct.
1403466449813 1395802358422 How is Aminopenicillin resistnce chieved?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillinse, bet-lctmse found in bcteri}}</div>
1403466476888 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Oxcillin?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of Trnspeptidse, thereby inhibition peptidoglycn cross-li
nking}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-798863917541.jpg" /></div>
1403467052612 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Nfcillin?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of Trnspeptidse, thereby inhibiting peptidoglycn cross-li
nking}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-798863917541.jpg" /></div>
1403467069831 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Dicloxcillin?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Trnspeptidse, thereby inhibiting the cross-linking
of peptidoglycn}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-798863917541.jpg" /><
/div>
1403467106225 1395802358422 {{c1::Nfcillin}}, {{c2::Oxcillin}} nd&nb
sp;{{c3::Dicloxcillin}} re <b>bet-lctmse resistnt</b> penicillins th
t resist penicillinse ction due to bulky R-group tht blocks ccess to the
bet-lctm ring.
1403467177726 1395802358422 {{c1::Interstitil nephritis}} is renl compli
ction of <b>bet-lctmse resistnt penicillin</b> (Nfcillin/Oxcillin/D
icloxcillin) dministrtion.
1403467244954 1395802358422 Wht is the clinicl use of <b>bet-lctmse re
sistnt</b> penicillins (Nfcillin/Oxcillin/Dicloxcillin)?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::<i>Stphylococcus ureus</i> (except for MRSA)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"Use <b>'nf'</b> to kill <b>'stph'</b> "</i></div>
1403467360525 1395802358422 {{c1::Ticrcillin}} nd {{c2::Pipercillin}
} re <b>ntipseudomonl</b> penicillins used to tret <i>Pseudomons spp.<
/i> infections nd grm-negtive rods.
<br /><div><i>Extended spectrum.
</i></div><div><i>Bet-lctmse sensitive.</i></div><div><i>Used with bet-lct
mse inhibitors.</i></div>
1403467741278 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Ticrcillin?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhibition of Trnspeptidse, thereby inhibiting peptidoglycn crosslinking}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-798863917541.jpg" /></div>
1403467785303 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Pipercillin?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Trnspeptidse, thereby inhibiting the cross-linking o
f peptidoglycn}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-798863917541.jpg" /></div>
1403467839901 1395802358422 {{c1::Clvulnic Acid}}, {{c2::Sulbctm}}
nd {{c3::Tzobctm}} re <b>bet-lctmse inhibitors</b> tht re o
ften dded to penicillin ntibiotics to protect them from bet-lctmse ction.
1403467907482 1395802358422 Which orgnisms re typiclly not covered by Cep
hlosporins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Lister</i>, Atypicls (<i>Chlmydi,
Mycoplsm</i>), MRSA nd Enterococci}}</div> <div><br /></div><div><i>The exc
eption is Ceftroline (5th gen) which covers MRSA.</i></div><br /><div><i>"<b>LA
ME</b>"</i></div><div><i>- Listeri</i></div><div><i>- Atypicls (Chlmydi, Myc
oplsm)</i></div><div><i>- MRSA</i></div><div><i>- Enterococci</i></div>
1403468329356 1395802358422 Wht genertion Cephlosporin is Cefzolin?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1403468774347 1395802358422 Wht genertion Cephlosporin is Cephlexin?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1403468781359 1395802358422 Wht genertion Cephlosporin is Cefoxitin?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1403468787425 1395802358422 Wht genertion Cephlosporin is Cefuroxime?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1403468793844 1395802358422 Wht genertion Cephlosporin is Cefclor?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1403468800346 1395802358422 Wht genertion Cephlosporin is Ceftrixone?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1403468812671 1395802358422 Wht genertion Cephlosporin is Cefotxime?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1403468823087 1395802358422 Wht genertion Cephlosporin is Ceftzidime?<di
1403468834424 1395802358422 Wht genertion Cephlosporin is Cefepime?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::4th}}</div>
1403468850398 1395802358422 Wht genertion Cephlosporin is Ceftroline?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::5th}}</div>
1403468859221 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefzolin}} is 1st genertion Cephlospo
rin tht is used prior to surgery to prevent <i>Stphylococcus ureus</i> w
ound infections.
1403468913883 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefzolin}} nd {{c2::Cephlexin}} r
e 1st genertion Cephlosporins tht re used to tret grm-positive cocci, <i>P
roteus mirbilis, Escherichi coli</i> nd <i>Klebsiell pneumonie</i>
<br /><div><i>1st gen Cephlosporins "<b>PEcK</b>":</i></div><div><i>- Proteus m
irbilis</i></div><div><i>- Escherichi coli</i></div><div><i>- Klebsiell pneum
onie</i></div>
1403469144643 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefoxitin}}, {{c2::Cefclor}} nd&nbs
p;{{c3::Cefuroxime}} re 2nd genertion Cephlosporins tht re used to tret gr
m-positive cocci, <i>Hemophilus influenze, Enterobcter erogenes, Neisseri

spp, Proteus mirbilis, Escherichi coli, Klebsiell pneumonie </i>nd <i>Serr
ti mrcescens.</i>
<br /><div><i>2nd genertion Cephlosporins re "<b>HEN
PEcKS</b>":</i></div><div><i>- Hemophilus influenze</i></div><div><i>- Enterob
cter erogenes</i></div><div><i>- Neisseri spp.</i></div><div><i>- Proteus mir
bilis</i></div><div><i>- Escherichi coli</i></div><div><i>- Klebsiell pneumon
ie</i></div><div><i>- Serrti mrcescens</i></div>
1403469366652 1395802358422 {{c1::Ceftrixone}}, {{c2::Cefotxime}} nd
{{c3::Ceftzidime}} re 3rd genertion Cephlosporins tht re used to tre
t <b>serious grm-negtive infections</b> tht re resistnt to other bet
-lctms.
1403469569805 1395802358422 Which 3rd genertion Cephlosporin is used to tr
et <b>meningitis</b> nd <b>gonorrhe</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ceft
rixone}}</div>
1403469588546 1395802358422 Which 3rd genertion Cephlosporin is used to tr
et <i>Pseudomons spp.</i> infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ceftxidi
me}}</div>
1403469605890 1395802358422 {{c1::Cefepime}} is 4th genertion Cephlospor
in tht hs <b>incresed ctivity ginst </b><i><b>Pseudomons</b> </i>nd
grm-positives.
1403469843105 1395802358422 {{c1::Ceftroline}} is 5th genertion Cephlos
porin tht hs <b>brod-spectrum coverge</b> ginst <b>grm-negtive</b>&
nbsp;nd <b>grm-positive</b> orgnisms, <b>including MRSA</b>.
<br /><d
iv><i>It <b>does not</b> cover Pseudomons.</i></div>
1403469985799 1395802358422 Which vitmin deficiency is ssocited with Ceph
<br /><div><i>Re
losporin use?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin K}}</div>
member, Vitmin K is mde by GI flor.</i></div>
1403470026928 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of ll Cephlosporins?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Trnspeptidse, thereby inhibiting the cross-lin
king of peptidoglycn}}</div>
1403470070980 1395802358422 How do Cephlosporin ntibiotics influence the n
ephrotoxicity of Aminoglycosides?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1403477935122 1395802358422 {{c1::Aztreonm}} is Monobctm ntibiotic th
t precents peptidoglycn cross-linking by binding to <b>penicillin-binding prote
in 3</b>.
<br /><div><i>Resistnt to bet-lctmses</i></div>
1403478203629 1395802358422 Which penicillin-binding protein does Aztreonm
bind to in order to prevent peptidoglycn cross-linking?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::Penicillin-binding protein 3}}</div>
1403478383088 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Aztreonm?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Prevention of peptidoglycn cross-linking by binding to penicillin-bind
ing protein 3}}</div> <br /><div><i>Synergistic with minoglycosides.</i></div
>
1403478435539 1395802358422 Wht is the clinicl use of Monobctms (Aztreon
m)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Grm-negtive rods <b>only</b>}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Monobctms re ineffective ginst grm-positives nd nerobes.</i></div>
1403478476581 1395802358422 {{c1::Aztreonm}} is Monobctm ntibiotic th
t is used in ptients with <b>penicillin llergy</b> or in ptients with <b
>renl insufficiency</b> tht cnnot tolerte minoglycosides.
1403485140325 1395802358422 {{c1::Cilsttin}} is drug tht is <b>lwys</
b> co-dministered with Crbpnem ntibiotics in order to decrese the in
ctivtion of the drug in the renl tubules.
1403487376204 1395802358422 {{c1::Cilsttin}} is drug tht is <b>lwys</
b> co-dministered with Crbpnem ntibiotics tht <b>inhibits renl dehyd
ropeptidse I</b>.
<br /><div><i>This decreses the inctivtion of the Cr
bpnem ntibiotic in renl tubules.</i></div>
1403487437234 1395802358422 Which Crbpnem ntibiotic hs decresed risk
of cusing seizures?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Meropenem}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Meropenem is lso stble to renl dehydropeptidse I</i></div>
1403487530750 1395802358422 {{c1::GI distress}}, {{c2::skin rsh}} nd&
nbsp;{{c3::seizures}} re 3 common complictions of Crbpnem dministrtion wh
en they re in high plsm levels.

<br /><div><i>The significnt side effec
ts limit the use of Crbpnem's to life-thretening infections or fter other d
rugs hve filed.</i></div>
1403487743530 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Vncomycin?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of peptidoglycn formtion by binding to D-Al-D-Al on cel
l wll precursors}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Results in inhibition of Trnsglyc
olse ction.</i></div>
1403489281091 1395802358422 Wht is the clinicl use of Vncomycin?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Grm-positive <u style="font-weight: bold; ">only</u>; Multid
rug resistnt orgnisms (MRSA, Enterococci, <i>Clostridium difficile</i>)}}</div
>
<br /><div><i>Vncomycin is given s n orl dose in Pseudomembrnous Co
litis.</i></div>
1403489346842 1395802358422 {{c1::Red Mn Syndrome}} is cutneous complic
tion of Vncomycin tht presents with <b>diffuse flushing</b> round the bo
dy.
<br /><div><i>Cn be prevented by ntihistmine prophylxis nd slow i
nfusion rte of Vncomycin.</i></div>
1403489560862 1395802358422 {{c1::Nephrotoxicity}}, {{c2::Ototoxicity}}
nd {{c3::Thrombophlebitis}} re 3 possible complictions ssocited with
Vncomycin use. <br /><div><i>However in generl, Vncomycin is well tolerted.<
/i></div><div><i>"It is however, <b>NOT</b> trouble free."</i></div><div><i
>- Nephrotoxicity</i></div><div><i>- Ototoxicity</i></div><div><i>- Thrombophleb
itis</i></div>
1403489643599 1395802358422 Wht is the mechnism of resistnce for Vncomyc
in?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bcteril modifiction of D-Al-D-Al to D-Al-DLc}}</div>
1403542646773 1395802358422 Which bcteril ribosoml subunit is trgeted by
Aminoglycosides?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::30 S}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-12807592477440.jpg" /></div>
Tetrcyclines?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::30S}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-12803297510144.jpg" /></div>
Chlormphenicol?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::50S}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-12803297510144.jpg" /></div>
1403542865742 1395802358422 Which bcteril subunit is trgeted by Clindmyc
in?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::50S}}</div>
297510144.jpg" /></div>
Erythromycin nd other Mcrolides?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::50S}}</div>
Linezolid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::50S}}</div>
te-12803297510144.jpg" /></div>
1403542934667 1395802358422 Wht clss of ntibiotic is Gentmicin?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycoside}}</div>
636262982.jpg" /></div>
1403555500182 1395802358422 Wht clss of ntibiotic is Neomycin?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycoside}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1361934129568
6.jpg" /></div>
1403555511776 1395802358422 Wht clss of ntibiotic is Amikcin?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycoside}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1361934129568
6.jpg" /></div>
1403555520046 1395802358422 Wht clss of ntibiotic is Tobrmycin?<div><br
341295686.jpg" /></div>
1403555527155 1395802358422 Wht clss of ntibiotic is Streptomycin?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycoside}}</div>
341295686.jpg" /></div>
1403555539742 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Aminoglycoside ntibiotics?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of the formtion of the initition complex
t the 30S subunit, thereby cusing misreding of mRNA; Blocking of trnsloctio

n}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b>A</b> (Aminoglycosides) "initites" the <b
>A</b>lphbet</i></div>
1403555611360 1395802358422 {{c1::Aminoglycosides}} re type of <b>protein
synthesis inhibiting ntibiotic</b> tht <b>require O</b><sub style="fontweight: bold; ">2</sub> <b>for uptke</b>, hence they re ineffective gin
st nerobes.
1403555649655 1395802358422 Wht is the clinicl use for Aminoglycosides?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Severe grm-negtive <b>rod</b> infections}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Synergistic with bet-lctms.</i><br /><div><i>Remember, th
ey re ineffective ginst nerobes.</i></div>
1403556046318 1395802358422 Which Aminoglycoside ntibiotic is used before b
owel surgery?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neomycin}}</div>
1403556064050 1395802358422 {{c1::Nephrotoxicity}} is renl compliction o
f Aminoglycoside use, especilly when they re used longside Cephlosporins.
1403556090115 1395802358422 {{c1::Ototoxicity}} is CNS compliction of Ami
noglycoside use, especilly when they re used with loop diuretics.
<br /><d
1403556159970 1395802358422 {{c1::Neuromusculr Blockde}} is neurologicl
compliction of Aminoglycoside use tht presents t the neuromusculr junction.
1403556218723 1395802358422 Wht is the pregnncy ctegory of Aminoglycoside
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X; they re Tertogenic}}</div>
1403556822541 1395802358422 Wht is the mechnism of resistnce of Aminoglyc
osides?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bcteril trnsferse enzymes; they inctivt
e the drug by cetyltion, phosphoryltion or denyltion}}</div>
1403556941212 1395802358422 Wht clss of ntibiotic is Tetrcycline?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Tetrcycline}}</div>
<br /><div><i>(lol)</i></div>
1403556965121 1395802358422 Wht clss of ntibiotic is Doxycycline?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Tetrcycline}}</div>
1403556979343 1395802358422 Wht clss of ntibiotic is Minocycline?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Tetrcycline}}</div>
1403557094697 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Tetrcycline ntibiotics?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bind to the 30S ribosoml subunit, thereby preventing th
e ttchment of minocyl-tRNA mocs}}</div>
1403557596428 1395802358422 {{c1::Doxycycline}} is Tetrcycline ntibiotic
tht is entirely feclly eliminted nd hence cn be used in ptients with ren
l filure.
1403557626963 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetrcyclines}} re <b>clss</b> of
<b>protein synthesis inhibiting </b>ntibiotics tht should not be tken w
ith milk (C<sup>2+</sup>), ntcids (C<sup>2+</sup>, Mg<sup>2+</sup>) or ironcontining preprtions (Fe<sup>2+</sup>).
<br /><div><i>This is becuse <b
>divlent ctions</b> inhibits Tetrcycline bsorption t the gut.</i></div
>
1403557829724 1395802358422 Wht is the primry clinicl use of Tetrcycline
ntibiotics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Borreli burgdorferi; Mycoplsm pne
umonie; </i>Intrcellulr bugs such s <i>Rickettsi</i> nd <i>Chlmydie
</i>}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Also used to tret cne</i></div>
1403557897769 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetrcyclines}} re clss of <b>protein
synthesis inhibiting</b> ntibiotics tht re effective ginst intrcellul
r orgnisms by virtue of their bility to ccumulte intrcellulrly. <br /><d
iv><i>e.g. Rickettsi spp., Chlmydie spp.</i></div>
1403557954837 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetrcyclines}} re clss of <b>protein
synthesis inhibiting</b> ntibiotics tht cuse <b>teeth discolourtion</b>
nd <b>inhibition of bone growth</b> in children.
1403557990915 1395802358422 {{c1::Photosensitivity}} is CNS compliction o
f Tetrcycline use.
1403558003216 1395802358422 Wht is the pregnncy ctegory of Tetrcycline
ntibiotics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X; Contrindicted}}</div>
1403558015598 1395802358422 Wht is the mechnism of resistnce for Tetrcyc

line ntibiotics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::An increse in efflux or decrese i
n uptke of the drug by bcteril pumps}}</div>
1403558064116 1395802358422 Wht clss of ntibiotic is Azithromycin?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Mcrolide}}</div>
1403559083549 1395802358422 Wht type of ntibiotic is Clrithromycin?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Mcrolide}}</div>
1403559105447 1395802358422 Wht type of ntibiotic is Erythromycin?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Mcrolide}}</div>
1403559115171 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Mcrolide ntibiotics?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of <b>trnsloction</b>, by binding to the 23S r
RNA of the 50S subunit}}</div>
1403559756635 1395802358422 {{c1::Mcrolides}} re clss of <b>protein syn
thesis inhibiting</b> ntibiotics tht tret typicl pneumonis (<i>Mycopl
sm, Chlmydi, Legionell</i>).
thesis inhibiting</b> ntibiotics tht tret grm-positive cocci in ptient
s tht re llergic to penicillins.
<br /><div><i>They lso tret STDs (Chl
mydi)</i></div>
1403560023765 1395802358422 {{c1::GI motility issues}} is GI compliction
of Mcrolide ntibiotic dministrtion. <br /><div><img src="pste-1690928624445
8.jpg" /></div>
1403560070396 1395802358422 {{c1::Arrhythmi}} is crdic compliction of
Mcrolide ntibiotic use tht is cused by <b>prolonged QT intervl</b>.
1403560136130 1395802358422 {{c1::Cholesttic heptitis}} is heptic compl
iction of Mcrolide ntibiotic use.
2.jpg" /></div>
1403560160537 1395802358422 {{c1::Eosinophili}} is n immunologicl complic
tion of Mcrolide ntibiotics. <br /><div><img src="pste-16904991277162.jpg" /
></div>
thesis inhibiting</b> ntibiotics tht increse the serum concentrtion of
<b>theophyllines</b> nd <b>orl nticogulnts</b>.
1403560490754 1395802358422 Wht is the mechnism of resistnce for Mcrolid
e ntibiotics?<div><br />{{c1::Methyltion of the 23S rRNA-binding site, thereby
preventing binding of the drug}}</div>
1403560526372 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Chlormphenicol?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Blocks peptidyltrnsferse t the 50S ribosoml subunit}}</div>
1403560616138 1395802358422 {{c1::Chlormphenicol}} is <b>protein synthesi
s inhibiting</b> ntibiotic tht is used to tret <b>meningitis</b> (<
i>Hemophilus influenze, Neisseri meningitidis, Streptococcus pneumonie</i>).
s inhibiting </b>ntibiotic tht is used to tret <b>Rocky Mountin Spotted Feve
r</b> (<i>Rickettsi rickettsii</i>).
<br /><div><i>Doxycycline (tetr
cyclines) cn lso be used.</i></div>
s inhibiting</b> ntibiotic tht hs limited use due to toxicities but is s
till used widely in developing countries due to its low cost.
1403560979085 1395802358422 {{c1::Anemi (nd Aplstic Anemi)}} re <b>do
se-dependent</b> hemtologicl complictions of Chlormphenicol use.
1403561007139 1395802358422 {{c1::Gry Bby Syndrome}} is compliction of
Chlormphenicol use in premture infnts s they lck heptic <b>UDP-Glucuronyl
Trnsferse</b>.
1403561045116 1395802358422 The lck of which enzyme in premture infnts re
sults in Grey Bby Syndrome following Chlormphenicol use?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::UDP-Glucuronyl Trnsferse}}</div>
1403561104323 1395802358422 Which ntibiotic is ssocited with cusing Grey
Bby Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chlormphenicol}}</div>
1403561122259 1395802358422 Wht is the mechnism of Chlormphenicol resist
nce?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Plsmid-encoded cetyltrnsferses tht inctiv

te the drug}}</div>
1403561149682 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Clindmycin?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Blocks trnsloction t the 50S ribosoml subunit}}</div>
1403561311342 1395802358422 Which <b>protein synthesis inhibiting</b>
ntibiotic is known to tret <b>nerobes <u>bove</u> the diphrgm</b>?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clindmycin}}</div>
1403561346128 1395802358422 {{c1::Clindmycin}} is <b>protein synthesis in
hibiting</b> ntibiotic tht is known to tret nerobic infections bove t
he diphrgm (e.g. spirtion pneumoni, lung bscesses, orl infections).
<br /><div><i>- Bcteroides spp.</i></div><div><i>- Clostridium perfringens</i><
/div>
1403561418436 1395802358422 Besides nerobic infections, wht is the clinic
l use of Clindmycin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Invsive Group A Streptococcl
infection (<i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>)}}</div>
1403561490959 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudomembrnous colitis}} is possible c
ompliction of Clindmycin use due to resultnt <i>Clostridium difficile</i>&nbs
p;overgrowth. <br /><div><i>Also cuses fever nd dirrhe.</i></div>
1403561537538 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Sulfonmide ntibiotics?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Dihydropterote Synthse, thereby decresin
g Folte synthesis}}</div>
></div>
1403563275910 1395802358422 Wht is the clinicl use for Sulfonmide ntibio
tics (Sulfmethoxzole (SMX); Sulfisoxzole; Sulfdizine)?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Grm-negtive; Grm-positive; <i>Nocrdi</i>; <i>Chlmydi</i>}}</div>
1403563528019 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemolytic nemi}} is hemtologicl com
pliction of Sulfonmide use in ptients tht hve G6PD Deficiency.
1403563565338 1395802358422 {{c1::Tubulointerstitil Nephritis}} is renl
compliction of Sulfonmide ntibiotic use.
1403563598701 1395802358422 {{c1::Photosensitivity}} is cutneous complic
tion of Sulfonmide use.
1403563611580 1395802358422 {{c1::Kernicterus}} is CNS compliction of Sul
fonmide use tht is seen in <b>infnts</b> nd rises due to hyperbil
irubinemi.
1403563778560 1395802358422 Which clss of <b>folte synthesis inhibiting</b
> ntibiotics displce other drugs from Albumin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Sulfonmides}}</div>
1403563820098 1395802358422 Wht is the mechnism of Sulfonmide resistnce?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Altered Dihydropterote Synthse; Decresed uptke;
Incresed PABA synthesis}}</div>
6.jpg" /></div>
1403563851364 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Trimethoprim?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Dihydrofolte Reductse, thereby inhibiting folte syn
thesis}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-18902151070306.jpg" /></div>
1403563895990 1395802358422 {{c1::Trimethoprim (TMP)}} is n ntibiotic tht
is often used in conjunction with Sulfonmides, thereby cusing sequentil bloc
k of folte synthesis. <br /><div><i><u>TMP-SMX: Trimethoprim-Sulfmethoxzole<
/u> is typiclly used for:</i></div><div><i>- UTIs</i></div><div><i>- Shige
ll</i></div><div><i>- Slmonell</i></div><div><i>- Pneumocytis jirovecii pneum
oni tretment nd prophylxis</i></div><div><i>- Toxoplsmosis prophylxis</i><
/div>
1403563966147 1395802358422 {{c1::Trimethoprim}} is <b>folte synthesis in
hibiting</b> ntibiotic tht is used s tretment nd prophylxis for <i>
Pneumocytis jirovecii</i> pneumoni.
hibiting</b> ntibiotic tht is used s prophylxis for Toxoplsmosis.
1403564107807 1395802358422 Wht type of nemi is compliction of Sulfon
mide use?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Megloblstic Anemi}}</div>
hibiting</b> ntibiotic tht cuses <b>megloblstic nemi, leukopeni,</
b> nd <b>grnulocytopeni</b> s complictions.

<br /><div><i><b
>TMP</b> <b>T</b>rets <b>M</b>rrow <b>P</b>oorly.</i></div>
1403571366705 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Fluoroquinolone ntibiotics?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of DNA Gyrse (Topoisomerse II) nd Topoi
somerse IV}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Must not be tken with ntcids<b>.</b></i
></div>
1403571429799 1395802358422 {{c1::Nlidixic Acid}} is quinolone ntibiotic
tht functions to inhibit DNA Gyrse (Topoisomerse II) nd Topoisomerse IV.
1403571501614 1395802358422 Wht is the clinicl use of Fluoroquinolone nti
biotics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Grm-negtive rods of urinry nd GI trcts
(including <i>Pseudomons</i>); <i>Neisseri</i>}}</div>
1403571546141 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluoroquinolones}} re clss of ntibiot
ics tht cn possible cuse <b>tendonitis, tendon ruptue, leg crmps</b> n
d <b>mylgis</b>.
1403571947579 1395802358422 Wht is the pregnncy rting of Fluoroquinolones
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X; Contrindicted due to possible dmge to crtil
<br /><div><i>Fluoroquinolones re lso contrindicted in nursi
ge}}</div>
ng mothers nd children < 18 y/o.</i></div>
1403572037932 1395802358422 {{c1::Arrhythmi}} is possible <b>crdic comp
liction </b>of Fluoroquinolone dministrtion tht often involves <b>pro
longed QT intervl</b>.
1403572158030 1395802358422 {{c1::Tendon rupture}} is possible connective
tissue compliction of Fluoroquinolone dministrtion in ptients > 60 y/o n
d in ptients tking prednisone.
1403572193542 1395802358422 Wht is the mechnism of resistnce towrds Fluo
roquinolone ntibiotics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Muttion in DNA Gyrse; Pls
mid-medited resistnce; Development of efflux pumps}}</div>
1403572237470 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Metronidzole?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Formtion of free rdicl toxic metbolites in the cell tht dmge
DNA}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Bctericidl nd ntiprotozol.</i></div>
1403572671183 1395802358422 Which ntibiotic is known to tret nerobic inf
ections <b>below</b> the diphrgm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Metronidzol
e}}</div>
<br /><div><i><u>"OP is <b>P</b>h<b>AGGET</b>"</u>:</i></div><
div><i>- Helicobcter <b><u>p</u></b>ylori (in triple therpy)</i></div><div><i>
- <b><u>A</u></b>nerobes (Bcteroides, Clostridium difficile)</i></div><div><i>
- <b><u>G</u></b>irdi lmbli</i></div><div><i>- <b><u>G</u></b>rdnerell vg
inlis</i></div><div><i>- <b><u>E</u></b>ntmoeb histolytic</i></div><div><i><b><u>T</u></b>richomons vginlis</i></div>
1403573026078 1395802358422 Wht is the clinicl use of Metronidzole?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Anerobes; Enteric infections}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><div><div><i><u>"OP is <b>P</b>h<b>AGGET</b>"</u>:</i></div><div><i>- He
licobcter <b><u>p</u></b>ylori (in triple therpy)</i></div><div><i>-&nbsp
;<b><u>A</u></b>nerobes (Bcteroides, Clostridium difficile)</i></div><div><i> <b><u>G</u></b>irdi lmbli</i></div><div><i>- <b><u>G</u></b>rdne
rell vginlis</i></div><div><i>- <b><u>E</u></b>ntmoeb histolytic</i><
/div><div><i>- <b><u>T</u></b>richomons vginlis</i></div></div>
1403573724743 1395802358422 {{c1::Metronidzole}} is DNA dmging ntibiot
ic tht cuses <b>disulfirm-like rections</b> with lcohol use. <br /><d
iv><i>Severe flushing, tchycrdi, hypotension.</i></div>
1403573789775 1395802358422 {{c1::Metronidzole}} is DNA dmging ntibiot
ic tht yields metllic tste.
1403573802902 1395802358422 Which ntimycobcteril drug is used s prophyl
xis for <i>Mycobcterium tuberculosis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Isonizid}
}</div>
1403574264207 1395802358422 Which ntimycobcteril/ntibiotic drug is used
s prophylxis for <i>Mycobcterium vium-intrcellulre</i>?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Azithromycin; Rifbutin}}</div>
1403574292612 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Mycobcterium tuber
culosis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rifmpin; Isonizid; Pyrzinmide; Ethm
butol}}</div> <br /><div><i>"<b>RIPE</b>" for tretment.</i></div>
1403574339038 1395802358422 {{c1::Rifmpin}}, {{c2::Isonizid}}, {

{c3::Pyrzinmide}} nd {{c4::Ethmbutol}} re the 4 ntimycobcteril drug
s used to tret tuberculosis.
1403574370113 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycobcterium vium-intrcellulre</i>}
} is species of <i>Mycobcterium</i> tht is more drug resistnt thn <i>
Mycobcterium tuberculosis.</i> <br /><div><i>Hence it requires Azithromycin/Cl
rithromycin + Ethmbutol Rifbutin/Ciprofloxcin</i></div>
1403575118249 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for the <b>lepremtous</b>
form of <i>Mycobcterium lepre</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dpsone +
Rifmpin + Clofzimine}}</div>
1403575146960 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for the <b>tuberculoid</b>
form of <i>Mycobcterium lepre</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dpsone +
Rifmpin}}</div>
1403575166794 1395802358422 {{c1::Isonizid (INH)}} is n ntimycobcteril
tht requires bcteril <b>ctlse-peroxidse</b> enzymes in order to beco
me ctive metbolites.
1403575251370 1395802358422 Which enzyme in Mycobcteri is required to cti
vte Isonizid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ctlse-peroxidse; encoded by <i>K
tG</i>}}</div>
1403575277748 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Isonizid (INH)?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Decreses the synthesis of mycolic cid}}</div>
1403575291966 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin deficiency is ble t
o present with Neurotoxicity nd Drug-induced SLE cused by Isonizid (INH)?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
1403575350119 1395802358422 {{c1::Isonizid (INH)}} is n ntimycobcteril
drug tht cuses <b>neurotoxicity</b> nd <b>heptotoxicity</b>. <br /><d
iv><i>"<b>INH</b> <b>I</b>njures <b>N</b>eurons nd <b>H</b>eptocytes."</i
></div>
1403575450041 1395802358422 {{c1::Rifmpin}} nd {{c2::Rifbutin}} re
<b>rifmycin ntimycobcterils</b> tht function to inhibit DNA-Dependent
RNA Polymerse.
1403575481402 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Rifmycin ntimycobcterils
(Rifmpin; Rifbutin)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of DNA-dependent RN
A polymerse}}</div>
1403575507666 1395802358422 Which clss of ntimycobcteril is used s chem
oprophylxis in contct of children with <i>Hemophilus influenze</i> type
B?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rifmycins (Rifmpin; Rifbutin)}}</div>
1403575602130 1395802358422 How does Rifmpin influence cytochrome P450 cti
vity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<div><br /></div><img sr
c="pste-23648089932028.jpg" />
1403575643202 1395802358422 How does Rifbutin influence cytochrome P450 ct
ivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No effect}}</div>
te-23648089932028.jpg" /></div>
1403575655877 1395802358422 {{c1::Rifmycins (Rifmpin; Rifbutin)}} is cl
ss of ntimycobcterils tht yield <b>ornge-red bodily fluids</b>. <br /><d
iv><i>A non-hzrdoud side effect.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-236480899320
28.jpg" /></i></div>
1403575723021 1395802358422 {{c1::Rifbutin}} is Rifmycin ntimycobcteri
l tht is fvoured for use in ptients with HIV due to less cytochrome P450 sti
multion.
1403575765063 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of the ntimycobcteril Pyrzin
mide?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Uncertin mechnism; Acidifies the intrcellul
<br /><div><i>Ef
r environment vi converstion to Pyrzinoic Acid}}</div>
fective in the cidic pH of phgolysosomes (i.e. where phgocytosed TB is found
in mcrophges).</i></div>
1403576529771 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyrzinmide}} is n ntimycobcteril th
t is effective in the cidic pH of phgolysosomes, where engulfed MTB is found i
n mcrophges.
1403576581268 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyrzinmide}} is n ntimycobcteril th
t is ssocited with <b>hyperuricemi</b> nd <b>heptotoxicity</b> s
side effects.
1403576608030 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of the ntimycobcteril Ethmbu
tol?<div><br /></div><div>{{c2::Inhibition of Arbinosyltrnsferse, thereby dec
resing crbohydrte polymeriztion of the mycobcterium cell wll}}</div>
1403576658700 1395802358422 {{c1::Ethmbutol}} is n ntimycobcteril tht
is ssocited with <b>optic neuropthy</b>, specificlly <b>red-green colour bli
ndness</b>, s side effect.
1403576698558 1395802358422 Wht is the prophylctic tretment for endocrdi
tis with surgicl/dentl procedures?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillins}}</d
iv>
1403576844804 1395802358422 Wht is the prophylctic tretment for gonorrhe
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ceftrixone}}</div>
1403576851982 1395802358422 Wht is the prophylctic tretment for history
of recurrent UTIs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SMP-TMX}}</div>
1403576863917 1395802358422 Wht is the prophylctic tretment for meningoco
ccl infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ciprofloxcin}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Ciprofloxcin = DOC</i></div><div><i>Rifmpin = DOC in children</i></div>
1403576878077 1395802358422 Wht is the prophylctic tretment for meningoco
ccl infection <b>in children</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rifmpin}}</div>
1403576911595 1395802358422 Wht is the prophylctic tretment for pregnnt
women crrying Group B Strep (<i>Streptococcus glctie</i>)?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Ampicillin}}</div>
1403576948437 1395802358422 Wht is the prophylctic tretment for gonococc
l or chlmydil conjunctivitis in newborns?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Erythromy
cin ointment}}</div>
1403576970093 1395802358422 Wht is the prophylctic tretment for postsurgi
cl <i>Stphylococcus ureus</i> infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cef
zolin}}</div>
1403576992013 1395802358422 Wht is the prophylctic tretment for Strep Ph
ryngitis in child with prior history of Rheumtic Fever?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Orl Penicillin}}</div>
1403577017339 1395802358422 Wht is the prophylctic tretment for Syphilis?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Benzthine Penicillin G}}</div>
1403577734671 1395802358422 Wht is the prophylctic tretment for <i>P
neumocystis</i> pneumoni in n HIV ptient with < 200 CD4+ cells/mm<sup
>3</sup>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::TMP-SMX}}</div>
1403577776196 1395802358422 Wht is the prophylctic tretment for <i>P
neumocystis</i> pneumoni nd toxoplsmosis in n HIV ptient with < 100
CD4+ cells/mm<sup>3</sup>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::TMP-SMX}}</div>
1403577807943 1395802358422 Wht is the prophylctic tretment for <i>M
ycobcterium vium-intrcellulre</i> in n HIV ptient with < 50 CD4+ c
ells/mm<sup>3</sup>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Azithromycin}}</div>
1403577838887 1395802358422 {{c1::Vncomycin}} is glycopeptide ntibiotic
tht is used to tret MRSA.
></div>
1403577947679 1395802358422 {{c1::Ceftroline}} is 5th genertion cephlos
porin used to tret MRSA.
></div>
1403577977278 1395802358422 {{c1::Linezolid}} is protein synthesis inhibit
ing ntibiotic tht cts t the 50S ribosoml subunit to tret MRSA nd VRE.
1403583187879 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of the ntifungl Amphotericin B
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to Ergosterol in the fungl cell membrne, th
ereby forming membrne pore tht llows the lekge of electrolytes}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Ampho"<b>ter"</b>-icin "<b>ters</b>" hole into the fung
l membrne by forming pore.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-27981711934002.jpg"
/></div>
1403583540443 1395802358422 {{c1::Amphotericin B}} is n ntifungl drug th
t requires subsequent K nd Mg supplementtion due to ltered renl tubule perme
bility.
1403583607268 1395802358422 Wht is the ROA of Amphotericin B in the tretme

nt of fungl meningitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Intrtheclly}}</div>
1403583623619 1395802358422 {{c1::Fever/chills}} is compliction of Amphot
ericin B dministrtion tht is described s <b>"shke nd bke"</b>.
1403583707775 1395802358422 How cn Amphotericin B nephrotoxicity be decres
ed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hydrtion}}</div>
1403583795471 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Nysttin?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Binds to Ergosterol in the fungl cell membrne nd forms membrne por
e, thereby llowing the lekge of electrolytes}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-27981711934002.jpg" /></div>
1403583828968 1395802358422 Wht is the ROA of Nysttin?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Topicl}}</div> <br /><div><i>It is too toxic for systemic use.</i></div
>
1403583845859 1395802358422 {{c1::Nysttin}} is topicl ntifungl tht is
used s <b>"swish nd swllow"</b> tretment for orl Cndidisis.
<br /><div><i>Also dministered topiclly for diper rsh or vginl cndidisis
.</i></div>
1403583895951 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Azole ntifungls?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Ergosterol synthesis by inhibiting the Cytochrome
P450 enzyme tht converts Lnosterol to Ergosterol}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-27981711934002.jpg" /></div>
1403584192480 1395802358422 {{c1::Amphotericin B}} is n ntifungl gent th
t is used in serious, systemic mycoses.
1403584221817 1395802358422 {{c1::Azoles}} re clss of ntifungls tht
re used for <b>locl</b> nd <b>less serious</b> systemic mycoses.
1403584405410 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluconzole}} is n Azole ntifungl tht
is used for <b>chronic suppression of cryptococcl meningitis in AIDS ptients</
b> nd <b>cndidl infections</b> of ll types.
1403584456114 1395802358422 {{c1::Itrconzole}} is n Azole ntifungl gen
t tht is used to tret <i>Blstomyces, Coccidioides</i> nd <i>Histoplsm
</i> infection.
1403584518878 1395802358422 {{c1::Cotrimzole}} nd {{c2::Miconzole}}
re Azole ntifungls tht re used topiclly for fungl infections.
1403584542223 1395802358422 Which Azole ntifungl is especilly known to in
hibit testosterone synthesis nd cuse gynecomsti?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Ketoconzole}}</div>
1403584580357 1395802358422 {{c1::Gynecomsti}} is hormonl compliction
of Azole ntifungl use due to inhibition of testosterone synthesis.
<br /><d
iv><i>Especilly seen with Ketoconzole.</i></div>
1403584619377 1395802358422 How do Azole ntifungls influence Cytochrome P4
50 ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1403584650151 1395802358422 {{c1::Flucytosine}} is n ntifungl gent tht
inhibits DNA nd RNA biosynthesis by conversion to 5-Fluorourcil by Cytosine De
minse.
1403584694209 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of the ntifungl Flucytosine?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of DNA nd RNA biosynthesis vi conversion
to 5-Fluorourcil by Cytosine Deminse}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-27981
711934002.jpg" /></div>
1403584730306 1395802358422 Which enzyme in fungi converts Flucytosine into
5-Fluorourcil?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytosine Deminse}}</div>
1403584762248 1395802358422 {{c1::Flucytosine}} is n ntifungl gent tht
is used combintion with Amphotericin B to tret systemic mycoses.
<br /><d
iv><i>Especilly meningitis cused by Cryptococcus.</i></div>
1403584796865 1395802358422 Wht toxicity is ssocited with the ntifunl F
lucytosine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bone Mrrow Suppression}}</div>
1403584830957 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Echinocndin ntifungls (Cs
pofungin; Micfungin; Anidulfungin)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of f
ungl cell wll synthesis by inhibiting the synthesis of bet-glucn}}</div>
1403584882499 1395802358422 {{c1::Echinocndins}} re clss of ntifungl
gents tht function to inhibit cell wll synthesis by inhibiting the synthesis
of bet-glucn. <br /><div><i>Cspofungin; Micfungin; Anidulfungin</i></div><d
iv><i><img src="pste-27981711934002.jpg" /></i></div>
1403584928834 1395802358422 Wht is the clinicl use of Echinocndin ntifun
gls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Invsive Aspergillosis; <i>Cndid spp.</i>}}</
div>
1403584965030 1395802358422 {{c1::Flushing}} is compliction of Echinocnd
in use tht results due to widespred histmine relese.
<br /><div><i>GI
upset is lso n dverse effect.</i></div>
1403584990358 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of the ntifungl Terbinfine?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Squlen Epoxidse}}</div>
<br /><d
1403585023946 1395802358422 {{c1::Terbinfine}} is n ntifungl gent tht
inhibits Squlene Epoxidse, thereby inhibiting Ergosterol synthesis. <br /><d
1403585048696 1395802358422 Wht is the clinicl use of Terbinfine?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Dermtophytoses (especilly, Onychomycosis)}}</div>
is used to tret Dermtophytoses, especilly Onychomycosis.
is ssocited with <b>tste disturbnce</b> s side effect.
1403585137181 1395802358422 {{c1::Griseofulvin}} is n ntifungl gent tht
interferes with microtubule function, thereby disrupting mitosis.
<br /><d
1403585168901 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Griseofulvin?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Intereference with microtubules, thereby disrupting mitosis}}</div>
1403585191301 1395802358422 Which ntifungl gent is known to <b>deposit in
kertin-contining tissue</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Griseofulvin}}</div>
1403585229350 1395802358422 How does Griseofulvin influence P450 ctivity?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Especilly incres
es Wrfrin metbolism.</i></div>
1403585322758 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Toxoplsmosis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Pyrimethmine}}</div>
1403585353599 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Trypnosom brucei<
/i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Surmin + Melrsoprol}}</div>
1403585372396 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Chgs Disese (<i>Try
pnosom cruzi</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nifurtimox}}</div>
1403585400998 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Leishmnisis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Sodium stibogluconte}}</div>
1403585424260 1395802358422 {{c1::Chloroquine}} is n ntiprotozol tht fun
ctions to block the detoxifiction of heme into hemozoin, thereby llowing for t
oxic heme ccumultion.
1403585491597 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of the ntiprotozol Chloroquine
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blocks the detoxifiction of heme into hemozoin, th
ereby llowing for toxic heme ccumultion in the plsmodi}}</div>
1403585527254 1395802358422 Wht is the clinicl use of Chloroquine?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Mlri cused by <i>Plsmodium sp.</i> other thn <i>P
lsmodium flciprum</i>}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The frequency of Plsmodiu
m flciprum resistnce to Chloroquine is very high.</i></div>
1403585605926 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i style="font-weight:
bold; ">Plsmodium flciprum</i> Mlri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arte
mether/Lumefrntrine or Atovquone/Progunil}}</div>
1403585645064 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <b>life-thretening</b
> Mlri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Quinidine (USA); Quinine (rest of the
world); or Artesunte}}</div>
1403585680403 1395802358422 {{c1::Pruritis}} is cutneous compliction of
Chloroquine use tht is especilly seen in drk-skinned individuls.
1403585706958 1395802358422 {{c1::Retinopthy}} is n oculr compliction of
Chloroquine use.
1403585722404 1395802358422 Wht is the mechnism of resistnce to Chloroqui
ne in <i>Plsmodium flciprum</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Membrne pump th

t decreses intrcellulr concentrtion of the drug}}</div>
1403627084848 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for <i>Schistosom</i>?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Prziquntel}}</div>
1403634755407 1395802358422 {{c1::Znmivir}} nd {{c2::Oseltmivir}}
re ntivirl gents tht tret Influenz A nd B by <b>inhibiting neurminidse<
/b>, thereby inhibiting relese of progeny viruses.
te-1279900254982.jpg" /></div>
1403635016809 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Znmivir nd Oseltmivir?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Neurminidse, thereby decresing the rel
ese of progeny viruses}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1275605287686.jpg" />
</div>
1403635049108 1395802358422 Wht is the clinicl use of Znmivir nd Oselt
mivir?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tretment nd prevention of Influenz A nd B}
}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1275605287686.jpg" /></div>
1403635068374 1395802358422 {{c1::Ribvirin}} is n ntivirl gent tht inh
ibits <b>Inosine Monophosphte Dehydrogense</b>, thereby inhibiting the synthes
is of gunine nucleotides.
1403635155716 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Ribvirin?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of <b>Inosine Monophosphte Dehydrogense</b>, thereby inhib
iting gunine nucleotide synthesis}}</div>
1403635184592 1395802358422 {{c1::Ribvirin}} is n ntivirl gent tht is
used to tret <b>RSV</b> nd <b>HCV</b> by inhibiting <b>Inosine Monop
hosphte Dehydrogense</b>.
1403635218748 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemolytic Anemi}} is hemtologicl com
pliction of Ribvirin use.
1403635238503 1395802358422 Which virl enzyme monophosphoryltes Acyclovir/
Fmciclovir/Vlcyclovir, thereby ctivting it?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thym
idine kinse}}</div>
1403635637447 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Acyclovir/Fmciclovir/Vlcyc
lovir?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gunosine nlog; Inhibition of virl DNA Poly
merse, thereby cusing chin termintion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>It is only
phosphorylted in infected cells, hence there re very few dverse effects.</i>
</div><div><i><img src="pste-1275605287686.jpg" /></i></div>
1403635706707 1395802358422 Which Herpesviruses re treted by Acyclovir/Fm
ciclovir/Vlcyclovir?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HSV; VZV}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Wek ctivity ginst EBV.</i></div><div><i>No ctivity ginst CMV.</i></
div><div><i>No ctivity ginst ltent HSV/VZV.</i></div>
1403635783502 1395802358422 {{c1::Vlcyclovir}} is the prodrug form of Acyc
lovir tht hs better orl biovilbility.
1403635811412 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Herpes Zoster?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Fmciclovir}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1275605287686
.jpg" /></div>
1403635844394 1395802358422 {{c1::Obstructive crystlline nephropthy}} nd&
nbsp;{{c2::Acute Renl Filure}} re 2 renl complictions of Acyclovir/Fmciclo
vir/Vlcyclovir use if the ptient is not hydrted properly.
1403635898739 1395802358422 Wht is the mechnism of resistnce to Acyclovir
/Fmciclovir/Vlcyclovir?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mutted Thymidine Kinse}}
</div>
1403636037558 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Gnciclovir?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Gunosine nlog; Inhibition of virl DNA Polymerse, thereby cusing
chin termintion}}</div>
</div>
1403636080596 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for CMV?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Gnciclovir}}</div>
1403636093932 1395802358422 {{c1::Vlgnciclovir}} is the prodrug form of G
nciglovir tht hs better orl biovilbility.
1403636124030 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukopeni}}, {{c2::neutropeni}} nd
{{c3::thrombocytopeni}} re hemtologicl complictions of Gnciclovir.
<br /><div><i>Gnciclovir is more toxic to host enzymes thn Acyclovir.</i></div
>
1403636336526 1395802358422 {{c1::Foscrnet}} is n ntivirl gent tht ct
s s virl DNA polymerse inhibitor by <b>binding to the pyrophosphte-binding
site</b> of the enzyme. <br /><div><img src="pste-1275605287686.jpg" />
</div>
1403636395074 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Foscrnet?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of virl DNA polymerse by binding to the pyrophosphte-bind
ing site of the enzyme}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1275605287686.jpg" />
</div>
1403636433207 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for CMV retinitis in immun
ocompromised ptients when Gnciclovir fils?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Foscrn
et or Cidofovir}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1275605287686.jpg" /></div>
1403636465989 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Acyclovir-resistnt HS
V?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Foscrnet or Cidofovir}}</div>
1403636599345 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Cidofovir?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Preferentil inhibition of virl DNA polymerse}}</div>
<br /><d
1403636629969 1395802358422 {{c1::Probenecid}} is drug tht must be co-dm
inistered with the ntivirl Cidofovir to decrese its nephrotixicity. <br /><d
iv><i>IV sline is lso given.</i></div>
1403652125487 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART drug is Atznvir?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Protese inhibitor}}</div>
16115718.jpg" /></div>
1403655722005 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART drug is Drunvir?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Protese inhibitor}}</div>
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403655744831 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART is Fosmprenvir?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Protese inhibitor}}</div>
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403655761991 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART is Indinvir?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Protese inhibitor}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-5102421148422
.jpg" /></div>
1403655774171 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART drug is Lopinvir?<div><br />
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403655819688 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART drug is Ritonvir?<div><br />
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403655843131 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART drug is Squinvir?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Protese inhibitor}}</div>
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403655857003 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART drug is Abcvir (ABC)?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
.jpg" /></div>
1403656100506 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART drug is Didnosine (ddI)?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
.jpg" /></div>
1403656112841 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART drug is Emtricitbine (FTC)?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-5102421148422
.jpg" /></div>
1403656129614 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART drug is Lmivudine (3TC)?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
.jpg" /></div>
1403656188268 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART drug is Stvudine (d4T)?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
.jpg" /></div>
1403656256726 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART drug is Tenofovir (TDF)?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
.jpg" /></div>
1403656274379 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART drug is Zidovudine (ZDV; AZT)
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403656299595 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART drug is Efvirenz?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::NNRTI}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-5102421148422.jpg" />
</div>
1403656332301 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART drug is Nevirpine?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::NNRTI}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-5102421148422.jpg" />
</div>
1403656356381 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART drug is Delvirdine?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::NNRTI}}</div>
.jpg" /></div>
1403656368136 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART drug is Rltegrvir?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Integrse inhibitor}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-51024
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403656396345 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART drug is Enfuvirtide?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Fusion inhibitor}}</div>
21148422.jpg" /></div>
1403656413870 1395802358422 Wht type of HAART drug is Mrviroc?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Fusioin inhibitor (inhibition t the entry)}}</div>
<br /><d
1403656436281 1395802358422 {{c1::HIV-1 Protese}} is n HIV virl enzyme th
t is required for virion ssembly s it cleves the polypeptide products of HIV
mRNA into their functionl prts.
<br /><div><i>Hence, protese inhibitors
prevent mturtion of new viruses.</i></div>
1403657243642 1395802358422 {{c1::Ritonvir}} is n HIV Protese inhibitor t
ht <b>inhibits cytochrome P450</b>, thereby it cn increse the concentrtion o
f other drugs.
1403657543194 1395802358422 {{c1::Indinvir}} is n HIV Protese inhibitor t
ht is ssocited with <b>hemturi</b> nd nephropthy.
1403657594880 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipodystrophy}} is compliction of HIV P
rotese inhibitors tht ffects ft tissue.
1403657626159 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Protese Inhibitor HAART drug
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of HIV-1 Protese}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>All protese inhibitors end in <b>-nvir</b>.</i></div>
1403657838422 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of NRTI HAART drugs?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Competitively inhibit nucleotide binding to Reverse Trnscripts
e, thereby terminting DNA chin elongtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>NRTIs lck
3' -OH groups.</i></div>
1403657911373 1395802358422 {{c1::Tenofovir}} is n NRTI tht is lredy n
ucleotide, nd hence does not need to be phosphorylted to be ctivted.
<br /><div><i>The rest re ll nucleoside nd require phosphoryltion.</i></div>
1403657949285 1395802358422 {{c1::Zidovudine (ZDV; AZT)}} is n NRTI HAART d
rug tht is used for <b>generl prophylxis.</b>
1403658050087 1395802358422 {{c1::Zidovudine (ZDV; AZT)}} is n NRTI HAART d
rug tht is used in <b>pregnncy</b> to <b>decrese the risk of fetl
trnsmission.</b>
1403658090747 1395802358422 {{c1::Bone mrrow suppression}} is hemtologic
l compliction of NRTI HAART drugs tht cn be reversed with <b>G-CSF</b>
drugs nd <b>Erythropoietin</b>.
1403658236640 1395802358422 {{c1::G-CSF drugs}} nd {{c2::Erythropoieti
n}} re 2 drugs tht re used to correct the bone mrrow suppression cused by N
RTI HAART drugs.
1403658275998 1395802358422 {{c1::Anemi}} is hemtologicl disorder of Z
idovudine (ZDV).
1403658304542 1395802358422 {{c1::Didnosine (ddI)}} is n NRTI HAART drug t
ht is ssocited with <b>pncretitis</b>.
1403658318319 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of NNRTI HAART drugs?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c2::Binding to nd inhibition of Reverse Trnscriptse t differe
nt site thn NRTIs}}</div>
<br /><div><i>They do not require phosphoryltio
n to be ctive.</i></div>
1403658413214 1395802358422 {{c1::Rsh}} nd {{c2::Heptotoxicity}} re

2 complictions tht re common to ll NNRTI HAART drugs.
1403658453530 1395802358422 {{c1::Efvirenz}} is n NNRTI HAART drug tht is
ssocited with <b>vivid drems</b> nd <b>CNS toxicity.</b>
1403658473008 1395802358422 Which NNRTI HAART drug is ssocited with <b>viv
id drems</b> nd <b>CNS toxicity</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Efvirenz
}}</div>
1403658494531 1395802358422 {{c1::Delvirdine}} nd {{c2::Efvirenz}}
re the 2 NNRTI HAART drugs tht re contrindicted in pregnncy.
1403658540630 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Rseltegrvir (HAART drug)?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of HIV Integrse, thereby inhibiting HIV ge
nome insertion into the host cell genome}}</div>
1403658591432 1395802358422 {{c1::Rltegrvir}} is n Integrse inhibitor th
t is ssocited with <b>hypercholesterolemi</b>.
1403658761423 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Enfuvirtide (HAART Fusion inh
ibitor)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to gp41, thereby inhibiting virl entr
y}}</div>
1403658787752 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Mrviroc (HAART Fusion inhib
itor)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to CCR5 on T cells/monocytes, thereby in
hibiting interction with gp120 nd virl entry}}</div>
1403658874584 1395802358422 {{c1::Enfuvirtide}} is n HAART drug tht <b>bin
ds to gp41</b>, thereby inhibiting virl entry.
1403658895002 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrviroc}} is n HAART drug tht <b>binds
to CCR5</b> on T cells/monocytes, thereby inhibiting gp120 nd nd stoppin
g virl entry.
1403659004221 1395802358422 Wht toxicity is ssocited with HAART Fusion In
hibitors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Skin rection t the injection site}}</div>
1403659041822 1395802358422 {{c1::Interferons}} re glycoproteins normlly s
ynthesized by virus-infected cells tht exhibit wide rnge of ntivirl nd n
titumoul properties.
1403662449834 1395802358422 Wht is the clinicl use of IFN-bet?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Multiple sclerosis}}</div>
1403662599988 1395802358422 Wht is the clinicl use of IFN-gmm?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Grnulomtous Disese (CGD)}}</div>
1403662617700 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-lph}} is n Interferon used to tret
<b>chronic heptitis B nd C</b>.
Kposi srcom.
Hiry Cell Leukemi.
Condylom Accumintum.
Renl Cell Crcinom.
Mlignnt Melnom.
1403662831626 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-bet}} is n Interferon used to tret
Multiple Sclerosis.
1403662843976 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-gmm}} is n interferon used to tret
Chronic Grnulomtous Disese.
1403662857752 1395802358422 {{c1::Sulfonmides}} re clss of ntibiotics
tht re voided in pregnncy s they cuse <b>kernicterus.</b> <br /><div><img
src="pste-9307194130833.jpg" /></div>
1403663123820 1395802358422 {{c1::Aminoglycosides}} re clss of ntibioti
cs tht should not be used in pregnncy s they cuse <b>ototoxicity</b>.
1403663273810 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluoroquinolones}} re clss of ntibiot
ics tht re voided in pregnncy s they cuse <b>crtilge dmge</b>.
1403663302378 1395802358422 {{c1::Clrithromycin}} is n ntibiotic tht is
<br /><div><img
voided in pregnncy s it cuses <b>embryotoxicity</b>.
src="pste-9307194130833.jpg" /></div>
1403663346534 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetrcyclines}} re clss of ntibiotics
tht re voided in pregnncy s they cuse <b>teeth discolourtion</b> n
d <b>inhibit bone growth</b>. <br /><div><img src="pste-9307194130833.jpg" />
</div>
1403663529183 1395802358422 {{c1::Ribvirin}} is n <b>ntivirl</b> gent t
ht is voided in pregnncy s it is tertogenic.
te-9307194130833.jpg" /></div>
1403663568467 1395802358422 {{c1::Griseofulvin}} is n <b>ntifungl</b>&nbs
p;gent tht is voided in pregnncy s it is tertogenic.
<br /><div><img
src="pste-9307194130833.jpg" /></div>
1403663585680 1395802358422 {{c1::Chlormphenicol}} is n ntibiotic tht is
voided in pregnncy s it cuses <b>"Gry Bby" Syndrome</b>. <br /><div><img
src="pste-9311489098129.jpg" /></div>
1404076014360 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertrophy}} is cellulr growth dptt
ion tht involves n <b>increse in cell size</b>.
1404076697248 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperplsi}} is cellulr growth dptt
ion tht involves n <b>increse in cell number</b>.
1404076717164 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertrophy}} is cellulr growth dptt
ion tht involves gene ctivtion, protein synthesis nd the production of new o
rgnelles.
1404076741694 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperplsi}} is cellulr growth dptt
ion tht involves the production of new cells from stem cells.
1404076758402 1395802358422 Which type of tissue <b>cnnot</b> mke new
cells nd hence only undergoes hypertrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Permnen
t tissue (e.g. crdic muscle, skeletl muscle nd nerves)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Otherwise, hypertrophy nd hyperplsi generlly occur together.</i></div>
<div><i>e.g. uterus during pregnncy</i></div>
1404076809071 1395802358422 Which 3 specific tissues mke up <b>permnent ti
ssue</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crdic muscle; skeletl muscle; nerves}}</
div>
<br /><div><i>e.g. crdic myocytes will undergo hypertrophy, not hyperp
lsi, in response to systemic HTN</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-745692221934
88.jpg" /></i></div>
1404076911194 1395802358422 {{c1::Benign Prosttic Hyperplsi (BPH)}} is
type of pthologicl hyperplsi seen t the prostte tht <b>does not</b>
increse the risk for cncer. <br /><div><i>Otherwise, pthologicl hyperplsi
generlly increses the risk for dysplsi nd eventully cncer.</i></div><di
v><i>e.g. endometril hyperplsi</i></div>
1404077177893 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrophy}} is cellulr growth dpttion
tht involves decrese in the <b>size</b> nd <b>number</b> of cells
.
1404078193418 1395802358422 {{c1::Apoptosis}} is process by which <b>dec
rese in cell number occurs</b> (i.e. trophy).
1404078219822 1395802358422 {{c1::Ubiquitin-proteosome degrdtion}} is pr
ocess by which <b>decrese in cell size</b> occurs (i.e. trophy).
<br /><div><i>Remember, ubiquitin is tg tht lets the proteosome know tht so
mething hs to be degrded. The cytoskeleton of cells is often tgged, resulting
in reduction in cell size.</i></div><div><i>Autophgy of cellulr components
involves genertion of utophgic vcuoles which fuse with lysosomes whose hydro
lytic enzymes brekdown cellulr components.</i></div>
1404078427367 1395802358422 {{c1::Metplsi}} is cellulr growth dptti
on tht involves <b>chnge in cell type</b> due to <b>chnge in stress<
/b> on tht orgn or tissue.
<br /><div><i>The ide here is tht the
metplstic cell is better ble to hndle the new stress or the increse in stre
ss.</i></div><div><i>Clssic exmple involves epithelil cells chnging to noth
er type of epithelium.</i></div>
1404078918513 1395802358422 {{c1::Brrett Esophgus}} is type of pthologi
cl metplsi tht occurs t the esophgus due to <b>cid reflux</b> from
the stomch cusing metplsi from nonkertinizing squmous epithelium to <b>no
ncilited, mucin-producing columnr epithelium</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img sr

c="pste-74582107095374.jpg" /></div> <br /><div><i>The originl nonkertinizi
ng squmous epithelium is better suited to hndle the friction of food bolus.<
/i></div><div><i>The metplstic mucin-producing columnr epithelium is better s
uited to hndle the stress of the cid.</i></div>
1404079151977 1395802358422 {{c1::Metplsi}} is cellulr growth dptti
on tht occurs vi the reprogrmming of stem cells which then produce the new ce
ll type.
<br /><div><i>Metplsi is reversible.</i></div><div><i>i.e. B
rrett Esophgus cn be reversed by treting the gstroesophgel reflux.</i></di
v>
1404079520961 1395802358422 {{c1::Dysplsi}} is pthologicl compliction
of metplsi tht cn present if the metplstic tissue is held under persiste
nt stress.
<br /><div><i>i.e. Brrett esophgus cn progress to denocrcin
om of the esophgus</i></div>
1404079611160 1395802358422 {{c1::Apocrine Metplsi of the Brest}} is n
exmple of metplsi tht occurs t the brest nd <b>does not</b> hve n
incresed risk for cncer.
1404079654455 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin deficiency cn result
in metplsi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A}}</div>
1404079681951 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is necessry for the d
ifferentition of specilized epithelil surfces?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vi
tmin A}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.g. conjunctiv of the eye</i></div>
1404079732166 1395802358422 {{c1::Kertomlci}} is n oculr compliction
of Vitmin A deficiency tht results from the thin squmous lining of the conjun
ctiv undergoing metplsi into strtified, kertinizing squmous epithelium.<d
1404079770504 1395802358422 {{c1::Myositis Ossificns}} is metplstic dis
order tht involves connective tissue within muscle chnging to bone during the
heling process following trum.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-755914244
09953.jpg" /></div>
1404079910294 1395802358422 {{c1::Dysplsi}} is compliction of longstnd
ing metplsi nd/or hyperplsi tht involves disordered cellulr growth.
<br /><div><i>Dysplsi is reversible with llevition of the stress.</i></div><
div><i>If it develops into crcinom, tht is irreversible.</i></div>
1404080021491 1395802358422 {{c1::Aplsi}} <b>filure of cell product
ion to occur during embryogenesis</b>. <br /><div><i>e.g. unilterl renl gen
esis</i></div>
1404080216585 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoplsi}} is described s <b>de
crese in cell production during embryogenesis</b>, thereby resulting in relt
ively smll orgn.
<br /><div><i>e.g. strek ovry in Turner syndrome</i></
div>
1404080585002 1395802358422 Wht is the finl electron cceptor in the ETC o
f oxidtive phosphoryltion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oxygen}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Hence, in hypoxi oxidtive phosphoryltion is impired, resulting in decr
esed ATP production which leds to cellulr injury.</i></div>
1404081156557 1395802358422 {{c1::Ischemi}} is cuse of hypoxi tht is d
efined s <b>decresed blood flow through n orgn</b>. <br /><div><i>e.g. decre
sed rteril perfusion, decresed venous dringe (Budd-Chiri Syndrome) nd sh
ock.</i></div>
1404081377272 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of Budd-Chiri Syn
drome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Polycythemi Ver}}</div>
1404081393350 1395802358422 {{c1::Shock}} is cuse of ischemi tht rises
due to <b>widespred hypotension</b> tht ultimtely results in poor tissu
e perfusion nd eventul hypoxi.
1404081425486 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoxemi}} is cuse of hypoxi tht is
defined s <b>low prtil pressure of oxygen in the blood</b>.
1404081452139 1395802358422 Which rteril prtil pressure of Oxygen is di
gnostic of Hypoxemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::P<sub></sub>O<sub>2</sub>&nbsp
;< 60 mmHg}}</div>
1404081486236 1395802358422 Which rteril Oxygen sturtion is dignostic o
f hypoxemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::S<sub></sub>O<sub>2</sub> < 90%

}}</div>
1404081594463 1395802358422 {{c1::High ltitude}} is cuse of hypoxemi th
t results from <b>decresed brometric pressure</b> cusing <b>decresed P
<sub>A</sub>O<sub>2</sub>.</b>
1404081786506 1395802358422 {{c1::Decresed O2 crrying cpcity}} is cus
e of hypoxi tht stems from <b>loss of Hemoglobin</b> or <b>hemoglobi
n dysfunction</b>.
<br /><div><i>e.g. nemi, CO poisoning, methemoglobine
mi</i></div>
1404082054272 1395802358422 How does PO2 chnge in nemi?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Norml}}</div>
<div><i><br /></i></div>
1404082081983 1395802358422 How does SO2 chnge in nemi?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Norml}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Rememebr, SO2 is <b>percentge<
/b>, hence it is unchnged in nemi.</i></div><div><i>S<sub></sub>O<sub>2</su
b> = % of O<sub>2</sub> mocs bound to Hb</i></div>
1404082145795 1395802358422 How does P<sub></sub>O<sub>2</sub> chnge
in CO poisoning?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Norml}}</div>
<br /><div><i>CO
binds to Hb more vidly thn O2.</i></div>
1404082247074 1395802358422 How does S<sub></sub>O<sub>2</sub> chnge
in CO poisoning?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
<br /><div><i>CO
binds to Hb more vidly thn O2.</i></div>
1404082327680 1395802358422 {{c1::CO poisoning}} is cuse of <b>decresed
O2 crrying cpcity</b> tht often rises following exposure to <b>smoke f
rom fires</b> or <b>exhust from crs/gs heters</b>.
<br /><div><i>Th
ereby cuses hypoxi.</i></div><div><i>Erly sign of exposure is hedche. Signi
ficnt exposure leds to com/deth.</i></div>
1404082519304 1395802358422 {{c1::CO Poisoning}} is cuse of decresed O2
crrying cpcity tht clssiclly presents with <b>cherry-red ppernce of the
skin</b>.
1404082618984 1395802358422 Which ionized form of Fe binds to O2?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Fe<sup>2+</sup>}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Fe<sup>2+</sup>&nb
sp;binds to O<sub>2</sub></i></div>
1404082666766 1395802358422 {{c1::Methemoglobinemi}} is cuse of decrese
d O2 crrying cpcity tht involves the oxidtion of hemoglobin Fe<sup>2+</sup>
to Fe<sup>3+</sup>, which cnnot bind to oxygen.
1404082720246 1395802358422 How does P<sub></sub>O<sub>2</sub> chnge
in methemoglobinemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Norml}}</div>
1404082735823 1395802358422 How does S<sub></sub>O<sub>2</sub> chnge
in Methemoglobinemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1404082757218 1395802358422 {{c1::Methemoglobinemi}} is cuse of decrese
d O2 crrying cpcity tht clssiclly presents with <b>cynosis</b> nd <
b>chocolte-coloured blood.</b>
1404082793048 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Methemoglobinemi?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::IV Methylene Blue; helps reduce Fe<sup>3+</sup> bc
k to Fe<sup>2+</sup>}}</div>
1404087783834 1395802358422 Wht is the morphologicl hllmrk of <b>reversi
ble</b> cell injury?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cellulr swelling}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence there is loss of microvilli nd membrne blebbing.</i></di
v><div><i>Swelling of the Rough ER results in dissocition of ribosomes nd decr
esed protein synthesis.</i></div>
1404088729571 1395802358422 Wht is the morphologicl hllmrk of <b>irrever
sible</b> cellulr injury?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Membrne dmge}}</di
v>
1404088752190 1395802358422 {{c1::Cytochrome C}} is n enzyme tht ctivtes
poptosis following cellulr injury s it leks out of the mitochondril membr
ne into the cytosol.
1404088925019 1395802358422 How do intrcellulr C levels chnge in cellul
r injury?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is du
e to number of things:</i></div><div><i>- Decresed ATP levels cusing decres
ed C pump ctivity, thereby resulting in C buildup in the cytosol</i></div><di
v><i>- Plsm membrne dmge, leding to C entering the cell</i></div><div><i>

<br /></i></div><div><i>The incresed C in the cytosol results in <b>enzyme ct
ivtion</b>. This is especilly bd news when lysosoml membrnes become dmged
nd hydrolytic enzymes enter the cytosol.</i></div>
1404089081807 1395802358422 How does cellulr pH chnge in cellulr injury?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decresed pH}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is due to the
filure of erobic glycolysis nd the resultnt switch to nerobic glycolysis
cusing buildup of lctic cid. The decresed pH dentures proteins nd precip
ittes DNA.</i></div>
1404089237272 1395802358422 How does intrcellulr N chnge in cellulr inj
ury?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This is du
e to the lck of ATP which disrupts the function of the N/K ATPse pump. As r
esult, there is incresed intrcellulr N nd lso subsequent wter buildup in
the cell.</i></div>
1404089316688 1395802358422 Wht is the morphologicl hllmrk of cell deth
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Loss of the nucleus}}</div>
1404089715416 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyknosis}} is morphologicl feture of c
ell deth tht is described s <b>nucler condenstion</b>.
1404089735117 1395802358422 {{c1::Kryorrhexis}} is morphologicl feture
of cell deth tht is described s <b>nucler frgmenttion</b>.
1404089758304 1395802358422 {{c1::Kryolysis}} is morphologicl complicti
on of cell deth tht is described s <b>nucler dissolution</b>.
1404089783457 1395802358422 Wht 2 mechnisms cn led to cell deth?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Necrosis; Apoptosis}}</div>
1404089819089 1395802358422 {{c1::Cogultive Necrosis}} is pttern of nec
rosis involving necrotic tissue tht is <b>firm</b> nd cells/orgns tht m
intin their structure due to <b>cogultion of proteins</b>.<div><br /></div><
<br /><div><i>However, s
ince it is necrosis, the <b>nuclei re gone</b>.</i></div><div><i>In cogultive
necrosis, <b>proteins denture first</b>, then there is enzymtic degrdtion.<
/i></div>
1404090096667 1395802358422 Which pttern of necrosis is seen following n i
schemic infrct t ny orgn except the brin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cogul
tive necrosis}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-81174881894733.jpg" /></div>
1404090129321 1395802358422 Wht is the only orgn tht does not yield <b>co
gultive necrosis</b> following n ischemic infrct?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Brin}}</div>
1404090183973 1395802358422 {{c1::Cogultive Necrosis}} is pttern of nec
rosis tht involves tissue tht is often <b>wedge-shped</b> nd <b>ple</b
>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-81174881894733.jpg" /></div>
<br /><d
iv><i>The wedge often <b>points towrds</b> the focus of vsculr occlusion
.</i></div>
1404090373154 1395802358422 {{c1::Liquefctive necrosis}} is pttern of ne
crosis tht involves necrotic tissue tht becomes liquefied due to <b>enzymtic
lysis of cells nd protein</b>. <br /><div><i>In liquefctive necrosis, <b>lysos
oml enzymes lek first</b>, hence there is <b>enzymtic degrdtion</b>.</i></d
iv><div><i>In cogultive necrosis, <b>proteins denture first</b> then the
re is <b>enzymtic degrdtion</b>.</i></div>
1404090446618 1395802358422 Which pttern of necrosis is chrcteristic of b
rin infrctions?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Liquefctive; proteolytic enzymes f
rom microgli liquefy the brin}}</div>
1404090490339 1395802358422 Which pttern of necrosis is chrcteristic of
n bscess?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Liquefctive; proteolytic enzymes from neu
trophils liquefy tissue}}</div>
1404090518469 1395802358422 Which pttern of necrosis is chrcteristic of p
ncretitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Liquefctive; proteolytic enzymes from t
he pncres liquefy the prenchym}}</div>
1404090550199 1395802358422 Which pttern of necrosis resembles mummified ti
ssue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gngrenous (dry gngrene)}}</div><div><br /></d
1404090598361 1395802358422 Which pttern of necrosis is chrcteristic of i

schemi t the <b>lower limb</b> nd <b>GI trct</b>?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Gngrenous}}</div>
></div>
1404090628987 1395802358422 {{c1::Wet Gngrene}} is type of gngrenous nec
rosis tht involves superimposed infection on ded tissue nd subsequent lique
fctive necrosis.
<br /><div><i>It is "wet" due to the pus nd inflmmtor
y exudte.</i></div>
1404090904122 1395802358422 {{c1::Cseous necrosis}} is pttern of necrosi
s tht involves soft, frible necrotic tissue with <b>"cottge-cheese"</b>&nbs
p;like ppernce.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-82222853914976.jpg" /></
div>
1404090969853 1395802358422 {{c1::Cseous Necrosis}} is pttern of necrosi
s tht is combintion of cogultive nd liquefctive necrosis.
1404091001679 1395802358422 Wht pttern of necrosis is chrcteristiclly s
een in Tuberculosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cseous necrosis; with grnulom
s}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Also seen in systemic mycoses nd Nocrdi</i></di
v>
1404091026562 1395802358422 Which pttern of necrosis is described s <b>nec
rotic dipose tissue</b> with <b>chlky-white ppernce</b> due to
deposition of <b>C</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ft necrosis}}</div>
1404091090945 1395802358422 Wht pttern of necrosis is chrcteristic of p
ncretitis-medited dmge of peripncretic ft?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ft
necrosis}}</div>
1404091123014 1395802358422 {{c1::Sponifiction}} is phenomenon seen in f
t necrosis tht involves the relese of ftty cids vi trum or pncretic li
pse nd subsequent joining of C with those ftty cids.
1404091197064 1395802358422 {{c1::Dystrophic Clcifiction}} is type of ti
ssue clcifiction tht involves the deposition of <b>C</b> on <b>ded, ne
crotic tissue</b>.
<br /><div><i><br /></i></div>
1404091246889 1395802358422 Wht type of tissue clcifiction is ssocited
with <b>norml</b> serum C?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dystrophic clcific
tion}}</div> <br /><div><i>Necrotic tissue cts s nidus for clcifiction
in the setting of norml serum C nd phosphte.</i></div>
1404091317431 1395802358422 Which type of tissue clcifiction is ssocited
with <b>high</b> serum C nd phosphte levels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Metsttic Clcifiction}}</div>
<br /><div><i>High serum C leds to cl
cifiction of <b>norml</b> tissue.</i></div>
1404091381186 1395802358422 {{c1::Metsttic Clcifiction}} is type of ti
ssue clcifiction tht involves the deposition of C t <b>norml</b> tiss
ue.
1404091392034 1395802358422 {{c1::Metsttic Clcifiction}} is type of ti
ssue clcifiction tht occurs t <b>norml tissue</b> in the setting of <b
>high serum C nd PO4.</b>
<br /><div><i>Hence it tends to be widespred.</
i></div><div><i>Depisition predomintes in the <b>interstitium</b> of kidne
ys, lungs nd gstric mucos s these tissues <u>lose cid quickly</u>. The <u>i
ncrese in pH fvours C deposition</u>.</i></div>
1404091424961 1395802358422 {{c1::Dystrophic Clcifiction}} is type of ti
ssue clcifiction tht occurs t <b>necrotic tissue</b> in the setting of
<b>norml C nd PO4</b>.
<br /><div><i>Hence it tends to be loclized.</i
></div>
1404091452093 1395802358422 {{c1::Fibrinoid Necrosis}} is pttern of necro
sis tht involves dmge to blood vessel wll.
1404091474565 1395802358422 Which pttern of necrosis involves dmge to blo
od vessel wlls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fibrinoid}}</div>
1404091524324 1395802358422 {{c1::Fibrinoid Necrosis}} is pttern of necro
sis tht involves the <b>lekge of proteins into the vessel wll</b> nd s
ubsequent <b>bright pink stining</b> of the vessel wll.<div><br /></div><
1404091577585 1395802358422 Which pttern of necrosis is chrcteristiclly

seen in mlignnt hypertension?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fibrinoid Necrosis}}<
1404091804767 1395802358422 Which pttern of necrosis is chrcteristiclly
seen in Vsculitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fibrinoid Necrosis}}</div>
1404091820384 1395802358422 {{c1::Apoptosis}} is mechnism of cell deth t
ht is described s <b>ATP-dependent, geneticlly progrmmed cell deth</b>&nbsp
;involving single cells or smll group of cells.
<br /><div><i>e.g. endom
etril shedding during menstrution</i></div><div><i>e.g. removl of cells in em
bryogenesis</i></div><div><i>e.g. CD8+ T cell medited killing of virlly infect
ed cells</i></div>
1404093746657 1395802358422 Which mechnism of cell deth is <b>not</b>&nbsp
;followed by cute inflmmtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Apoptosis}}</div>
1404093917524 1395802358422 Which mechnism of cell deth is lwys followed
by cute inflmmtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Necrosis}}</div>
1404093935768 1395802358422 Which mechnism of cell deth is ssocited with
<b>shrunken</b> cells with more <b>eosinophilic</b> cytoplsm?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Apoptosis}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-8427
5848282456.jpg" /></div>
<div><br /></div>
1404093999079 1395802358422 {{c1::Cspses}} re enzymes tht medite popto
sis by ctivting proteses nd endonucleses. <br /><div><i>Proteses brek do
wn the cytoskeleton.</i></div><div><i>Endonucleses brek down nucleic cid.</i>
</div>
1404094092910 1395802358422 {{c1::Bcl2}} is protein involved with poptosi
s tht functions to mintin the integrity of the mitochondril membrne, thereb
y inhibiting Cytochrome C lekge.
<br /><div><i>Following cellulr injury,
DNA dmge or decresed hormonl stimultion, Bcl2 will become inctivted nd
cytochrome C will be llowed to lek out of the mitochondri, thereby ctivting
cspses.</i></div>
1404094197573 1395802358422 {{c1::Cytochrome C}} is protein tht leks out
of the inner mitochondril mtrix when Bcl2 is inctivted.
<br /><div><i>It
then ctivtes cspses nd triggers poptosis.</i></div>
1404094226135 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the Intrinsic Mitochondril Pth
wy of poptosis functions to mintin the integrity of the mitochondril membr
ne?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bcl2}}</div>
1404094269494 1395802358422 Which lignd is involved in the Extrinsic Recept
or-Lignd pthwy in poptosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::FAS Lignd or TNF}}</
div>
<br /><div><i><div></div></i><i>FASL --> FASDR (CD95) --> Apoptosi
s</i></div><div><i>TNF --> TNFR --> Apoptosis</i></div>
1404094336018 1395802358422 Which receptor on trget cells is involved in th
e Extrinsic receptor-lignd poptosis pthwy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::FAS De
<br /><div><i>FASL --> FASDR
th Receptor (CD95) or TNF receptor}}</div>
(CD95) --> Apoptosis</i></div><div><i>TNF --> TNFR --> Apoptosis</i></d
iv>
1404094400602 1395802358422 Which enzyme secreted by CD8+ T cells functions
to crete pores in the membrne of trget cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Perf
orin}}</div>
1404094425755 1395802358422 Which enzyme secreted by CD8+ T cells functions
to enter the pores mde by Perforin nd ctivte Cspses?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Grnzyme}}</div>
1404094524835 1395802358422 Which metbolic process is the source of <b>phys
iologicl</b> genertion of free rdicls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oxid
tive phosphoryltion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Prtil reduction of O2 by Cytochr
ome C oxidse cn yield Superoxide, H2O2 nd Hydroxyl (-OH) rdicls.</i></div><
div><i>Full reduction of O2 yields H2O (O2 --> O2<sup>-</sup> --> H2O
2 --> OH<sup>-</sup> --> H<sub>2</sub>O).</i></div>
1404095172577 1395802358422 Wht type of free rdicls re formed vi Ionizi
ng Rdition?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hydroxyl (OH) free rdicls vi hydroly
sis of wter}}</div>
1404095319242 1395802358422 Wht is the most dngerous/rective free rdicl

?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hydroxyl}}</div>
1404095332724 1395802358422 Wht type of free rdicl is mde through inflm
mtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Superoxide Ions vi NADPH Oxidse ction}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><i>Mde during oxygen-dependent killing by neutrophils.</i></
div>
1404095371156 1395802358422 Wht type of free rdicls re mde vi the Fent
on Rection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hydroxyl rdicls (vi Fe<sup>2+</sup>)}
}</div>
1404095413341 1395802358422 {{c1::NAPQI}} is free rdicl formed by the he
ptic P450 system in the metboliztion of Acetminophen.
1404095480069 1395802358422 {{c1::Superoxide Dismutse}} is mitochondril
enzyme tht functions to convert <b>superoxide rdicls</b> into <b>H2O2</b
>.
1404095523128 1395802358422 {{c1::Glutthione Peroxidse}} is mitochondri
l enzyme tht functions to convert 2GSH + Hydroxyl rdicls (OH) into GS-SG nd
H2O.
1404095560110 1395802358422 {{c1::Ctlse}} is peroxisoml enzyme tht fu
nctions to brekdown H2O2 into O2 nd H2O.
1404095579405 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to eliminte Superoxide R
dicls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Superoxide dismutse}}</div>
1404095598625 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to eliminte H2O2?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Ctlse}}</div>
1404095613630 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to primrily eliminte Hy
droxyl rdicls (OH)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glutthione Peroxidse (uses 2G
SH in the process)}}</div>
1404100030053 1395802358422 {{c1::Crbon Tetrchloride (CCl<sub>4</sub>)}} i
s n orgnic solvent used in the dry clening industry tht is converted to CCl<
sub>3</sub> free rdicls by heptic P450 enzymes nd cuses subsequent cel
l injury.
1404100209113 1395802358422 {{c1::Crbon Tetrchloride (CCl<sub>4</sub>)}} i
s n orgnic solvent tht cuses cell injury with swelling of the RER nd conseq
uent impirments in protein synthesis due to ribosome detchment.
1404100270329 1395802358422 {{c1::Reperfusion injury}} is type of free rd
icl injury tht involves the <b>return of oxygented blood to ischemic tissue <
/b>nd subsequent production of <b>O2-derived free rdicls</b> tht furthe
r dmge tissue.
1404100493941 1395802358422 Wht type of stin is used to visulize Amyloid?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Congo Red}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-96142
842921292.jpg" /></div>
1404100610333 1395802358422 Wht colour is yielded by Amyloid when viewed mi
croscopiclly under polrized light?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Apple-green bire
fringence}}</div>
1404100649054 1395802358422 {{c1::Systemic Amyloidosis}} is type of myloi
dosis tht involves myloid deposition in multiple orgns.
1404100702826 1395802358422 {{c1::Primry Amyloidosis}} is type of Systemi
c Amyloidosis tht involves systemic deposition of <b>AL myloid</b> which
is derived from immunoglobulin light chins.
<br /><div><i>Associted with pl
sm cell dyscrsis (e.g. multiple myelom).</i></div>
1404100759452 1395802358422 {{c1::AL Amyloid}} is type of myloid tht is
involved in Primry Amyloidosis nd is derived from immunoglobulin light chins.
1404100792125 1395802358422 Which type of systemic myloidosis is ssocited
with Plsm Cell Dyscrsis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Primry Amyloidosis (wi
th AL Amyloid)}}</div>
1404100842538 1395802358422 {{c1::Fmilil Mediterrnen Fever (FMF)}} is n
utosoml recessive immunologicl disorder tht involves dysfunctionl neutroph
ils nd occurs in people of <b>Mediterrnen origin</b>.
<br /><div><i>Pr
esents with episodic fever nd cute serosl inflmmtion with high SAA (myloid
) ttcks.</i></div>
1404100937942 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fmilil Medi
terrnen Fever (FMF)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>

1404101085522 1395802358422 Which orgn is most commonly involved in Systemi
c Amyloidosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Kidney}}</div>
1404101126328 1395802358422 {{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}} is clssicl renl
compliction of Systemic Amyloidosis tht presents with proteinuri of > 3.5
g/dy.
1404101178437 1395802358422 {{c1::Restrictive Crdiomyopthy}} nd {{c2
::rrhythmi}} re clssicl crdiovsculr complictions of systemic myloidosi
s.
1404101212658 1395802358422 {{c1::Tongue enlrgement}} nd {{c2::mlbs
orption}} re 2 clssicl GI complictions of systemic myloidosis.
1404101240708 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for myloid dmged orgns
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trnsplnttion; Amyloid cnnot be removed}}</div>
1404101290835 1395802358422 {{c1::Loclized Amyloidosis}} is type of Amylo
idosis tht is loclized to single orgn.
1404101309796 1395802358422 {{c1::Senile Crdic Amyloidosis}} is type of
Loclized Amyloidosis tht involves <b><u>non-mutted</u></b> <b>serum trn
sthyretin</b> deposition t the hert.
<br /><div><i>Typiclly symptom
tic. Presents in 25% of individuls > 80 y/o.</i></div>
1404101364437 1395802358422 Wht is the 2nd most common plsm protein?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Serum Trnsthyretin}}</div>
1404101380841 1395802358422 Which protein deposits t the hert in Senile C
rdic Amyloidosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Non-mutted serum Trnsthyretin}}<
/div>
1404101560916 1395802358422 {{c1::Fmilil Amyloid Crdiomyopthy}} is typ
e of loclized myloidosis tht involves <u style="font-weight: bold; ">mutted<
/u> <b>serum trnsthyretin</b> deposits t the hert, leding to restr
ictive crdiomyopthy. <br /><div><i>5% of Africn Americns crry the mutted
gene.</i></div>
1404101604504 1395802358422 {{c1::Restrictive Crdiomyopthy}} is type of
crdiomyopthy seen in Fmilil Amyloid Crdiomyopthy due to <u style="fon
t-weight: bold; ">mutted</u> <b>serum trnsthyretin</b> deposition t
the hert.
1404101656959 1395802358422 {{c1::Non-insulin-dependent T2DM}} is n endocri
ne disorder tht involves <b>Amylin</b> deposition in the islets of the pn
cres.
1404101698442 1395802358422 {{c1::Amylin}} is n myloid protein derived fro
m Insulin tht deposits in the islets of the pncres in Non-insulin-dependent T
2DM.
1404101733178 1395802358422 {{c1::Alzheimer Disese}} is neurologicl diso
rder tht involves <b>A-amyloid </>deposition in the rain forming amyloid plaqu
es.
1404101818058 1395802358422 {{c1::A-amyloid}} is a type of amyloid protein th
at is involved in Alzheimer Disease and is derived from -amyloid precursor protei
n.
1404101856451 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the gene for the -amyloid
Precursor Protein found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::21}}</div> <r /><div><i>He
nce Down Syndrome patients develop Alzheimer y 40 y/o (early onset).</i></div>
1404101921005 1395802358422 {{c1::Dialysis-associated Amyloidosis}} is a typ
e of localized amyloidosis that involves <su>2</su>-microgloulin deposition at
the joints as it is not filtered well in the lood during dialysis.
<r /><d
iv><i>Rememer,&nsp;<su>2</su>-microgloulin is a transmemrane protein that p
rovides structural support for MHCI molecules.</i></div>
1404102034484 1395802358422 {{c1::Medullary Carcinoma of the Thyroid}} is a
thyroid cancer that presents with <>calcitonin</>&nsp;amyloid deposition with
in the tumour. <r /><div><i>It is a tumour of Parafollicular C-cells that make
Calcitonin amyloid.</i></div>
1404147037373 1395802358422 {{c1::Apaf-1}} is an enzyme that normally induce
s the activation of caspases and is inhiited y <>Bcl2</>.<div><r /></div><d
1404148655566 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with Caspase activation is

inhiited y Bcl2?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Apaf-1}}</div> <r /><div><i>Ov
erexpression of Bcl2 = over-inhiition of Apaf-1 = decreased caspase activation
and tumorigenesis.</i></div>
1404148722529 1395802358422 {{c1::FADD}} is a death domain-containing adapte
r protein that is formed following multiple FAS molecules coalescing after FASL
<div><r /></div><i>FADD then ac
inding in the extrinsic apoptotic pathway.
tivates inactive caspases.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-635655160440.jpg" /></d
iv>
1404148868389 1395802358422 Which apoptotic pathway is involves in Thymic me
dullary negative selection of T cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::FAS/FASL extri
nsic pathway}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Defective FAS-FASL interaction is th
e asis for many autoimmune disorders.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-63565516044
0.jpg" /></div>
1404150504192 1395802358422 Which area of the heart is most susceptile to i
schemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suendocardium (of the LV)}}</div>
1404150785672 1395802358422 Which area of the kidney is most susceptile to
ischemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Straight segment of the PT; Thick Ascending
Lim}}</div>
1404150817995 1395802358422 Which area of the liver is most susceptile to i
schemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zone III (the area around the central vein)}
}</div>
1404150839569 1395802358422 Which area of the colon is most susceptile to i
schemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Splenic flexure; Rectum}}</div>
1404150865122 1395802358422 {{c1::Red infarct}} is a type of infarct that oc
curs in <>loose tissues</> with <>multiple lood supplies</>.<div><r /></di
<r /><div><i>e.g. lungs
, liver, intestines</i></div>
1404151146183 1395802358422 {{c1::Pale infarct}} is a type of infarct that o
ccurs in <>solid tissue</>&nsp;with a <>single lood supply</>.<div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-2954937500069.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>e.g. heart
, kidney, spleen</i></div>
1404151197347 1395802358422 {{c1::Chromatolysis}} is a cellular process that
involves <>rounded cellular swelling</>&nsp;of axons following axonal injury
.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3466038608150.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>It is also characterized y <u>displacement of the nucleus to periphery</u
>&nsp;and <u>dispersion of Nissl sustance throughout the cytoplasm</u>.</i></d
iv>
1404151558422 1395802358422 What type of amyloid proteins are involved in Pr
imary Amyloidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AL amyloid from Ig Light chains}}<
/div>
1404151695646 1395802358422 What type of amyloid protein is seen in Secondar
y Amyloidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Serum Amyloid A (AA)}}</div>
1404151807394 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipofuscin}} is a <>yellow-rown "wear an
d tear" pigment</>&nsp;that is associated with normal aging.<div><r /></div><
1404151867699 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipofuscin}} is a yellow-rown, normally o
ccurring pigment that is formed y oxidation and polymerization of autophagocyto
sed organellar memranes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4398046511523.jpg
" /></div>
1379276258465 1358629116480 {{c1::Tachyphylaxis}} is used to descrie an acu
te, rapid development of drug tolerance.
1379626915852 1358629116480 Acetylcholine is a direct muscarinic agonist tha
t acts on {{c1::M1, M2, M3}} receptors.
1379627712763 1358629116480 Acetylcholine can e used to treat&nsp;{{c1::op
en angle glaucoma}}.
1379627737361 1358629116480 Carachol is a direct muscarinic agonist that ha
s a receptor affinity of&nsp;{{c1::M3 = N > M2 > M1}}.
1379627784547 1358629116480 Carachol can e used to treat&nsp;{{c1::open a
ngle glaucoma}}.
<r /><div><i><>Car</><u>achol</u> is a <>car</>on
copy of <u>A</u>cetyl<u>chol</u>ine</i></div>
1379627838402 1358629116480 Bethanechol is a direct muscarinic agonist that
has a receptor affinity of&nsp;{{c1::M3 > M2 > M1}}.
1379627939721 1358629116480 Pilocarpine is a direct muscarinic agonist with
a receptor affinity of&nsp;{{c1::M3=M2=M1}}
1379628088968 1358629116480 Muscarine is a direct muscarinic agonist with a
receptor affinity of&nsp;{{c1::M3=M2=M1}}. It is ingested and commonly found in
mushrooms.
1379628209827 1358629116480 Nicotine activates&nsp;{{c1::nicotinic}} recept
ors.
1379628251268 1358629116480 Large doses of nicotine result in&nsp;{{c1::dep
olarization lockade}}.
1379628272106 1358629116480 Edrophonium is a reversile&nsp;{{c2::cholinest
erase}} inhiitor.
1379628387147 1358629116480 Physostigmine is a reversile&nsp;{{c1::choline
sterase}} inhiitor.
1379628420301 1358629116480 Physostigmine is used to treat&nsp;{{c1::open a
ngle glaucoma}}.
1379628464437 1358629116480 Neostigmine is reversile&nsp;{{c1::cholinester
ase}} inhiitor.
1379628795465 1358629116480 Donepezil is a reversile&nsp;{{c1::cholinester
ase}} inhiitor.
1379628958760 1358629116480 Pralodoxime is a&nsp;{{c1::cholinesterase}} rea
ctivator.
1379638553851 1358629116480 Atropine is a competitive&nsp;{{c1::muscarinic}
} locker.&nsp;
<r /><div><i>It locks all muscarinics.</i></div>
1379638661510 1358629116480 Scopolamine is a&nsp;{{c1::muscarinic}} locker
.
1379638707860 1358629116480 Homatropine is a&nsp;{{c1::muscarinic}} locker
.
1379638720612 1358629116480 Homatropine is commonly used in opthalmology whe
re is causes&nsp;{{c1::mydriasis}} and&nsp;{{c2::cycloplegia}}.
1379638741165 1358629116480 Darifenacin is a selective&nsp;{{c1::M3}} lock
er.
1379638802033 1358629116480 Benzotropine is a&nsp;{{c1::muscarinic}} locke
r.
1386368164970 1358629116480 Drug induced SLE is commonly seen in patients wh
o are slow acetylators and have taken either&nsp;{{c1::Procainamide}},&nsp;{{c
2::Isoniazid}}, or&nsp;{{c3::Hydralazine}}.
1391304812668 1358629116480 {{c1::GLUT4}} is an insulin-dependant Glc transp
orter that is upregulated y Insulin.
1401045083085 1395802358422 What kind of charge is on DNA?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1401045181611 1395802358422 What kind of charge is on histone proteins?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive}}</div>
1401045228456 1395802358422 How many times does DNA loop around a histone oc
tamer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Twice}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-12283
60646880.jpg" /></div>
1401045281528 1395802358422 Which 2 asic amino acids are Histones particula
rly rich in?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lysine; Arginine}}</div>
1401045317058 1395802358422 Which Histone protein functions to ind to <>o
th</>&nsp;the nucleosome <>and</>&nsp;the linker DNA, therey stailizing t
he chromatin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::H1}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="pas
te-1224065679584.jpg" /></div>
1401045403083 1395802358422 Which Histone proteins are part of the nucleosom
e core?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::H2A; H2B; H3; H4}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Al
l appear twice in the octamer.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-1224065679584.jp
g" /></i></div>
1401045449762 1395802358422 {{c1::H1}} is a Histone protein that inds to <
>oth</>&nsp;the nucleosome and <>linker DNA</>, therey stailizing the chr
omatin. <r /><div><img src="paste-1224065679584.jpg" /></div>

1401045489137 1395802358422 Which phase of the cell cycle involves DNA and H
istone Synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S Phase}}</div>
1401045530731 1395802358422 Which Histone protein is the only Histone not pa
rt of the nucleosome core?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::H1}}</div>
<r /><d
1401045553840 1395802358422 Which structural form of chromatin is condensed?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Heterochromatin}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>H</>et
ero<>C</>hromatin =&nsp;<>H</>ighly&nsp;<>C</>ondensed</i></div>
1401045951004 1395802358422 Which structural form of chromatin is transcript
ionally inactive?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Heterochromatin}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i><>H</>etero<>C</>hromatin =&nsp;<>H</>ighly&nsp;<>C</>ondensed</
i></div>
1401045965945 1395802358422 Which structural form of chromatin is sterically
inaccessile?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Heterochromatin}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i><>H</>etero<>C</>hromatin = <>H</>ighly <>C</>ondensed</i></div>
1401045976881 1395802358422 Which structural form of chromatin is less conde
nsed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Euchromatin}}</div>
1401045988784 1395802358422 Which structural form of chromatin is transcript
ionally active?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Euchromatin}}</div>
1401046000686 1395802358422 Which structural form of chromatin is sterically
accessile?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Euchromatin}}</div>
1401046050153 1395802358422 Which DNA nucleotides are methylated on the temp
late strand during DNA replication?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cytosine; Adenine
}}</div>
1401046380947 1395802358422 How does DNA Methylation at CpG islands influenc
e gene transcription?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Repression}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Methylation mutes DNA.</i></div>
1401046422972 1395802358422 How does Histone methylation influence DNA trans
cription?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Repression; typically reversile; Histone M
ethylation Mostly Make DNA Mute}}</div>
1401046460897 1395802358422 How does Histone acetylation influence DNA trans
cription?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Activation, y relaxing DNA coiling}}</div>
1401046493162 1395802358422 Which 2 nucleotides are the purines?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Adenine; Guanine}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Pure <>A</>s <>
G</>old.</i></div>
1401046652042 1395802358422 How many rings are found in purines?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::2}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-3225520439573.jpg" />
</div>
1401046673877 1395802358422 Which 3 nucleotides are pyrimidines?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Cytosine; Thymine; Uracil}}</div>
<r /><div><i>CUT the P
.</i></div>
1401046705289 1395802358422 How many rings are found in Pyrimidine nucleotid
es?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-32813
55014408.jpg" /></div>
1401046727283 1395802358422 Which nucleotide has a methyl group?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Thymine}}</div> <r /><div><i><>TH</>mine has a me<>TH</>l
group.</i></div>
1401046747655 1395802358422 Which nucleotide is made following the deaminati
on of cytosine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uracil}}</div>
1401046761783 1395802358422 Which pyrimidine is found <>solely</>&nsp;in
RNA?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uracil}}</div>
1401046776364 1395802358422 Which pyrimidine is found <>solel</>y in DNA?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thymine}}</div>
1401046793678 1395802358422 Which nucleotide ase pairing has the strongest
onding?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Guanine-Cytosine due to 3 Hydrogen onds (vs
2 in A-T)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Increased GC ase pair content increases m
elting point of DNA.</i></div>
1401046860471 1395802358422 Which amino acids are necessary for purine synth
esis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glycine; Glutamine; Aspartate}}</div> <r /><d

1401046896568 1395802358422 {{c1::Glycine}},&nsp;{{c2::Aspartate}}, and&ns
p;{{c3::Glutamine}} are 3 amino acids that are necessary for purine synthesis.
<r /><div><img src="paste-3496103379215.jpg" /></div>
1401047823168 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the pyrimidine synthesis pathway
converts rionucleotides to deoxyrionucleotides?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ri
onucleotide Reductase}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-4209067950804.jpg" />
</div>
1401048105101 1395802358422 {{c1::Caramoyl Phosphate}} is a metaolite of t
he urea cycle that is involved in de novo pyrimidine synthesis as it ecomes Oro
tic Acid, a temporary ase in the pathway.
1401048196398 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in nucleotide synthesis co
nverts Riose-5-P into PRPP?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PRPP Synthetase}}</div>
1401048299145 1395802358422 {{c1::Leflunomide}} is a DMARD drug that inhiit
s Dihydroorotate Dehydrogenase, an enzyme involved in pyrimidine synthesis.
1401048414413 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in pyrimidine synthesis do
es Leflunomide inhiit?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dihydroorotate Dehydrogenase}
}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
1401048435694 1395802358422 {{c1::Dihydroorotate Dehydrogenase}} is an enzym
e involved in pyrimidine synthesis that converts Caramoyl Phosphate into Orotic
Acid. <r /><div><img src="paste-4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
1401048481761 1395802358422 {{c1::Mycophenolate}} is an immunosuppressant th
at inhiits IMP Dehydrogenase, an enzyme involved in de novo purine synthesis.
1401048716410 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo purine synthesi
s is inhiited y the immunosuppressant Mycophenolate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::IMP Dehydrogenase}}</div>
</div>
1401048765682 1395802358422 {{c1::Riavirin}} is an anti-viral drug that inh
iits IMP dehydrogenase, an enzyme involved in de novo purine synthesis.
s is inhiited y the antiviral agent Riavirin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IMP
Dehydrogenase}}</div>
1401048814859 1395802358422 {{c1::Hydroxyurea}} is an antineoplastic drug th
at inhiits Rionucleotide Reductase, an enzyme involved in de novo pyrimidine s
ynthesis.
1401048889992 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in de novo pyrimidine synt
hesis is inhiited y the antineoplastic drug Hydroxyurea?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Rionucleotide Reductase}}</div>
1401048916613 1395802358422 What is the prodrug of 6-Mercaptopurine (6-MP)?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Azathioprine}}</div>
1401048938290 1395802358422 {{c1::6-Mercaptopurine (6MP)}} is an antineoplas
tic drug that inhiits PRPP Amidotransferase, an enzyme involved in de novo puri
ne synthesis. <r /><div><img src="paste-4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
s is inhiited y the antineoplastic 6-Mercaptopurine (6MP)?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::PRPP Amidotransferase}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-4204772983508
.jpg" /></div>
1401049040820 1395802358422 {{c1::5-Fluorouracil (5-FU)}} is an antineoplast
ic drug that inhiits Thymidylate Synthase, an enzyme involved in de novo pyrimi
dine synthesis. <r /><div><i>Therey causes a decrease in [dTMP]</i></div><div>
<i><img src="paste-4204772983508.jpg" /></i></div>
hesis (specifically dTMP) is inhiited y 5-Fluorouracil?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Thymidylate Synthase}}</div>
.jpg" /></div>
1401049130565 1395802358422 {{c1::Methrotrexate (MTX)}} is an antineoplastic
drug that inhiits Dihydrofolate Reductase in humans, therey decreasing dTMP l

evels. <r><div><img src="paste-4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
hesis is inhiited y the antineoplastic Methotrexate (MTX)?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Dihydrofolate Reductase}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-4204772983508
.jpg" /></div>
1401049263528 1395802358422 {{c1::Trimethoprim (TMP)}} is an antiiotic that
inhiits Dihydrofolate Reductase in acteria, therey inhiiting de novo pyrimi
dine synthesis. <r /><div><img src="paste-4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
1401049369767 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with de novo pyrimidine sy
nthesis is inhiited y the antiiotic Trimethoprim (TMP)?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Dihydrofolate Reductase (in acteria)}}</div>
te-4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
1401049407653 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyrimethamine}} is an antiprotozoal agent
that inhiits Dihydrofolate Reductase, therey stopping de novo pyrimidine synth
esis. <r /><div><img src="paste-4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
1401049438045 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with de novo pyrimidine sy
nthesis is inhiited y the antiprotozoal agent Pyrimethamine?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Dihydrofolate Reductase (in protozoa)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-4204772983508.jpg" /></div>
1401049511727 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in the purine salvage path
way converts Hypoxanthine to Xanthine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Xanthine Oxida
se}}</div>
1401052134086 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the purine salvage pathway conve
rts Xanthine into Uric Acid?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Xanthine Oxidase}}</div>
1401052151759 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in the purine salvage path
way converts Adenosine into Inosine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adenosine Deamin
ase (ADA)}}</div>
1401052190591 1395802358422 {{c1::Adenosine Deaminase (ADA) Deficiency}} is
a disorder of the purine salvage pathway that results in excess ATP and dATP, th
erey causing negative feedack of Rionucleotide Reductase.
<div><r /></div
><i>Therey causing a decrease in DNA synthesis and decreased lymphocyte count.<
/i><r /><div><img src="paste-8229157339606.jpg" /></div>
1401053133192 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with pyrimidine synthesis
is inhiited y negative feedack in Adenosine Deaminase Deficiency?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Rionucleotide Reductase, due to the excess ATP and dATP}}</div>
1401053191518 1395802358422 {{c1::Adenosine Deaminase (ADA) Deficiency}} is
a disorder of the purine salvage pathway that results in Severe Comined Immunod
eficiency (SCID).
<r /><div><i>The increase in ATP and dATP causes inhii
tion of Rionucleotide Reductase, therey resulting in dereased DNA synthesis an
d low Lymphocyte count.</i></div>
1401053445823 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Adenosine Dea
minase (ADA) Deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive}}</div>
1401053484874 1395802358422 {{c1::Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome}} is a disorder of th
e purine salvage pathway that involves a deficiency of HGPRT, an enzyme that con
verts Hypoxanthine to IMP and Guanine to GMP. <div><r /></div><i>Therey resu
lts in increased Uric Acid production</i><r /><div><img src="paste-822915733960
6.jpg" /></div>
1401053576661 1395802358422 What enzyme is defective or asent in Lesch-Nyha
n Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HGPRT}}</div>
1401053589883 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Lesch-Nyhan S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked recessive}}</div>
e purine salvage pathway that involves <>self-mutilation</>&nsp;and <>aggres
sion</>&nsp;due to <u>extremely painful gout</u>.
te-10647223926981.jpg" /></div>
e purine salvage pathway that involves <>intellectual disaility</>&nsp;and <

>dystonia.</> <r /><div><img src="paste-10651518894277.jpg" /></div>
1401053667814 1395802358422 What is the 1st line treatment of Lesch-Nyhan Sy
ndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Allopurinol; via inhiition of Xanthine Oxida
se}}</div>
1401053680402 1395802358422 What is the 2nd line treatment of Lesch-Nyhan Sy
ndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Feuxostat; via inhiition of Xanthine Oxidas
e}}</div>
1401053976840 1395802358422 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::unamiguous}} genetic code is on
e where each codon specifies for only 1 amino acid.
1401054001534 1395802358422 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::degenerate/redundant}} genetic c
ode is one where most amino acids are coded y multiple codons. <r><div><i>The
exception is Methionine (AUG) and Tryptophan (UGG)</i></div>
1401054019598 1395802358422 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::commaless, nonoverlapping}} gene
tic code is one that is read from a fixed starting point as a continuous sequenc
e of ases.
<r /><div><i>Exception is some viruses.</i></div>
1401054052735 1395802358422 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::universal}} genetic code is one
that is conserved throughout evolution. <r /><div><i>The exception is mitochron
dia in humans.</i></div>
1401054609880 1395802358422 The {{c1::Origin of Replication}} is a particula
r sequence of ase pairs in the genome where DNA replication egins.
<r /><d
1401054653471 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with DNA replication <>un
winds the DNA template at the replication fork</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::H
elicase}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-13211319402916.jpg" /></div>
1401054682823 1395802358422 {{c1::Single-stranded inding proteins}} are nuc
lear proteins involved with DNA replication that <>prevent the unwound strand f
rom reannealing</>.
1401054714944 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with DNA replication <>cr
eates a single- or doule-stranded reak in the DNA doule helix to add or remov
e supercoils</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DNA Topoisomerase}}</div> <r /><d
1401054753071 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with DNA replication is in
hiited y Fluoroquinolone antiiotics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DNA Gyrase (p
rokaryotic DNA Topoisomerase II)}}</div>
1401054812624 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with DNA replication <>ma
kes RNA primers on which DNA Polymerase III can initiate replication</>?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Primase}}</div>
6.jpg" /></div>
1401054871970 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with DNA replication <>el
ongates the leading strand y adding deoxynucleotides to the 3' end</>?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::DNA Polymerase III}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-13211
319402916.jpg" /></div>
1401054917662 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with DNA replication <>el
ongates the lagging strand until it reaches the primer of the preceding fragment
</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DNA Polymerase III}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-13211319402916.jpg" /></div>
1401054957246 1395802358422 In which direction does DNA Polymerase III have
exonuclease activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3' to 5'}}</div>
1401055048784 1395802358422 In which direction does DNA Polymerase III synth
esize DNA?<div><r />{{c1::5' to 3'}}</div>
319402916.jpg" /></div>
1401055087535 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with DNA replication <>de
grades RNA primers and replaces it with DNA</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DNA
Polymerase I}}</div>
1401055111746 1395802358422 In which direction does DNA Polymerase I have ex
onuclease activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5' to 3'; it removes RNA primers
in this direction}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Compare that to DNA Polymerase III
which has 3' to 5' exonuclease activity.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-13211
319402916.jpg" /></i></div>
1401055165699 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with DNA replication <>ca

talyzes the formation of a phosphodiester ond within a strand of dsDNA?</><div
><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::DNA Ligase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. it jo
ins Okazaki fragments</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-13211319402916.jpg" /></i
></div>
1401055210164 1395802358422 {{c1::Telomerase}} is an enzyme involved with DN
A replication that adds DNA to the 3' end of chromosomes in order to avoid loss
of genetic material with every duplication.
<r /><div><i>It is an RNA-Depen
dent DNA polymerase</i></div>
1401055253205 1395802358422 What <>type</>&nsp;of mutation is the most se
vere?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Frameshift}}</div>
1401055358115 1395802358422 What <>type</>&nsp;of mutation is the least s
evere?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Silent}}</div>
1401055365826 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::transition mutation}} is a type of
mutation that involves the switch of a purine to purine or pyrimidine to pyrimid
ine.
1401055395094 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::transversion mutation}} is a type o
f mutation that involves the switch of a purine to a pyrimidine or vice versa.
1401055415930 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::silent mutation}} is a type of muta
tion that involves a nucleotide sustitution for the <>same (synonymous) amino
acid</>.
1401055576548 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::missense mutation}} is a type of mu
tation that involves a nucleotide sustitution that results in changed amino aci
ds.
1401055616267 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::nonsense mutation}} is a type of mu
tation that involves a nucleotide sustitution that yields a stop codon.
<r /><div><i>Stop the nonsense.</i></div>
1401055649205 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::frameshift mutation}} is a type of
mutation that involves the deletion or insertion of a numer of nucleotides not
divisile y 3, therey causing misreading of all nucleotides downstream.
<r /><div><i>The most severe type of mutation as it typically results in trunca
ted, nonfunctional proteins</i>.</div>
1401055701851 1395802358422 Which form of DNA repair involves specific endon
ucleases that release the oligonucleotide that contains damaged ases?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Nucleotide Excision Repair}}</div>
<r /><div><i>DNA Polyme
rase and Ligase then fill and seal the gap respectively.</i></div>
1401056135364 1395802358422 Which type of DNA repair is defective in Xeroder
ma Pigmentosum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleotide Excision Repair}}</div>
1401056156818 1395802358422 {{c1::Xeroderma Pigmentosum}} is a cutaneous dis
order that involves defective Nucleotide Excision Repair, therey resulting in t
he formation of pyrimidine dimers from UV light exposure.
1401056197661 1395802358422 Which type of DNA repair functions to repair ul
ky helix-distorting lesions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleotide excision repa
ir}}</div>
1401056228512 1395802358422 Which type of DNA repair involves ase-specific
glycosylases that recognize altered ases and form an Apurinic/Apyrimidinic (AP)
site?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Base Excision Repair}}</div> <r /><div><i>1.
AP Endonuclease cleaves the ase at the 5' end.</i></div><div><i>2. Lyase cleav
es the ase at the 3' end.</i></div><div><i>3. DNA Polymerase-eta fills the gap
with a new/correct nucleotide.</i></div><div><i>4. DNA ligase seals the reak.<
/i></div><div><i><r /></i></div>
1401056413958 1395802358422 Which type of DNA repair functions to repair spo
ntaneous/toxic deamination?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Base excision repair}}</d
iv>
1401056969430 1395802358422 Which type of DNA repair involves the removal of
mismatched nucleotides from newly synthesized DNA strands?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::DNA Mismatch Repair}}</div>
1401057000399 1395802358422 What type of DNA repair is defective in Heredita
ry Nonpolyposis Colorectal Cancer (HNPCC)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mismatch r
epair}}</div>
1401057025382 1395802358422 What type of DNA repair involves the ringing to

gether of 2 ends of DNA fragments to repair doule-stranded raks?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Nonhomologous End Joining Repair}}</div> <r /><div><i>There is <
>no requirement for homology</>.</i></div>
1401057085801 1395802358422 What type of DNA repair is mutated in Ataxia Tel
angiectasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nonhomologous End Joining Repair}}</div>
1401057116627 1395802358422 In which direction is DNA and RNA synthesized?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::5' to 3'}}</div>
1401057295662 1395802358422 In which direction is mRNA read?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::5' to 3'}}</div>
1401057313674 1395802358422 Which functional group on the 3' position of nuc
leotides attacks the triphosphate ond of the preceding nucleotide?<div><r></di
v><div>{{c1::Hydroxyl group (-OH)}}</div>
<r><div><i>Drugs that lock DNA
replication typically have modified 3' OH groups, therey preventing the additi
on of the nucleotide and causing chain termination.</i></div>
1401057401388 1395802358422 What is the mRNA start codon?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::AUG}}</div>
1401057424630 1395802358422 What does the start codon AUG code for in eukary
otes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Methionine}}</div>
1401057435648 1395802358422 What does the start codon AUG code for in prokar
yotes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Formylmethionine (F-met)}}</div>
1401057452016 1395802358422 What are the mRNA stop codons?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::UGA; UAA; UAG}}</div>
1401057463828 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::promoter}} is a DNA site where RN
A polymerase and other transcription factors can ind to DNA. <r /><div><img
src="paste-17016660426963.jpg" /></div>
1401057831233 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::promoter}} is a DNA site upstream
from a gene locus that is rich in A-T ase pairing and has oth TATA and CAAT
oxes. <r /><div><img src="paste-17012365459667.jpg" /></div>
1401057868607 1395802358422 How does a mutation in the promoter sequence typ
ically influence gene transcription?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dramatic decreas
e}}</div>
1401057895751 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::enhancer}} is a stretch of DNA th
at alters gene expression y inding to transcription factors. <div><r /></div
><i>Can e close to, far from or within the gene it regulates.</i><r /><div><im
1401057921423 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::silencer}} is a DNA site where ne
gative regulators (gene repressors) ind.
<div><r /></div><i>Can e close
to, far from or within the gene it regulates.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-170
12365459667.jpg" /></div>
1401058515444 1395802358422 What type of eukaryotic RNA Polymerase makes rRN
A?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RNA Polymerase I}}</div> <r /><div><i>Polymerase
I, II and III are numered as their products are used in protein synthesis.</i>
</div>
1401058563843 1395802358422 What type of eukaryotic RNA Polymerase makes mRN
A?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RNA Polymerase II}}</div> <r /><div><i>Polymerase
I, II and III are numered as their products are used in protein synthesis.</i>
</div>
1401058578970 1395802358422 What type of eukaryotic RNA Polymerase makes tRN
A?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RNA Polymerase III}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Po
lymerase I, II and III are numered as their products are used in protein synthe
sis.</i></div>
1401058602230 1395802358422 What is the most numerous type of RNA?<div><r /
>{{c1::rRNA}}</div>
1401058628961 1395802358422 What is the largest type of RNA?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::mRNA}}</div>
1401058639640 1395802358422 What is the smallest type of RNA?<div><r></div>
<div>{{c1::tRNA}}</div> <r><i>T = tRNA = tiny</i>
1401058648334 1395802358422 Which type of RNA Polymerase functions to open D
NA at promoter sites?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RNA Polymerase II}}</div>
1401058822031 1395802358422 {{c1::alpha-amanitin}} is a toxin found in <i>Am

anita phalloides</i>&nsp;(death cap mushrooms) that inhiits RNA Polymerase II.
<r /><div><i>And also causes severe hepatotoxicity.</i></div>
1401058914807 1395802358422 What is the MOA of alpha-amanitin, the active to
xin in <i>Amanita phalloides</i>&nsp;(death cap mushrooms)?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Inhiition of RNA Polymerase II}}</div> <r /><div><i>Also causes severe
hepatotoxicity.</i></div>
1401059043818 1395802358422 Which end of the initial RNA transcript receives
a 7-methylguanosine cap?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5'}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-20040317403285.jpg" /></div>
1401059773880 1395802358422 Which end of the initial RNA transcript undergoe
s polyadenylation (~200 A's)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3'}}</div>
<r /><d
1401059810127 1395802358422 Where in the cell does translation occur?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Cytosol}}</div>
1401059878769 1395802358422 {{c1::P-odies}} are cytoplasmic protein complex
es that contain exonucleases, decapping enzymes and microRNAs and <>function as
an mRNA quality control mechanism</>.
1401059966346 1395802358422 What is the polyadenylation signal on mRNA?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::AAUAAA}}</div>
1401059984710 1395802358422 Which enzyme polyadenylates the 3' end of the in
itial RNA transcript?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Poly-A Polymerase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Does not require a template.</i></div>
1401060028718 1395802358422 {{c1::Small Nuclear Rionucleoproteins (snRNPs)}
} are nuclear proteins involved with pre-mRNA splicing that form the spliceosome
with the primary transcript. <r /><div><img src="paste-20431159427435.jpg" /
></div>
1401060146522 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Spliceosome}} is a protein comple
x that performs pre-mRNA splicing.
1.jpg" /></div>
1401060268638 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::lariat-shaped intermediate}} is an
intermediate that is generated when an intron is excised and 2 exons are joined.
1401060332543 1395802358422 Which autoimmune disorder is highly associated w
ith <>anti-spliceosomal snRNP antiodies</>&nsp;(anti-Smith antiodies)?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::SLE}}</div>
1401060483198 1395802358422 {{c1::Anti-Smith antiodies}} are an autoantiod
y against spliceosomal snRNPs that are highly specific for SLE.
1401060559443 1395802358422 Which <>type</>&nsp;of disease is highly asso
ciated with Anti-U1 RNP antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mixed connective
tissue disease}}</div>
1401060579472 1395802358422 {{c1::Anti-U1 RNP antiodies}} are autoantiodie
s against RNPs (Rionucleoproteins) that are highly associated with mixed connec
tive tissue disease.
1401060876961 1395802358422 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::intron}} is an intervening seque
nce of RNA that is excised out of the initial RNA transcript and stays in the nu
cleus. <div><r /></div><img src="paste-21891448308035.jpg" />
1401061092002 1395802358422 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::exon}} are coding sequences of R
NA that are processed after transcription and expressed via translation in the c
ytostol.
1401061130932 1395802358422 Which trinucleotide sequence is found at the 3'
end of tRNA molecules in oth prokaryotes and eukaryotes?<div><r></div><div>{{c
1::CCA}}</div> <div><r></div><div><i>"CCA; Can Carry Amino Acids" - CCA is the
amino acid acceptor site</i></div><i>There are also many chemically modified a
ses.</i><r><div><img src="paste-22089016803683.jpg" /></div>
1401061327935 1395802358422 Which trinucleotide sequence found on the T-arm
of tRNA allows for tRNA-riosome inding?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::TC (Thymine; P
seudouridine; Cytosine)}}</div> <r><div><img src="paste-22488448762213.jpg" /><
/div>
1401061403124 1395802358422 Which chemically modified nucleotide is found in
the D-arm of tRNA and allows for tRNA recognition y the correct aminoacyl-tRNA
synthetase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dihydrouracil}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-22484153794917.jpg" /></div>
1401061514225 1395802358422 Which enzyme is responsile for charging tRNA mo
lecules with amino acids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase}}
</div> <div><r /></div><i>It scrutinizes amino acids efore and after it inds
to tRNA, if the match is incorrect the ond is hydrolyzed and the AA is release
d.</i><div><i>The AA-tRNA ond contains enough energy to form a peptide ond.</i
></div><div><i>A mischarged (i.e. incorrectly matched) tRNA will still read the
same codon (via the tRNA anticodon) ut will provide the wrong AA.<r /></i><div
><img src="paste-22484153794917.jpg" /></div></div>
1401061838026 1395802358422 Which enzyme is responsile for the accuracy of
amino acid selection for protein synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aminoacyl
-tRNA Synthetase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The enzyme's selectivity/action an
d the inding of the charged tRNA moc to the appropriate codon is what provides
accuracy.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-22484153794917.jpg" /></i></div>
1401062031076 1395802358422 {{c1::tRNA wole}} is a iochemical phenomenon
that involves accurate ase pairing etween mRNA and tRNA codons despite a diffe
rence in the codon's 3rd position.
<r /><div><i>Accurate ase pairing is o
nly necessary in the first 2 nucleotide positions of an mRNA codon. The 3rd posi
tion (aka the "wole" position) can differ and the same amino acid/tRNA molecul
e will arrive. This is due to the degeneracy of the genetic code.&nsp;</i></div
>
1401062325441 1395802358422 Which eukaryotic riosomal suunit assemles wit
h the initiator tRNA molecule?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::40S}}</div> <div><r
/></div><i>60S suunit and mRNA molecule arrive after, triggering the disassem
ly of the initiation factors.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-24197845745957.jpg"
/></div>
1401062573586 1395802358422 Which nucleoside triphosphate molecule is used t
o <>activate</>&nsp;(charge) tRNA?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ATP}}</div>
<r /><div><i>ATP = <>A</>ctvation of tRNA</i></div>
1401062673264 1395802358422 Which nucleoside triphosphate is used in transla
tion for&nsp;<>initiation</>&nsp;and <>elongation</>?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::GTP}}</div>
<r /><div><i>GTP = tRNA <>G</>ripping and <>G</>oin
g places</i></div>
1401062747925 1395802358422 Which 2 riosomal suunits make up <>eukaryotic
</>riosomes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::40S + 60S = 80S}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i><>E</>ukaryotic = <>E</>ven</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-241935507
78661.jpg" /></i></div>
1401062791111 1395802358422 Which 2 riosomal suunits make up <>prokaryoti
c</>&nsp;riosomes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::30S + 50S = 70S}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Pr<>O</>karyotic = <>O</>dd</i></div>
1401062826949 1395802358422 In which riosomal inding site do aminoacyl-tRN
A molecules ind to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A site; except for the initiator
methionine-tRNA which slides into the P site}}</div> <r /><div><i><>A</>&n
sp;site = <>A</>rriving <>A</>mino-acyl tRNA</i></div><div><i><img src="pas
te-24193550778661.jpg" /></i></div>
1401062911224 1395802358422 Which enzyme catalyzes peptide ond formation du
ring translation y transferring the growing polypeptide to the amino acid prese
nt in the A site?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::rRNA (Riozyme)}}</div>
<r /><d
1401062965123 1395802358422 In which riosomal inding site does the peptidy
l-tRNA molecule shift to in translocation following peptide ond formation?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::P site}}</div> <div><r /></div><i><>P</>&nsp;site =
growing <>p</>eptide</i><r /><div><img src="paste-24193550778661.jpg" /></di
v>
1401063090835 1395802358422 From which riosomal inding site does the compl
eted polypeptide chain leave the riosome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::E site}}</
div>
<div><r /></div><i><>E</>&nsp;site = <>E</>xit</i><r /><div><img
src="paste-24193550778661.jpg" /></div>
1401063135623 1395802358422 {{c1::Trimming}} is a posttranslational modifica

tion that involves removal of the N- or C-terminal propeptide from zymogen to ge
nerate a mature protein.
<r /><div><i>e.g. Proinsulin to Insulin; Trypsi
nogen to Trypsin</i></div>
1401063212388 1395802358422 {{c1::Chaperone Proteins}} are intracellular pro
teins involved in facilitating and/or maintaining protein folding.
<r /><d
iv><i>In yeast, some are heat-shock proteins (e.g. Hsp60) that are expressed at
high temperatures to prevent protein denaturing/misfolding.</i></div>
1401125552393 1395802358422 What is the shortest phase of the cell cycle?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitosis}}</div>
9931167.jpg" /></div>
1401125621152 1395802358422 {{c1::CDKs (Cyclin-Dependent Kinases)}} are prot
ein kinases that regulate the cell cycle and are constitutively expressed in the
cell ut left inactive.
<div><r /></div>
1401125947477 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyclins}} are <>phase specific</> regula
tory proteins that control cell cycle events and activate CDKs. <r /><div><i>No
te that Cyclin-CDK complexes must e oth activated and inactivated for the cell
cycle to progress.</i></div>
1401125987156 1395802358422 Which phase specific cell cycle regulatory prote
ins activate CDKs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclins}}</div>
1401126448424 1395802358422 Which cell cycle checkpoint is locked y p53?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::G1 to S}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Hence a muta
tion can cause uncontrolled cell division.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-6614249
63871.jpg" /></div>
1401126657216 1395802358422 Which cell cycle checkpoint is locked y hypoph
osphorylated R?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G1 to S}}</div>
<div><r /></div
><i>Hence a mutation can cause uncontrolled cell division.</i><r /><div><img sr
c="paste-661424963871.jpg" /></div>
1401140293505 1395802358422 {{c1::Permanent}} cells are a <>type</>&nsp;o
f cell that <>remain in G<su>0</su>&nsp;</>and regenerate from stem cells.
<r /><div><i>e.g. neurons, skeletal and cardiac muscle.</i></div>
1401140459553 1395802358422 {{c1::Stale}} cells are a <>type</>&nsp;of c
ells that <>enter G<su>1</su>&nsp;from G<su>0</su>&nsp;when stimulated</
>.
<r /><div><i>e.g. hepatocytes, lymphocytes</i></div>
1401140497429 1395802358422 {{c1::Laile}} cells are a <>type</>&nsp;of c
ell that <>never go to G<su>0</su>&nsp;</>and <>divide rapidly with a shor
t G<su>1</su>.</>
<r /><div><i>These type of cells are the most affected
y chemotherapy</i></div><div><i>e.g. one marrow, gut epithelium, skin, hair fo
llicles and germ cells.</i></div>
1401140571086 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site of synthesi
s of secretory (exported) proteins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rough ER}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Any cells that are highly secretory are rich in RER.</i></div>
1401140650725 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site where <>Nlinked oligosaccharides</>&nsp;are added to proteins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Rough ER}}</div>
1401140679478 1395802358422 {{c1::Nissl Bodies}} are the Rough ER in neurons
that function to synthesize peptide neurotransmitters for secretion.
1401142296564 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site of steroid
synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smooth ER}}</div> <r /><div><i>Hence, ste
roid producing cells are rich in SER.</i></div>
1401142323681 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site of drug and
poison detoxification?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smooth ER}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Hence, hepatocytes are aundant in SER.</i></div>
1401142338139 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Rough ER}} is a cellular organell
e that is the site of synthesis of secretory proteins as they have surface rios
omes. <r /><div><i>In fact, it is these surface riosomes that make the RER l
ook rough.</i></div>
1401143001013 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle functions as the <>dis
triution center</>&nsp;for proteins and lipids from the ER to the vesicles an
d plasma memrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Golgi Apparatus}}</div> <r /><d

1401143055032 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle functions to <>modify
N-oligosaccharides</>&nsp;on asparagine residues?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G
olgi apparatus}}</div>
1401143100313 1395802358422 Which amino acid undergoes N-linked glycosylatio
n in the Rough ER?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Asparagine}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>i.e. an N-oligosaccharide is added to Asparagine</i></div>
1401143226244 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle is the site of O-linked
glycosylation of proteins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Golgi Apparatus}}</div>
<r /><div><i>g<>O</>lgi = <>O</>-linked glycosylation</i></div>
1401143284426 1395802358422 Which amino acids are involved in O-linked glyco
sylation in the Golgi apparatus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Serine; Threonine}}<
/div>
1401143313472 1395802358422 {{c1::Mannose-6-phosphate}} is a monosaccharide
that is added to proteins to allow for <>protein trafficking to lysosomes</>.
1401143377052 1395802358422 Which monosaccharisde is added to proteins in th
e Golgi to allow for <>trafficking to lysosomes</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Mannose-6-phosphate}}</div>
1401143424047 1395802358422 Which cellular organelle functions to add mannos
e-6-phosphate to proteins for trafficking to lysosomes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Golgi apparatus}}</div>
1401143457076 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::endosome}} is an organelle that f
unctions as sorting centers for material from outside the cell or from the Golgi
.
<r /><div><i>Therey either sending material to the lysosomes for degra
dation, the memrane for secretion or ack to the Golgi for further use.</i></di
v><div><i><img src="paste-4312147165819.jpg" /></i></div>
1401143527967 1395802358422 {{c1::I-Cell Disease (Inclusion Cell Disease)}}
is an inherited lysosomal storage disorder that involves a defect in phosphotran
sferase, therey resulting in failure of the Golgi apparatus to phosphorylate ma
nnose residues. <r /><div><i>Hence, proteins enter the default secretory pathwa
y instead of eing sent to lysosomes.</i></div><div><i>Rememer, the lysosomal t
rafficking signal is Mannose-6-Phosphate.</i></div>
1401144019445 1395802358422 Which enzyme is defective in I-Cell Disease, the
rey resulting in defective protein trafficking/secretion?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Phosphotransferase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, Mannose residues ca
nnot e phosphorylated on glycoproteins. Therey results in proteins entering th
e default secretory pathway (extracellular secretion) instead of eing sent to l
ysosomes.</i></div><div><i>Rememer, the lysosomal trafficking signal is mannose
-6-phosphate.</i></div>
1401144112641 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of I-Cell Diseas
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1401144172277 1395802358422 {{c1::I-Cell Disease}} is an autosomal recessive
lysosomal storage disorder that involves <>high plasma levels of lysosomal enz
ymes</>&nsp;due to a Phosphotransferase defect.
lysosomal storage disorder that involves <>coarse facial features</>&nsp;and
<>clouded corneas</>&nsp;due to a defect in Phosphotransferase.
1401144266688 1395802358422 {{c1::I-cell Disease}} is an autosomal recessive
lysosomal storage disorder that involves <>restricted joint movement</>&nsp;
due to a defect in Phosphotransferase.
lysosomal storage disorder that is often <>fatal in childhood</>&nsp;due to
a defect in Phosphotransferase.
1401145197644 1395802358422 {{c1::Signal Recognition Particle (SRP)}} is an
aundant, cytosolic rionucleoprotein that traffics proteins from the riosome t
o the Rough ER. <div><r /></div><i>Asent or defective SRPs result in <>accumu
lation of proteins in the cytosol</>.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-59828894439
70.jpg" /></div>
1401145469448 1395802358422 {{c1::COPI}} is a vesicular trafficking protein
that carries material through the Golgi in a <>retrograde</>&nsp;direction.

1401145783406 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein carries mate
rial through the Golgi in a <>retrograde</>&nsp;direction?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::COPI}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
rial <>from the Golgi to the ER</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::COPI}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>i.e. COPI goes <>ackwards</></i><r /><div><img src="past
e-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
rial through the Golgi in the <>anterograde</>&nsp;direction?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::COPII}}</div>
</div>
rial <>from the ER to the Golgi</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::COPII}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>i.e. COPII goes <>forward</></i><r /><div><img src="paste
-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
rial <>from the Golgi to lysosomes</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Clathrin}}</
div>
rial <>from the plasma memrane to endosomes</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cl
athrin}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-6141803233917.jpg" /></div>
1401146180723 1395802358422 Which vesicular trafficking protein in involved
with receptor-mediated endocytosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Clathrin}}</div>
1401146203051 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Peroxisome}} is a memrane-enclos
ed organelle involved in the cataolism of very-long-chain FAs, ranched-chain F
As and amino acids.
1401147474137 1395802358422 Which organelle is involved in the cataolism of
very-long-chain and ranched-chain fatty acids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pero
xisome}}</div>
1401147500313 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::proteasome}} is a arrel-shaped p
rotein complex that degrades damaged or uiquitin-tagged proteins.
<r><div
><i>Uiquitin-proteasome complex defects have een implicated in Parkinson Disea
se.</i></div>
1401147562313 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Microtuule}} is a cylindrical ce
llular structure composed of a helical array of polymerized heterodimers of&nsp
;- nd -tuulin. <r /><div><img src="paste-7687991460172.jpg" /></div>
1401148318233 1395802358422 Which nucleoside triphosphate is ound to each&n
sp;- nd -tuulin heterodimer in microtuules?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GTP}}</
div>
<r /><div><i>Each dimer has 2 GTP ound.</i></div>
1401148397662 1395802358422 Which cytoskeletal filament is incorporated into
flagella, cilia and mitotic spindles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microtuules}}
</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-7765300871514.jpg" /></div>
1401148437875 1395802358422 Which cytoskeletal filament is involved in slow
axoplasmic transport in neurons?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microtuules}}</div>
1401148482016 1395802358422 Which molecular motor protein transports cellula
r cargo in the <>retrograde</>&nsp;direction&nsp;towards the <>negative</>
&nsp;(-) end of the microtuule?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dynein}}</div>
1401149338014 1395802358422 Which molecular motor protein transports cargo i
n an <>anterograde</>&nsp;direction towards the <>positive</>&nsp;(+) end
of the microtuule?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Kinesin}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-7761005904218.jpg" /></div>
1401149386181 1395802358422 {{c1::Meendazole}} is an anti-helminthic drug t
hat targets microtuules.
</div>
1401149459874 1395802358422 {{c1::Griseofulvin}} is an anti-fungal agent tha
t targets microtuules. <r /><div><img src="paste-8555574853850.jpg" /></div>
1401149487279 1395802358422 {{c1::Colchicine}} is an anti-gout drug that tar

gets microtuules.
1401149511537 1395802358422 {{c1::Vincristine}} and&nsp;{{c2::Vinlastine}}
are vinca-alkaloid anti-cancer drugs that target microtuules. <r /><div><img
src="paste-8555574853850.jpg" /></div>
1401149532767 1395802358422 {{c1::Paclitaxel}} is a taxol anti-cancer drug t
hat targets microtuules.
</div>
1401158079665 1395802358422 What microtuular arrangement is found in cilia?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::9 + 2 in the centre}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-9431748182227.jpg" /></div>
1401158163022 1395802358422 {{c1::Axonemal Dynein}} is an ATPase found in ci
lia that links the peripheral 9 microtuule doulets.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-9427453214931.jpg" /></div>
1401158214524 1395802358422 {{c1::Axonemal Dynein}} is an ATPase found in mi
crotuules that causes ending of the cilium y differential sliding of the 9 pe
ripheral doulets.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9427453214931.jpg" /></d
iv>
1401158246963 1395802358422 Which molecular motor protein is found in cilia
and causes ending of the cilium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Axonemal Dynein (vi
a ATP hydrolysis)}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9427453214931.jpg
" /></div>
1401158285576 1395802358422 {{c1::Kartagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyski
nesia)}} is an autosomal recessive disorder that involves immotile cilia due to
a dynein arm defect.
1401158484461 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritence of&nsp;Kartagen
er Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal R
ecessive}}</div>
1401158502998 1395802358422 {{c1::Infertility}} is a complication of&nsp;Ka
rtagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia) that arises in males due to <>im
motile sperm</>.
1401158598320 1395802358422 {{c1::Infertility}} is a complication of&nsp;Ka
rtagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia) that arises in females due to <>
dysfunctional fallopian tue cilia</>.
1401158625860 1395802358422 How does the risk of ectopic pregnancy change in
&nsp;Kartagener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Increased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, there are cilia along the fallop
ian tue. Hence defective cilia activity will result in an increased chance of i
mplantation occuring in the fallopian tue instead of the uterus.</i></div>
nesia)}} is an autosomal recessive disorder that presents with <>ronchiectasis
</>&nsp;and <>recurrent sinusitis</>&nsp;due to a dynein arm defect in cili
a.
nesia)}} is an autosomal recessive disorder that causes <>situs inversus</>&n
sp;due to a dynein arm defect in cilia.
nesia)}} is an autosomal recessive disorder that presents with <>dextrocardia</
>&nsp;on chest x-ray due to a dynein arm defect in cilia.
1401159108451 1395802358422 What type of cytoskeletal filament is involved i
n muscle contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Actin & Myosin}}</div>
n microvilli?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Actin & myosin}}</div>
n cytokinesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Actin; Myosin}}</div>
n adherens junctions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Actin; Myosin}}</div>
1401159188214 1395802358422 {{c1::Myosin}} is a dimeric, ATP-driven motor pr
otein that moves along actin chains.
1401159210960 1395802358422 What type of cytoskeletal filaments are involved
in axonal trafficking?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microtuule}}</div>

1401159533349 1395802358422 Which type of cytoskeletal filament is involved
with movement?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microtuules}}</div>
1401159869635 1395802358422 Which type of cytoskeletal filament is involved
with structure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intermediate filaments}}</div>
1401159888009 1395802358422 {{c1::Ergosterol}} is a sterol molecule that is
uniquely found in fungal plasma memranes.
1401159918917 1395802358422 What type of cell contains the intermediate fila
ment Vimentin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Connective tissue}}</div>
ment Desmin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Muscle}}</div>
ment Cytokeratin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epithelium}}</div>
ment Glial Firillary Acid Protein (GFAP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroglia}
}</div>
1401159990136 1395802358422 What type of cell contain Neurofilaments?<div><
r></div><div>{{c1::Neurons}}</div>
<r><div><i>Lol @ this card. Just trying
to e complete here.</i></div>
1401160016409 1395802358422 On which side of the plasma memrane is the ATP
inding site on the Na/K ATPase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cytosolic}}</div>
1401160173996 1395802358422 In which direction across the plasma memrane do
es the Na/K ATPase move Na?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3 Na out per ATP consumed
}}</div>
1401160216456 1395802358422 In which direction across the plasma memrane do
es the Na/K ATPase move K?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2 K in per ATP consumed}}<
/div> <r /><div><img src="paste-11673721110738.jpg" /></div>
1401160286191 1395802358422 {{c1::Ouaain}} is a poisonous cardiac glycoside
commonly used as "arrow poison" that inhiits the Na/K ATPase y inding to the
K inding site.
1401160371962 1395802358422 {{c1::Digoxin}} and&nsp;{{c2::Digitoxin}} are c
ardiac glycosides that directly inhiits the Na/K ATPase.
<r /><div><i>Th
is then causes indirect inhiition of the Na/Ca exchanger and a susequent <>in
crease</>&nsp;in [Ca]<su>i</su>, therey increasing cardiac contractility.</
i></div>
1401160661819 1395802358422 What is the most aundant protein in the human
ody?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Collagen}}</div>
1401160767495 1395802358422 What is the most common type of collagen?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I (90%)}}</div>
1401160904834 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in one?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>B<>one</><r /></i
><div><i>Made y osteolasts.</i></div>
1401161078696 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in skin?<div><r
1401161087124 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in tendons?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161094476 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the cornea?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161153453 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in dentin?<div><
1401161160448 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in fascia?<div><
1401161173373 1395802358422 Which type of collagen has defective production
in Ostegenesis Imperfecta, Type I?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1401161203746 1395802358422 Which type of collagen is found in cartilage?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Car<>two</>lage<
/i></div>
1401161225814 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the vitreous
ody?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1401161242129 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the nucleus pu

lposus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1401161252761 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in Reticulin?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1401161317722 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in lood vessel w
alls?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III (as Reticulin)}}</div>
1401161343636 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in granulation ti
ssue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III (as Reticulin)}}</div>
1401161356962 1395802358422 What type of collagen is deficient in the <>vas
cular type</>&nsp;of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I
II}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Thre<>E D</></i></div>
1401161403471 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the asement m
emrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Type IV is
under the floor (i.e. asement)</i></div>
1401161708043 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the asal lami
na?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1401161716779 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in the lens of th
e eye?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1401161748636 1395802358422 What type of collagen is defective in Alport Syn
drome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1401161769216 1395802358422 What type of collagen is targeted y autoantiod
ies in Goodpasture Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1401215680713 1395802358422 Where inside firolasts is collagen synthesized
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rough ER}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, secreted
proteins are made in the RER.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-489626272441.jpg
" /></i></div>
1401215758397 1395802358422 {{c1::Preprocollagen}} is the initial form of sy
nthesized collagen made at the Rough ER and involves alpha-chains of Glycine-X-
amino acids. <r /><div><i>X and are either proline or lysine.</i></div>
1401215857964 1395802358422 What is the most aundant amino acid in collagen
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glycine}}</div>
1401215869212 1395802358422 Which organelle in firolasts is the site of hy
droxylation of specific Proline and Lysine residues in Preprocollagen?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Rough ER}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.
jpg" /></div>
1401215918908 1395802358422 Which amino acids in Preprocollagen are hydroxyl
ated in the Rough ER?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lysine; Proline}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>The resultant Hydroxylysine and Hydroxyproline residues are
later integral in collagen firil formation.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-48533
1305145.jpg" /></div>
1401216004988 1395802358422 Which vitamin is an essential cofactor in the hy
droxylation of Preprocollagen in the Rough ER?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitami
n C}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence a deficiency causes scurvy.</i></div><div><i
1401216036574 1395802358422 {{c1::Scurvy}} is a connective tissue disorder c
haracterized y impaired collagen synthesis that results from a deficiency of Vi
tamin C.
1401216069493 1395802358422 Which organelle in firolasts is the site of gl
ycosylation of Preprocollagen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rough ER}}</div>
1401216608756 1395802358422 {{c1::Procollagen}} is an intermediate of collag
en synthesis that is made y the glycosylation of pro-alpha-chain hydroxylysine
residues and hydrogen/disulfide ond interactions.
<div><r /></div><i>Proc
ollagen is a <>triple helix of 3 collagen alpha-chains</>&nsp;that comes toge
ther via hydrogen and disulfide ond interactions following glycosylation of pro
-alpha-chain hydroxylysine.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /></
div>
1401216834649 1395802358422 {{c1::Procollagen}} is an intermediate of collag
en synthesis that is structured as a triple helix of 3 collagen alpha-chains.
1401216860810 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}} is a one disord

er that arises from an <>inaility to form procollagen</>&nsp;(prolems formi
ng a triple helix of collagen alpha-chains).
<r><div><img src="paste-4853313
05145.jpg" /></div>
1401216904238 1395802358422 {{c1::Tropocollagen}} is an intermediate of coll
agen synthesis that is formed following the cleavage of disulfide-rich terminal
regions of procollagen. <r /><div><i>Tropocollagen is insolule. Procollagen is
solule. Keep this in mind to rememer where each is formed. We don't want trop
ocollagen eing formed inside of the cell as it will kill the cell as tropocolla
gen mocs come together. On the flip side, we want this to happen outside of the
cell so that collagen firils can form.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-4853313
05145.jpg" /></i></div>
1401217159741 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to cross-link staggered t
ropocollagen molecules into collagen firils through covalent lysine-hydroxylysi
ne cross-links?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lysyl Oxidase}}</div>
<r /><d
1401217327420 1395802358422 {{c1::Lysyl Oxidase}} is a <>Cu-containing</>&
nsp;enzyme responsile for cross-linking staggered tropocollagen molecules into
collagen firils through covalent lysine-hydroxylysine cross-links.
<r /><d
1401217425241 1395802358422 Which trace element/metal is found in Lysyl Oxid
ase and is necessary for its function in collagen synthesis?<div><r></div><div>
{{c1::Copper (as Cu<sup>2+</sup>)}}</div>
05145.jpg" /></div>
1401217574190 1395802358422 {{c1::Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome}} is a connective t
issue disorder that arises due to prolems with cross-linking tropocollagen mole
cules into collagen firils.
<r /><div><img src="paste-485331305145.jpg" /><
/div>
1401217621218 1395802358422 What genetic one disorder is also referred to a
s Brittle Bone Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}}</di
v>
1401217743926 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of the <>most c
ommon form</>&nsp;of Osteogenesis Imperfecta?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autos
omal Dominant}}</div> <r /><div><i>Defect involves a decreased production of
otherwise normal Type I collagen.</i></div><div><i>Rememer, Type I collagen is
found in ones.</i></div>
1401217828622 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}} is a genetic on
e disorder that involves severe skeletal deformities, lim shortening and multip
le fractures in a child due to <>defective Type I collagen production</>.<div>
<r /></div><div><img src="paste-2933462663475.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>In
the right image, there are ilateral proximal femur fractures; the right femue
is pinned and healing while the left femur has healed</i></div>
e disorder that presents with multiple one fractures after minimal trauma, poss
ily even during childirth.
e disorder that presents with <>lue sclera</>&nsp;due to the translucency of
the connective tissue over choroidal veins.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-3135326126287.jpg" /></div>
1401218063902 1395802358422 {{c1::Hearing Loss}} is a complication of Osteog
enesis Imperfecta that results from anormal ossicle formation.
1401218095320 1395802358422 {{c1::Dental imperfections}} are a complication
of Osteogenesis Imperfecta due to a lack of dentin formation.
1401218132265 1395802358422 {{c1::Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome}} is a connective t
issue disorder that presents with hyperextensile skin, tendency to leed and hy
permoile joints due to faulty collagen cross-linking. <r /><div><img src="pas
te-3491808412251.jpg" /></div>
1401229430672 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Ehlers-Danlos
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Can e AD or AR}}</div>
1401229484480 1395802358422 What is the <>most common type</>&nsp;of Ehle
rs-Danlos Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypermoility Type (with join ins

taility)}}</div>
1401229513466 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypermoility type}} is the most common <
>type</>&nsp;of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome and involves hypermoile and unstale j
oints.
1401229548064 1395802358422 {{c1::Classical Type}} is a <>type</>&nsp;of
Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome that is caused y a mutation in Type V collagen.
1401229597733 1395802358422 What type of collagen is mutated in the Classica
l type of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type V}}</div>
1401229616243 1395802358422 What is the most severe type of Ehlers-Danlos Sy
ndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vascular type}}</div>
1401229627616 1395802358422 What type of collagen is deficient in the Vascul
ar type of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1401229654417 1395802358422 {{c1::Vascular Type}} is a type of Ehlers-Danlos
syndrome that involves vascular and organ rupture due to a deficiency in type I
II collagen.
1401229695813 1395802358422 {{c1::Menkes Disease}} is a connective tissue di
sorder that is caused y <>impaired copper asorption and transport</>.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Lysyl Oxidase, the enzye responsile for cross-linking t
ropocollagen into collagen firils, requires Copper as a cofactor. Hence there w
ill e decreased collagen.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-3487513444955.jpg" /
></i></div>
1401229768194 1395802358422 What trace element sees an impairment in asorpt
ion and transport in Menkes Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Copper}}</div>
sorder that involves decreased activity of lysyl oxidase due to impaired copper
asorption and transport.
1401230044123 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved with the cross-linking of
collagen firils is impaired in Menkes Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lysyl
Oxidase}}</div>
sorder that results in <>rittle, "kinky" hair</>&nsp;due to impaired copper
asorption/transport.
sorder that involves <>growth retardation</>&nsp;and <>hypotonia</>&nsp;du
e to impaired copper asorption and transport.
1401230373851 1395802358422 {{c1::Ligamenta Flava}} are ligaments <>rich in
elastin</>&nsp;that connect verterae.
<r /><div><i>They have relaxed
and stretched conformations.</i></div>
1401230443361 1395802358422 Which 2 amino acids are aundant in Elastin?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Proline; Glycine}}</div>
<r /><div><i>In their n
onhydroxylated forms (compare to collagen that has hydroxyproline residues).</i>
</div>
1401230492292 1395802358422 Which enzyme reaks down Elastin?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Elastase}}</div> <r /><div><i>Inhiited y&nsp;<sub>1</sub>-nti
trypsin</i></div>
1401230604495 1395802358422 Which ntiprotese normlly inhibits Elstse?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::<sub>1</sub>-ntitrypsin}}</div>
1401230620600 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrfn Syndrome}} is connective tissue d
isorder tht is cused by defect in fibrillin, glycoprotein tht forms she
th round elstin.
1401230899568 1395802358422 Which connective tissue glycoprotein is defectiv
e in Mrfn Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fibrillin}}</div>
1401230921925 1395802358422 {{c1::Emphysem}} is COPD tht cn be cused b
y n <sub>1</sub>-ntitrypsin deficiency. <br /><div><i>Deficiency of&nbsp
;<sub>1</sub>-ntitrypsin cuses n excess of Elstse deficiency nd too much br
ekdown of elstin.</i></div>
1401230986013 1395802358422 Which ntiprotese deficiency is ssocited with
cusing Emphysem?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<sub>1</sub>-ntitrypsin}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Leds to overctive Elstse.</i></div>
1401231780209 1395802358422 {{c1::Polymerse Chin Rection (PCR)}} is mol

eculr biology lbortory procedure used to mplify desired frgment of DNA.
<br /><div><i>Quite useful s dignostic tool.</i></div><div><i><img src="pst
e-6266357285141.jpg" /></i></div>
1401232010170 1395802358422 {{c1::Southern Blot}} is blotting procedure us
ed to identify DNA by cleving, electrophoresis, denturing nd renneling DNA
to rdiolbeled DNA probes with known sequences.
<br /><div><i>The result
nt dsDNA is lbeled nd visulized on filter when exposed to film.</i></div>
1401232854224 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to identify DNA
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Southern Blot}}</div>
te-6498285518984.jpg" /></div>
1401232872658 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to identify RNA
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Northern Blot}}</div>
1401232888355 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to identify pro
tein?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Western blot}}</div>
1401232899598 1395802358422 {{c1::Northern Blot}} is blotting procedure us
ed to identify RNA by clevge, electrophoresis, nd lbelling of RNA vi rdiol
<br /><div><i>Similr procedure to Southern Blot except
beled RNA probes.
with RNA.</i></div><div><i>Useful to mesure mRNA levels which re reflective of
gene expression.</i></div>
1401233036153 1395802358422 {{c1::Western Blot}} is blotting procedure th
t is used to identify protein by electrophoresis nd lbelling of proteins with
<br /><div><i>Used to confirm HIV fter positive ELISA.</i></d
ntibodies.
iv>
1401233124413 1395802358422 {{c1::Southwestern Blot}} is blotting procedur
e used to indentify <b>DNA-binding proteins</b> by using lbeled oligonucle
otide probes. <br /><div><i>e.g. identifiction of trnscription fctors.</i><
/div>
1401233162723 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to identify DNA
-binding proteins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Southwestern Blot}}</div>
1401233178499 1395802358422 {{c1::Microrry}} is lbortory technique th
t involves thousnds of nucleic cid sequences rrnged in grids on glss or sil
icon. DNA/RNA probes subsequently hybridize to the chip, llowing the scnner to
detect the mount of complementry binding.
<br><div><i>Used to profile gene
expression levels of thousnds of genes simultneously to study certin disese
s nd Tx.</i></div><div><i>Cn detect nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) nd copy n
umber vrition (CNVs) for vriety of pplictions such s genotyping, clinic
l genetic testing, forensic nlysis, cncer muttions nd genetic linkge nly
sis.</i></div>
1401233720061 1395802358422 {{c1::Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assy (ELISA)}
} is lbortory technique used to detect the presence of either specific nt
igen (direct) or specific ntibody (indirect) in ptient's blood.
<br /><d
iv><i>Used widely to detect specific ntibodies (esp. nti-HIV).</i></div><div><
i>Specificity nd sensitivity both pproch 100%, but flse results still occur.
</i></div>
1401235652556 1395802358422 {{c1::Indirect ELISA}} is type of ELISA tht <
b>uses test ntigen</b> <b>to detect specific ntibody</b> in p
tient's blood. <br /><div><i>Secondry ntibody coupled to colour-generting
enzyme is dded to detect the first ntibody.</i></div><div><i>If there is n in
tense colour rection, the test is positive.</i></div>
1401235750404 1395802358422 {{c1::Direct ELISA}} is type of ELISA tht <b>
uses test ntibody to detect specific ntigen</b> in the ptient's bloo
d.
<br /><div><i>A secondry ntibody is coupled to colour-generting enz
yme nd is dded to detect the ntigen.</i></div><div><i></i><i>If there is n i
ntense colour rection, the test is positive.</i></div>
1401236082830 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluorescence in situ hybridiztion}} is
lbortory technique tht uses fluorescent DNA or RNA probes to bind to specific
gene sites of interest <u>on chromosomes</u>. <br /><div><i>Used to specificl
ly loclize genes nd directly visulize nomlies t the moleculr level, espec
illy when microdeletions re too smll to be visulized by kryotyping.</i></di
v>
1401236240324 1395802358422 {{c1::Fluorescence in situ hybridiztion}} is
lbortory technique used to specificlly loclize genes nd directly visulize
nomlies t the moleculr level, especilly when microdeletions re too smll t
o be visulized by kryotyping. <br /><div><i>Fluorescence = gene is prese
nt. No fluorescence = gene is bsent nd hs been deleted.</i></div>
1401236286523 1395802358422 {{c1::Cloning}} is lbortory technique tht p
roduces recombinnt DNA molecule tht is self-perpetuting. <br /><div><img
src="pste-9281424326843.jpg" /></div>
1401236519866 1395802358422 The {{c1::Cre-Lox System}} is gene expres
sion modifiction tht cn inducibly mnipulte genes t specific developmentl
points. <br /><div><i>e.g. to study gene whose deletion cuses embryonic deth
</i></div>
1401236661580 1395802358422 {{c1::RNA Interference (RNAi)}} is gene expres
sion modifiction tht employs dsRNA molecules tht re injected into trget cel
ls, seprte nd promote the degrdtion of mRNA.
<br /><div><i>Thereby "k
nocking down" gene expression.</i></div>
1401236732256 1395802358422 {{c1::Kryotyping}} is lbortory technique th
t obtins metphse chromosomes nd then stins, orders nd numbers them ccord
ing to morphology, size, rm-length rtio nd bnding pttern. <br /><div><i>C
n be performed on smple of blood, bone mrrow, mniotic fluid, or plcentl t
issue.</i></div>
1401236822313 1395802358422 Which lbortory technique is used to dignose c
hromosoml imblnces?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Kryotyping}}</div>
1401305014970 1395802358422 {{c1::Codominnce}} is genetic term defined s
both lleles contributing to the phenotype of heterozygote. <br /><div><i>e.
g. AB blood group; lph-1-ntitrypsin deficiency</i></div>
1401305135635 1395802358422 {{c1::Vrible Expressivity}} is genetic term
defined s phenotype vrition mong individuls with the sme genotype.
<br /><div><i>e.g. 2 ptients with NF1 my hve vrying disese severity</i></di
v>
1401305292576 1395802358422 {{c1::Incomplete Penetrnce}} is genetic pheno
menon described s not ll individuls with mutnt genotype hving mutnt ph
enotype.
<br /><div><i>e.g. BRCA1 muttions do not lwys cuse brest/ov
rin cncer.</i></div>
1401305457826 1395802358422 {{c1::Pleiotropy}} is genetic term tht descri
bes one gene contributing to multiple phenotypic effects.
<br /><div><i>e.
g. Untreted PKU mnifests s light skin tone, intellectul disbility nd must
body odor/urine.</i></div>
1401305530423 1395802358422 {{c1::Anticiption}} is genetic term described
s n incresed severity or erlier onset of disese in succeeding genertions.
<br><div><i>e.g. Huntington's Disese (or other trinucleotide repet disorders)<
/i></div>
1401305623612 1395802358422 {{c1::Loss of Heterozygosity}} is genetic phen
omenon tht occurs when ptient inherits/develops muttion in tumour suppr
essor gene <b>nd</b> the complementry llele is deleted/mutted. <br /><d
iv><i>This loss of heterozygosity must occur before cncer develops.</i></div><d
iv><i>Also, <b>this does not pply to oncogenes</b>.</i></div><div><i>e.g. Retin
oblstom nd the "2 hit hypothesis"</i></div>
1401305725509 1395802358422 {{c1::Dominnt Negtive Muttion}} is genetic
phenomenon tht involves heterozygote producing <u>nonfunctionl ltered pro
tein tht prevents the norml gene product from functioning</u>.
<br /><d
iv><i>e.g. Muttion of trnscription fctor <u>t its llosteric site</u>; hen
ce, the nonfunctioning mutnt cn still bind DNA nd prevent the wild-type trns
cription fctor from binding</i></div>
1401305951154 1395802358422 {{c1::Linkge Disequilibrium}} is genetic phen
omenon tht is described by the tendency for certin lleles t 2 linked loci to
occur together more often thn expected by chnce.
<br /><div><i>Mesured i
n popultions, not fmilies.</i></div><div><i>Vries mongst popultions.</i></d
iv>
1401306026318 1395802358422 {{c1::Mosicism}} is genetic term defined s t

he presence of geneticlly distinct cell lines the <b>sme</b> individul d
ue to mitotic errors fter fertiliztion.
<br><div><i>McCune-Albright Synd
rome is lethl if the muttion is somtic, but survivble if mosic.</i></div>
1401306121127 1395802358422 {{c1::Somtic Mosicism}} is type of genetic m
osicism where the muttion propgtes through multiple tissues or orgns.
1401306159940 1395802358422 {{c1::Gondl Mosicism}} is type of genetic m
osicism where the muttion is only in egg or sperm cells.
1401306179125 1395802358422 {{c1::Locus Heterogeneity}} is genetic phenome
non tht occurs when muttions t different loci cn produce similr phenotype
.
<br /><div><i>e.g. lbinism</i></div>
1401306574918 1395802358422 {{c1::Allelic heterogeneity}} is genetic pheno
menon where different muttions in the sme locus produce the sme phenotype.
<br /><div><i>e.g. bet-thlssemi</i></div>
1401306620685 1395802358422 {{c1::Heteroplsmy}} is genetic term defined
s the presence of both norml nd mutted mtDNA, thereby resulting in vrible e
xpression in mitochondril inherited disese.
1401306671117 1395802358422 {{c1::Uniprentl Disomy}} is genetic phenomen
on tht involves offspring receiving 2 copies of chromosome from 1 prents nd
no copies from the other prent.
<br /><div><i>The individul is euploid,
not neuploid.</i></div><div><i>Most UPD occurrences yield norml phenotypes.</
i></div><div><i>Alwys consider UPD in n individul mnifesting recessive dis
order when only one prent is crrier.</i></div>
1401307301450 1395802358422 {{c1::Heterodisomy}} is type of Uniprentl Di
somy tht is cused by meiosis I error.
1401307335934 1395802358422 {{c1::Isodisomy}} is type of Uniprentl Disom
y cn be cused by meiosis II error.
1401307393948 1395802358422 {{c1::Isodisomy}} is type of Uniprentl Disom
y tht cn be cused by postzygotic chromosoml dupliction of 1 or pir of
chromosomes nd the loss of the originl pir.
1401307515398 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for the <b>freq
uency of homozygosity for llele p</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::p<sup>2</sup>
}}</div>
<div><br /></div><img src="pste-13645111099592.jpg" />
uency of homozygosity for llele q</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::q<sup>2</sup>
}}</div>
uency of heterozygosity</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2pq}}</div>
<br /><d
1401307999053 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for the <b>crr
ier frequency of n utosoml recessive disese</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
2pq}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>i.e. wht is the vlue for the frequency of
Heterozygous crriers</i><br /><div><img src="pste-13640816132296.jpg" /></div>
1401308029683 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg eqution?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::p<sup>2</sup> + 2pq + q<sup>2</sup> = 1}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Also, p + q = 1</i><br /><div><img src="pste-13640816132296
.jpg" /><img src="pste-14508399526045.jpg" /></div>
1401308082709 1395802358422 Wht is the Hrdy-Weinberg vlue for <b>the freq
uency of n X-linked recessive disorder </b><u style="font-weight: bold; ">in m
les</u>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::q}}</div>
uency of n X-linked recessive disorder </b><b style="text-decortion: underline
; ">in femles</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::q<sup>2</sup>}}</div>
1401308284814 1395802358422 {{c1::Imprinting}} is genetic phenomenon descr
ibed by only one llele being ctive t locus while the other is inctive due
to methyltion. <br /><div><i>With tht one llele inctivted, deletion/muttio
n of the ctive llele will cuse disese.</i></div>
1401309940398 1395802358422 Which chromosome is implicted in both Prder-Wi
lli nd Angelmn Syndromes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 15}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Both re imprinting disorders.</i></div><div><i>Both cn lso be c
used by uniprentl disomy.</i></div>

1401310233410 1395802358422 {{c1::Prder-Willi Syndrome}} is genetic impri
nting disorder tht cn result from deletion of the <b>pternl</b> gene s
the mternl gene is normlly silent. <br /><div><i><b>P</b>rder-Willi = <b>p
</b>ternl gene is deleted/mutted <u>or</u> mternl uniprentl disomy.<
/i></div>
nting disorder tht cn result due to mternl uniprentl disomy.
<br /><d
iv><i>2 mternlly imprinted genes re received, hence there is no pternl gene
. This is synonymous to pternl gene deletion/muttion.</i></div>
nting disorder tht results from pternl gene deletion nd presents with <b>hyp
erphgi</b> nd <b>obesity</b>.
nting disorder tht results from pternl gene deletion nd presents with <
b>intellectul disbility</b> nd <b>hypotoni</b>.
nting disorder tht results from pternl gene deletion nd presents with <
b>hypogondism</b>.
1401311316361 1395802358422 {{c1::Angelmn Syndrome}} is genetic imprintin
g disorder tht cn result from deletion of the <b>mternl</b> gene s the
pternl gene is normlly silent.
<br /><div><i>Angel<b>M</b>n = <b>M</b>
ternl gene deletion/muttion <u>or</u> pternl uniprentl disomy</i></d
iv>
g disorder tht cn result from pternl uniprentl disomy
<br /><div>2<i>&
nbsp;pternlly imprinted genes re inherited nd no mterl gene is received. T
his is synonymous with mternl gene deletion.</i></div>
g disorder cused by <b>mternl</b> gene deletion tht presents with <b>in
pproprite lughter ("hppy puppet")</b>.
g disorder cused by <b>mternl</b> gene deletion tht presents with&
nbsp;<b>seizures, txi </b>nd <b>severe intellectul disbility</b>.
1401311491675 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence often involves
defects in structurl genes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Dominnt}}</d
iv>
1401312280600 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence ffects mny g
enertions nd both mles nd femles somewht eqully?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Autosoml Dominnt}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-16660178141373.jpg" /
></div>
1401312311299 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence is often ssoc
ited with pleiotropic disorders?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Dominnt}
ited with enzyme deficiencies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}
1401312388196 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence is usully see
n in only 1 genertion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Typiclly more severe thn dominnt disorders.</i><br /><div
ited with disorders tht present in childhood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autos
oml Recessive}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-16844861735105.jpg" /></div>
1401312695125 1395802358422 How does the risk of Autosoml Recessive disorde
rs chnge in cosnguineous fmilies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div
>
1401312718534 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence is commonly s
socited with disorders more severe in mles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linke
d recessive}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Femles must be homozygous to be ff
ected.</i><div><i>Sons of heterozygous mothers (crriers) hve 50% chnce of b

eing ffected.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-17437567221940.jpg" /></div></div>
1401313949767 1395802358422 Which mode of genetic inheritence will never occ
ur from fther to son?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked Recessive or Dominnt
(i.e. ny X-linked trnsmission)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>And mitochon
dril s well.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-17433272254644.jpg" /></div>
1401314206993 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hypophosphte
mic Rickets?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked Dominnt}}</div>
<br /><d
1401314526121 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypophosphtemic Rickets}} is n X-linked
dominnt disorder tht results in incresed phosphte wsting t the proximl tu
bule. <br /><div><i>Yields rickets-like presenttion.</i></div>
1401314561716 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypophosphtemic Rickets}} is n X-linked
dominnt disorder tht ws formerly known s Vitmin D-Resistnt Rickets.
<br /><div><i><br /></i></div>
1401314610940 1395802358422 Wht type of genetic inheritnce is trnsmitted
<b>exclusively</b> through the mother?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochond
ril Inheritnce}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>All offspring of ffected fe
mles re likely to show disese.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-18713172508868.j
pg" /></div>
1401314742506 1395802358422 Wht mode of genetic inheritence is ssocited w
ith disorders tht show vrible expression in popultion/fmily due to hetero
plsmy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondril Inheritnce}}</div>
<br /><d
1401314812810 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitochondril Myopthies}} re group of
rre myopthies tht often show <b>"rgged red fibers"</b> on muscle biop
sy.<br />
<br /><div><i>Also present with myopthy, lctic cidosis nd CN
S disese.</i></div><div><i>Secondry to filure in oxidtive phosphoryltion<
/i></div>
1401314957055 1395802358422 {{c1::Autosoml Dominnt Polycystic Kidney Dise
se (ADPKD)}} is n utosoml dominnt renl disorder tht involves <b>bilterl<
/b>, mssive enlrgement of the kidneys due to <b>multiple lrge cysts</b>.
1401318249013 1395802358422 Wht is the most common gene mutted in Autosom
l Dominnt Polycystic Kidney Disese (ADPKD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>PKD1
</i> on Chromosome 16 (85% of cses)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Chromosome
<b>16</b>; <b>16</b> letters </i></div>
1401318544275 1395802358422 Wht is the <b>second</b> most common gene
mutted in Autosoml Dominnt Polycystic Kidney Disese (ADPKD)?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::<i>PKD2</i> on chromosome 4}}</div>
<div><i><br /></
i></div>
1401318732326 1395802358422 {{c1::Fmilil Adenomtous Polyposis (FAP)}} is
n utosoml dominnt GI disorder tht involves numerous denomtous polyps fte
r puberty.
<br /><div><i>Progresses to colon cncer if the colon is not rem
oved.</i></div>
1401319063590 1395802358422 Wht gene is mutted in Fmilil Adenomtou
s Polyposis (FAP)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>APC</i> on chromosome 5}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>"People use <b>A PC</b> to <b>FAP</b>."</i></div><div><i>C
hromosome 5; 5 letters in polyp.</i></div>
1401319113672 1395802358422 {{c1::Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi}} is n uto
soml dominnt crdiovsculr disorder tht involves n <b>elevted LDL</b>&nbsp
;due to defective or bsent LDL receptors.
<br /><div><i>Cuses severe the
rosclerotic disese erly in life nd <b>tendon xnthoms</b> (esp t the A
chilles tendon).</i></div>
1401319221991 1395802358422 {{c1::Hereditry Hemorrhgic Telngiectsi}} is
n utosoml dominnt vsculr disorder tht is lso known s Osler-Weber-Rendu
Syndrome.
<br /><div><i>Involves telngiectsi, recurrent epistxis, skin
discolourtion, rteriovenous mlformtions, GI bleeding nd hemturi.</i></di
v>
1401319326505 1395802358422 {{c1::Hereditry Spherocytosis}} is n utosoml
dominnt hemtologicl disorder tht involves <b>spheroid erythrocytes</b>&nbsp
;due to <b>spectrin </b>or<b> nkyrin defect</b>.

<br><div><i>Cuses hemol
ytic nemi, increses MCHC.</i></div>
1401319402488 1395802358422 How does MCHC chnge in Hereditry Spherocytosis
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div>
1401319417415 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Hereditry Spherocytos
is??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Splenectomy}}</div>
1401319441109 1395802358422 {{c1::Huntington Disese}} is n utosoml domin
nt neurologicl disorder tht presents with <b>progressive dementi</b>, <b>cho
reiform movement</b>, nd <b>cudte trophy.</b> <br /><div><i>Also invol
ves decresed levels of GABA nd ACh in the brin.</i></div>
1401320017517 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the gene implicted in Hu
ntington Disese found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 4}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i><b>Hunting 4</b> food (chromosome 4)</i></div>
1401320040652 1395802358422 Which trinucleotide repet is involved in Huntin
gton Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CAG}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The higher
the number of repets, the erlier the ge of onset.</i></div>
1401320376203 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrfn Syndrome}} is n utosoml dominnt
connective tissue disorder tht involves Fibrillin-1 gene muttion. <br /><d
iv><i>Presents with long extremities, pectus excvtum, hypermobile joints, rc
hnodctyly, floppy mitrl vlve nd lens subluxtion.</i></div>
1401320431100 1395802358422 Wht gene is mutted in Mrfn Syndrome?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Fibrillin-1}}</div>
connective tissue disorder tht involves cystic medil necrosis of the ort, t
hereby leding to ortic incompetence nd ortic dissection.
connective tissue disorder tht involves subluxtion of the lenses, typiclly u
pwrd nd temporlly. <br /><div><i>Lens subluxtion is lso key feture of
Homocystinuri, so keep tht shiet in mind, brh</i></div>
1401320603432 1395802358422 {{c1::Multiple Endocrine Neoplsi (MEN)}} is n
utosoml dominnt endocrine disorder tht involves fmilil tumours of endocri
ne glnds.
1401320650191 1395802358422 Which gene is ssocited with Multiple Endocrine
Neoplsi (MEN) 2A nd 2B?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>ret</i>}}</div>
1401320679948 1395802358422 {{c1::Neurofibromtosis Type 1 (NFT1)}} is n u
tsoml dominnt neurocutneous disorder chrcterized by cfe-u-lit spots nd
cutneous neurofibroms.
<br /><div><i>100% penetrnce</i></div>
tosoml dominnt neurocutneous disorder tht is lso known s von Recklinhusen
disese.
1401320784152 1395802358422 Wht gene is mutted in Neurofibromtosis T
ype 1 (NFT1)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>NF1</i> on chromosome 17}}</div
>
1401320821406 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the <i>NF1</i> gene
found on?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::17}}</div> <br /><div><i>17 letters in von
Recklinghusen [Neurofibromtosis Type 1 (NFT1)]</i></div>
tosoml dominnt neurologicl tumour disorder tht presents with <b>bilterl c
oustic schwnnoms</b>, juvenile ctrcts, meningioms nd ependymoms.
1401320914908 1395802358422 Wht gene is mutted in Neurofibromtosis T
ype 2 (NFT2)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>NF2</i> on chromosome 22}}</div
>
1401320929038 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the <i>NF2</i> gene
found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 22}}</div>
1401320945013 1395802358422 {{c1::Tuberous Sclerosis}} is n utosoml domin
nt neurocutneous disorder tht presents with numerous benign hmrtoms with m
ulti-orgn system involvement.
1401321000685 1395802358422 {{c1::von Hippel-Lindu Disese}} is n utosom
l dominnt tumour disorder tht is chrcterized by the development of numerous
tumours s result of deletion of the <i>VHL</i> tumour suppressor gene.
1401321052248 1395802358422 Which gene is deleted/mutted in von Hippel-Lind

u Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>VHL</i> on chromosome 3p; tumour
suppressor}}</div>
1401321103249 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the <i>VHL</i> tumou
r suppressor gene found (von Hippel-Lindu Disese)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
3}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Chromosome 3; 3 words in VHL</i></div>
1401321188984 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Autosoml Dom
innt Polycystic Kidney Disese (ADPKD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Do
minnt}}</div> <br /><div><i>Just checking if you're still wke.</i></div>
1401321193442 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fmilil Aden
omtous Polyposis (FAP)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Dominnt}}</div>
1401321205737 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fmilil Hype
rcholesterolemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321222117 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hereditry He
morrhgic Telngiectsi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321237565 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hereditry Sp
herocytosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321245254 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Huntington Di
sese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321252099 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Mrfn Syndro
me?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321257717 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Multiple Endo
crine Neoplsi (MEN)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321266037 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Neurofibromt
osis Type 1 (NFT1; von Recklinghusen Disese)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}<
/div>
1401321292854 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Neurofibromt
osis Type 2 (NFT2)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321306910 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Tuberous Scle
rosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321314551 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of von Hippel-Li
ndu Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AD}}</div>
1401321323852 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Albinism?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321462608 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Autosoml Rec
essive Polycystic Kidney Disese (ARPKD; Infntile PKD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::AR}}</div> <br /><div><i>I men, if you're getting these kind of crds wron
g...</i></div>
1401321505781 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Cystic Fibros
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321511643 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hemochromtos
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321519029 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Krtgener Sy
ndrome (Primry Ciliry Dyskinesi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321547131 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Phenylketonur
i (PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321581789 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Sickle Cell A
nemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321590038 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Wilson Dises
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321597841 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Thlssemis?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1401321796775 1395802358422 Wht gene is defective in Cystic Fibrosis?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>CFTR</i> on chromosome 7}}</div>
1401321845201 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the <i>CFTR</i> gene
found (Cystic Fibrosis)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 7}}</div>
1401321860737 1395802358422 Wht muttion is commonly seen in the <i>CFTR</i
> gene in Cystic Fibrosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phe508 deletion; <i>C
FTR </i>gene; chromosome 7}}</div>
1401321903496 1395802358422 Wht is the most lethl genetic disese in the c
ucsin popultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cystic Fibrosis}}</div>

1401321931814 1395802358422 Wht <b>type</b> of ion chnnel is normlly
encoded by the <i>CFTR</i> gene (Cystic Fibrosis)?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::ATP-gted Cl- chnnel}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The CFTR (Cystic Fibrosis
Trnsmembrne Conductnce Regultor) Cl chnnel <b>secretes </b>Cl into the
lungs nd GI trct nd <b>rebsorbs</b> Cl in swet glnds.</i></div><div>
<i><div></div></i><i>When it is mutted it is not trnsported to the membrne, r
esulting in decresed Cl secretion in the GI nd respirtory trcts nd decrese
d Cl rebsorption t swet glnds.</i></div><div><i>Incresed intrcellulr Cl t
riggers compenstory N rebsorption which then cuses incresed H2O rebsorptio
n, thereby cusing <b>thick mucus secretion into the lungs nd GI trct</b>
.</i></div><div><i>There is lso subsequently more negtive trnsepithelil po
tentil difference.</i></div>
1401323194603 1395802358422 Where in the cell is misfolded CFTR (Cystic Fibr
osis Trnsmembrne Conductnce Regultor) retined?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::R
ough ER}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence it is not trnsported to the membrne, resul
ting in decresed Cl secretion in the GI nd respirtory trcts nd decresed Cl
rebsorption t swet glnds.</i></div><div><i>Incresed intrcellulr Cl trigg
ers compenstory N rebsorption which then cuses incresed H2O rebsorption, t
hereby cusing <b>thick mucus secretion into the lungs nd GI trct</b>.</i></di
v><div><i>There is lso subsequently more negtive trnsepithelil potentil d
ifference.</i></div>
1401323478191 1395802358422 {{c1::Cystic Fibrosis}} is n utosoml recessiv
e genetic disorder tht is dignosed by <b>incresed [Cl<sup>-</sup>] (> 60 m
Eq/L) in swet</b>.
1401323556626 1395802358422 {{c2::Alklosis}} nd {{c1::Hypoklemi}} re po
ssible complictions of Cystic Fibrosis due to the loss of H<sub>2</sub>O nd N
from the extrcellulr fluid nd resultnt K<sup>+</sup> nd H<sup>+</sup>
wsting. <br /><div><i>The loss of H2O nd N from the ECF is nlogous t
o the ptient tking loop diuretic.</i></div>
1401323651080 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Pseudomons eruginos</i>}} is grmnegtive bcteri tht commonly cuses recurrent pulmonry infections in ptient
s with Cystic Fibrosis.
1401323873866 1395802358422 {{c1::Bronchiectsis}} is pulmonry complicti
on of Cystic Fibrosis tht presents with <b>reticulonodulr pttern </b>on CXR
.
1401323972934 1395802358422 {{c1::Pncretic Insufficiency}} is n endocrine
compliction of Cystic Fibrosis due to decresed dringe of pncretic secreti
ons nd subsequent chronic pncretitis.
<br /><div><i>This brings bout
further complictions such s mlbsorption, stetorrhe, nd Vit A, D, E &mp;
K deficiencies</i></div>
1401324204908 1395802358422 {{c1::Meconium ileus}} is GI compliction of C
ystic Fibrosis commonly seen in newborns.
1401324263674 1395802358422 {{c1::Infertility}} is compliction of Cystic
Fibrosis seen in mles due to the bsence of the vs deferens nd sperm.
1401324301134 1395802358422 Which vitmin deficiencies re commonly seen in
Cystic Fibrosis ptients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A, D, E, K; i.e. th
e ft soluble vitmins}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, there is pncretic insu
fficiency nd mlbsorption.</i></div>
1401324348713 1395802358422 {{c1::N-cetylcysteine}} is mucolytic gent us
ed to tret the mucous plugs seen in Cystic Fibrosis by cleving disulfide bonds
within mucous glycoproteins.
1401324408282 1395802358422 Which mucolytic gent is used to tret the mucou
s plugs seen in Cystic Fibrosis by cleving the disulfide bonds within mucous gl
ycoproteins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::N-cetylcysteine}}</div>
1401324444771 1395802358422 {{c1::Dornse Alf}} is recombinnt humn DNAs
e used to tret Cystic Fibrosis s it clers the leukocytic debris in thick muco
us secretions.
1401324499032 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of N-cetylcysteine in the tret
ment of Cystic Fibrosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clevge of the disulfide bo
nds in mucous glycoproteins, thereby clering mucous plugs}}</div>

1401324534107 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Dornse Alf in the tretment
of Cystic Fibrosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clering of Leukocytic debris vi
DNAse ction}}</div>
1401329999520 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Bruton Agmm
globulinemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330068064 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Wiskott-Aldri
ch Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330086165 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fbry Disese
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330093193 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of G6PD Deficien
cy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330107840 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Oculr Albini
sm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330115977 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Lesch-Nyhn S
yndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330124484 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Duchenne's Mu
sculr Dystrophy (DMD)?<div><br />{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330138385 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Becker Muscul
r Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330146297 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hunter Syndro
me?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330160575 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hemophili A?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330169018 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hemophili B?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330174521 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Ornithine Tr
nscrbmylse Deficiency (OTCD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1401330197163 1395802358422 Wht <b>type</b> of muttion is seen in Duc
henne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Frmeshift muttion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Cuses truncted Dystrophin protein nd ccelerted muscle brek
down</i></div>
1401331110594 1395802358422 Wht gene undergoes frmeshift muttion in Duc
henne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dystrophin; muttion trunc
tes the proteins; results in ccelerted muscle brekdown}}</div>
1401331142047 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudohypertrophy}} is feture of Duchen
ne Musculr Dystrophy tht typiclly presents t the clf muscles due to <b>fibr
oftty replcement of muscle</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-304298432
92370.jpg" /></div>
<div><br /></div>
1401331453911 1395802358422 Where in the body does muscle wekness first pp
er in Duchenne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pelvic Girdle}}</
div>
1401331482248 1395802358422 The {{c1::Gower mneuver}} is feture of
Duchenne Musculr Dystrophy tht involves ptients using their upper extremities
to help them stnd up. <br><div><i>These ptients re typiclly young (< 5 y
/o) nd mle (X-linked recessive).</i></div>
1401331561774 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of deth in Duchen
ne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dilted Crdiomyopthy}}</div>
1401331658845 1395802358422 Which humn gene hs the longest coding region?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dystrophin (<i>DMD</i>)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Fo
r this reson there is n incresed risk of spontneous muttion</i></div>
1401331700101 1395802358422 {{c1::Dystrophin}} is structurl protein found
in muscle tht functions to connect the intrcellulr cytoskeleton to the trns
membrne proteins lph- nd bet-dystroglycn, which subsequently re ttched
to the ECM.
<br /><div><i>Hence, the loss of dystrophin in Duchenne Musculr
Dystrophy results in myonecrosis</i></div>
1401331809518 1395802358422 Which trnsmembrne proteins does Dystrophin bin
d to in muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alph- nd Bet-Dystroglycn}}</div>
1401331833982 1395802358422 How do CK-MM (Cretine Kinse) levels chnge in
Duchenne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401331928387 1395802358422 How do Aldolse levels chnge in Duchenne Muscul

r Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401331949289 1395802358422 Which blotting procedure is used to dignose Duc
henne Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Western Blot}}</div>
1401332007700 1395802358422 Wht <b>type</b> of muttion is seen in Bec
ker Musculr Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Point muttion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Both DMD nd BMD re X-linked Recessive.</i></div><div><i>DMD hs
frmeshift muttion.</i></div>
1401332135129 1395802358422 Which gene is mutted in Becker Musculr Dystrop
hy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dystrophin}}</div>
<div><i>DMD = <b>frmeshift</b> muttion in Dystrophin cusing deletion of
the protein</i></div><div><i></i><i>BMD = <b>point</b> mut
tion in Dystrophin, hence less severe</i></div><div><i>Both BMD nd DMD = X-link
ed recessive</i></div>
1401332584029 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy of Duchenne Musculr
Dystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::~20 y/o}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence, re
d the dmn vignette properly. If the ptient is 30+ y/o, DMD is unlikely.</i></d
iv>
1401332759049 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy of Becker Musculr D
ystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Well into dulthood}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i><br /></i></div>
1401332843193 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Myotonic Mu
sculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CTG; in the <i>DMPK</i>&nbsp
;gene}}</div>
1401332880553 1395802358422 Which gene is ffected by CTG trinucleotide repe
ts in Myotonic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>DMPK</i
> gene; cuses bnorml expression of Myotonin Protein Kinse nd subsequen
t pthology}}</div>
1401333004894 1395802358422 {{c1::Myotonic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1}} is
musculr dystrophy cused by CTG trinucleotide repets in the <i>DMPK </i>gene,
thereby cusing bnorml expression of myotonin protein kinse. <br /><div><i>Ab
norml myotonin protein kinse deficiency cues myotoni, muscle wsting, front
l blding, ctrcts, testiculr trophy nd rrhythmi.</i></div>
1401333127454 1395802358422 Which enzyme is ffected in Myotonic Musculr Dy
strophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myotonin Protein Kinse}}</div>
1401333348144 1395802358422 Wht crdic complictions re seen in Myot
onic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arrhythmi}}</div>
1401333408045 1395802358422 Wht gondl complictions re seen in Myot
onic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Testiculr trophy}}<
/div>
1401333439541 1395802358422 Wht oculr complictions re seen in Myoto
nic Musculr Dystrophy Type 1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ctrcts}}</div>
1401333454369 1395802358422 Wht gene is ffected in Frgile X Syndrome?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>FMR1</i>}}</div>
1401333843231 1395802358422 {{c1::Frgile X Syndrome}} is n X-linked disord
er ffecting the methyltion nd expression of the <i>FMR1</i> gene.
1401333863062 1395802358422 Wht is the 2nd most common cuse of genetic int
ellectul disbility?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Frgile X Syndrome}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Down Syndrome is #1.</i></div>
1401333956775 1395802358422 {{c1::Mcroorchidism}} is gondl compliction
of Frgile X syndrome typiclly seen in mles fter puberty. <br /><div><i>i.
e. big blls</i></div>
1401334222388 1395802358422 Wht crdic vlvulr disorder is seen in Frgil
e X syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitrl Vlve Prolpse}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>For the NBA fns:</i><div><i><br /></i><div><img src="pste-34063385
625082.jpg" /></div></div>
1401334353239 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Frgile X S
yndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CGG}}</div>
1401334387032 1395802358422 {{c1::Frgile X Syndrome}} is n X-linked trinuc
leotide repet disorder ffecting the <i>FMR1</i> gene tht presents with
<b>long fce, lrge jw</b> nd <b>lrge everted ers</b>.

1401334514040 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Friedrich A
txi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GAA}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-34329
673597094.jpg" /></div>
1401334592021 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Frgile X S
yndrome??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CGG}}</div>
<div><br /></div><img sr
c="pste-34333968564390.jpg" />
1401334633017 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Huntinton D
isese??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CAG}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-34329
673597094.jpg" /></div>
1401334645439 1395802358422 Wht trinucleotide repet is seen in Myotonic Dy
strophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CTG}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-34329
673597094.jpg" /></div>
1401334663114 1395802358422 Wht is the most common etiology of Down Syndrom
e (Trisomy 21)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Meiotic Nondisjunction of homologous
chromosomes}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Associted with incresed mternl ge</i>
</div><div><i><img src="pste-35360465748483.jpg" /></i></div>
1401335194239 1395802358422 How does incresed mternl ge influence the ri
sk of hving child with Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed; e
specilly through meiotic nondisjunction of homologous chromosomes}}</div>
<br /><div><i>1:1500 in mothers < 20</i></div><div><i>1:25 in mothers > 45
</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-35356170781187.jpg" /></i></div>
1401335311099 1395802358422 Wht is the 2nd most common etiology of Down Syn
drome (Trisomy 21)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Robertsonin trnsloction}}</div
>
1401335359271 1395802358422 Wht is the most common vible chromosoml disor
der?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Down Syndrome}}</div>
1401335425518 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of genetic intelle
ctul disbility?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Down Syndrome}}</div>
1401335437238 1395802358422 {{c1::Down Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy di
sorder tht is ssocited with <b>incresed nuchl trnslucency</b> nd <
b>hypoplstic nsl bone</b> in first trimester ultrsound.
1401335791564 1395802358422 How do serum PAPP-A (Pregnncy-ssocited plsm
protein A) levels chnge in the first trimester of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401336066058 1395802358422 How do free bet-hCG levels chnge in the first
trimester of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401336087973 1395802358422 How do lph-fetoprotein levels chnge in the se
cond trimester qud screen of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese
}}</div>
1401336228278 1395802358422 How do bet-hCG levels chnge in the second trim
ester qud screen of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401336349343 1395802358422 How do estriol levels chnge in the second trime
ster qud screen of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401336369013 1395802358422 How do Inhibin A levels chnge in the second tri
mester qud screen of Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
sorder tht is ssocited with <b>flt fcies</b>, <b>prominent epicnthl folds
</b>, <b>single plmr crese</b> nd <b>gp between the 1st 2 toes</b>.
sorder tht is ssocited with <b>duodenl tresi</b> nd <b>Hirschprung d
isese</b>.
sorder tht is ssocited with ostium primum-type tril septl defects.
1401336751869 1395802358422 Wht type of septl defect is ssocited with Do
wn Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ostium primum-type tril septl defect}
}</div>
1401336784440 1395802358422 {{c1::Brushfield Spots}} re morphologicl fe
ture of Down Syndrome described s smll white or gryish/brown spots on the per
iphery of the iris.
1401381184439 1395802358422 How does the risk of Acute Lymphocytic Leukemi

(ALL) chnge in Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401381222405 1395802358422 How does the risk of Acute Myeloblstic Leukemi
(AML) chnge in Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401381241911 1395802358422 How does the risk of Alzheimer Disese chnge in
Down Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>So
me Down Syndrome ptients hve AD by 40 y/o.</i></div><div><i>Risk significntly
increses > 35 y/o.</i></div>
1401381279814 1395802358422 Which chromosoml trisomy is seen in Down Syndro
me?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trisomy 21}}</div>
1401381329907 1395802358422 Wht is the most common utosoml trisomy?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Down Syndrome; 1:700}}</div>
1401381348391 1395802358422 Wht chromosoml trisomy is found in Edwrds Syn
drome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trisomy 18}}</div>
1401381371613 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy of someone with Edw
rds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::< 1 y/o}}</div>
1401382414957 1395802358422 {{c1::Edwrds Syndrome}} is n utosoml trisomy
tht is ssocited with rocker-bottom feet nd <b>micrognthi</b>.
<br /><div><i>Micrognthi = smll jw</i></div>
tht is ssocited with <b>low-set ers</b> nd <b>clenched hnds</b>.
ssocited with <b>prominent occiput</b>.
1401382602910 1395802358422 How do PAPP-A (Pregnncy ssocited plsm prote
in A) levels chnge in the first trimester in Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401382655003 1395802358422 How do bet-hCG levels chnge in the first trime
ster in Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}
}</div>
1401382667029 1395802358422 How do lph-fetoprotein levels chnge in the qu
d screen in Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decr
ese}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Everything is decresed in Edwrds Syndrome (
Trisomy 18)</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>"All these hoes re going d
own on Edwrd."</i></div>
1401382696928 1395802358422 How do bet-hCG levels chnge in the qud screen
in Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><i>Everything is decresed in Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy
18)</i></div>
1401382720973 1395802358422 How do estriol levels chnge in the qud screen
in Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</di
v>
<br /><div><i>Everything decreses in Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)
</i></div>
1401383374670 1395802358422 How do Inhibin A levels chnge in the qud scree
n in Edwrds Syndrome (Trisomy 18)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese (or
norml)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Everything decreses in Edwrds Syndr
ome (Trisomy 18)</i></div>
1401383405923 1395802358422 Wht chromosoml trisomy is seen in Ptu Syndro
me?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trisomy 13}}</div>
1401383464593 1395802358422 {{c1::Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)}} is n utoso
ml trisomy tht is ssocited with rocker-bottom feet nd <b>microphthlmi</b>
.
ml trisomy tht is ssocited with <b>microcephly</b> nd <b>holoprosence
phly</b>.
ml trisomy tht is ssocited with <b>cleft lip</b> nd <b>cleft plte</b
>.
ml trisomy tht is ssocited with <b>polydctyly</b>.
1401384507165 1395802358422 How do free bet-hCG levels chnge in the first
trimester in Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre

se}}</div>
1401384543445 1395802358422 How do PAPP-A (pregnncy ssocited plsm prote
in A) levels chnge in the first trimester in Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401384569961 1395802358422 How does nuchl trnslucency chnge in the first
trimester in Ptu Syndrome (Trisomy 13)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incre
se}}</div>
1401384602177 1395802358422 {{c1::Robertsonin Trnsloction}} is chromoso
ml trnsloction tht tht involves the fusion of the long rms of 2 crocentri
c chromosomes t the centromere nd the loss of the 2 short rms.<div><br /></di
<br /><div><i>Nonrecipro
cl trnsloction</i></div><div><i>Cn be blnced or unblnced</i></div><div><
i>One of the most common</i></div>
1401384991580 1395802358422 Which chromosoml pirs re commonly involved in
Robertsonin Trnsloctions?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::13; 14; 15; 21; 22}}</d
iv>
1401385053793 1395802358422 {{c1::Cri-du-cht Syndrome}} is n utosoml chr
omosome disorder cused by <b>congenitl microdeletion of the short rm of chr
omosome 5</b>. <br /><div><i>i.e. 46,XX,5p- or 46,XY,5p-</i></div>
1401385548158 1395802358422 {{c1::Cri-du-cht Syndrome}} is congenitl chr
omosoml microdeletion tht involves <b>high-pitched crying/mewing</b>.
1401385598203 1395802358422 Wht type of crdic septl defect is seen in Cr
i-du-cht Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ventriculr Septl Defect (VSD)}}
</div>
1401385626537 1395802358422 Which chromosome undergoes microdeletion in Cr
i-du-cht Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 5}}</div>
1401386676276 1395802358422 {{c1::Willims Syndrome}} is n utosoml chromo
some disorder tht involves congenitl microdeletion of the long rm of chromo
some 7, including the elstin gene.
1401386974825 1395802358422 Which chromosome undergoes microdeletion in Wi
llims Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 7; including the elstin
gene}}</div>
1401386993470 1395802358422 Which importnt gene on Chromosome 7 is deleted
in Willims Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Elstin}}</div>
1401387024811 1395802358422 {{c1::Willims Syndrome}} is congenitl chromo
soml microdeletion disorder tht is ssocited with distinctive <b>"elfin"</b>&
nbsp;fcies.
soml microdeletion disorder tht is ssocited with <b>well-developed verbl sk
ills</b> nd <b>extreme friendliness with strngers</b>.
soml microdeletion disorder tht is ssocited with <b>hyperclcemi</b> t
ht hs n <b>incresed sensitivity to vitmin D.</b>
1401387108466 1395802358422 {{c1::DiGeorge Syndrome}} is 22q11 deletion sy
ndrome tht presents with <b>thymic plsi</b>, <b>prthyroid plsi</b>&nbsp
;nd <b>crdic defects</b>.
</div>
1401387565210 1395802358422 {{c1::Velocrdiofcil Syndrome}} is 22q11 del
etion syndrome tht presents with <b>cleft plte</b>, <b>bnorml fcies</b>&nb
sp;nd <b>crdic defects</b>. <br /><div><img src="pste-5153960755356.jpg" />
</div>
1401387638673 1395802358422 {{c1::22q11 deletion syndromes}} re group of
chromosoml deletion syndromes tht yield specific series of complictions due
to microdeletion t chromosome 22q11.
60755356.jpg" /></div>
1401387692793 1395802358422 Which brnchil pouches re ffected in 22q11 de
letion syndromes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3rd; 4th}}</div>
1401387724107 1395802358422 {{c1::T-cell Deficiency}} is n immunologicl co
mpliction of 22q11 deletion syndromes due to the thymic plsi seen.
1401387754048 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoclcemi}} is serum electrolyte comp

liction of 22q11 deletion syndromes tht rises s result of prthyroid pl
si.
<br /><div><i>Remember, PTH increses serum [C]; Clcitonin decreses s
erum [C]</i></div>
1401387927154 1395802358422 Wht chromosoml deletion is seen in DiGeorge Sy
ndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::22q11}}</div>
1401387958636 1395802358422 Wht chromosoml deletion is seen in Velocrdiof
cil Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::22q11}}</div>
1401389801179 1395802358422 Wht re the ft soluble vitmins?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Vitmin A, D, E, nd K}}</div>
All others re wter soluble.</i></div><div><i>Absorption is therefore dependent
on the gut nd pncres.</i></div><div><i>Mlbsorption syndromes often cuse f
t-soluble vitmin deficiency.</i></div>
1401390200622 1395802358422 Vitmins with which type of solubility hve more
common toxicity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ft soluble due to ccumultion in
body ft stores}}</div>
1401390337900 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Thimine (TPP)?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::B1}}</div>
1401391000309 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Riboflvin (FAD; FMN)?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::B2}}</div>
1401391011894 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Nicin (NAD+)?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::B3}}</div>
1401391026121 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Pnthothenic Acid (CoA)?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::B5}}</div>
1401391213415 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Pyridoxine (PLP)?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::B6}}</div>
1401391224209 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Biotin?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::B7}}</div>
1401391229424 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Folte?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::B9}}</div>
1401391234182 1395802358422 Wht B-vitmin is Coblmin<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::B12}}</div>
1401391243366 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is Ascorbic Acid?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Vitmin C}}</div>
1401391279216 1395802358422 Which B-vitmin is the only one tht does not w
sh out esily from the body?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B12; Coblmin}}
</div> <br /><div><i>It is stored in the liver</i></div>
1401391313688 1395802358422 Wht trid of symptoms is commonly seen in Vitm
in B-complex deficiencies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dirrhe; Dermtitis; Glos
sitis}}</div>
1401391481670 1395802358422 {{c1::Dirrhe}}, {{c2::dermtitis}}, nd&n
bsp;{{c3::glossitis}} is trid of symptoms commonly seen in Vitmin B-complex
deficiencies
<br><i>Enteritis is lso common</i>
1401391504040 1395802358422 Which vitmin is constituent of visul pigment
s (Retinl)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A (Retinol)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i><b>Retin</b>ol = Vitmin <b>A</b>; <b>Retin-A</b>; <b>Retin</b>l</i></div
>
1401391975504 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is essentil for norm
l differentition of epithelil cells into specilized tissue?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Vitmin A (Retinol)}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.g. pncretic cells; muc
ous-secreting cells</i></div>
1401392014083 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is known to prevent sq
umous metplsi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A}}</div>
1401392329929 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is used s tretment
for <b>Mesles</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A}}</div>
1401392348131 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is used s tretment
for <b>AML-M3</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A}}</div>
1401392359900 1395802358422 {{c1::Nyctlopi}} is visul deficit seen in V
itmin A deficiency nd is described s night blindness.
1401392580790 1395802358422 {{c1::Xerosis cutis}} is cutneous complictio
n of vitmin A deficiency nd is described s dry, scly skin.

1401392605760 1395802358422 {{c1::Alopeci}} is cutneous compliction of
vitmin A deficiency nd involves loss of hir.
1401392628425 1395802358422 {{c1::Kertomlci}} is n oculr compliction
of vitmin A deficiency nd is described s cornel degenertion.
1401392649118 1395802358422 How does vitmin A deficiency ffect the immune
system?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cuses immunosuppression}}</div>
1401392671875 1395802358422 Wht cutneous chnges re seen when there is n
excess of Vitmin A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Scliness; lopeci}}</div>
1401394260873 1395802358422 Wht bone complictions re seen when there is
n excess of Vitmin A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Osteoporosis}}</div>
1401394277936 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is highly tertogenic
when it is in excess?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin A}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hence, negtive pregnncy test <b>nd</b> relible contrception is
required before ptient cn be prescribed isoretinoin for severe cne.</i></d
iv>
1401394720445 1395802358422 Wht tertogenic effects re yielded by vitmin
A (Retinol) when it is in excess mounts?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cleft plt
e; crdic bnormlities}}</div>
1401394756002 1395802358422 {{c1::Thimine Pyrophosphte (TPP)}} is the enzy
me cofctor form of Vitmin B1 (Thimine).
1401394831658 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte dehydrogense}} is metbolic en
zyme tht links glycolysis to the TCA cycle nd requires Vitmin B1 (Thimine)
s cofctor. <br /><div><img src="pste-9925669421121.jpg" /></div>
1401394880917 1395802358422 {{c1::Alph-ketoglutrte dehydrogense}} is n
enzyme involved in the TCA cycle tht requires Vitmin B1 (Thimine) s c
ofctor.
1401394914859 1395802358422 {{c1::Trnsketolse}} is n enzyme involved in t
he HMP shunt tht requires Vitmin B1 (Thimine) s cofctor.
<br /><d
1401394997033 1395802358422 {{c1::Brnched-chin ketocid dehydrogense}} is
n enzyme involved in brnched chin mino cid metbolism tht requires V
itmin B1 (Thimine) s cofctor.
1401395083455 1395802358422 How does Vitmin B1 (Thimine) deficiency ffect
glucose brekdown?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Impirs it; the resultnt ATP dep
letion is worsened by glucose dministrtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember t
he 2 importnt enzymes in glucose brekdown tht require Thimine. Highly erobi
c tissues such s the hert nd brin re ffected first (i.e. Wernicke-Korskof
f).</i></div><div><i>This is lso why we </i><b style="font-style: itlic; ">lw
ys dminister Thimine <u>before</u> glucose</b>. </div>
1401396795238 1395802358422 {{c1::Dry Beriberi}} is disorder cused by Vit
min B1 (Thimine) deficiency nd involves <b>polyneuritis </b>nd<b> symme
tricl muscle wsting</b>.
1401396866631 1395802358422 {{c1::Wet Beriberi}} is disorder cused by Vit
min B1 (Thimine) deficiency tht involves <b>high-output crdic filure</b>&n
bsp;(due to dilted crdiomyopthy) nd <b>edem</b>. <br /><div><i>Wet beribe
ri = wet</i></div><div><i>Blood = wet</i></div><div><i>Hence, wet beriberi = blo
od. </i></div><div><i>So think hert nd edem.</i></div>
1401396982797 1395802358422 {{c1::Trnsketolse}} is n enzyme found in RBCs
tht is used to dignose Vitmin B1 deficiency.
<br /><div><i>An incres
e in RBC Trnsketolse ctivity fter vitmin B1 dministrtion helps us ensure
tht the tretment is working.</i></div>
1401397245268 1395802358422 {{c1::Wernicke-Korskoff Syndrome}} is neurolo
gicl disorder cused by Vitmin B1 deficiency nd involves clssic trid of <
b>confusion, ophthlmoplegi</b>, nd <b>txi</b>.
1401397311883 1395802358422 {{c1::Wernicke-Korskoff Syndrome}} is neurolo
gicl disorder tht occurs due to Vitmin B1 deficiency nd involves <u style="f
ont-weight: bold; ">permnent</u> <b>confbultion, personlity chnge</b>&
nbsp;nd <b>memory loss</b>.
1401397354715 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the thlmus is dmged in Wern
icke-Korskoff Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Medil Dorsl Nucleus}}</div

>
1401397382488 1395802358422 Which re of the limbic system is dmged in We
rnicke-Korskoff Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mmmillry Bodies}}</div>
1401404544210 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is deficient in Wernicke-Korskoff
Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B1 (Thimine)}}</div>
1401404581312 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is deficient is deficient in Beribe
ri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B1 (Thimine)}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-12738872999999.jpg" /></div>
1401405243314 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is component of th
e flvins FAD nd FMN?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B2 (Riboflvin)}}</div
>
<br /><div><i>FAD nd FMN re used s cofctors in redox rections.</i><
/div><div><i><img src="pste-12872016986186.jpg" /></i></div>
1401407636254 1395802358422 {{c1::Cheilosis}} is n orl compliction of Vit
min B2 (Riboflvin) deficiency nd involves <b>inflmmtion of the lips</b> nd
<b>scling/fissure t the corners of the mouth</b>.
1401407704149 1395802358422 {{c1::Cornel vsculriztion}} is n oculr com
pliction of Vitmin B2 (Riboflvin) deficiency.
1401407732466 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is constituent of
NAD+ nd NADP+?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>NAD nd NADP re both used in redox rections.</i></div><div><i><img src="
pste-13207024435234.jpg" /></i></div>
1401408275262 1395802358422 Which mino cid is used to derive Vitmin B3 (N
icin)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn}}</div>
1401408291829 1395802358422 Which 2 wter soluble vitmins re needed to syn
thesize Vitmin B3 (Nicin) from Tryptophn?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmins
B2 nd B6}}</div>
1401408327252 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is used to tret dys
lipidemi s it lowers the levels of VLDL nd rises HDL?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div>
1401408353017 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}} is wter soluble v
itmin tht is used to tret dyslipidemi s it functions to lower the levels of
VLDL nd rise HDL.
1401408385983 1395802358422 {{c1::Hrtnup Disese}} is n utosoml recessiv
e metbolic disorder tht cn cuse Vitmin B3 (Nicin) deficiency by decresing
tryptophn bsorption. <br /><div><i>The muttion in SLC6A19, N-dependent ne
utrl mino cid trnsporter, yields decrese in Tryptophn sborption.</i></d
iv>
1401409148309 1395802358422 {{c1::Mlignnt Crcinoid Syndrome}} is neopl
stic syndrome tht cn cuse Vitmin B3 (Nicin) deficiency though n incre
se in tryptophn metbolism. <br /><div><i>Remember, Tryptophn cn be conver
ted to serotonin nd meltonin in ddition to nicin. If serotonin production in
creses, less tryptophn is vilble to be mde into nicin.</i></div>
1401409238001 1395802358422 {{c1::Isonizid}} is n nti-TB drug tht cn c
use Vitmin B3 (Nicin) deficiency by decresing Vitmin B6 levels.
<br /><div><i>Remember, Vitmin B6 is needed for the synthesis of Nicin.</i></d
iv><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>Iso<b>NIAZ</b>id cuses <b>NIAZ</b>in deficie
ncy.</i></div>
1401409864161 1395802358422 {{c1::Pellgr}} is vitmin deficiency disorde
r cused by deficiency in Vitmin B3 (Nicin). <br /><div><i>Presents w
ith the 3 (or 4) D's:</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>Dirrhe</i></div
><div><i>Dementi (with hllucintions)</i></div><div><i>Dermtitis</i></div><di
v><i>(Deth)</i></div>
1401410055440 1395802358422 {{c1::Pellgr}} is Vitmin B3 (Nicin) d
eficiency disorder tht presents with <b>dirrhe, dermtitis, dementi</b>&nbsp
;nd possibly <b>deth</b>.
<br /><div><i>The 3 (or 4) D's of Pellgr.</i><
/div>
1401410092495 1395802358422 {{c1::Glossitis}} is n orl compliction of&nbs
p;Vitmin B3 (Nicin) deficiency tht primrily ffects the tongue.
1401410119028 1395802358422 {{c1::Fcil flushing}} is morphologicl fetu
re of Vitmin B3 (Nicin) excess tht is cused by n increse in prostgl

ndin levels.
<br /><div><i>Not cused by Histmine.</i></div>
1401410259636 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is deficient in Pellgr?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div>
1401410494871 1395802358422 Wht vitmin deficiency cn be cused by Hrtnup
Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Decrese in tryptophn bsorption cuses decrese in Vitmin B3 (Ni
cin) production.</i></div>
1401410503168 1395802358422 Wht vitmin deficiency cn be cused by Mlign
nt Crcinoid Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B3 (Nicin)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Increse in serotonin production cuses incresed metbolism of tr
yptophn, thereby tking wy tryptophn from Vitmin B3 (Nicin) productio
n.</i></div>
1401410593954 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is n essentil comp
onent of Coenzyme A (CoA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B5 (Pnthothente)
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>B5 = <b>pento</b>thente</i></div>
1401410642021 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is n essentil comp
onent of Ftty Acid Synthse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B5 (Pnthothen
te)}}</div>
1401410672835 1395802358422 {{c1::Adrenl Insufficiency}} is n endocrine co
mpliction of Vitmin B5 (Pnthothente) deficiency.
1401410697947 1395802358422 Wht 2 cutneous complictions re seen in
Vitmin B5 (Pnthothente) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dermtitis; l
opeci}}</div>
1401410730505 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is converted to Pyri
doxl Phosphte, cofctor used in trnsmintion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V
itmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
doxl pyrophosphte, cofctor used in decrboxyltion rections?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
doxl pyrophosphte, cofctor used in Glycogen Phosphorylse?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
1401411998663 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required for the
synthesis of neurotrnsmitters?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxin
e)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>NTs include serotonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine
, dopmine, GABA</i></div>
synthesis of heme?<div><br />{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
synthesis of Vitmin B3 (Nicin)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridox
ine)}}</div>
synthesis of Cystthionine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}
</div>
1401412108425 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is needed for the sy
nthesis of Histmine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
1401412120629 1395802358422 {{c1::Sideroblstic nemi}} is hemtologicl
compliction of Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine) deficiency tht rises due to imp
ired hemoglobin synthesis nd iron excess.
1401412190668 1395802358422 {{c1::Peripherl neuropthy}} nd {{c2::con
vulsions}} re both neurologicl complictions of Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine) d
eficiency.
1401412263053 1395802358422 {{c1::Isonizid}} is n nti-TB drug tht cn in
duce Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine) deficiency. <br /><div><i>Wht other vitmin
deficiency cn isonizid cuse? Vitmin B3 (Nicin)</i></div>
1401412362953 1395802358422 {{c1::Orl contrceptives}} re type of hormon
l drug tht cn cuse Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine) deficiency.
1401412520400 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin functions s cofc
tor for mny crboxyltion enzymes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B7 (Bioti
n)}}</div>
1401412615206 1395802358422 {{c1::Avidin}} is protein found in egg whites
tht cn bind to Vitmin B7 (Biotin).
1401412876331 1395802358422 Wht re the cutneous complictions seen in&nbs
p;Vitmin B7 (Biotin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dermtitis; lopeci
}}</div>
1401412915969 1395802358422 Wht is the GI compliction seen in Vitmin
B7 (Biotin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Enteritis}}</div>
1401412927691 1395802358422 Excessive ingestion of {{c1::rw egg whites
}} is potentil cuse of Vitmin B7 (Biotin) due to Avidin's bility to b
ind to Biotin. <br /><div><i>In generl, Vitmin B7 (Biotin) deficiency is
quite rre nd the only other cuse is ntibiotic use.</i></div>
1401413039537 1395802358422 Which wter soluble enzyme is converted to Tetr
hydrofolte (THF), coenzyme for 1-crbon trnsfer/methyltion rections?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid)}}</div>
1401414272434 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmine is importnt in the
synthesis of nitrogenous bses in DNA nd RNA?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitm
in B9 (Folic Acid)}}</div>
1401414290353 1395802358422 In which portion of the smll intestine is
Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) bsorbed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Jejunum}}</div>
1401414313912 1395802358422 In which type of foods is Vitmin B9 (Folic
Acid) found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lefy green vegetbles}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i><b>FOL</b>ic cid = <b>FOL</b>ige</i></div>
1401414341457 1395802358422 Where in the body is the smll reserve pool of&n
bsp;Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) stored?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Liver}}</div>
1401414360650 1395802358422 Wht type of nemi is seen in Vitmin B9
(Folic Acid) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Megloblstic nemi}}</div
>
<br /><div><i>With hypersegmented polymorphonucler cells (PMNs).</i></d
iv>
1401414756869 1395802358422 How do homocysteine levels chnge in Vitmi
n B9 (Folic Acid) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401414784317 1395802358422 How do methylmlonic cid levels chnge in
Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No chnge; they s
ty norml}}</div>
<i><div></div></i><i><br />Increse in B12 deficiency</i
>
1401414825003 1395802358422 Wht is the most common vitmin deficiency in th
e United Sttes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Seen in lcoholism nd pregnncy</i></div>
1401414851986 1395802358422 {{c1::Methotrexte}} is n ntineoplstic drug t
ht cn cuse Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) deficiency.
1401414880832 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenytoin}} is n nticonvulsnt tht cn
cuse Vitmin B9 (Folic Acid) deficiency.
1401414935097 1395802358422 How does the risk of neurl tube defects chnge
following dministrtion of supplementl mternl folic cid?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401415336987 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is used s cofcto
r for Homocysteine Methyltrnsferse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B12 (Co
blmin)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>It trnsfers methyl group s methy
lcoblmin.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-19155554140667.jpg" /></div>
1401415597758 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is used s cofcto
r for Methylmlonyl-CoA Mutse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B12 (Coblmi
n)}}</div>
1401415635866 1395802358422 Wht type of nemi is seen in Vitmin B12 (Cob
lmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Megloblstic nemi}}</div>
<br /><div><i>With hypersegmented PMNs</i></div>
1401415670506 1395802358422 {{c1::Subcute Combined Degenertion}} is neur
ologicl compliction of Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency nd involves degener
tion of the dorsl columns, lterl corticospinl trcts nd spinocerebellr tr
<br /><div><i>Prolonged B12 deficiency cn cuse
cts due to bnorml myelin.
<b>irreversible nerve dmge</b>.</i></div>
1401415953858 1395802358422 How do homocysteine levels chnge in Vitmin B12

(Coblmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<div><br
1401415975915 1395802358422 How do methylmlonic cid levels chnge in Vitm
in B12 (Coblmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401416030134 1395802358422 Where in the body is the very lrge reserve pool
of Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) stored?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Liver}}</div>
1401416061316 1395802358422 Wht kind of diet is known to induce Vitmin B12
(Coblmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vegn}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Due to the lck of niml products in the diet.</i></div>
1401416133599 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Diphyllobothrium ltum</i>}} is tpew
orm tht cn cuse Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency through mlbsorption.
1401416520742 1395802358422 {{c1::Pernicious nemi}} is type of nemi
tht cn cuse Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency due to lck of intrinsi
c fctor.
1401416964353 1395802358422 Which portion of the smll intestine is the site
of Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) bsorption?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Terminl
Ileum}}</div>
1401416995400 1395802358422 {{c1::Crohn Disese}} is n inflmmtory bowel d
isese tht cn cuse Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency due to dmge to t
he terminl ileum.
1401417025901 1395802358422 {{c1::Pernicious nemi}} is type of nemi
tht cuses Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency through nti-intrinsic fcto
r ntibodies.
1401417051698 1395802358422 Wht utontibodies in pernicious nemi cuse&
nbsp;Vitmin B12 (Coblmin) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-intrins
ic fctor ntibodies}}</div>
1401417072870 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin fcilittes iron bs
orption by reducing it to the Fe<sup>2+</sup> stte?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417575830 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is necessry for the
hydroxyltion of proline nd lysine in collgen synthesis?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417615246 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is necessry for Dop
mine bet-hydroxylse, the enzyme tht converts DA to NE?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417696664 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is used s n ncill
ry tretment for Methemoglobinemi by reducing Fe<sup>3+</sup> to Fe<sup>2
+</sup>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417750782 1395802358422 {{c1::Scurvy}} is connective tissue disorder c
used by Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid) deficiency tht presents with <b>"corksc
rew" hir </b>nd <b>swollen gums</b>.
used by Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid) deficiency tht presents with <b>bruisin
g</b>, <b>hemrthrosis</b>, nd <b>poor wound heling</b>.
used by Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid) deficiency tht presents with <b>perifol
liculr </b>nd <b>subperiostel hemorrhges</b>.
1401417879033 1395802358422 Wht vitmin is deficient in Scurvy?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}}</div>
1401417895593 1395802358422 How does Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid) deficien
cy ffect the immune system?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Wekened}}</div>
1401417909129 1395802358422 Wht type of nephrolithisis is seen in Vit
min C (Ascorbic Acid) excess?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clcium oxlte}}</div
>
1401417957145 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitmin C (Ascorbic Acid)}} is wter sol
uble vitmin tht increses the risk of iron toxicity in predisposed individuls
.
<br /><div><i>i.e. those people with trnsfusions nd hereditry hemochr
omtosis</i></div>
1401418025681 1395802358422 {{c1::Ergoclciferol (D<sub>2</sub>)}} is the fo

rm of Vitmin D tht is ingested from plnts.
1401418802085 1395802358422 {{c1::Choleclciferol (D<sub>3</sub>)}} is the f
orm of Vitmin D tht is consumed in milk.
1401418826868 1395802358422 In which lyer of sun-exposed skin is Choleclci
ferol (Vitmin D<sub>3</sub>) formed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Strtum bsle}
}</div>
1401418871576 1395802358422 {{c1::25-OH D<sub>3</sub>}} is the storge form
of Vitmin D.
1401419169898 1395802358422 {{c1::Clcitriol [1,25-(OH)<sub>2</sub> D<s
ub>3</sub>]}} is the ctive form of Vitmin D.
1401419206278 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin functions to increse
intestinl bsorption of C nd PO<sub>4</sub>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitm
in D}}</div>
1401419237505 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin functions to increse
bone minerliztion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin D}}</div>
1401419252256 1395802358422 {{c1::Rickets}} is bone disorder cused by Vit
min D deficiency in children. <div><br /></div><i>Involves bone pin nd defor
mity.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-22535693402514.jpg" /></div>
1401419297030 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteomlci}} is bone disorder cused b
y Vitmin D deficiency in dults.
<br /><div><i>Involves bone pin nd mus
cle wekness.</i></div>
1401419461841 1395802358422 {{c1::Srcoidosis}} is grnulomtous immune di
sorder tht involves incresed ctivtion of Vitmin D by epithelioid mcrophge
s.
1401419632024 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin cts s n ntioxidnt
, especilly in RBCs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin E (Tocopherol/Tocotrien
ol)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Proteins RBCs nd membrnes from free rdicl dm
ge</i></div>
1401419707427 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is ble to enhnce the
nticogulnt effects of Wrfrin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin E (Tocoph
erol/Tocotrienol)}}</div>
1401419862590 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitmin E (Tocopherol/Tocotrienol)}} is
ft soluble vitmin tht cuses <b>posterior column</b> nd <b>spinocerebel
lr trct demyelintion </b>if it is deficient. <br /><div><i>This my hve si
milr neurologicl presenttion to Vitmin V12 deficiency, but without meglobl
stic nemi, hypersegmented PMNs or incresed methylmlonic cid.</i></div>
1401420404066 1395802358422 {{c1::Acnthocytosis}} nd {{c2::hemolytic
nemi}} re hemtologicl complictions seen in Vitmin E (Tocopherol/Tocotrie
nol) deficiency.
<br /><div><i>Remember, Vitmin E (Tocopherol/Tocot
rienol) is n importnt ntioxidnt in RBCs.</i></div>
1401420466162 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is the cofctor for g
mm-crboxyltion of glutmic cid residues on vrious proteins involved in bloo
d clotting?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin K}}</div>
1401421037310 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is synthesized by inte
stinl flor?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin K}}</div>
1401421047625 1395802358422 Which ft soluble vitmin is necessry for the
ctivtion of clotting fctors II, VII, IX, X nd proteins C nd S?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Vitmin K}}</div>
1401421081854 1395802358422 Aginst which ft soluble vitmin is Wrfrin n
ntgonist?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin K}}</div>
1401421108243 1395802358422 {{c1::Neontl hemorrhging}} is hemtologicl
disorder seen in neontes with Vitmin K deficiency nd involves n <b>increse
d PT</b> nd <b>incresed PTT</b>, but norml bleeding time.
<br /><d
iv><i>Vitmin K is not found in brest milk. Neontes re given Vitmin K inject
ions t birth to prevent bleeding dithesis.</i></div>
1401421216682 1395802358422 {{c1::Zinc}} is trce element essentil for th
e ctivity of 100+ enzymes, especilly the formtion of trnscription fctor mot
ifs.
<br /><div><i>i.e. Zinc-finger trnscription fctor motifs</i></div>
1401421247311 1395802358422 {{c1::Acrodermtitis enteropthic}} is cutne
ous disorder seen in Zinc deficiency.

1401421281528 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypogondism}} is gondl compliction s
een in Zinc deficiency.
1401421296898 1395802358422 {{c1::Zinc}} is trce element tht is ssocit
ed with <b>dysgeusi</b> nd <b>nosmi</b> when it is deficient.
1401421321859 1395802358422 {{c1::Zinc}} is trce element tht cn predisp
ose to lcoholic cirrhosis when it is deficient.
1401421486821 1395802358422 How mny clories per grm re obtined from Cr
bohydrtes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4 kcl/g}}</div>
1401421807049 1395802358422 How mny clories per grm re obtined from Pro
tein?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4 kcl/g}}</div>
1401421820077 1395802358422 How mny clories per grm re obtined from ft
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::9 kcl/g}}</div>
1401421835795 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts Ethnol into Acetldehyde
in lcohol metbolism?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alcohol dehydrogense}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Functions vi zero-order kinetics</i><br /><div><img src="p
ste-25327422144653.jpg" /></div>
1401422094047 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts Acetldehyde into Acette
in lcohol metbolism?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acetldehyde dehydrogense}}</
div>
<i><div></div></i><i><br /></i>Requires <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For N
ncy</b>:<div><i>- Thimine (B1)</i></div><div><i>- Lipoic Acid</i></div><div><i>
- CoA (Pntothente)</i></div><div><i>- FAD (Riboflvin)</i></div><div><i>- NAD
(Nicin)<br /></i><div><img src="pste-25323127177357.jpg" /></div></div>
1401422453854 1395802358422 {{c1::NAD<sup>+</sup>}} is coenzyme molecule d
eveloped from Nicin tht cts s the limiting regent in lcohol metbolism.
1401422534567 1395802358422 How do NADH levels chnge in lcohol metbolism?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse; lcohol metbolism forms NADH from NAD+}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>NADH:NAD<sup>+</sup> rtio increses.</i></div><div><
i><img src="pste-25323127177357.jpg" /></i></div>
1401422563613 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetldehyde}} is metbolite of lcohol
metbolism tht is toxic nd forms dducts with proteins, thereby cusing dmge
.
1401422772024 1395802358422 {{c1::Acette}} is metbolite of lcohol metb
olism tht cn cuse metbolic cidosis when it ccumultes.
1401422795947 1395802358422 How does ethnol ffect GABA ction?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::It is GABA-mimetic, hence it is dditive to CNS depressnts}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><i>Becuse of this, it cn excerbte dverse effects nd cu
se com/deth.</i></div>
1401422962869 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctic cidosis}} is compliction of eth
nol metbolism due to n increse in the NADH:NAD rtio which drives the conver
sion of pyruvte to lctte.
></div>
1401423025592 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoglycemi}} is compliction of ethno
l metbolism due to the incresed NADH:NAD rtio driving the conversion of oxlo
cette to mlte, thereby preventing gluconeogenesis. <div><br></div><i>We cor
rect the hypoglycemi with <u style="font-weight: bold; ">IV thimine befor
e glucose</u> s thimine is required cofctor for glucose metbolism.</i
><br><div><img src="pste-27440546054293.jpg" /></div>
1401423079007 1395802358422 How does ethnol metbolism ffect gluconeogenes
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition due to incresed NADH:NAD rtio}}</div
>
<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-27436251086997.jpg" /></div>
1401423161498 1395802358422 {{c1::Heptostetosis}} is compliction of eth
nol metbolism due to the incresed NADH:NAD rtio cusing the conversion of gl
ycerldehyde-3-phosphte to glycerol-3-phosphte, thereby cusing n increse in
triglyceride levels. <br /><div><i>Heptostetosis is lso cused by the incr
esed use of cetyl-CoA for lipogenesis.</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><
i>lipid metbolism</i></div>
1401423225950 1395802358422 {{c1::Ketocidosis}} is compliction of lcoho
l metbolism due to the incresed NADH:NAD rtio disfvouring TCA production of
NADH nd cusing subsequent use of cetyl-CoA for ketogenesis.

1401423326567 1395802358422 {{c1::Fomepizole}} is n zole drug tht is used
to competitively inhibit lcohol dehydrogense, thereby cting s n ntidote f
or methnol or ethylene glycol poisoning.
1401423671336 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Fomepizole in the tretment o
f methnol or ethylene glycol poisoning?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Competitive
inhibition of lcohol dehydrogense}}</div>
1401423705003 1395802358422 {{c1::Disulfirm}} is drug tht trets lcohol
ddiction by inhibiting cetlydehyde dehydrogense. <br /><div><i>This resul
ts in the buildup of cetldehyde nd induces strong toxicity (i.e. hngover s
ymptoms) tht deter ptients from drinking lcohol.</i></div><div><i>This is ls
o wht is referred to with "Disulfirm-like rection"</i></div>
1401424946667 1395802358422 {{c1::Kwshiorkor}} is type of <b>protein</b>&
nbsp;mlnutrition tht results in skin lesions, edem nd liver mlfunction.<div
><br /></div><div><img src="pste-29424820945212.jpg" /></div> <br /><div><img
src="pste-29399051141302.jpg" /></div>
1401425003905 1395802358422 {{c1::Ftty chnge of the liver}} is heptic c
ompliction of Kwshiorkor tht rises due to decresed polipoprotein synthesis
s result of protein mlnutrition.
1401425038269 1395802358422 {{c1::Kwshiorkor}} is type of mlnutrition th
t presents s smll child with swollen belly.<div><br /></div><div><img src
="pste-28991029248321.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>The edem is due to the se
vere protein mlnutrition.</i></div>
1401425104870 1395802358422 {{c1::Mrsmus}} is type of mlnutrition tht
involves <b>totl clorie mlnutrition</b> nd resultnt tissue/muscle wst
ing, loss of subQ ft nd vrible edem.
<br /><div><i><b>M</b>rsmus =
<b>M</b>uscle wsting</i></div>
1401425163401 1395802358422 Where in the body is ethnol metbolised?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Liver <b>only</b>}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-29854
317674625.jpg" /></div>
1401473784107 1395802358422 Where in the cell does ftty cid oxidtion (bet
-oxidtion) occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>
1401473828782 1395802358422 Where in the cell does cetyl-CoA productio
n occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>
1401473842020 1395802358422 Where in the cell does the TCA cycle occur?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>
1401473852838 1395802358422 Where in the cell does oxidtive phosphoryl
tion occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>
1401473862920 1395802358422 Where in the cell does glycolysis occur?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplsm}}</div>
1401473879365 1395802358422 Where in the cell does Ftty cid synthesis
occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplsm}}</div>
1401473888009 1395802358422 Where in the cell does the HMP shunt occur?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplsm}}</div>
1401473896162 1395802358422 Where in the cell does Heme synthesis occur
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both mitochondri nd cytoplsm}}</div>
1401474705901 1395802358422 Where in the cell does the Ure Cycle occur
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both mitochondri nd cytoplsm}}</div>
1401474722855 1395802358422 Where in the cell does Gluconeogenesis occur?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both mitochondri nd cytoplsm}}</div>
1401474752691 1395802358422 A {{c1::kinse}} is type of enzyme tht u
ses ATP to dd high-energy phosphte groups onto substrtes.
1401474851000 1395802358422 A {{c1::phosphorylse}} is type of enzyme
tht dds inorgnic phosphte onto substrtes without using ATP.
1401474882837 1395802358422 A {{c1::phosphtse}} is type of enzyme t
ht removes phosphte groups from substrtes.
1401474896128 1395802358422 A {{c1::dehydrogense}} is type of enzyme
tht ctlyzes oxidtion-reduction rections.
1401474916397 1395802358422 A {{c1::hydroxylse}} is type of enzyme t
ht dds hydroxyl groups (-OH) to substrtes.
1401474934495 1395802358422 A {{c1::crboxylse}} enzyme is type of e

nzyme tht trnsfers CO2 groups with the help of Vitmin B7 (Biotin).
1401474984573 1395802358422 A {{c1::mutse}} is type of enzyme tht reloc
tes functionl group within molecule.
1401475003447 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT5}} is crbohydrte trnsporter foun
d t the <b>luminl membrne</b> of the GI trct tht llows <b>fructose</b
> to be bsorbed.
1401475059128 1395802358422 Which crbohydrte trnsporter on the <b>luminl
membrne</b> of GI epithelium functions to llow <b>fructose</b> to b
e bsorbed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT5}}</div>
1401475085182 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT2}} is crbohydrte trnsporter loc
ted t the <b>bsolterl membrne</b> of GI epithelium tht moves <b>gluco
se nd fructose</b> from the cell into the blood.
1401475119464 1395802358422 Which crbohydrte trnsporter on the <b>bsolt
erl membrne</b> of GI epithelium moves <b>fructose nd glucose</b> f
rom the cell into the blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT2}}</div>
1401475151890 1395802358422 {{c1::S-GLUT1}} is N cotrnsporter on the <b>
luminl membrne</b> of GI epithelium tht moves<b> glctose nd gluc
ose</b> into the cell <b>with N.</b>
1401475197728 1395802358422 Which trnsporter on the <b>luminl membrne</b>
of GI epithelium moves <b>glctose nd glucose</b> into the cell <b>
with N</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::S-GLUT1}}</div>
1401475223934 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of Glycolysi
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phosphofructokinse-1 (PFK-1)}}</div>
1401475517311 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of Gluconeog
enesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fructose-1,6-bisphosphtse}}</div>
1401475530289 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of the TCA c
ycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Isocitrte dehydrogense}}</div>
1401475539831 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of Glycogene
sis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycogen synthse}}</div>
1401475549215 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of Glycogeno
lysis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycogen phosphorylse}}</div>
1401475563451 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of the HMP s
hunt?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose-6-phosphte dehydrogense (G6PD)}}</div
>
1401475580012 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of de novo p
yrimidine synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crbmoyl phosphte synthetse I
I}}</div>
1401475598719 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of de novo p
urine synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PRPP Amidotrnsferse}}</div>
1401475623943 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of the Ure
cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crbmoyl phosphte synthetse I}}</div>
1401475634516 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of ftty ci
d synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acetyl-CoA crboxylse (ACC)}}</div>
1401475651685 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of ftty ci
d oxidtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crnitine cyltrnsferse I}}</div>
1401475663656 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of ketogenes
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA synthse}}</div>
1401475673235 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-determining enzyme of cholester
ol synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA Reductse}}</div>
1401475685825 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Phosphofructokinse-1 i
n Glycolysis chnge with AMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse; vi
llosteric ctivtion}}</div>
n Glycolysis chnge with fructose-2,6-bisphosphte regultion?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
n Glycolysis chnge with ATP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</
div>
n Glycolysis chnge with Citrte regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese

}}</div>
1401475785362 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Fructose-1,6-bisphosph
tse in Gluconeogenesis chnge with ATP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I
ncrese}}</div>
tse in Gluconeogenesis chnge with cetyl-CoA regultion?<div><br></div><div>{{
c1::Increse}}</div>
<br><div><i>This is especilly true in fsting sttes wh
en cetyl-CoA levels re elevted.</i></div>
tse in Gluconeogenesis chnge with AMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D
ecrese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, gluconeogenesis only occurs in high ener
gy sttes.</i></div>
tse in Gluconeogenesis chnge with fructose-2,6-bisphosphte regultion?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401475873367 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Isocitrte dehydrogens
e chnge in the TCA cycle with ADP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incre
se}}</div>
e chnge in the TCA cycle with ATP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
se}}</div>
e chnge in the TCA cycle with NADH regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
<br /><div><i>Hence the incresed NADH in lcohol metbolism shu
se}}</div>
ts off the TCA cycle.</i></div>
1401475925423 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen synthse chng
e in glycogenesis with glucose-6-phosphte regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Increse}}</div>
e in glycogenesis with Insulin regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}
</div>
e in glycogenesis with cortisol regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}
}</div>
e in glycogenesis with Epinephrine regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
se}}</div>
e in glycogenesis with glucgon regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}
}</div>
1401476119682 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Glycogen phosphorylse
chnge in Glycogenolysis with epinephrine regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Increse}}</div>
chnge in Glycogenolysis with glucgon regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::In
crese}}</div>
chnge in Glycogenolysis with AMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incres
e}}</div>
chnge in Glycogenolysis with glucose-6-phosphte regultion?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
chnge in Glycogenolysis with Insulin regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dec
rese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Insulin ctivted Protein Phosphtse 1, which the
n dephosphoryltes Glycogen phosphorylse, thereby inctivting it.</i></div>
chnge in Glycogenolysis with ATP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decres
e}}</div>
1401476181878 1395802358422 How does G6PD ctivity in the HMP shunt chnge w
ith NADP+ regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401476200186 1395802358422 How does G6PD ctivity in the HMP shunt chnge w
ith NADPH regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476206560 1395802358422 How does PRPP Amidotrnsferse ctivity in de no
vo purine synthesis chnge with AMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
se}}</div>
vo purine synthesis chnge with IMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Decrese}}</div>
vo purine synthesis chnge with GMP regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Decrese}}</div>
1401476256782 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Crbmoyl phosphte syn
thetse I ctivity in the Ure cycle chnge with N-cetylglutmte regultion?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401476282820 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of cetyl-CoA crboxylse
(ACC) in ftty cid synthesis chnge with insulin regultion?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
(ACC) in ftty cid synthesis chnge with citrte regultion?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
(ACC) in ftty cid synthesis chnge with glucgon regultion?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
(ACC) in ftty cid synthesis chnge with plmitoyl-CoA regultion?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476333693 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of Crnitine cyltrnsfer
se I in ftty cid oxidtion chnge with mlonyl-CoA regultion?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476365489 1395802358422 How does the ctivity of HMG-CoA reductse in ch
olesterol synthesis chnge with insulin regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I
ncrese}}</div>
olesterol synthesis chnge with Thyroxine regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Increse}}</div>
olesterol synthesis chnge with glucgon regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Decrese}}</div>
olesterol synthesis chnge with cholesterol regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Decrese}}</div>
1401476495043 1395802358422 How mny pyruvte molecules re mde from the me
tbolism of 1 Glucose molecule?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>1Glc + 2ADP + 2P<sub>i</sub> + 2NAD<sup>+</sup> --> 2Pyruvte
+ 2ATP + 2NADH</i></div>
1401478374227 1395802358422 How much net ATP is produced in nerobic glycol
ysis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2/moc Glc}}</div>
1401479036239 1395802358422 {{c1::Arsenic}} is metlloid element tht cn
cuse glycolysis to produce net zero ATP.
1401479098580 1395802358422 How much net ATP is produced vi the mlte-sp
rtte shuttle in erobic metbolism t the hert nd liver?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::32}}</div>
1401479146930 1395802358422 How much net ATP is mde vi the glycerol-3-phos
phte shuttle in erobic metbolism t muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::30}}</
div>
1401479173491 1395802358422 Wht does ATP crry when it is in its ctivted
form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phosphoryl groups}}</div>
1401479255203 1395802358422 Wht does NADH, NADPH nd FADH2 crry when
it is in its ctivted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Electrons}}</div>

1401479271035 1395802358422 Wht does CoA crry when it is in its ctiv
ted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acyl groups}}</div>
1401479279717 1395802358422 Wht does lipomide crry when it is in its
ctivted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acyl groups}}</div>
1401479288717 1395802358422 Wht does Biotin crry when it is in its c
tivted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CO2}}</div>
1401479296971 1395802358422 Wht do Tetrhydrofoltes crry when they
re in their ctivted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1-crbon units}}</div>
1401479322876 1395802358422 Wht does SAM crry when it is in its ctiv
ted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CH<sub>3</sub> groups}}</div>
1401479338751 1395802358422 Wht does TPP crry when it is in its ctiv
ted form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aldehydes}}</div>
1401479350081 1395802358422 {{c1::NAD+}} nd {{c2::NADP+}} re nicotin
mides tht function s universl electron cceptors.
1401494685439 1395802358422 {{c1::FAD+}} is flvin nucleotide mde from Vi
tmin B2 tht functions s universl electron cceptor.
1401494704964 1395802358422 Which nicotinmide electron cceptor is generll
y used in <b>ctbolic</b> processes to crry reducing equivlents wy s
NADH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NAD+}}</div>
1401494755285 1395802358422 Which nicotinmide electron donor is used in <b>
nbolic </b>processes s supply of reducing equivlents?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::NADPH}}</div>
1401494782730 1395802358422 Which nicotinmide electron donor is product o
f the HMP shunt?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NADPH}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-6171868004510.jpg" /></div>
1401494829059 1395802358422 Which enzyme in glycolysis phosphoryltes glucos
e to glucose-6-phosphte, the first metbolite in the pthwy?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Hexokinse or Glucokinse depending on the tissue}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hexokinse = most tissue, but not liver or pncretic bet-cells</i></div>
<div><i>Glucokinse = liver; pncretic bet-cells</i></div>
1401495317535 1395802358422 Wht is the K<sub>m</sub> of Hexokinse com
pred to Glucokinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lower}}</div> <br /><div><i>He
nce, Hexokinse hs higher ffinity for glucose. This is importnt s Hexokinse
is found outside of the liver. We wnt our tissues to be ble to use glucose wh
en it is in lower concentrtions.</i></div>
1401495797717 1395802358422 Wht is the K<sub>m</sub> of Glucokinse co
mpred to Hexokinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Higher; by 100x}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence, Glucokinse hs lower ffinity for glucose. This is very
importnt, s in hypoglycemic situtions, we do not wnt the liver or pncretic
bet-cells to be using too much Glc. Conversely, this ensures tht the liver n
d pncretic bet-cells re more inclined to utilize glucose when it is vilbl
e in higher concentrtions. Both of the bove points exist so tht the liver doe
s not tke glucose wy from tissue nd store it when we don't need it to; nd s
o tht the pncretic bet-cells don't mke nd secrete insulin when glucose lev
els re low.</i></div>
1401495962648 1395802358422 Which GLUT trnsporter protein hs the highest K
<sub>m</sub> vlue (i.e. lowest ffinity)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT2
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, GLUT2 is found on the <b>bsolterl mem
brne</b> of GI epithelium.</i></div>
1401496077564 1395802358422 Wht is the V<sub>mx</sub> of Hexokinse c
ompred to Glucokinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lower}}</div>
1401496136074 1395802358422 Wht is the V<sub>mx</sub> of Glucokinse
compres to Hexokinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Higher}}</div>
1401496153822 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinse hs both <b>lower</b
> K<sub>m</sub> nd V<sub>mx</sub>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hexoki
nse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hexokinse = lower</i></div><div><i>Glucokinse =
higher</i></div>
1401496356269 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinse is inducible by insu
lin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucokinse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Think bou
t this. Which form is in the liver? Where do we wnt to store glucose? Wht horm
one is elevted only when glucose is elevted?</i></div><div><i>Also remember, t
ht induction = incresed expression = incresed Vmx. This is why GK hs higher
Vmx.</i></div><div><i>Tht is lso why n increse in sugrs in the diet will
result in increse ft deposition s GK expression hs incresed.</i></div>
1401496797663 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinse is inhibited by gluc
ose-6-phosphte feedbck?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hexokinse}}</div>
1401496824656 1395802358422 Which isoform of Hexokinse is ssocited with M
turity-onset Dibetes of the Young (MODY)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucokin
se}}</div>
1401496867570 1395802358422 How does regultion by Glucose-6-phosphte ffec
t Hexokinse ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
<br /><d
1401497455669 1395802358422 How does regultion by Fructose-6-phosphte ffe
ct Glucokinse ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div> <div><br
1401497473230 1395802358422 Wht is the rte-limiting enzyme in glycolysis?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phosphofructokinse-1 (PFK1)}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="pste-8349416423508.jpg" /></div>
1401497503816 1395802358422 How does regultion by ATP ffect Phosphofructok
inse-1 (PFK-1) ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>When ATP levels re high, PFK-1 is inhibited nd upstrem glucose-6phosphte builds up. When tht occurs, G6P is stored s glycogen by the liver.</
i><br /><div><img src="pste-8345121456212.jpg" /></div>
1401497529282 1395802358422 How does regultion by AMP influence phosphofruc
tokinse-1 (PFK1) ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
1401497563689 1395802358422 How does regultion by citrte influence the ct
ivity of Phosphofructokinse-1 (PFK1)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</
div>
1401497591274 1395802358422 How does regultion by fructose-2,6-bisphosphte
(F2,6BP) influence Phosphofructokinse-1 (PFK1) ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Activtion; vi llosteric binding}}</div>
te-8345121456212.jpg" /></div>
1401497713589 1395802358422 How does regultion by ATP influence the ctivit
y of Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div><div><br /></
div><div><img src="pste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>ATP/AMP re
gultion is pretty logicl overll. When ATP exists, we don't need to mke more.
</i></div>
1401497755622 1395802358422 How does regultion by lnine influence the ct
ivity of Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div><div><br
<br /><div><i>Th
is is pretty logicl negtive feedbck loop when you remember tht <b>pyruvte
is converted to lnine by ALT nd Vitmin B6</b>.</i></div><div><i><br /></i><
/div><div><i>Amino Acid Metbolism?</i></div>
1401497774801 1395802358422 How does regultion by fructose-1,6-bisphosphte
influence the ctivity of Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtio
n}}</div><div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
<img src="pste-8937826943054.jp
g" /><br /><div><i>Remember, <b>F1,6BP is n upstrem metbolite in glycolysis</
b>. Do not confuse tht with <b>F<u>2</u>,6BP</b> which is n llosteric c
tivtor of PFK-1.</i></div>
1401497919743 1395802358422 How does Glucgon ction influence the ctivity
of Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition; vi phosphoryltion}}
</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
1401497951667 1395802358422 How does Insulin ction influence the ctivity o
f Pyruvte kinse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion; vi dephosphoryltion}
}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-8937826943054.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>One of my biochem profs sid this nd I'll never forget it: "<b>In
sulin drives the <u>utiliztion</u> of glucose."</b></i></div>
1401498020219 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose bisphosphtse-2}} nd {{c2:
:Phosphofructokinse-2}} re 2 enzymes prt of the sme bifunctionl enzyme comp

lex tht function to regulte PFK-1 through F2,6BP.
te-9955734192342.jpg" /></div>
1401499337024 1395802358422 Which Protein Kinse controls Fructose Bisphosph
te-2 nd PFK-2 in the regultion of PFK-1?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Protein Kin
se A}}</div> <br><div><img src="pste-10544144712085.jpg" /></div>
1401499353645 1395802358422 {{c1::Phosphofructokinse-2 (PFK-2)}} is n enzy
me tht forms F2,6BP, n llosteric ctivtor of PFK-1, in response to insulin.
1401499588764 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose Bisphosphtse-2}} is n enzyme t
ht <b>breks down</b> F2,6BP, n llosteric ctivtor of PFK-1, in respons
e to glucgon. <br /><div><img src="pste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div>
1401499636707 1395802358422 How does Glucgon influence Phosphofructokinse2 ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inctivtion, by <u>ctivting protein ki
nse A nd subsequent phosphoryltion of PFK-2</u>}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>Thereby cuses <b>less glycolysis nd more gluconeogenesis</b> in the f
sting stte.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div>
1401499795869 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Phosphofructokinse-2
ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion; vi <u>inhibition of protein k
inse A nd subsequent dephosphoryltion of PFK-2</u>}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i>Thereby cuses <b>more glycolysis nd less gluconeogenesis</b> in the f
ed stte.</i><div><i>This is lso why dibetics hve decresed rtes of glycolys
is.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-10539849744789.jpg" /></div></div>
1401499901998 1395802358422 Which secondry messenger is involved in the ct
ivtion nd inctivtion of PFK-2 through protein kinse A?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
1401574581943 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte Dehydrogense}} is mitochondri
l enzyme tht links glycolysis nd the TCA cycle by converting pyruvte to cety
l CoA. <br><div><i>Pyruvte + NAD + CoA --> Acetyl-CoA + CO2 + NADH</i></div
><div><i><br></i></div><div><i>This rection is <b>irreversible</b></i></div>
1401574687733 1395802358422 Wht re the 5 key cofctors required by Py
ruvte Dehydrogense?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thimine; Lipoic Acid; CoA; FAD
; NAD}}</div> <br /><div><i>k <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b></i></d
iv><div><i><b><img src="pste-16870631538902.jpg" /></b></i></div><div><i><b><br
/></b></i></div><div><i>This is lso good wy to understnd Wernicke-Korskof
f:</i></div><div><i>Alcoholism --> Thimine deficiency --> decresed Acety
l CoA --> myelintion nd CNS deficits</i></div>
1401574873524 1395802358422 How does n incresed NAD+:NADH rtio ffect Pyr
uvte Dehydrogense ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401574900778 1395802358422 How does n increse in ADP levels ffect Pyruv
te Dehydrogense ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401574916600 1395802358422 How do incresed C levels ffect Pyruvte Dehyd
rogense ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401574932422 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Pyruvte Dehydrogens
e ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
1401574945166 1395802358422 How does Glucgon ffect Pyruvte Dehydrogense
ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
1401575033135 1395802358422 {{c1::lph-ketoglutrte dehydrogense}} is n
enzyme complex tht converts lph-ketoglutrte to succinyl-CoA in the TCA cycl
e nd requires the sme cofctors s pyruvte dehydrogense.
<br /><div><i>Re
member, those cofctors re <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy </b>(Thimine; L
ipoic Acid; CoA; FAD; NAD)</i></div>
1401575327070 1395802358422 {{c1::Brnched Chin Ketocid Dehydrogense}} is
n enzyme involved in the metbolism of brnched chin mino cids nd involves
the sme cofctors s pyruvte dehydrogense. <br /><div><i>Remember, those co
fctors re <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b> (Thimine, Lipoic Acid,
CoA, FAD, NAD)</i></div>
1401576743029 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetylldehyde dehydrogense}} is n enzym
e involved in lcohol metbolism tht uses the sme cofctors s pyruvte dehydr
ogense.
<br><div><i>Remember, those cofctors re <b>Tender Love &mp; C
re For Nncy</b>: (Thimine, Lipoic Acid, CoA, FAD, NAD)</i></div><div><i><br><

/i></div><div><i>This is lso brillint tie into thimine deficiency nd Werni
cke-Korskoff in lcoholism. All of tht lcohol needs to be metbolised, tht m
ens ll vilble thimine needs to be used. As consequence, there will be le
ss PDH ctivity, less cetyl CoA nd subsequent Wernicke-Korskoff.</i></div>
1401577288486 1395802358422 {{c1::Arsenic}} is metlloid element tht inhi
bits lipoic cid, key cofctor of Pyruvte Dehydrogense, Acetldehyde DH, lp
h-Ketoglutrte DH, nd Brnched-Chin Ketocid DH.
ents with vomiting, rice-wter stools nd <b>grlic breth</b>.</i><br /><div><i
>Lipoic cid is the <b>Love</b> in <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b>.
</i></div>
1401577835900 1395802358422 Which enzyme <b>irreversibly</b> converts P
yruvte into Acetyl CoA?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pyruvte Dehydrogense}}</di
v>
<br /><div><i>"Sugr cn become ft, but ft cnnot become sugr."</i></
div><div><i>Glc <---> Pyruvte <b><u>---></u></b> Acetyl-CoA <--> Ft</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>The Pyruvte tht is involve
d in gluconeogenesis comes from the conversion of Alnine (vi ALT) nd Lctte
to Pyruvte.</i></div>
1401583796468 1395802358422 How do pyruvte levels chnge in Pyruvte dehydr
ogense deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>The build up of Pyruvte gets shunted to Lctte (vi LDH) nd Alnine (vi
ALT).</i></div>
1401585139762 1395802358422 Wht re the 2 <b>only purely</b> ketogenic
mino cids?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lysine; Leucine}}</div>
1401585162913 1395802358422 How do lctte levels chnge in Pyruvte Dehydro
gense deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div> <br /><div><i>Th
e excess pyruvte gets mde into lctte vi LDH, thereby cusing <b>lctic cid
osis</b>.</i></div>
1401585323923 1395802358422 How do serum lnine levels chnge in Pyruvte D
ehydrogense deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>The excess pyruvte gets shunted to lnine by ALT.</i></div>
1401585356004 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Pyruvte Dehydrogense
deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed intke of ketogenic nutrients}
}</div> <br /><div><i>e.g. high ft diet or Lysine/Leucine rich diet</i></div>
1401585398262 1395802358422 {{c1::Alnine midotrnsferse (ALT)}} is n enz
yme involved in pyruvte metbolism tht forms Alnine from pyruvte to llow m
ino groups to be tken to the liver from muscle.
te-19331647799898.jpg" /></div>
1401585530196 1395802358422 Wht wter soluble vitmin is required by Alnin
e Aminotrnsferse (ALT)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</
div>
1401585722133 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte crboxylse}} is n enzyme involv
ed in pyruvte metbolism tht converts pyruvte into oxlocette, which cn go
on to replenish the TCA cycle or feed gluconeogenesis. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-19327352832602.jpg" /></div>
1401585774062 1395802358422 Wht wter soluble vitmin is needed for Pyruvt
e Crboxylse ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B7 (Biotin)}}</div>
1401585798623 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte Dehydrogense}} is n enzyme invo
lved in pyruvte metbolism tht converts pyruvte to cetyl-CoA, thereby linkin
g glycolysis to the TCA cycle. <div><br /></div><i>Remember, PDH requires <b>Te
nder Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b> cofctors (Vitmins B1, B2, B3, B5 nd L
ipoic Acid)</i><br /><div><img src="pste-19327352832602.jpg" /></div>
1401585964325 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctic Acid Dehydrogense (LDH)}} is n en
zyme involved in pyruvte metbolism tht converts pyruvte to lctte. <br /><d
iv><i>This is the end stge of <b>nerobic glycolysis</b> (key in RBCs, le
ukocytes, renl medull, lens, testes nd the corne) nd lso prt of the <b>Co
ri Cycle.</b></i></div><div><i>The generted NAD+ molecules feed bck into glyco
lysis for substrte level phosphoryltion.</i></div><div><i><u>This rection is
extremely vitl in sttes of low O<sub>2</sub> or mitochondril dmge s i
t replenishes NAD needed for glycolysis.</u></i></div><div><i><b><img src="pste
-19327352832602.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401586160301 1395802358422 How mny NADH molecules re mde in the TCA cycl
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div>
1401587946656 1395802358422 How mny FADH<sub>2</sub> molecules re md
e in the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>
1401587965683 1395802358422 How mny ATP molecules re mde per Acetyl-CoA m
olecule tht enters the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::10}}</div>
1401588001838 1395802358422 Where in the cell does the TCA cycle occur??<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mitochondri}}</div>
1401588020285 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the TCA cycle is the mjor regul
tion point of the pthwy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Isocitrte Dehydrogense}
}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Remember, the Krebs cycle is not influenced by Insul
in or Glucgon. <b>It is entirely regulted by locl levels of energy (i.e. ATP,
NADH).</b></i><div><i>The other key regultory steps re t <b>Citrte Synthse
</b> nd <b>lph-ketoglurte dehydrogense</b><br /></i><div><img src="ps
te-20882130993800.jpg" /></div></div>
1401588366248 1395802358422 How does n increse in ATP levels influence the
TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hi
gh ATP = high energy = inhibitions of Krebs.</i></div><div><i>ATP nd ADP ct s
llosteric regultors.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-20877836026504.jpg" /><
/i></div>
1401588408409 1395802358422 How does n increse of ADP levels influence the
TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>In
cresed ADP = low energy stte = ctivtion of Krebs</i></div><div><i>ADP nd AT
P ct s llosteric regultors.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-20877836026504.
jpg" /></i></div>
1401588433623 1395802358422 How does n increse in NADH levels influence th
e TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibitions}}</div>
<br /><div><i>In
cresed NADH = high energy stte = inhibition of Krebs.</i></div><div><i>NADH c
ts s competitive inhibitor.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-20877836026504.j
pg" /></i></div>
1401588472767 1395802358422 How does n increse in NAD+ levels influence th
e TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hi
gh NAD+ = low energy stte = ctivted Krebs.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-2
0877836026504.jpg" /></i></div>
1401588681226 1395802358422 Wht is the First Aid mnemonic for the intermedi
tes of the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Citrte Is Krebs' Strting Sub
strte For Mking Oxlocette}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-2087783602650
4.jpg" /></div>
1401588727100 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts Pyruvte to Oxlocette,
which cn then be fed into the TCA cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pyruvte c
rboxylse}}</div>
1401589173566 1395802358422 Which mino cid cn be converted into Pyruvte
by ALT?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alnine; requires B6}}</div>
1401589230593 1395802358422 Which mino cid cn be converted into Oxlocet
te by AST?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asprtte; requires B6}}</div>
1401589257724 1395802358422 Which mino cid cn be converted into lph-ket
oglutrte vi Trnsminse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glutmte; requires B6}}
</div>
1401589281420 1395802358422 Which intermedite of the TCA cycle cn be mde
from Alnine by AST with B6?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pyruvte}}</div>
Amino Acid Metbolism
1401589315193 1395802358422 Which intermedite in the TCA cycle cn be mde
from Asprtte vi AST with B6?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oxlocette}}</div>
Amino Acid metbolism
1401589347353 1395802358422 Which intermedite in the TCA cycle cn be mde
from Glutmte vi Trnsminse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-ketoglutrte}
}</div>
1401589369960 1395802358422 The {{c1::Mlte-Asprtte shuttle}} nd {{
c2::Glycerol-3-phosphte shuttle}} re 2 metbolic shuttles tht function to bri
ng NADH nd FADH2 electrons into the mitochondri from glycolysis.

<br><div
><i>FADH2 comes in vi the G3P shuttle.</i></div>
1401590348780 1395802358422 Which metbolic shuttle is responsible for bring
ing FADH<sub>2</sub> electrons from glycolysis into the mitochondri?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycerol-3-phosphte shuttle}}</div>
1401590394880 1395802358422 Which mitochondril enzyme receives electrons fr
om FADH<sub>2</sub> in the electron trnsport chin?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Complex II (k Succinte Dehydrogense)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-23441931502034.jpg" /></div>
1401590448508 1395802358422 {{c1::Succinte Dehydrogense}} is mitochondri
l enzyme prt of the electron trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Compl
ex II. <br /><div><img src="pste-23437636534738.jpg" /></div>
1401590533116 1395802358422 {{c1::NADH Dehydrogense}} is mitochondril en
zyme prt of the electron trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Complex I.
1401590587246 1395802358422 {{c1::Ubiquinone}} is n enzyme in the electron
trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Coenzyme Q. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401590622172 1395802358422 {{c1::Cytochrome Oxidse}} is n enzyme in the e
lectron trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Complex IV. <br /><div><img
src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401590657862 1395802358422 {{c1::ATP Synthse}} is n enzyme in the electro
n trnsport chin tht is lso referred to s Complex V.
<br /><div><img
src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401590749133 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the electron trnsport chin pro
duces H<sub>2</sub>O?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytochrome Oxidse (Complex IV)
}}</div>
1401590817835 1395802358422 How mny ATP molecules re produced by ATP synth
se for every molecule of NADH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2.5 (so we just use ~
3 in clcultions)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Steve hd sex with <b>NAD</b>i <b
>H</b>. <b>3</b> times during frosh week nd got n STI. </i></div><di
v><i><br /></i></div><div><i>(True story. Will never forget the regret on Steve'
s fce. Will lso never forget this mnemonic.)</i></div>
1401591083458 1395802358422 How mny ATP molecules re produced by ATP Synth
se for every FADH<sub>2</sub> molecule?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1.5 (so
we just use ~2 for clcultion)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>FADH<sub style="fo
nt-weight: bold; ">2</sub> = <b>2</b> ATP</i></div>
1401591134161 1395802358422 {{c1::Rotenone}} is n electron trnsport inhibi
tor tht directly inhibits the ETC t Complex I.
<b>decreses</b> the proton grdient nd <b>blocks ATP synthesis</b>.</i><
br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401591408045 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the electron trnsport chin is
inhibited by Rotenone?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Complex I (NADH Dehydrogense)
}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This <b>decreses</b> the proton g
rdient nd <b>blocks ATP synthesis</b>.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-2367
8154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401591510868 1395802358422 {{c1::Cynide}} nd {{c2::CO}} re electron trn
sport inhibitors tht directly inhibit the ETC t Complex IV. <div><br /></div
><i>Cynide is detoxified by nitrites nd thiosulftes.</i><div><i></i><i>This&n
bsp;<b>decreses</b> the proton grdient nd <b>blocks ATP synthesis</
b>.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div></div>
inhibited by Cynide nd CO?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Complex IV (Cytochrome O
xidse)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
1401591797642 1395802358422 {{c1::Antimycin A}} is n electron trnsport inh
ibitor tht directly inhibits the ETC t Complex III. <div><br /></div><i>This
<b>decreses</b> the proton grdient nd <b>blocks ATP synthesis
</b>.</i><br /><div><i>"<b>RACCO</b>" from left to right.</i></div><div><img src
="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div>
inhibited by Antimycin A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Complex III}}</div>

<div><br /></div><i>This <b>decreses</b> the proton grdient nd&nbsp
;<b>blocks ATP synthesis</b>.</i><div><i><b>"RACCO"</b> from left to right
in the ETC.<br /></i><div><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></div></div
></div>
1401592020484 1395802358422 {{c1::Oligomycin}} is n ATP Synthse inhibitor
tht directly inhibits ATP synthse in the ETC. <br /><div><i>This <b>increses<
/b> the proton grdient, but no ATP is produced s the ETC is inhibited.</i
></div><div><i>"<b>RACCO</b>" from left to right in the ETC.</i></div><div><i><i
mg src="pste-23678154703303.jpg" /></i></div>
1401592337244 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the ETC is inhibited by Oligomyc
in?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ATP Synthse}}</div>
<div><br /></div>"<i><b>
ROCCO</b>" from left to right.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-23678154703303.jpg"
/></div>
1401592484059 1395802358422 How do FADH<sub>2</sub> nd NADH levels ch
nge when the electron trnsport chin is inhibited?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I
ncrese}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is pretty obvious, but think of the consequen
ces: Inhibition of the TCA cycle, decresed ATP production, nd decresed O<sub>
2</sub> utiliztion.</i></div>
1401592821605 1395802358422 {{c1::2,4-Dinitrophenol}} is n uncoupling gent
tht is sometimes used illicitly for weight loss.
1401592888587 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Uncoupling Agents in the inhi
bition of ATP synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<b>Incresed permebility of
the mitochondril membrne</b>, thereby cusing decresed proton grdient nd
incresed O2 consumption}}</div>
<br /><div><i>ATP synthesis stops, but e
lectron trnsport continues. This increse in metbolic rte produces consider
ble bout of het s well.</i></div>
1401593017448 1395802358422 {{c1::Aspirin}} is n NSAID tht cn ct s n u
ncoupling gent, thereby cusing fevers in n overdose.
1401593221266 1395802358422 {{c1::Thermogenin}} is n uncoupling gent found
in brown ft.
1401593299761 1395802358422 How do incresed ATP levels influence Gluconeoge
nesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Gluconeoge
nesis only occurs in high energy sttes (high ATP nd high NADH) becuse <b>Oxl
ocette must be converted to Mlte in the TCA cycle</b>. Mlte then leves to
gluconeogenesis vi the mlte shuttle.</i></div>
1401593619539 1395802358422 How do incresed NADH levels influence Gluconeog
enesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>Gluconeoge
nesis only occurs in high energy sttes (high ATP nd high NADH) becuse <b
>Oxlocette must be converted to Mlte in the TCA cycle</b>. Mlte then lev
es to gluconeogenesis vi the mlte shuttle.</i></div>
1401593640147 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvte crboxylse}} is n irreversible
enzyme tht converts pyruvte to oxlocette in gluconeogenesis.
1401594066010 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required for Pyru
vte Crboxylse ctivity in gluconeogenesis?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B
7 (Biotin)}}</div>
<br><i>Remember, Avidin from rw eggs binds to Biotin</i
>
1401594091941 1395802358422 How do incresed Acetyl-CoA levels influence Pyr
uvte Crboxylse ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
1401594112417 1395802358422 {{c1::Phosphoenolpyruvte crboxykinse}} is n
irreversible enzyme in gluconeogenesis tht converts oxlocette to phosphoenol
pyruvte.
<br /><div><i>Requires GTP.</i></div>
1401594161811 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose-1,6-Bisphosphtse}} is n irreve
rsible enzyme tht converts F1,6BP to F6P in gluconeogenesis.
1401594203282 1395802358422 How do incresed Citrte levels influence Fructo
se-1,6-bisphosphtse ctivity in gluconeogenesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ac
tivtion}}</div>
1401594251409 1395802358422 How do incresed Fructose-<b>2,6</b>-bisphospht
e levels influence Fructose-1,6-bisphosphtse ctivity in gluconeogenesis?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
1401594297420 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucose-6-phosphtse}} is n irreversible

enzyme of gluconeogenesis tht converts Glucose-6-phosphte to glucose.
1401594333809 1395802358422 Where in the body does gluconeogenesis primrily
occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Liver}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Essentill
y, it will occur wherever the enzymes exist. Hence it lso occurs t the kidneys
nd intestinl epithelium. Along the sme lines, it does not occur t muscle du
e to their lck of Glucose-6-phosphtse</i></div>
1401594455163 1395802358422 {{c1::Propionyl-CoA}} is product of odd-chin
ftty cid metbolism tht cn enter the TCA cycle s succinyl-CoA, undergo gluc
oneogenesis nd hence serve s glucose source.
<br /><div><i>Even-chin
ftty cids provide Acetyl-CoA equivlents.</i></div>
1401594545605 1395802358422 Which metbolic shunt cts s vitl source of
NADPH from glucose-6-phosphte?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMP Shunt (Pentose Ph
osphte Pthwy)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, NADPH is required for re
ductive rections, esp. glutthione in RBCs.</i></div><div><i>Also, <u>do not co
nfuse NADPH for NADH nd its role in ATP synthesis</u></i></div><div><i><u><br /
></u></i></div><div><i><u><img src="pste-29794188132607.jpg" /></u></i></div>
1401596199885 1395802358422 Which metbolic shunt is vitl source of ribos
e for nucleotide synthesis nd glycolytic intermedites?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::HMP Shunt (Pentose Phosphte Pthwy)}}</div>
1401596236051 1395802358422 Where in the cell does the HMP Shunt occur?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplsm}}</div>
<br /><div><i>No ATP is used or
produced.</i></div>
1401596268083 1395802358422 Wht is the rte limiting enzyme in the HMP shun
t?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G6PD (Glucose-6-phosphte dehydrogense)}}</div>
1401596354823 1395802358422 Wht wter soluble vitmin is required in the no
noxidtive, reversible step of the HMP shunt conducted by Trnsketolses?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B1 (Thimine)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Acti
vity of these trnsketolses re used to guge the level of Thimine deficiency.
<br /></i><div><img src="pste-29386166239378.jpg" /></div>
1401596476373 1395802358422 {{c1::Myeloperoxidse}} is n enzyme involved in
the respirtory burst tht gives sputum its blue-green colour. <br /><div><img
src="pste-29918742184491.jpg" /></div>
1401597532687 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the respirtory burst forms supe
roxide rdicls from O2?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NAPDH Oxidse}}</div>
1401597575169 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the respirtory burst forms H2O2
from superoxide rdicls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Superoxide dismutse}}</di
v>
1401597595981 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the respirtory burst forms Hypo
chlorite (HOCl) from H2O2?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myeloperoxidse}}</div>
1401597622507 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Grnulomtous Disese}} is metb
olic disorder tht involves deficiency of NADPH Oxidse.
1401597727422 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Grnulomtous Disese}} is n immu
ne disorder cused by NADPH Oxidse deficiency tht involves n incresed risk f
or recurrent infections nd grnulom formtion by <b>ctlse-positive orgnism
s</b>. <br /><div><i>Ctlse positive orgnisms re cpble of neutrlizing th
eir own H2O2, thereby leving phgocytes without ny ROS to fight the infection.
Ctlse negtive orgnisms on the other hnd essentilly provide H2O2 to phgo
cytes.</i></div>
1401597935365 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctoferrin}} is protein found in secret
ory fluids nd neutrophils tht functions to inhibits microbil growth vi iron
cheltion.
1401597960554 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyocynin}} is protein found in <i>Pseud
omons eruginos</i> tht functions to generte ROS tht kill competing mi
crobes.
1401598127447 1395802358422 Wht type of orgnisms hve higher rte of rec
urrent infection nd grnulom formtion in Chronic Grnulomtous Disese (CGD)?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ctlse-positive orgnisms}}</div> <br /><div><i>Th

e mjor Ctlse-positive bugs: <b>Stphs N' Enterobctericee Are Listed Ctl
se Positive.</b></i></div><div><i>[Stphylococcus, Neisseri, Enterobcteri, A
spergillus, Listeri, Cndid, Pseudomons (nd TB!)]</i></div>
1401645975656 1395802358422 {{c1::G6PD Deficiency}} is n X-linked recessive
enzyme deficiency tht results in decresed NADPH levels in RBCs, thereby mkin
g them susceptible to oxidizing gents nd cusing hemolytic nemi. <div><br
/></div><i>Remember, NADPH is needed to Glutthione reduced so tht is cn deto
xify free rdicls nd ROS. No G6PD = No NADPH required for Glutthione reducts
e.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-648540061960.jpg" /></div>
1401646194700 1395802358422 {{c1::Primquine}} is n ntimlril drug tht
cn trigger hemolytic nemi in G6PD Deficiency.
1401646785061 1395802358422 {{c1::Fv Bens}} re type of ben tht cn t
rigger hemolytic nemi in G6PD deficiency.
<br /><div><i><b>Infection cn
lso trigger hemolytic nemi</b> s the free rdicls generted from the i
nflmmtory response cn diffuse into RBCs nd cuse oxidtive dmge.</i></div>
1401646866490 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of G6PD Deficien
cy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked Recessive}}</div>
1401646887023 1395802358422 Wht is the most common humn enzyme deficiency?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G6PD Deficiency}}</div>
te-644245094664.jpg" /></div>
1401646897922 1395802358422 Which rce hs higher prevlence of G6PD Defic
iency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blcks; Middle Esterns}}</div>
1401646923798 1395802358422 How does the resistnce to mlri chnge in G6P
D Deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1401646968353 1395802358422 {{c1::Heinz Bodies}} re intrcellulr inclusion
s of oxidized hemoglobin tht precipitte within RBCs in G6PD Deficiency.
1401647000972 1395802358422 {{c1::Bite Cells}} re pthologicl form of RB
Cs tht form s result of the phgocytic removl of Heinz bodies by splenic m
crophges in G6PD Deficiency.
1401647037205 1395802358422 {{c1::Essentil Fructosuri}} is disorder of f
ructose metbolism tht involves defect in <b>Fructokinse</b>.
<br /><d
1401647919414 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is defective in Essentil Fructosuri
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fructokinse}}</div>
te-1700807049585.jpg" /></div>
1401647943624 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Essentil Fru
ctosuri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
<br /><d
1401647959360 1395802358422 {{c1::Essentil Fructosuri}} is n <b>symptom
tic</b> disorder of fructose metbolism s Hexokinse is ble to perform th
e sme function s Fructokinse, hence Fructose is not trpped in cells.
<div><br /></div><i>The symptoms tht pper re benign (fructosuri; fructosemi
).</i><div><i>Disorders of fructose metbolism generlly cuse milder symptoms
thn nlogous disorders of glctose metbolism.<br /></i><div><div><img src="p
ste-1700807049585.jpg" /></div></div></div>
1401648271389 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose Intolernce}} is disorder of fr
uctose metbolism tht results from deficiency of <b>Aldolse B</b>. <div><br
/></div><i>Aldolse B should not be confused with Aldolse A, the enzyme in gly
colysis. However, through Aldolse B, Fructose requires less ATP to enter glycol
ysis. For this reson, fructose is in mny sports drinks. For this sme reson,
high fructose corn syrups re quite bd, s the quick, chep supply of sugr ene
rgy leds to n excess of sugrs tht then get turned into ft.</i><br /><div><i
mg src="pste-1700807049585.jpg" /></div>
1401648410695 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Fructose Intolernc
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aldolse B}}</div>
Aldolse B is unique to fructose metbolism. Aldolse A is the enzyme in glycoly
sis.</i></div>
1401648440884 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fructose Into
lernce?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401648455934 1395802358422 {{c1::Fructose Intolernce}} is disorder of fr

uctose metbolism tht presents with n ccumultion of Fructose-1-Phosphte, th
ereby cusing decrese in vilble phosphte.
<br /><div><i>This in tu
rn results in inhibition of glycogenolysis nd gluconeogenesis.</i></div><div><i
><img src="pste-1700807049585.jpg" /></i></div>
1401649701708 1395802358422 {{c1::Fstic hypoglycemi}}, {{c2::jundice
}} nd {{c3::cirrhosis}} re heptic complictions of Fructose Intolernce
tht rise due to the extensive liver dmge seen.
1401649802545 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperuricemi/Gout}} is compliction of
Fructose Intolernce s the trpping of phosphte on Fructose molecules forces P
urines towrds Uric Acid.
</div>
1401649969484 1395802358422 Which renl tubule cn get dmged in Fructose I
ntolernce?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Proximl Convoluted Tubule (PCT)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Similr to Renl Tubulr Acidosis, Type 2.</i></div>
1401650173302 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucose}} is reducing sugr (ldose) th
t becomes Sorbitol vi Aldose Reductse.
<br /><div><i>The other ldose (
reducing) sugrs include: </i></div><div><i>Glctose --> Glctitol;&nb
sp;</i></div><div><i>Inose --> Inositol; </i></div><div><i>Mnnose --&gt
; Mnnitol</i></div>
1401650177776 1395802358422 {{c1::Sucrose}} is discchride tht consists
of Fructose nd Glucose.
1401650501102 1395802358422 {{c1::Mltose}} is discchride tht consists
of Glucose nd Glucose.
1401650512131 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctose}} is discchride tht consists
of Glctose nd Glucose.
1401650525781 1395802358422 {{c1::Glctokinse Deficiency}} is disorder o
f glctose metbolism tht involves hereditry deficiency of <b>Glctokinse
</b>. <div><br /></div><i>Thereby results in the ccumultion of Glctitol,
the reducing form of Glctose.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-4969277161823.jpg
" /></div>
1401650861584 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Glctokinse
Deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401650874333 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is deficient in Glctokinse Defici
ency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glctokinse, duh.}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" /></div>
1401650898779 1395802358422 {{c1::Glctokinse Deficiency}} is <b>reltiv
ely mild </b>disorder of glctose metbolism tht is essentilly benign except
for <b>infntile ctrcts</b>. <br /><div><img src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" />
</div>
1401650972248 1395802358422 {{c1::Ctrcts}} re n oculr compliction of
disorders of glctose metbolism due to the ccumultion of Glctitol, reduc
ing product of Glctose.
<div><br /></div><i>For this reson, disorders o
f fructose metbolism <b>do not present with ctrcts</b> s Fructose is n
ot reducing sugr.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" /></div>
1401651076546 1395802358422 {{c1::Glctokinse Deficiency}} is disorder o
f glctose metbolism tht my initilly present s filure to trck objects or
to develop socil smile.
1401651108768 1395802358422 {{c1::Clssic Glctosemi}} is disorder of g
lctose metbolism tht involves the bsence of <b>Glctose-1-phosphte Uridylt
rnsferse</b>. <br /><div><img src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" /></div>
1401651661214 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is bsent in Clssic Glctosemi?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glctose-1-phosphte Uridyltrnsferse}}</div>
1401651684872 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Clssic Glc
tosemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
lctose metbolism tht presents with <b>jundice, heptomegly, infntile ctr
cts</b> nd <b>intellectul disbility</b> due to the ccumultion of
toxic substnces.
<div><br /></div><div><i>Especilly Glctitol.</i></div
><div><i>The more serious defects cn lso involve PO4 depletion.</i></div><i><u

>Clssic Glctosemi is similr to Fructose Intolernce (Aldolse B deficiency)
except tht it includes ctrcts.</u></i><br /><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i
><img src="pste-4964982194527.jpg" /></i></div>
lctose metbolism tht presents similrly to Fructose Intolernce (Aldolse B d
eficiency) except tht it includes ctrcts. <br /><div><i><b>F</b>ructose is
to <b>A</b>ldolse <b>B</b> s <b>G</b>lctose is to <b>U</b>ridyl<b>T</b>rns
ferse. (<b>FAB GUT</b>).</i></div>
1401652005087 1395802358422 Which disorder of Glctose metbolism cn led
to <i>Escherichi coli </i>sepsis in neontes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clssi
c Glctosemi}}</div>
1401652055363 1395802358422 {{c1::Sorbitol}} is the lcohol counterprt of G
lucose formed by Aldose Reductse nd stnds s n lterntive method of trppin
g glucose in the cell. <div><br /></div><i>Some tissues re ble to then conver
t Sorbitol into Fructose vi Sorbitol Dehydrogense.</i><div><i>Other tissue th
t do not hve the bove enzyme re t risk for intrcellulr sorbitol ccumulti
on, thereby cusing osmotic dmge (e.g. <b>ctrcts, retinopthy, peripherl n
europthy</b>). This is especilly seen in hyperglycemi.</i></div><div><i>Glc
titol cn cuse similr problems vi Aldose Reductse.<br /></i><div><img src="p
ste-6300717023664.jpg" /></div></div>
1401653655500 1395802358422 Which enzyme found on the brush border of the GI
epithelium functions to digest Lctose into glucose nd glctose?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Lctse}}</div>
1401654170558 1395802358422 {{c1::Primry Lctse Deficiency}} is type of
Lctse Deficiency tht presents with n ge-dependent decline in Lctse ctivi
ty fter childhood due to the bsence of lctse-persistent llele. <br /><d
iv><i>Common in Asins, Africns, nd North Americns.</i></div>
1401654269199 1395802358422 {{c1::Secondry Lctse Deficiency}} is type o
f Lctse Deficiency tht commonly rises due to the loss of the brush border du
e to gstroenteritis or utoimmune disese.
1401655187287 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenitl Lctse Deficiency}} is <b>r
re</b> type of lctse deficiency tht is due to defective lctse gene.
1401655253607 1395802358422 How does the pH of stool chnge in Lctse Defic
iency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
<br /><div><i>GI complic
tions involve bloting, crmping, fltulence nd osmotic dirrhe.</i></div>
1401655299070 1395802358422 How does the hydrogen content of stool chnge in
Lctse deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse (i.e. decresed pH)}}</
div>
<br /><div><i>This is nice tie into Lctulose, n osmotic lxtive th
t cidifies the GI lumen to tret hypermmonemi. It's essentilly the sme MOA
here where Lctose stys in the GI lumen due to the lctse deficiency.</i></div
>
1401655355919 1395802358422 Which stereoisomer of Amino Acids is found in pr
oteins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L-form}}</div>
1401656107716 1395802358422 Wht re the 2 ketogenic mino cids?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Lysine; Leucine}}</div>
1401656175204 1395802358422 Wht re the 2 cidic mino cids?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Asprtte; Glutmte}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Both re negtivel
y chrged t body pH.</i></div>
1401656239623 1395802358422 Wht re the 3 bsic mino cids?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Arginine; Lysine; Histidine}}</div>
1401656259170 1395802358422 Wht is the <b>most bsic</b> mino cid?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arginine}}</div>
1401656272310 1395802358422 Which 2 bsic mino cids re required during pe
riods of growth?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arginine; Histidine}}</div>
1401656329284 1395802358422 Which essentil mino cids re <b>both</b>&nbsp
;ketogenic nd glucogenic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Isoleucine; Phenyllnine;
Threonine; Tryptophn}}</div>
1401656369270 1395802358422 Which metbolic pthwy functions to get rid of
ny excess nitrogen (NH3) generted by mino cid ctbolism?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Ure Cycle}}</div>
</div>
1401657269820 1395802358422 Which 2 sources provide the Ammoni tht enters
the Ure Cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The gut vi Glutminse; Glutmte vi
Glutmte Dehydrogense}}</div>
.jpg" /></div>
1401657331838 1395802358422 Which intermedite of the TCA cycle is supplied
by the Ure Cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fumrte}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i>In fct, the Ure Cycle is very key Fumrte source.</i><br /><div><img sr
c="pste-8731668513484.jpg" /></div>
1401657382050 1395802358422 Wht is the First Aid mnemonic for the intermedi
tes of the Ure Cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ordinrily, Creless Crppers
Are Also Frivolous About Urintion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Ornithine, Crbmo
yl phosphte, </i><i>Citrulline, </i><i>Asprtte, </i><i>Arginos
uccinte, </i><i>Fumrte, </i><i>Arginine, </i><i>Ure</i></div>
1401657491417 1395802358422 Which 2 mino cids re necessry for the trnsp
ort of mmoni from muscle nd other tissue to the liver?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Alnine; Glutmte; both re mde nd unmde by Trnsminses}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Asprtte = Oxlocette + NH2</i><div><i>Alnine = Pyruvte
+ NH2</i></div><div><i>Glutmte = lph-Ketoglutrte + NH2<br /></i><div><img
src="pste-9131100471783.jpg" /></div></div>
1401657732704 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin is required by Trns
minses nd hence in the trnsport of mmoni by Alnine nd Glutmte?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Asp
rtte = Oxlocette + NH2</i><div><i>Alnine = Pyruvte + NH2</i></div><div><i>
Glutmte = lph-Ketoglutrte + NH2</i></div><div><img src="pste-912680550448
7.jpg" /></div>
1401657734354 1395802358422 How do lph-Ketoglutrte levels chnge in Hype
rmmonemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese; thereby inhibiting the TCA cycl
e}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, lph-KG + NH2 = Glutmte.</i></div><di
v><i>Also, since this inhibits the TCA cycle, less ATP will be mde nd less ATP
will be vilble for the Ure Cycle, thereby compounding the hypermmonemi.</
i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>mino cid metbolism</i></div>
1401659651540 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Butyrte in the tretment of
Hypermmonemi?<div><br />{{c1::Binding to mino cids nd leding to their excr
etion, thereby decresing mmoni levels}}</div>
1401659688814 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Phenylbutyrte in the tretme
nt of hypermmonemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Binding to mino cids, leding
to their excretion nd decresed mmoni levels}}</div>
1401659726589 1395802358422 {{c1::Lctulose}} is n osmotic lxtive tht c
n tret Hypermmonemi by cidifying the GI trct nd trpping NH4<sup>+</sup>&n
bsp;ions for excretion.
1401659792004 1395802358422 Wht is the MOA of Lctulose in the tretment of
Hypermmonemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trpping of NH4<sup>+</sup> ion
s in the GI trct by cidifying the lumen}}</div>
1401659849527 1395802358422 {{c1::Asterixis}} is neurologicl compliction
of Ammoni intoxiction nd is described s repetitive tremor of the hnd when
the wrist is extended. <br /><div><img src="pste-11312943857772.jpg" /></div>
1401660410918 1395802358422 {{c1::N-cetylglutmte}} is cofctor tht is
required by Crbmoyl Phosphte Synthetse I in the Ure Cycle. <div><br /></div
><i>Hence, N-cetylglutmte deficiency will cuse hypermmonemi.</i><br /><div
1401660552185 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the Ure Cycle requires N-cetyl
glutmte s cofctor?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crbmoyl Phosphte Synthet
se I}}</div>
1401660580401 1395802358422 {{c1::Hereditry N-cetylglutmte deficiency}}
is cuse of hypermmonemi tht presents identiclly to Crbmoyl Phosphte Sy
nthetse I deficiency, however <b>the elevtion in Ornithine will be ccompnied
by <u>norml Ure Cycle enzymes</u>.</b>
<br><div><img src="pste-1132153
3792791.jpg" /></div>
1401660667923 1395802358422 Wht is the most common Ure Cycle disorder?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse deficiency (OTCD)}}</div>
1401660706834 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Ornithine Tr
nscrbmylse (OTC) Deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked Recessive}}<
1401660751172 1395802358422 Wht is the <b>only</b> Ure Cycle enzyme d
eficiency tht is X-linked recessive?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ornithine Trns
crbmylse Deficiency}}</div> <br /><div><i>All of the others re utosoml re
cessive.</i></div>
1401660792334 1395802358422 How do BUN levels chnge in Ure Cycle disorders
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Less Ure is being
mde, hence BUN is lower.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-11321533792791.jpg"
/></i></div>
1401661659045 1395802358422 {{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse Deficiency}} is
ure cycle enzyme deficiency tht presents with <b>orotic ciduri</b>
s the excess crbmoyl phosphte is converted into orotic cid in de novo pyrimi
dine synthesis. <br /><div><i>Remember, Crbmoyl Phosphte is the one intermedi
te of the Ure Cycle tht is prt of the de novo pyrimidine synthesis. Becuse
of this, there my lso be n increse in pyrimidines, especilly Urcil.</i></d
1401661812338 1395802358422 {{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse Deficiency}} is
Ure Cycle enzyme disorder tht presents with <b>elevted crbmoyl phosphte
</b>. <br /><div><img src="pste-12257836663506.jpg" /></div>
1401662114308 1395802358422 Wht is the key difference between Hereditry Or
otic Aciduri nd the orotic ciduri secondry to Ornithine Trnscrbmylse De
ficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::OTCD <b>does not </b>hve megloblstic n
emi}}</div>
1401662194023 1395802358422 Which Ure Cycle enzyme disorder is ssocited w
ith <b>ornge crystls in the urine</b> if it is left to dry?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse Deficiency}}</div>
1401662240535 1395802358422 Which mjor ure cycle enzyme disorder presents
with <b>orotic ciduri</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ornithine Trnscrbmyl
se Deficiency}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, the elevted Crbmoyl Phosphte
is shunted to pyrimidine synthesis where it becomes Orotic Acid.</i></div><div>
<i><img src="pste-12257836663506.jpg" /></i></div>
1401662286656 1395802358422 Which mjor ure cycle enzyme disorder presents
with <b>incresed crbmoyl phosphte</b> levels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Ornithine Trnscrbmylse Deficiency}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-12257
836663506.jpg" /></div>
1401662378208 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Crbmoyl Pho
sphte Synthetse I deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}
</div>
1401662416290 1395802358422 How do mmoni levels chnge in Ure Cycle enzym
e disorders?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Elevted}}</div>
1401663051035 1395802358422 How do crbmoyl phosphte levels chnge in Crb
moyl Phosphte Synthetse I deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</
div>
<div><br /></div><i>This crd isn't entirely stupid becuse it reinforce
s the connection with orotic ciduri. <b>Becuse Crbmoyl Phosphte levels re
low, there will be no Orotic Aciduri </b>vi de novo pyrimidine synthesis.</i>
1401663121999 1395802358422 {{c1::Glycerol Phenylbutyrte}} is nitrogen sc
venger tht trets hypermmonemi by grbbing mmoni from glutmine. <br /><d
iv><i>It is prodrug. The ctive form performs the MOA.</i></div>
1401663208151 1395802358422 Which osmotic lxtive is used to tret hypermm
onemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lctulose (or Levulose)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Lctulose cidifies the gut, thereby trpping NH4<sup>+</sup> in the
lumen nd decresing its bsorption.</i></div>
1401671464765 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Thyroxine derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosine vi Phenyllnine}}</div>

<br /><div><img
src="pste-15023795601547.jpg" /></div>
1401671500825 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Melnin derived from?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosine vi Phenylnine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-15019500634251.jpg" /></div>
1401671516012 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Dopmine derived from?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosine vi Phenyllnine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-15019500634251.jpg" /></div>
1401671535231 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is NE nd Epinephrine derived fr
om?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosine vi Phenyllnine}}</div>
<br /><d
1401671562863 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Nicin derived from?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Hence, in Hrtnup Di
sese there is decresed Nicin due to defective Tryptophn bsorption.</i><br /
><div><img src="pste-15715285336166.jpg" /></div>
1401673075760 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Serotonin derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn}}</div>
990368870.jpg" /></div>
1401673110405 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Meltonin derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn vi Serotonin}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-15710990368870.jpg" /></div>
1401673129352 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Histmine derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Histidine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1634664552862
1.jpg" /></div>
1401673202168 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Porphyrin derived from?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1637241533239
6.jpg" /></div>
1401673214892 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Heme derived from?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Glycine vi Porphyrin}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-16368
120365100.jpg" /></div>
1401673226030 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is GABA derived from?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Glutmte}}</div>
0.jpg" /></div>
1401673251667 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Glutthione derived from?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glutmte}}</div>
602650724.jpg" /></div>
1401673263381 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Cretine derived from?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Arginine}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1689210637529
2.jpg" /></div>
1401673565846 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Ure derived from?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Arginine}}</div>
6.jpg" /></div>
1401673575935 1395802358422 Wht mino cid is Nitric Oxide derived from?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arginine}}</div>
811407996.jpg" /></div>
1401673630336 1395802358422 Wht re the 3 romtic mino cids?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Tryptophn; Phenyllnine; Tyrosine}}</div>
1401673790592 1395802358422 {{c1::Albinism}} is possible cutneous complic
tion of Menkes Disese due to Tyrosinse requiring copper to form Melnin.
<div><br /></div><i><div></div>Remember, Menkes Disese involves defect in cop
per bsorption.</i><div><i>The lbinism is on the milder side, if present.</i><b
r /><div><img src="pste-17467631993490.jpg" /></div></div>
1401673873130 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenylketonuri (PKU)}} is disorder of
mino cid metbolism tht occurs due to deficiency in P<b>henyllnine Hydroxy
lse</b> or <b>Tetrhydrobiopterin cofctor</b>. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401673994657 1395802358422 Which enzyme deficiency cn cuse Phenylketonuri
(PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phenyllnine hydroxylse}}</div> <br /><d
1401674051461 1395802358422 Which cofctor deficiency cn cuse Phenylketonu
ri (PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tetrhydrobiopterin (BH4)}}</div> <div><br

/></div><i>If cused by BH4 deficiency, the PKU is <b>milder</b>.</i><br /><div
1401674095931 1395802358422 How do phenyllnine levels chnge in Phenylketo
nuri (PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed, thereby leds to excess pheny
lketones in the urine}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Phenylketones include: pheny
lcette, phenyllctte nd phenylpyruvte.</i><br /><div><i>Also, tyrosine beco
mes n essentil mino cid.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg
" /></i></div>
1401674190383 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenylketonuri (PKU)}} is disorder of
mino cid metbolism tht presents with chrcteristic <b>musty body odour</b>
.
1401674230704 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenylketonuri}} is disorder of mino
cid metbolism tht presents with <b>fir skin</b> or <b>prtil lbinism</
b> due to <b>decresed tyrosine production</b>.
<div><br /></div><i>Reme
mber, significnt mount of Tyrosine is mde from Phenyllnine, whose metbol
ism is impired in PKU.</i><div><i>Also remember tht DA, NE, Epinephrine, Meln
in re ll derived from Tyrosine.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-17463337026194.j
pg" /></div></div>
1401674528009 1395802358422 {{c1::Asprtme}} is rtificil sweetener used
in food tht must be voided in Phenylketonuri s it is phenyllnine deriv
tive.
1401674669660 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Phenylketonuri (PKU)?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<b>Less</b> phenyllnine nd <b>more</b>
tyrosine in the diet}}</div>
1401674746052 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Phenylketonur
i (PKU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Incidence 1:10,000</i></div><div><i>Screened for 2-3 dys fter birth s m
ternl enzymes t birth cn give norml redings during.</i></div>
1401675101072 1395802358422 {{c1::Mternl PKU}} is form of phenylketonuri
tht rises due to lck of proper dietry therpy during pregnncy. <br /><d
iv><i>Infnt presents with microcephly, intellectul disbility, growth retrd
tion nd congenitl hert defects.</i></div>
1401675173336 1395802358422 {{c1::Alkptonuri}} is disorder of mino cid
metbolism tht involves deficiency of <b>Homogentiste Oxidse </b>in the degr
<div><br /></div><i>The disorder
dtive pthwy of tyrosine to fumrte.
is <b>benign</b>.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
1401675242641 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Alkptonuri?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Homogentiste Oxidse}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Foun
d in the degrdtive pthwy of tyrosine to fumrte.</i><div><div><img src="ps
te-17463337026194.jpg" /></div></div>
1401675603698 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Alkptonuri?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-17463337026194.jpg" /></div>
metbolism tht presents with <b>drk connective tissue </b>nd <b>brown pigmen
ted sclere</b>.
metbolism tht presents with <b>urine tht turns blck </b>following prolonged
exposure to ir.
metbolism tht my present with <b>debilitting rthrlgis</b> nd <b>de
genertive rthritis</b> due to homogentisic cid's toxicity towrds crtil
ge.
1401675782552 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Homocystinuri
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive (ll types re AR)}}</div>
1401675860107 1395802358422 {{c1::Homocystinuri}} is disorder of mino c
id metbolism tht cn be due to deficiency of Cystthionine synthse.
<div><br /></div><i>Tx: decresed methionine, incresed cysteine, incresed B12
nd incresed B9 (folte) in the diet.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-21504901251

255.jpg" /></div>
id metbolism tht cn result from decresed ffinity of Cystthionine Synths
e for Pyridoxl Phosphte (Vitmin B6). <br /><div><i>Tretment: <b>gretly</b>&
nbsp;incresed B6 nd incresed cysteine in the diet.</i></div><div><i><img src=
"pste-21504901251255.jpg" /></i></div>
id metbolism tht cn be due to deficiency of Homocysteine Methyltrnsferse
(k Methionine Synthse).
<div><br /></div><i>Tretment: Incresed methion
ine in the diet.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-21504901251255.jpg" /></div>
1401677529173 1395802358422 Which 2 enzyme deficiencies cn cuse Homocystin
uri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cystthionine Synthse <u style="font-weight: b
old; ">or</u> Homocysteine Methyltrnsferse (Methionine Synthse)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>A deficiency in either cn cuse Homocystinuri</i></div><div><i><
img src="pste-21504901251255.jpg" /></i></div>
1401677584196 1395802358422 Which wter soluble vitmin deficiencies cn cu
se Homocystinuri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitmin B6 (Pyridoxine), B9 (Folt
e) nd B12 (Coblmin)}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Notice how B12 nd B6 re bo
th needed s cofctors.</i><div><i>Vitmin B9 is needed to drive Methionine Synt
hse s N5-Methyl-THF.</i></div><div><i><u>Remember, Methionine Synthse is the
only enzyme tht cn rectivte folte (N5-Methyl-THF to THF).</u><br /></i><div
><img src="pste-21504901251255.jpg" /></div></div>
1401677719641 1395802358422 Which is the only humn enzyme tht cn rectiv
te Folte (N5-Methyl-THF to THF)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Homocysteine Methyl
trnsferse (Methionine Synthse)}}</div>
901251255.jpg" /></div>
id metbolism tht presents very similrly to Mrfn Syndrome (tll stture, kyp
hosis, <b>lens subluxtion</b>).
id metbolism tht presents with <b>downwrd nd inwrd lens subluxtion</b>.
1401677833612 1395802358422 {{c1::Thrombosis}} nd {{c2::Atherosclerosi
s}} re 2 vsculr complictions of Homocystinuri due to dmge sustined to ve
ssels s result of disulfide bond formtion vi Homocysteine. <br /><div><i>Ho
mocysteine hs free -SH group tht cn cuse disulfide bone formtion with oth
er -SH groups on proteins or blood vessel wlls.</i></div>
metbolism tht is lso referred to s Onchronosis.
1401678036330 1395802358422 {{c1::Cystinuri}} is disorder of mino cid m
etbolism tht involves hereditry defect of the renl PCT nd intestinl min
o cid trnsporter for Cysteine, Ornithine, Lysine nd Arginine.
<br /><d
iv><i><b>COLA</b>: Cysteine, Ornithine, Lysine, Arginine</i></div>
1401680647663 1395802358422 {{c1::Cystinuri}} is disorder of mino cid met
bolism tht cn involve <b>hexgonl cystine stones</b> in the urine due t
o excess cystine content.
<br /><div><i>Cystine is mde of 2 cysteine mole
cules connected by disulfide bond.</i></div>
1401680677671 1395802358422 Which 4 mino cids hve defective trnsport in
Cystinuri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cysteine; Ornithine; Lysine; Arginine}}</
div>
<br /><div><i>COLA</i></div>
1401680703039 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Cystinuri?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div> <br /><div><i>Common (1:
7000).</i></div>
1401681073994 1395802358422 Wht dignostic test is used to dignose Cystinu
ri?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Urinry cynide-nitroprusside test}}</div>
1401681092469 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Cystinuri?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Urinry lkliniztion nd cheltors tht increse the solubili
ty of cystine stones}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Agents include Potssium Citrte
nd Acetzolmide.</i></div>
1401811267040 1395802358422 {{c1::Mple Syrup Urine Disese}} is disorder
of mino cid metbolism tht occurs due to deficiency in <b>Brnched Chin&nb

sp;lph-Ketocid dehydrogense</b>.
<br /><div><i>Remember, BCKDH is o
ne of the enzymes tht requires <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre For Nncy</b>:</i></di
v><div><i>Thimine (B1)</i></div><div><i>Lipoic Acid</i></div><div><i>CoA (B5)</
i></div><div><i>FAD (B2)</i></div><div><i>NAD (B3)</i></div>
1401813093714 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Mple Syrup Urine D
isese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Brnched Chin lph-Ketocid Dehydrogense}}
</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, this enzyme requires <b>Tender Love &mp; Cre F
or Nncy</b>:</i></div><div><i>Thimine (B1)</i></div><div><i>Lipoic Acid</i></d
iv><div><i>CoA (B5)</i></div><div><i>FAD (B2)</i></div><div><i>NAD (B3)</i></div
>
1401813158862 1395802358422 Wht re the 3 brnched chin mino cids?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Vline; Leucine; Isoleucine}}</div>
of brnched mino cid metbolism tht results in <b>incresed lph-ketocids</
b> in the blood, especilly those of leucine.
1401813227620 1395802358422 How do the levels of lph-ketocids chnge in M
ple Syrup Urine Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse; especilly those
of leucine}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, MSUD involves defect or defici
ency in Brnched Chin lph-Ketocid Dehydrogense.</i></div>
of brnched chin mino cid metbolism tht involves <b>severe CNS defects, int
ellectul disbility</b> nd <b>deth</b>.
1401813428800 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Mple Syrup U
rine Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
of mino cid metbolism tht presents with urine tht smells like mple syrup/b
urnt sugr.
1401813474986 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Mple Syrup Urine Dise
se?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Restriction of BCAAs in the diet (Leu, Ile, Vl)
; Thimine supplementtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Thimine is required cof
ctor for Brnched Chin lph-Ketocid Dehydrogense.</i></div>
1401813535554 1395802358422 How does Glucgon influence Glycogenolysis?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Glucgon cuses th
e <b>phosphoryltion of Glycogen Phosphorylse</b> vi Protein Kinse A, th
ereby <b>ctivting it.</b></i></div><div><i>Glucgon cuses the <b>phosphorylt
ion of Glycogen Synthse</b> vi Protein Kinse A, thereby <b>inctivting
it.</b></i></div><div><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401819069138 1395802358422 How does Epinephrine influence Glycogenolysis?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<div><br /></div><div><div><i>Ep
inephrine cuses the <b>phosphoryltion of Glycogen Phosphorylse</b>
vi Protein Kinse A, thereby <b>ctivting it.</b></i></div><div><i>Epinep
hrine cuses the <b>phosphoryltion of Glycogen Synthse</b> vi Prote
in Kinse A, thereby <b>inctivting it.</b></i></div><div><i><b><img src="
pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i></div></div>
1401819219969 1395802358422 Which type of G-protein is involved in Glucgon
nd Epinephrine signlling?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>s</sub>}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Thereby cusing n increse in [cAMP].</i></div><div><i><div></div
></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401819279758 1395802358422 Which protein kinse enzyme is involved in the r
egultion of Glycogen Phosphorylse nd Glycogen Synthse by Glucgon nd Epinep
hrine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Protein Kinse A}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>And remember, <b>Insulin ctivtes phosphtses</b> hence it does the o
pposite.</i><br /><div><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg
" /></b></i></div>
1401819363556 1395802358422 Which protein phosphtse enzyme is involved in
the regultion of Glycogen Synthse nd Glycogen Phosphorylse by Insulin?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Protein Phosphtse 1}}</div>
<br /><div><i><div></div
></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401819410506 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Glycogenolysis?<div><
<br /><div><i>Insulin ctivtes
<b>Glycogen Synthse</b>.</i></div><div><i>Insulin ctivtes <b>Protein Phospht
se 1</b> which <b>dephosphoryltes Glycogen Phosphorylse</b>, thereby in
ctivting it.</i></div><div><i></i><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-21646
63517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401819491519 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Glycogenesis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>Insulin ctivtes <b>Glyco
gen Synthse</b>.</i></div><div><i>Insulin ctivted <b>Protein Phosphtse 1</b
> which dephosphoryltes <b>Glycogen Phosphorylse</b>, thereby inctivtin
g it.</i></div><div><i></i><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742
.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401820462778 1395802358422 How does AMP influence Glycogenolysis t muscle?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>This only occurs
t muscle. <b>AMP hs no effect on heptic glycogenolysis</b>.</i></div>
1401820512824 1395802358422 Which enzyme in muscle ctivtes Glycogen Phosph
orylse when it is bound to C?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clmodulin}}</div>
<br /><div><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-2164663517742.jpg" /></b></i>
</div>
1401820582800 1395802358422 How does Glucose-6-phosphte influence Glycogene
sis in both liver nd muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>G6P ctivted Glycogen Synthse in feed-forwrd mnner to drive
glycogenesis.</i></div><div><i></i><i><div></div></i><i><b><img src="pste-21646
63517742.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401833353374 1395802358422 Wht type of glycosidic bond is seen in <b>glyco
gen brnches</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-(1,6)}}</div>
1401833612783 1395802358422 Wht type of glycosidic bond is seen in <b>glyco
gen links</b> (i.e. liner glycogen)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-(1,4
)}}</div>
1401833683064 1395802358422 In skeletl muscle, Glycogen is broken into&nbsp
;{{c1::Glucose-1-phosphte}} molecules nd then converted to {{c2::Glucose6-phosphte}}, which is rpidly metbolized during exercise nd enters nerobic
glycolysis.
<br /><div><i>The brekdown is the reverse of glycogen synthesis
:</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-4471060955437.jpg" /></i></div>
1401833835675 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver cleves Glucose-1-phos
phte residues off brnched glycogen until there re four remining before br
nch point?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycogen phosphorylse}}</div>
<br /><d
1401834039050 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver moves <b>three</b>&nbs
p;Glucose-1-phosphte molecules from the brnch to the glycogen linkge in Glyco
genolysis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4-lph-D-Glucnotrnsferse (Debrnching
Enzyme)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-4471060955437.jpg" /></div>
1401834231654 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver cleves off the lst g
lucose-1-phosphte molecule from brnch in Glycogenolysis?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::lph-1,6-Glucosidse (Debrnching Enzyme)}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-4471060955437.jpg" /></div>
1401834270124 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the liver removes phosphte gr
oup from Glucose-6-phosphte, thereby llowing glucose to be trnsported into th
e blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose-6-phosphtse}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Remember, glycogenolysis t the liver is imed to mintin blood sugr. Th
is finl step is vitl in both gluconeongenesis nd glycogenolysis to llow gluc
ose to enter circultion.</i></div><div><i>In fct, <b>the liver hs unique Gl
ucose-6-phosphtse</b> tht lets this lst step occur.</i></div>
1401834466570 1395802358422 Which enzyme reversibly converts Glucose-1-phosp
hte to Glucose-6-phosphte (nd vice vers)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Epimer
se}}</div>
1401834493200 1395802358422 Which enzyme in <b>lysosomes</b> degrdes
smll mount of glycogen?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-1,4-glucosidse (Aci
d Mltse)}}</div>
1401834550708 1395802358422 Wht is the primry role of Glycogenolysis t th
e liver?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mintennt of blood glucose}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Glycogenolysis only lsts short time. Soon fter, gluconeogenesis tkes

over to keep blood glucose levels mintined.</i></div>
1401834674758 1395802358422 How do Glycogen levels chnge in glycogen storg
e disorders?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Lo
l. Just mking sure you're still live.</i></div><div><i>Also, keep in mind of <
b>where</b> glycogen is mde/stored: <b>Liver</b> nd <b>muscle</b>. H
ence, it is these 2 tissues tht re ffected in these disorders. Glycogen stor
ge disorders cn be sorted into liver, muscle or mixed types.</i></div>
1401835653689 1395802358422 {{c1::Von Gierke disese}} is glycogen storge
disorder tht is lso referred to s Type I Glycogen Storge Disorder.
1401835707649 1395802358422 {{c1::Pompe Disese}} is glycogen storge diso
rder tht is lso referred to s Type II Glycogen Storge Disorder
1401835724855 1395802358422 {{c1::Cori Disese}} is glycogen storge disor
der tht is lso referred to s Type III Glycogen Storge Disorder.
1401835744015 1395802358422 {{c1::McArdle Disese}} is glycogen storge di
sorder tht is lso referred to s Type V Glycogen Storge Disorder.
1401835786447 1395802358422 Wht is the only glycogen storge disorder tht
ffects <b>both</b> the liver nd muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pompe
Disese}}</div>
1401835912232 1395802358422 Wht is the only glycogen storge disorder tht
hs severe fsting hypoglycemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Von Gierke Disese}}
</div>
1401835936881 1395802358422 Which enzyme is defective in Von Gierke Disese?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose-6-phosphtse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Re
member, <b>only the liver expresses Glucose-6-phosphtse.</b></i></div><div><i>
Of the glycogen storge disorders, Von Gierke is bsiclly the only one with re
lly shitty biochemistry.</i></div>
1401835993657 1395802358422 {{c1::Von Gierke Disese}} is glycogen storge
disorder tht presents with <b>severe fsting hypoglycemi</b> due to Gl
ucose-6-phosphtse deficiency.
disorder tht presents with <b>heptomegly</b> due to severe increse i
n Glucose-6-phosphte levels. <br /><div><i>G6P is very osmoticlly ctive nd
hence cuses cell swelling nd ultimtely heptosplenomegly.</i></div>
disorder tht presents with <b>hypermmonemi</b> nd <b>lctic cidosis</
b> due to the liver filure tht rises. <br /><div><i>Von Gierke Disese
is essentilly genetic cuse of liver filure due to the Glucose-6-phosphts
e deficiency.</i></div>
1401836262125 1395802358422 {{c1::Ketocidosis}} is compliction of Von Gi
erke Disese tht rises due to Acetyl CoA being shunted towrds ketogenesis.
1401836445601 1395802358422 {{c1::Gout/Hyperuricemi}} is possible complic
tion of Von Gierke Disese due to the phosphte trpping tht occurs with Gluco
se-6-phosphte ccumultion nd the resultnt lck of phosphte for purine slv
ge.
<br /><div><i>Anything tht cuses phosphte trpping cn cuse hyperuri
cemi/gout.</i></div><div><i>Fructose Intolernce (Aldolse B deficiency; F1P c
cumultion) is nother exmple.</i></div><div><i>Clssic Glctosemi (Gl-1-P U
ridyltrnsferse defect; Gl-1-P ccumultion) is one s well.</i></div>
1401836484479 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Von Gierke Di
sese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401836496319 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Von Gierke Disese?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Frequent orl glucose/cornstrch; voidnce of fructose
nd glctose}}</div>
rder tht involves <b>crdiomyopthy.</b>
<br /><div><i>Along with systemi
c findings, heptomegly nd muscle wekness there is erly deth.</i></div>
rder tht involves deficiency of Lysosoml lph-1,4-glucosidse (Acid Mltse
).
1401849223920 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is deficient in Pompe Disese?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Alph-1,4-glucosidse (Acid Mltse)}}</div>

<br /><d
iv><i>Found in lysosomes.</i></div>
1401849315370 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of deth in Pompe
Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CHF or rrhythmi}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i><b>P</b>ompe trshes the <b>p</b>ump.</i><br /><div><i>However remember, the
<b>liver is still ffected</b>. Pompe ffects both muscle nd the liver.</i></d
iv>
1401849357548 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Pompe Disese
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
der tht is considered milder form of Von Gierke Disese (Glycogen Storge Dis
order Type I) with norml lctte levels.
<br /><div><i>Gluconeogenesis is
intct.</i></div>
1401849487279 1395802358422 Which glycogen storge disorder is considered
milder form of Von Gierke Disese (Glycogen Storge Disorder Type I)?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Cori Disese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Gluconeogenesis is intct
nd there re norml lctte levels.</i></div>
1401849548573 1395802358422 How do lctte levels chnge in Cori Disese?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Norml}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is very key point.
There is no lctic cidosis in Cori Disese.</i></div>
1401849589562 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Cori Disese?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Debrnching enzyme (lph-1,6-Glucosidse)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Mnemonic to remember Anderson nd Cori Disese:</i></div><div><i><
b>"AB,CD"</b></i></div><div><i><b>A</b>nderson = <b>B</b>rnching enzyme deficie
ncy</i></div><div><i><b>C</b>ori = <b>D</b>ebrnching enzyme deficiency</i></div
>
1401849667566 1395802358422 {{c1::Cori Disese}} is glycogen storge dise
se tht involves deficiency of Debrnching Enzyme (lph-1,6-glucosidse).
<div><br /></div><div><div><i>Mnemonic to remember Anderson nd Cori Disese:</i
></div><div><i><b>"AB,CD"</b></i></div><div><i><b>A</b>nderson = <b>B</b>r
nching enzyme deficiency</i></div><div><i><b>C</b>ori = <b>D</b>ebrnching
enzyme deficiency</i></div></div>
1401849717567 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Cori Disese?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
der tht involves cellulr glycogen with <b>too mny brnches </b>due to defic
iency of Debrnching Enzyme.
sorder tht presents with <b>myoglobinuri</b> with <b>red urine</b> f
ollowing strenuous exercise.
sorder tht presents with pinful muscle crmps due to glycogen ccumultion in
muscle.
sorder tht presents with <b>rrhythmi</b> due to electrolyte bnormlitie
s.
1401851414844 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in McArdle Disese?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Skeletl muscle glycogen phosphorylse (Myophosphoryls
e)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Therefore <b>glycogenolysis is defective.</b></i><
/div>
sorder tht involves skeletl muscle glycogen phosphorylse (Myophosphorylse)
deficiency.
<br /><div><i>Therefore <b>glycogenolysis is defective</b>.</i><
/div>
1401851515196 1395802358422 {{c1::Pinful muscle crmps}} is compliction
of McArdle Disese tht rises due to the significnt glycogen buildup in muscle
s.
<br /><div><i>There is no lctic cidosis in McArdle Disese s glucose
is <b>unvilble</b> due to glycogen phosphorylse deficiency. Hence, no
glucose is vilble to be mde into Lctte vi Anerobic Glycolysis. Therefor
e, this muscle crmping hs nothing to do with lctte.</i></div>
1401851670334 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of McArdle Dise

se?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401852097481 1395802358422 Which mjor glycogen storge disorder is ssoci
ted with muscle dmge?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::McArdle Disese}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b>M</b>cArdle = <b>M</b>uscle</i></div>
1401852141165 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in the glycogen storg
e disorder Anderson Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Brnching Enzyme}}</div>
<br /><div><div><i>Mnemonic for remembering Anderson nd Cori disese:</i></div>
</div><div><i><b>"AB,CD"</b></i></div><div><i><b>A</b>nderson = <b>B</b>rnching
enzyme deficiency</i></div><div><i><b>C</b>ori = <b>D</b>ebrnching enzyme defi
ciency</i></div>
1401923761587 1395802358422 Wht <b>type</b> of bnorml products ccum
ulte in lysosoml storge diseses?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sphingolipids}}<
/div> <br /><div><i><b>Cermide</b> is the 'prent' of ll sphingolipids.</i><
/div>
1401926578906 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disese is ssocited wi
th <b>ngiokertoms</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fbry Disese}}</div>
1401926647468 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder is ssocited w
ith crdiovsculr/renl disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fbry Disese}}</di
v>
1401926672207 1395802358422 {{c1::Fbry Disese}} is lysosoml storge dis
order tht involves peripherl neuropthy of the hnds nd feet due to n <b>lp
h-glctosidse A</b> deficiency.
1401927090547 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in the lysosoml stor
ge disorder Fbry Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-Glctosidse A}}</d
iv>
order tht involves deficiency of lph-Glctosidse A.
<br /><div><img
src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
order tht involves ccumultion of <b>cermide hexoside</b>. <br /><div><img
src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401927173282 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of the lysosoml
storge disorder Fbry Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked recessive}}
</div> <br /><div><i>All lysosoml storge disorders <b>except Fbry nd Hunter
's syndromes </b> re utosoml recessive disorders.</i></div>
1401927409823 1395802358422 Wht is the only lysosoml storge disorder tht
is X-linked recessive?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fbry Disese nd Hunter's Sy
ndrome}}</div> <br /><div><i>All other lysosoml storge disorders re utosom
l recessive.</i></div>
1401928007277 1395802358422 Wht is the most common lysosoml storge disord
er?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gucher Disese}}</div>
1401928040370 1395802358422 Which mjor lysosoml storge disorder ffects t
he Reticuloendothelil System (RES; Mononucler Phgocyte System) only?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Gucher}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence there will be <b>hep
tosplenomegly</b>.</i></div>
ith <b>pncytopeni</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gucher Disese}}</div>
ith <b>septic necrosis of the femur</b> nd <b>bone crises</b>?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Gucher Disese}}</div>
1401928997477 1395802358422 {{c1::Gucher Cells}} re pthologicl cell se
en in Gucher Disese tht re described s <b>lipid-lden mcrophges resemblin
g crumpled tissue pper</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-3685081940158.
jpg" /></div> <br /><div><i>Visulized with <b>PAS stin.</b></i></div>
1401929060078 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for the lysosoml storge
disorder Gucher Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Recombinnt glucocerebrosid
<br /><div><i>i.e. the deficient enzyme</i></div>
se}}</div>
1401929097241 1395802358422 Which enzyme is deficient in Gucher Disese?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucocerebrosidse (bet-Glucosidse)}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i><b>"G-G-Glucose!</b>" (Gucher; Glucocerebrosidse; Glucocerebroside

).</i><br /><div><img src="pste-3878355468684.jpg" /></div>
1401929406864 1395802358422 {{c1::Gucher Disese}} is lysosoml storge d
isorder tht involves deficiency of <b>Glucocerebrosidse</b> (bet-Gluco
sidse) nd subsequent ccumultion of <b>Glucocerebroside</b>.
<div><br
/></div><i>Gucher = "<b><u>GGG</u></b>"</i><br /><div><img src="pste-38740605
01388.jpg" /></div>
isorder tht involves Glucocerebrosidse deficiency. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
isorder tht involves the ccumultion of Glucocerebroside.
<div><br /></div
><i>"<b>G-G-Glucose!</b>" (Gucher, Glucocerebrosidse, Glucocerebroside)</i><br
/><div><img src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
1401929935588 1395802358422 Which mjor lysosoml storge disorder ffects <
b>both</b> the CNS nd Reticuloendothelil System (RES)?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Niemnn-Pick Disese}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence there is <b>heptosp
lenomegly, progressive neurodegenertion</b> <b><u>nd</u> cherry-red
mcul</b>.</i></div>
1401929998180 1395802358422 Which mjor lysosoml storge disorder presents
with <b>both</b> heptosplenomegly nd cherry-red mcul?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Niemnn-Pick Disese}}</div>
1401930068039 1395802358422 {{c1::Niemnn-Pick Disese}} is lysosoml stor
ge disorder tht presents with progressive neurodegenertion, <b>heptosplenome
gly</b> nd <b>cherry-red</b> spot on the mcul.
<br /><div><img
src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div>
ge disorder Niemnn-Pick Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sphingomyelinse}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>My friend <b>Nmn</b> picks (Niemnn-Pick) his nose
with his <b>sphing</b>er (sphingomyelin; sphingomyelinse).</i></div><div><i>...
. true story, if you ever see Nmn D. on the wrds, cll him out on it.</i></di
v><div><i><img src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></i></div>
<div><br /></div
ge disorder tht involves deficiency of Sphingomyelinse.
><i>My friend <b>Nmn</b> picks (Niemnn-Pick) his nose with his <b>sphing
</b>er (sphingomyelin; sphingomyelinse).</i><div><i>... true story, if you ever
see Nmn D. on the wrds, cll him out on it.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-38
74060501388.jpg" /></div></div>
1401930953025 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Gucher Dise
se?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401931228389 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Niemnn-Pick
Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
<br /><d
ge disorder tht presents with n ccumultion of Sphingomyelin.
iv><br /></div><div><i>My friend <b>Nmn</b> picks (Niemnn-Pick) his
nose with his <b>sphing</b>er (sphingomyelin; sphingomyelinse).</i><div><
i>... true story, if you ever see Nmn D. on the wrds, cll him out on it.<br
/></i><div><img src="pste-3874060501388.jpg" /></div></div></div>
1401931274881 1395802358422 {{c1::Cherry-red spot on the mcul}} is n ocul
r compliction of lysosoml storge disorders ffecting the CNS nd is describe
d s the mcul ppering on very ple bckground retin with neurons full of
sphingolipids. <br /><div><i>Here's good mnemonic: <b>Cherry-red is hyphente
d, so is Niemnn-Pick nd Ty-Schs</b></i></div><div><i><b><img src="pste-7911
329759427.jpg" /></b></i></div>
1401931429176 1395802358422 {{c1::Fom cells}} re pthologicl cell seen
in Niemnn-Pick Disese tht re described s lipid-lden mcrophges.<div><br /
1401931470977 1395802358422 {{c1::Zebr Bodies}} re intrcellulr fetures
of mcrophges nd neurons in Niemnn-Pick disese seen on electron microscopy
nd re described s striped ptterns of ccumulted sphingolipids.<div><br /></d

1401931654715 1395802358422 Which mjor lysosoml storge disorder ffects t
he CNS only?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hence there is <b>progressive neurodegenertion nd cherry-red mcul</b>.
</i></div>
1401932275945 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}} is lysosoml storge
disorder tht presents with <b>progressive neurodegenertion</b> nd <b>de
velopmentl dely</b> due to Hexosminidse A defect.
disorder tht presents with <b>"cherry-red" spot on the mcul</b> due t
o Hexosminidse A deficiency.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-7907034792
131.jpg" /></div>
1401932350503 1395802358422 Which lysosoml storge disorder presents with <
b>lysosomes with onion skin</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}}<
/div>
1401932454875 1395802358422 Wht is the key distinguishing feture between N
iemnn-Pick nd Ty-Schs Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ty-Schs <b>does
not</b> hve heptosplenomegly}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Niemnn-Pick = CNS
nd RES</i></div><div><i>Ty-Schs = CNS only</i></div>
1401932505408 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy for someone with Ty
-Schs Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3-4 y/o}}</div>
<br /><div><i>He
nce vignette with 40 y/o ptient does not hve Ty-Schs.</i></div>
ge disorder Ty-Schs Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hexosminidse A}}</di
v>
<div><br /></div><i>Ty-S<u style="font-weight: bold; ">X</u> = He
<u style="font-weight: bold; ">X</u>osminidse A deficiency</i><br /><div><img
src="pste-8383776162186.jpg" /></div>
disorder tht involves Hexosminidse A deficiency. <br /><div><i>Ty-S<u s
tyle="font-weight: bold; ">X</u> = He<u style="font-weight: bold; ">X</u>os
minidse A deficiency</i><br /><div><img src="pste-8383776162186.jpg" /></div>
</div>
disorder tht involves n ccumultion of GM<sub>2</sub> Gnglioside.
<br /><div><i>Ty-S<u style="font-weight: bold; ">X</u> = He<u style="font
-weight: bold; ">X</u>osminidse A deficiency</i><br /><div><img src="pste-838
3776162186.jpg" /></div></div>
1401932687196 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Ty-Schs Dis
ese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
ith Globoid Cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Krbbe Disese}}</div>
ith <b>optic trophy</b> s well s peripherl neuropthy nd developmentl
dely?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Krbbe Disese}}</div>
1401933127517 1395802358422 Wht enzyme is deficient in the lysosoml storg
e disorder Krbbe Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glctocerebrosidse}}</di
v>
1401933369573 1395802358422 {{c1::Krbbe Disese}} is lysosoml storge di
sorder tht presents with n ccumultion of Glctocerebroside.
<br /><d
1401933395457 1395802358422 {{c1::Krbbe Disese}} is lysosoml storge di
sorder tht involves Glctocerebrosidse deficiency. <br /><div><img src="ps
te-9225589752202.jpg" /></div>
1401933451333 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Krbbe Dises
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml recessive}}</div>
1401933463784 1395802358422 Wht is the life expectncy of ptient with Kr
bbe Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::~ 2 y/o}}</div>
1401933483703 1395802358422 {{c1::Metchromtic Leukodystrophy}} is lysoso
ml storge disorder tht presents with <b>centrl nd peripherl demyelintion,
txi</b> nd <b>dementi</b>.

ml storge disorder tht involves n Arylsulftse A deficiency.
<br /><d
1401933565132 1395802358422 Which enzyme deficiency is seen in the lysosoml
storge disorder Metchromtic Leukodystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aryls
ulftse A}}</div>
ml storge disorder tht presents with n ccumultion of Cerebroside Sulfte.
1401933647288 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Metchromtic
Leukodystrophy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Recessive}}</div>
1401933927937 1395802358422 {{c1::Hurler Syndrome}} is lysosoml storge d
isorder tht presents with <b>grgoylism</b> nd <b>cornel clouding</b>.
isorder tht presents with <b>irwy obstruction</b> nd heptosplenomegly
.
ge disorder Hurler Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::lph-L-iduronidse}}</d
iv>
isorder tht involves deficieny of lph-L-iduronidse.
1401934092467 1395802358422 {{c1::Hurler Syndrome}} nd {{c2::Hunter Sy
ndrome}} re lysosoml storge disorders tht present with ccumultion of <b>he
prn sulfte</b> nd <b>dermtn sulfte</b>.
1401934123572 1395802358422 {{c1::Hunter Syndrome}} is lysosoml storge d
isorder tht presents similr to Hurler Syndrome, but <b>lcks cornel clouding<
/b>.
isorder tht presents similr to Hurler Syndrome but <b>includes ggressive beh
viour</b>.
isorder tht involves deficiency of iduronte sulftse.
1401934211249 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of the lysosoml
storge disorder Hunter Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked recessive
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hunters lwys im for the <b>X</b>.</i></div>
1401934246419 1395802358422 Which 3 lysosoml storge disorder hve n incre
sed incidence in Ashkenzi Jews?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ty-Schs; NiemnnPick; Gucher}}</div>
1401934288337 1395802358422 {{c1::Ty-Schs Disese}}, {{c2::Niemnn-Pi
ck Disese}} nd {{c3::Gucher Disese}} re lysosoml storge disorders th
t hve incresed incidence in Ashkenzi Jews.
1401934344648 1395802358422 Adipose tissue cn only mke Glycerol-3-Phospht
e by reducing {{c1::Dihydroxycetone Phosphte (DHAP)}}, glycolytic intermedi
te.
<br /><div><i>Hence, dipose tissue requires incresed glucose uptke vi
the GLUT4 trnsporter in order for there to be spre DHAP vilble for mking
nd storing triglycerides. This is prt of why excess sugr intke becomes ft.
</i></div><div><i>Also this is why </i><b><i>dibetics will hve hyperlipid
emi</i>.</b></div><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b>ftty cid synthesis</b></div
>
1401936293497 1395802358422 {{c1::Ftty Acid Synthse}} is n enzyme in ftt
y cid synthesis tht mkes Plmitte through 7 rounds of rection (vi 7 ATP) b
y dding 2 crbons from Acetyl CoA to growing ftty cid chin.
<br /><d
iv><i>This rection lso uses NADPH.</i></div><div><i>Only crbons from Acetyl C
oA re dded.</i></div><div><i>Plmitte is essentilly storge form of 8 cet
yl-CoA mocs (2 C ech).</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-11463267713772.jpg" /><
/i></div>
1401937489319 1395802358422 {{c1::Avidin}} is protein in rw eggs tht cn
bind to Vitmin B7 (Biotin), thereby cusing possible deficiency of ftty ci
ds due to impired Mlonyl-CoA production.
<div><br /></div><i>Biotin is re
quired for Mlonyl-CoA production in FA Synthesis.</i><br /><div><img src="pste
-11458972746476.jpg" /></div>
1401937981267 1395802358422 Which metbolic shuttle is involved in Ftty Aci
d <b>Synthesis</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Citrte Shuttle}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>This is importnt to remember becuse <b>Citrte inhibits glycolysis
.</b> Hence, when Citrte is high the body is essentilly sying "Stop burn
ing sugr, brh. I'm gonn mke ft. How bout you use tht G6P to mke glycogen
or NADPH vi the HMP shunt insted?".</i><br /><div><img src="pste-11458972746
476.jpg" /></div>
1401938332490 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence Ftty Acid Synthse
ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed vi induction}}</div>
<br /><d
1401938390760 1395802358422 {{c1::Ftty Acid CoA Synthetse}} is n enzyme i
nvolved in ftty cid <b>degrdtion</b> tht "ctivtes" ftty cids by d
ding CoA group.
1401938575082 1395802358422 Which nucleoside disphosphte molecule is dded
to sugrs to "ctivte" them for metbolic rections?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:UDP (Uridine Diphosphte)}}</div>
1401938879605 1395802358422 How does Mlonyl-CoA influence Ftty Acid Degrd
tion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition (t Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse
1)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Remember, <b>Mlonyl-CoA is n intermedite
of FA Synthesis</b>. Hence, if your ss is mking fts, ft brekdown is going t
o be inhibited.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939128667 1395802358422 Wht is the rte limiting enzyme of Ftty Acid D
egrdtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse <u><b>1</
b></u> (CPT1)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939154201 1395802358422 Which metbolic shuttle is involved in Ftty Aci
d Degrdtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crnitine Shuttle}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i>Involves 2 key enzymes:</i><div><i><b>Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsfers
e 1 (CPT1) </b>nd </i><i><b>Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse 2 (CPT2).
</b></i></div><div><div><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div></div>
1401939211497 1395802358422 {{c1::Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse <b>1</b>}}
is n enzyme involved in the crnitine shuttle tht dds Crnitine to Acyl-CoA
molecules, thereby llowing it to cross the mitochondril membrne.
<br /><d
1401939260807 1395802358422 {{c1::Crnitine Plmitoyl Trnsferse <b>2</b>}}
is n enzyme in the crnitine shuttle tht <b>removes</b> Crnitine from C
<br /><d
rnitine-Acyl-CoA, thereby freeing Acyl-CoA into the mitochondri.
1401939309807 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetyl-CoA}} is the finl brekdown produc
t of ftty cids tht then feeds into ketogenesis nd the TCA cycle.
<div><br
/></div><i>Hence, when there is incresed ATP (such s in dibetics), the <b>ex
cess Acetyl-CoA cuses ketocidosis</b>.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-121633473
83025.jpg" /></div>
1401939401190 1395802358422 {{c1::Crnitine Deficiency}} is disorder of f
tty cid brekdown tht involves the <b>inbility to trnsport long-chin ftty
cids into the mitochondri</b>, thereby resulting in toxic ccumultion.
1401939467652 1395802358422 {{c1::Crnitine Deficiency}} is disorder of f
tty cid brekdown tht presents with <b>wekness</b> nd <b>hypotoni</b>.
1401939523409 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoketotic hypoglycemi}} is feture of
Crnitine deficiency due to significntly lower levels of Acetyl-CoA s resul
t of impired ftty cid brekdown.
<div>Remember, Acetyl-CoA feeds into ket
ogenesis. Acetyl-CoA is lso positive llosteric regultor of Pyruvte Crboxy
lse in gluconeogenesis</div><div><img src="pste-12163347383025.jpg" /></div>
1401939640650 1395802358422 {{c1::Acyl-CoA Dehydrogense Deficiency}} is d
isorder of ftty cid brekdown tht involves <b>elevted levels of dicrboxylic
cids </b>nd <b>low levels of Acetyl-CoA.</b> <br /><div><i>Becuse there is l
ess Acetyl-CoA, there is lso <b>hypoketotic hypoglycemi</b> s cetyl-CoA
drives both ketogenesis nd gluconeogenesis.</i></div>
1401939781619 1395802358422 How does Acetyl-CoA influence Pyruvte Crboxyl
se in Gluconeogenesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Positive llosteric regultor}

}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence, decresed Acetyl-CoA = decresed fsting glucose =
fsting hypoglycemi</i></div>
1401939841483 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetyl-CoA}} is brekdown product of ft
ty cids tht directly feeds into ketogenesis, especilly when it is found in ex
cess. <br /><div><i>In prolonged strvtion nd DKA, Oxlocette is depleted
for gluconeogenesis.</i></div><div><i>In lcoholism, elevted NADH levels shunt
Oxlocette to mlte.</i></div><div><i><u>Both of the bove occurrences cuse
buildup of Acetyl-CoA, which shunts both Glucose nd free ftty cids towrds
Ketogenesis.</u></i></div>
1401940643620 1395802358422 How does Glucgon influence Ketogenesis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Activtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence Ketogenesis occurs p
ost mel nd in between mels.</i></div>
1401940667657 1395802358422 Which breth smell is ssocited with Ketosis?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fruity Odour}}</div>
1401940705348 1395802358422 Where in the body does Ketolysis occur?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Renl cortex, muscle nd brin}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th
e liver is unble to peform Ketolysis becuse <b>it lcks Thiophorse </b>(Succi
nyl-CoA Acetocette Trnsferse), nd is hence unble to ctivte its own keton
es.</i></div><div><i>Ketolysis involves the ctivtion of Hydroxybutyrte to Ace
tocette nd subsequent NADH production.</i></div>
1401941075357 1395802358422 Linolenic Acid is n omeg-{{c1::3}} ftty cid.
<br /><div><i>i.e. fish oil.</i></div>
1401941118259 1395802358422 Linoleic Acid is n omeg-{{c1::6}} ftty cid.
1401941135122 1395802358422 Archidonic Acid is n omeg-{{c1::6}} ftty ci
d.
1401941147674 1395802358422 Which omeg-6 ftty cid is used to mke Archid
onic Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Linoleic Acid}}</div>
1401941166429 1395802358422 How mny crbons re in the ftty cid Plmitic
Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::16:0}}</div>
1401941209238 1395802358422 How mny crbons re in the <b>essentil</b>&nbs
p;ftty cid Linoleic Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::18:2}}</div>
1401941226068 1395802358422 How mny crbons re in the <b>essentil</b>&nbs
p;ftty cid Linolenic Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::18:3}}</div>
1401988556499 1395802358422 How mny kcl of energy is obtined from 1g of p
rotein?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4 kcl}}</div>
1401988983762 1395802358422 How mny kcl of energy is obtined from 1g of c
rbohydrte?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4 kcl}}</div>
1401989001496 1395802358422 How mny kcl of energy is obtined from 1g of f
t?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::9 kcl}}</div>
1401989012640 1395802358422 How mny kcl of energy is obtined from 1g of
lcohol?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::7 kcl}}</div>
1401989035680 1395802358422 {{c1::Cretine Phosphte}} is high energy phos
phorylted molecule tht functions s the <b>second</b> mjor source of ene
rgy in exercise fter ATP stores.
<br /><div><img src="pste-979252544012.
jpg" /></div>
1401989465450 1395802358422 Which metbolic process is the mjor source of e
nergy in the fed stte (just fter mel)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glycolysi
s; Aerobic Respirtion}}</div> <br /><div><i>Insulin fter mel stimultes th
e storge of lipids, proteins nd glycogen.</i></div>
1401990702186 1395802358422 Which metbolic process is the <b>mjor</b>&nbsp
;source of energy in the fsting stte (between mels)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Heptic glycogenolysis}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Glucgon nd NE stimulte
use of fuel/energy reserves.</i></div>
1401990764617 1395802358422 Which metbolic process is the <b>secondry</b>&
nbsp;source of energy in the fstic stte (between mels)?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Heptic gluconeogenesis; Adipose relese of FFA}}</div> <br /><div><i>Gl
ucgon nd NE stimulte the use of fuel/energy reserves.</i></div>
1401990812842 1395802358422 How mny dys into strvtion do Glycogen reserv
es usully become depleted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dy 1}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="pste-1541893259754.jpg" /><img src="pste-2435246457278.jpg" /></d

iv>
1401991850330 1395802358422 Which energy store is the <b>mjor</b> sour
ce of energy fter dy 3 of strvtion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Adipose store
s}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This fr into strvtion, ketones become the min
energy source for the brin.</i></div><div><i>After ft stores deplete, degrdt
ion of vitl proteins ccelertes, leding to orgn filure nd deth.</i></div>
<div><i>The mount of excess energy stores vilble determines how long someone
will survive in strvtion.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-1541893259754.jpg"
/><img src="pste-2435246457278.jpg" /></i></div>
1401992066409 1395802358422 How do incresed cholesterol levels influence th
e expression of LDL receptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1402010858583 1395802358422 Which receptor on heptocytes binds to LDL, llo
wing for its uptke?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LDL Receptors (ApoB100 Receptor)
}}</div>
1402011383789 1395802358422 Which receptor on heptocytes binds to HDL, llo
wing for its uptke?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SR-B1 receptor}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Scvenger receptor B1</i></div>
1402011413644 1395802358422 Wht is the rte limiting enzyme in cholesterol
synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA Reductse}}</div>
1402011452174 1395802358422 How does Insulin influence HMG-CoA Reductse ct
ivity in cholesterol synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse vi inductio
n}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, Induction = incresed expression = incre
sed V<sub>mx</sub></i></div>
1402011491725 1395802358422 How does Mevlonte, n intermedite in choleste
rol synthesis, influence HMG CoA Reductse expression?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Repression}}</div>
<br /><div><i>HMG-CoA is converted into Mevlonte</i></
div>
1402011923634 1395802358422 Which enzyme bound to HDL nd LDL esterifies 2/3
of plsm cholesterol?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lechitin-Cholesterol Acyltrn
sferse (LCAT)}}</div>
1402012081011 1395802358422 {{c1::Sttins}} re clss of ntihyperlipidemi
c drugs tht competitively nd reversibly inhibit HMG-CoA Reductse.
<br /><d
iv><i>e.g. Lovsttin</i></div>
1402012556117 1395802358422 {{c1::Frnesyl PPi}} is byproduct of cholester
ol synthesis tht functions s source of Coenzyme Q. <br /><div><i>Hence, dm
inistrtion of Sttins, which inhibit cholesterol synthesis, cn impir function
of the electron trnsport chin by inhibiting Frnesyl PPi production. This is
prt of <b>Sttin-induced Rhbdomyolysis</b> s myocytes re prticul
rly rich in mitochondri.</i></div>
1402022178378 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipse}} is pncretic enzyme tht degr
des dietry triglycerides in the smll intestine.
te-2250562863813.jpg" /></div>
1402022600834 1395802358422 {{c1::Lipoprotein Lipse (LPL)}} is n enzyme fo
und on the surfce of vsculr endothelium tht degrdes triglycerides circulti
ng in chylomicrons nd VLDLs. <br /><div><img src="pste-2246267896517.jpg" />
</div>
1402022656036 1395802358422 {{c1::Heptic Lipse (HL)}} is heptic enzyme
tht degrdes triglycerides tht remin in IDL. <br /><div><img src="pste-22462
67896517.jpg" /></div>
1402022687158 1395802358422 How do decresed Insulin levels influence Hormon
e Sensitive Lipse (HSL) ctivity?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<div><br></div><i>This is very importnt to remember. <b>Hormone Sensitive Lips
e detects <u>decreses</u> in Insulin</b>. This contributes to the hyperlip
idemi seen in dibetics. Lower insulin levels cuses n increse in HSL ctivit
y nd hence more FFAs in the blood.</i><div><i>Also remember tht without Insuli
n, lipids re not stored in dipose tissue nd they sty in blood (s VLDL, LDL
nd Chylomicrons), thereby contributing to dibetic hyperlipidemi.<br></i><div>
<img src="pste-2246267896517.jpg" /></div></div>
1402022799822 1395802358422 How do incresed Insulin levels influence Lipopr
otein Lipse (LPL) ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>

1402022830108 1395802358422 {{c1::Hormone Sensitive Lipse (HSL)}} is lip
se enzyme found in dipocytes tht degrdes stored triglycerides.
1402022977509 1395802358422 {{c1::Lechitin-cholesterol Acyltrnsferse (LCAT
)}} is n enzyme found on HDL tht ctlyzes the esterifiction of cholesterol,
thereby forming mture HDL.
</div>
1402023608036 1395802358422 {{c1::Cholesterol ester trnsfer protein (CETP)}
} is n enzyme found in HDL tht medites the trnsfer of cholesterol esters to
other lipoprotein prticles (such s VLDL, IDL, LDL). <div><br /></div><i>As I
DL becomes richer nd richer in cholesterol vi CETP ction, it becomes LDL.</i>
1402023680505 1395802358422 Wht receptor on heptocytes binds to HDL, there
by mediting its uptke?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SR-B1}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>k Scvenger B1 Receptor</i></div><div><i>Remember, <b>HDL brings exposed
or unused cholesterol to the liver from peripherl tissue</b>. </i></div><
div><i>When LDL levels re in excess in the blood, they become oxidized nd cn
yield ftty strek on blood vessel wlls. HDL lso functions to "clen up" thi
s deposited cholesterol.</i></div>
1402023855461 1395802358422 Which GLUT trnsporter is involved in Insulin-me
dited storge of Glucose?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT4}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>In dipose, the stored glucose is converted to Glycerol nd then dded to
ftty cids to form ft when there is high energy.</i></div>
1402024881005 1395802358422 {{c1::ApoE}} is n polipoprotein tht medites
the uptke of lipoprotein remnnts.
.jpg" /></div>
1402025312771 1395802358422 {{c1::ApoA-I}} is n polipoprotein tht functio
ns to elevte LCAT.
1402025594492 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions to medite lipopr
otein remnnt uptke?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoE}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025612444 1395802358422 {{c1::ApoA-1}} is n polipoprotein tht is rth
er unique to HDL.
1402025638385 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions to ctivte LCAT?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoA-1}}</div>
62063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025701816 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions s cofctor for
Lipoprotein Lipse (LPL)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoC-II}}</div> <br /><d
1402025730094 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions to medite chylom
icron secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoB-48}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>Only found in chylomicrons.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg"
/></div>
1402025772256 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein is unique to chylomicrons?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoB-48}}</div>
62063767.jpg" /></div>
1402025784799 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein is relesed by the gut or f
ound in the diet?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoB-48}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>Seen in exogenous lipids.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /
></div>
1402026032782 1395802358422 Which polipoprotein functions s the LDL recept
or?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ApoB-100}}</div> <br /><div><i>The LDL receptor i
s the ApoB-100 Receptor nd is <b>found in ll endogenously mde lipoproteins fr
om the liver</b>.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-4982162063767.jpg" /></i></di
v>
1402026445101 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to trnsport cholest
erol from liver to tissues?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LDL}}</div>
<br /><d
1402026758577 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to trnsport cholest
erol from peripherl tissue to the liver?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div>

<br /><div><i>This is why HDL is considered "<b>H</b>elthy".</i></div><div><i><
img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></i></div>
1402026833181 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to deliver <b>dietr
y</b> <b>triglycerides</b> to peripherl tissue?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Chylomicrons}}</div>
<br /><div><i>It lso delivers cholesterol to th
e liver s chylomicron remnnts, which re mostly depleted of their tricylglyce
rols.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></i></div>
1402027042896 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein is secreted by intestinl epit
helil cells <b>only</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chylomicrons (with ApoB48)}
1402027180249 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to deliver <b>hepti
c triglycerides</b> to peripherl tissue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::VLDL}}
</div> <br /><div><i>Secreted by the liver.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-71
89775254219.jpg" /></i></div>
1402027283013 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein is formed through the degrdt
ion of VLDL?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IDL (k VLDL remnnts)}}</div> <br /><d
1402027399022 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to deliver <b>hepti
c cholesterol</b> to peripherl tissue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LDL}}</d
iv>
1402027586977 1395802358422 {{c1::LDL}} is lipoprotein formed by Heptic L
ipse modifiction of IDL in the peripherl tissue.
te-7185480286923.jpg" /></div>
1402027650538 1395802358422 Which receptor does LDL bind to t trget cells
for receptor-medited endocytosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LDL Receptor (ApoB
100 Receptor)}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>The trget cell is bsiclly ny cel
l tht cn use cholesterol.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /><
/div>
1402027788627 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions to medite <b>revers
e cholesterol trnsport</b> from peripherl tissue to the liver nd steroid
ogenic tissue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div>
1402027831340 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein cts s repository for ApoC
<br /><div><i>Both of th
nd ApoE?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div>
ese re needed for chylomicron nd VLDL metbolism. ApoC-II is hnded off to oth
er lipoproteins nd then ctivted LPL, thereby driving VLDL nd CM metbolism.<
/i></div><div><i><img src="pste-7185480286923.jpg" /></i></div>
1402027886301 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein is secreted from <b>both<
/b> the liver nd intestines?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div>
1402027984325 1395802358422 Which lipoprotein functions s repository for
ApoA-1?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HDL}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-71854
80286923.jpg" /></div>
1402028044386 1395802358422 How does lcohol ffect HDL synthesis?<div><br /
1402028054872 1395802358422 Which dyslipidemi is referred to s Type I Dysl
ipidemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperchylomicronemi (or Hypertriglyceridem
i)}}</div>
1402028786714 1395802358422 Which dyslipidemi is referred to s Type II Dy
slipidemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi}}</div>
1402028809366 1395802358422 Which dyslipidemi is referred to s Type I
V Dyslipidemi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertriglyceridemi}}</div>
1402028822734 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperchylomicronemi (Type I)}} is fmil
il dyslipidemi tht involves elevtion of chylomicrons, TGs nd cholesterol.
1402029015585 1395802358422 {{c1::Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II)}}
is fmilil dyslipidemi tht involves elevtion of LDL nd cholesterol.
1402029044973 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertriglyceridemi (Type IV)}} is &nbsp
;fmilil dyslipidemi tht involves elevtion of VLDL nd TGs.
1402029066291 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hyperchylomic
ronemi (Type I fmilil dyslipidemi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosom
l recessive}}</div>
1402029099556 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperchylomicronemi (Type I fmilil
dyslipidemi)}} is fmilil dyslipidemi tht cn be cused by deficiency o
f Lipoprotein Lipse (LPL).
1402029135973 1395802358422 <div>Which enzyme deficiency cn cuse Hype
rchylomicronemi (Type I fmilil dyslipidemi)?</div><div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Lipoprotein Lipse (LPL)}}</div>
dyslipidemi)}} is fmilil dyslipidemi tht cn be cused by ltered ApoC-I
I function.
<br /><div><i>Remember, ApoC-II ctivtes Lipoprotein Lipse.</i
></div>
dyslipidemi)}} is fmilil dyslipidemi tht cuses pncretitis, <b>heptos
plenomegly</b> nd <b>eruptive/pruritic xnthoms</b>.
1402029262107 1395802358422 How does the risk of therosclerosis chnge in&n
bsp;Hyperchylomicronemi (Type I fmilil dyslipidemi)?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::No incresed risk}}</div>
1402029276024 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Fmilil Hype
rcholesterolemi (Type II fmilil dyslipidemi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Au
tosoml dominnt}}</div>
1402029452609 1395802358422 {{c1::Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II f
milil dyslipidemi)}} is fmilil dyslipidemi tht involves bsent or defect
ive LDL receptors.
1402029481789 1395802358422 Which receptors re bsent or defective in
Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II fmilil dyslipidemi)?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::LDL receptor (k ApoB-100 receptor)}}</div>
1402029496083 1395802358422 Wht is the typicl blood cholesterol for pti
ent heterozygous for Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II fmilil dysli
pidemi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::~ 300 mg/dL}}</div>
1402029546051 1395802358422 Wht is the typicl blood cholesterol level for
ptients homozygous for Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II fmilil dy
slipidemi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:: 700 mg/dL}}</div>
milil dyslipidemi)}} is fmilil dyslipidemi tht presents with <b>cceler
ted therosclerosis</b>.
<br /><div><i>MI is possible before 20 y/o.</i><
/div>
1402029676063 1395802358422 Which tendon is commonly the site of xnthoms i
n Fmilil Hypercholesterolemi (Type II fmilil dyslipidemi)?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Achilles tendon}}</div>
milil dyslipidemi)}} is fmilil dyslipidemi tht presents with <b>cornel
rcus</b>.
milil dyslipidemi)}} is fmilil dyslipidemi tht presents with <b>chilles
tendon xnthoms</b>.
1402029735385 1395802358422 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Hypertriglyce
ridemi (Type IV Fmilil Dyslipidemi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml do
minnt}}</div>
1402029770739 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertriglyceridemi (Type IV Fmilil Dys
lipidemi)}} is fmilil dyslipidemi tht presents with <b>heptic overproduc
tion of VLDL</b>.
1402029800982 1395802358422 Which endocrine compliction is ssocited with&
nbsp;Hypertriglyceridemi (Type IV Fmilil Dyslipidemi)?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Pncretitis}}</div>
1402029833751 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Fmilil Hypercholeste
rolemi (Type II fmilil dyslipidemi)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mipomersen}
}</div> <br /><div><i>Mipomersen binds to the mRNA tht is trnslted into ApoB100. The dsRNA molecule is then degrded nd ApoB-100 production is inhibited. H
ence <b>VLDL production is inhibited. </b>Remember, Type II dyslipidemi involv
es elevted levels of LDL due to defective LDL receptors.</i></div>
1405049590664 1395802358422 Which GLUT trnsporter is moved to the cell memb

rne following Insulin ction?<div><br />{{c1::GLUT4}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="pste-36631776068243.jpg" /></div>
1405050188187 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT4}} is n <b>insulin-dependent</b>&nbs
p;glucose trnsporter found in dipose tissue nd skeletl muscle.
1405050226690 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT1}} is n <b>insulin-independent</b>&n
bsp;glucose trnsporter found in<b> RBCs, brin </b>nd the <b>corne</b>.
1405050257249 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT5}} is n <b>insulin-independent</b>&n
bsp;fructose trnsporter tht is found in <b>spermtocytes</b> nd the <b>G
I trct</b>.
1405050302200 1395802358422 {{c1::GLUT2}} is <b>bidirectionl</b>, <b>insu
lin-independent</b> glucose trnsporter found t <b>pncretic bet cells,
liver, kidney</b> nd <b>smll intestines</b>.
1405051754012 1395802358422 Which GLUT trnsporter on pncretic bet cells
is involved with Insulin regultion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT2}}</div>
<div><br /></div><img src="pste-38809324486784.jpg" /><br /><div><img src="pst
e-38203734098560.jpg" /></div>
1405638914313 1395802358422 Which monoscchride trnsporter uptkes glucose
nd glctose t the enterocyte brush border?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SGLUT1
(with N)}}</div>
1405639668103 1395802358422 Which monoscchride trnsporter <b>trnsports
ll monoscchrides cross the bsolterl membrne</b> of enterocytes into
the blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GLUT2}}</div>
1473472163334 1421373138997 <img src="c89558e3ed425f7d15c5633c66b49d6bee1
6d_Q 0.svg" /> <img src="c89558e3ed425f7d15c5633c66b49d6bee16d_A 0.svg" />
<img src="c89558e3ed425f7d15c5633c66b49d6bee16d_source_svg.svg" /> <img src
="c89558e3ed425f7d15c5633c66b49d6bee16d_tmpfx6uc.png" />
1405442831774 1395802358422 Which embryologicl structure functions s the k
idneys <b>up to week 4</b> of gesttion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Proneph
ros}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>At which point it degenertes.</i><br /><div
1405443374512 1395802358422 Which embryologicl structure functions s n in
terim kidney for the mjority of the 1st trimester?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::M
esonephros}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>After which it contributes to the m
le genitl system.</i><br /><div><img src="pste-579820585496.jpg" /></div>
1405443425353 1395802358422 Which embryologicl structure develops into the
permnent kidney(s)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Metnephros}}</div>
<br /><d
1405443482097 1395802358422 During which week of gesttion does the Metneph
ros first pper?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Week 5}}</div>
<br /><div><br /
></div>
1405443505823 1395802358422 The {{c1::ureteric bud}} is n embryologic
l structure derived from the <b>cudl end of the mesonephric duct</b> tht
gives rise to the <b>ureter, renl pelvises, clyces nd collecting ducts</b>.
1405443587389 1395802358422 From which embryologicl structure does the uret
eric bud develop?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesonephric duct}}</div>
1405443606408 1395802358422 From which embryologicl structure do the renl
collecting ducts develop?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ureteric Bud (vi the Meson
ephric Duct)}}</div>
1405443641224 1395802358422 By which week of gesttion is the ureteric bud f
ully cnlized?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::10th week}}</div>
1405443661055 1395802358422 With which embryologicl structure does the uret
eric bud interct to trigger formtion of the glomerulus nd renl tubules?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Metnephric mesenchyme}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-579820585496.jpg" /></div>
1405444063760 1395802358422 From which embryologicl structure does the ren
l glomerulus develop?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Metnephros}}</div>
<br /><d
1405444081563 1395802358422 From which embryologicl structure do the renl
tubules (up to the distl convoluted tubule) develop?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Metnephros}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence, <b>everything from the glomerulus t
o the distl convoluted tubule</b> comes from the <b>metnephros</b>.</i></
div><div><i>Hence, <b>everything from the collecting duct to the ureter</b>&nbsp
;comes from the <b>mesonephros</b> (vi the <b>ureteric bud</b>).</i></div>
1405444209098 1395802358422 Which embryologicl structure gives rise to ever
ything from the renl glomerulus to the distl convoluted tubule?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Metnephros}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-579820585496.
jpg" /></div>
1405444251633 1395802358422 Which embryologicl structure gives rise to ever
ything from the renl collecting duct to the ureter?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Ureteric Bud vi the Mesonephros}}</div>
0585496.jpg" /></div>
1405444291403 1395802358422 Wht is the most common site of renl obstructio
n/hydronephrosis in the fetus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ureteropelvic junction
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Becuse it is the lst to cnlize.</i></div>
1405444521741 1395802358422 {{c1::Potter Sequence/Syndrome}} is congenitl
sequence tht is cused by <b>oligohydrmnios</b> nd subsequent <b>compre
ssion of fetl limbs, fcil fetures nd the chest.</b>
<br /><div><i>Yi
elds <b>low-set ers</b> nd <b>retrognthi</b>.</i></div><div><i><img src
="pste-2443836391702.jpg" /></i></div><div><i><img src="pste-2564095475998.jpg
" /></i></div>
1405444589405 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of deth in Potter
Sequence?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonry hypoplsi due to compression of
the chest}}</div>
1405444612402 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of Potter Sequence?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Oligohydrmnios due to n <u>inbility or impirment in urin
<br /><div><i>e.g. ARPKD, Posterior Urethrl Vlves, Bil
tion</u>}}</div>
terl Renl Agenesis.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-2568390443294.jpg" /></i
></div>
1405444690537 1395802358422 {{c1::Horseshoe kidney}} is congenitl renl
bnormlity tht involved <b>fusion of the inferior poles of both kidneys</b>.<di
v><br /></div><div><img src="pste-3874060501409.jpg" /></div> <br /><div><i>Ty
piclly found low in bdomen s the horseshoe kidney is trpped under the inferi
or mesenteric rtery s it scends.</i></div><div><i><img src="pste-32169305049
76.jpg" /></i></div>
1405446794570 1395802358422 How does kidney function chnge in with Horses
hoe Kidney?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Norml}}</div>
1405446865326 1395802358422 Which sex chromosoml disorder is ssocited wit
h Horseshoe Kidney?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Turner Syndrome}}</div>
1405446901803 1395802358422 How does the risk for ureteropelvic junction obs
truction chnge with Horseshoe Kidney?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</di
v>
1405446922296 1395802358422 How does the risk for <b>hydronephrosis</b>&nbsp
;nd <b>kidney stones</b> chnge with Horseshoe Kidney?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1405446943441 1395802358422 {{c1::Multicystic Dysplstic Kidney}} is conge
nitl renl disorder tht presents with <b>nonfunctionl kidney consisting of
cysts nd connective tissue</b> due to <b>bnorml interction between the
ureteric bud nd metnephric mesenchyme</b>.
1405447042079 1395802358422 Wht is the most common type of Multicystic Dysp
lstic Kidney?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Unilterl}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th
is type of generlly symptomtic s the contrlterl kidney undergoes hypertro
phy s compenstion.</i></div>
1405447079974 1395802358422 Which kidney is typiclly tken during living do
nor trnsplnttion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Left Kidney s it hs longer r
enl vein}}</div>
1405447892943 1395802358422 Which blood vessel crries blood <b>into</b>&nbs
p;the glomerulus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Afferent rteriole}}</div> <br /><d
iv><img src="pste-4544075399686.jpg" /></div><div><img src="pste-4556960301585
.jpg" /></div>
1405448012983 1395802358422 Which blood vessel crries blood <b>out of</b>&n
bsp;the glomerulus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Efferent rteriole}}</div>
<br /><div><br /></div><div><div><img src="pste-4544075399686.jpg" /></div><div
><img src="pste-4556960301585.jpg" /></div></div>
1405448031689 1395802358422 Which <b>genitl</b> blood vessel does the
ureter run under in <b>femles</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Uterine Artery}}<
/div> <div><br /></div><i>"Wter under the bridge."</i><div><i>Gynecologicl p
rocedures tht involve mnipultion or ligtion of the uterine rtery my dmge
the ureter.<br /></i><div><img src="pste-4690104287633.jpg" /></div></div>
1405448126918 1395802358422 Which <b>genitl</b> structure does the ure
ter run under in mles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vs Deferens}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>"Wter under the bridge."</i><br /><div><img src="pste-468580932033
7.jpg" /></div>
1405448157717 1395802358422 Wht percentge of totl body weight is wter?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::60%}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-5304284610900
.jpg" /></div><div><img src="pste-5978594476186.jpg" /></div>
1405449367551 1395802358422 Wht percentge of totl body weight is <b>extr
cellulr</b> fluid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::20%}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="pste-5304284610900.jpg" /></div><div><img src="pste-5974299508890.jpg" />
</div>
1405449406525 1395802358422 Wht percentge of totl body weight is <b>intr
cellulr</b> fluid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::40%}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="pste-5304284610900.jpg" /></div><div><img src="pste-5974299508890.jpg" />
</div>
1405449430973 1395802358422 Which rdiolbeled plsm protein is often used
to mesure totl plsm volume?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Albumin}}</div>
1405449452076 1395802358422 Wht protein is used to mesure <b>extrcellulr
</b> volume?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inulin}}</div>
1405449490578 1395802358422 Which glomerulr filtrtion brrier cts s <b
>size</b> brrier?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fenestrted cpillry endothe
lium}}</div>
1405449603572 1395802358422 Which glomerulr filtrtion brrier cts s <b
>negtive chrge</b> brrier?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fused bsement mem
brne with heprn sulfte}}</div>
1405449635741 1395802358422 Which glomerulr filtrtion brrier is lost in <
b>nephrotic</b> syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The negtive chrge b
rrier (fused bsement membrne with heprn sulfte)}}</div>
1405449686959 1395802358422 Wht is the eqution for renl clernce?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::C<sub>x</sub> = (U<sub>x</sub> * V)/P<sub>x</sub>
}}</div>
1405450345308 1395802358422 If C<sub>x</sub> < GFR, wht is the net
movement of substnce <i>x</i> cross the tubulr epithelium?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Net tubulr rebsorption}}</div> <br /><div><i>i.e. if you re fi
ltering more of x into the kidney tubules thn you re clering x from the plsm
, then x must be being rebsorbed by the kidneys</i></div>
1405450498929 1395802358422 If C<sub>x</sub> > GFR, wht is the net
movement of substnce <i>x</i> cross the renl tubulr epithelium?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Net tubulr secretion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. if yo
u re clering more plsm of substnce x thn you re filtering, then substnce
x must be being secreted into the urine.</i></div>
1405450566634 1395802358422 If C<sub>x</sub> = GFR, wht is the net mov
ement of substnce <i>x</i> cross the renl tubulr epithelium?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::No net secretion or rebsorption}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.
e. you re clering the sme mount of plsm of substnce x thn you re filter
ing, hence substnce x must not be moving cross the tubulr epithelium t ll (
or just not in net vlue).</i></div>
1405450649959 1395802358422 Wht is the renl clernce of <i>pr</i>-mino
hippuric cid (PAH)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C<sub>PAH</sub> = RPF = 600
mL/min in norml conditions}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This is becuse <b>PAH is
mximlly secreted</b> from the blood.</i></div>
1405451095182 1395802358422 Wht is the renl clernce of Inulin?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::C<sub>I</sub> = C<sub>Cr</sub> = GFR ~ 100 mL/min in
norml conditions}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This is becuse <b>Inulin is neith
er secreted or rebsorbed, it is <u>f</u></b><spn style="font-weight: bold"><u>
reely filtered</u></spn>.</i></div><div><i>Sme thing with cretinine but smll
mounts lso re secreted. Thus, cretinine slightly overestimtes GFR</i
></div>
1405451214155 1395802358422 Wht is the renl clernce of Cretinine?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::C<sub>I</sub> = C<sub>Cr</sub> = GFR ~ 100 mL/mi
n in norml conditions}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is becuse long with Inulin,
<b>Cretinine is neither secreted or rebsorbed. <u>It is purely filtered</u>.<
/b></i></div>
1405451243539 1395802358422 Wht is the renl clernce of Glucose?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::C<sub>Glc</sub> = 0}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This is be
cuse <b>Glucose is mximlly rebsorbed</b> nd <b>not excreted</b> i
n norml conditions</i></div>
1405451279979 1395802358422 The renl clernce of which <b>exogenous</
b> compound cn be cliniclly used to clculte GFR s it is <b>freely filt
ered</b> nd <b>neither secreted or rebsorbed</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::Inulin}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. the mount of plsm clered of the c
ompound is the sme s GFR</i></div>
1405451635737 1395802358422 Wht is the norml oncotic pressure of the bowm
n spce t the glomerulus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<sub>bs</sub>&nbs;= 0}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><i>This is because, normally, there are not lasma roteins f
iltered into the glomerulus.</i></div>
1405451700535 1395802358422 What is the normal GFR?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::~ 100 mL/min}}</div>
1405451714347 1395802358422 The renal clearance of which <b>endogenous</b>&n
bs;comound is commonly used to clinically estimate GFR?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Creatinine}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, C<sub>Cr</sub>&nbs;slightly ove
restimates GFR as Creatinine is moderately secreted by the renal tubules.</i></d
iv>
1405451813124 1395802358422 The renal clearance of which <b>exogenous</b>&nb
s;comound is used to estimate <b>Effective Renal Plasma Flow</b>&nbs;(ERPF)?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>ara</i>-aminohiuric acid (PAH)}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>This is because PAH is freely filtered <b>and</b>&nbs;maximally secreted
in the PCT. Hence all PAH that enters the kidney is excreted.</i></div><div><i>C
<sub>PAH</sub>&nbs;= ERPF = U<sub>PAH</sub>&nbs;* V / P<sub>PAH</sub></i></div
>
1405451945480 1395802358422 What is the equation for renal <b>blood</b>&nbs

;flow (RBF)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::RBF = RPF/(1-Hct)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hct = hematocrit = the % of red blood cells in the blood.</i></div>
1405452116985 1395802358422 What is the equation for renal Filtration Fracti
on (FF)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::FF = GFR / RPF}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.
e. <b>the fraction of lasma filtered from the amount of lasma that enters the
kidney</b></i></div>
1405452206648 1395802358422 What is the normal renal filtration fraction?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::FF = GFR / RPF = 20%}}</div> <br /><div><i>i.e. 20% o
f the lasma that enters the kidney is filtered</i></div>
1405452260492 1395802358422 What is the equation for the renal <b>Filtered L
oad</b>&nbs;of a substance?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::FL = GFR * P<sub>x</sub>
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>FL is in mg/min</i></div><div><i>GFR is in mL/min<
/i></div><div><i>P<sub>x</sub>&nbs;is in mg/mL</i></div>
1405452325546 1395802358422 Which glomerular blood vessel is <b>dilated</b>&
nbs;by Prostaglandins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Afferent arterioles}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Hence, NSAIDs will <b>inhibit afferent arteriole dilation</b
>.</i><br /><div><img src="aste-10093173146318.jg" /></div>
1405452372251 1395802358422 Which glomerular blood vessel is referentially
<b>constricted</b>&nbs;by Angiotensin II?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Efferent a
rteriole}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Hence ACE Inhibitors <b>inhibit effe
rent arteriole constriction</b>&nbs;and <b>cause efferent arteriole dilation</b
>.<br /></i><div><img src="aste-10088878179022.jg" /></div>
1405452463066 1395802358422 Which glomerular blood vessel is <b>dilated</b>&
nbs;by ACE Inhibitors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Efferent arteriole as it inhi
bits AT2-mediated constriction}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-1008887817902
2.jg" /></div>
1405458619673 1395802358422 How does RPF change following glomerular afferen
t arteriole constriction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>This about this, brah. You're constricting the <b>incoming</b>&nbs;blood
vessel, hence there will be less lasma flowing through the glomerulus.</i></div
><div><i><img src="aste-10797547782402.jg" /></i></div>
1405458711797 1395802358422 How does GFR change following constriction of th
e glomerular afferent arteriole?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><div><div><i>This about this, brah. You're constricting the&nbs
;<b>incoming</b>&nbs;blood vessel, hence there will be less lasma flowing thr
ough the glomerulus and less of it will be filtered.</i></div><div><i><img src="
aste-10797547782402.jg" /></i></div></div>
1405458751599 1395802358422 How does renal filtration fraction change follow
ing afferent arteriole constriction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div
>
<br /><div><div><i>This about this, brah. You're constricting
the&nbs;<b>incoming</b>&nbs;blood vessel, hence there will be less lasma flo
wing through the glomerulus. <b>RPF and GFR both decrease</b>.</i></div><div><i>
<img src="aste-10797547782402.jg" /></i></div></div>
1405458786054 1395802358422 How does RPF change following constriction of th
e <b>efferent</b>&nbs;arteriole?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><div><div><i>You're constricting the&nbs;<b>outgoing</b>&nbs;
blood vessel, hence there will be less lasma flowing through the glomerulus.</i
></div><div><i><img src="aste-10797547782402.jg" /></i></div></div>
e efferent arteriole?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Initial increase; decrease with
substantial increase in resistance}}</div>
<br /><div><div><i>This one is a
bit tricky. As you constrict the efferent arteriole, you increase the hydrostat
ic ressure (P<sub>C</sub>)ustream at the glomerular caillaries, <b>hence GFR
will increase</b>. However, as RPF continues to decrease with increasing efferen
t arteriole constriction, <b>GFR returns to normal or decreases</b>.</i></div><d
iv><i>Hence, <b>with minimal increases in efferent arteriole resistance, P<sub>C
</sub>&nbs;dominates and GFR increases.</b></i></div><div><i>Hence, <b>with lar
ge increases in efferent arteriole resistance, RPF dominates and GFR decreases</
b>.</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-10797547782402.jg" /></i></div></div>
1405459721377 1395802358422 How does renal Filtration Fraction change follow

ing constriction of the efferent arteriole?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}
}</div> <div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i><img src="aste-10797547782402.jg"
/></i></div></div>
1405459747208 1395802358422 How does GFR change following an increase in la
sma rotein concentration (i.e. increased <sub>c</sub>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Decreased}}</div>
<div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i><img src="aste-107
97547782402.jg" /></i></div></div>
ing an increase in lasma rotein concentration?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decr
ease}}</div>
<br /><div><i><img src="aste-10797547782402.jg" /></i></div>
1405459815200 1395802358422 How does GFR change following a <b>decrease</b>&
nbs;in lasma rotein concentration?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div
>
<div><br /></div><i>i.e. <sub>c</sub>&nbs;decreases</i><br /><div><i><im
g src="aste-10797547782402.jg" /></i></div>
ing a decrease in lasma rotein concentration?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incre
ase}}</div>
e ureter?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>This
causes an increase in hydrostatic ressure at the bowman's sace.</i><br /><div
><i><img src="aste-10797547782402.jg" /></i></div>
ing constriction of the ureter?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405459938187 1395802358422 What is the equation for the renal excretion rat
e of the substance?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ER = V<sub>u</sub>&nbs;* U<sub>x
</sub>}}</div>
1405461426734 1395802358422 What is the equation for the renal reabsortion
rate of a substance?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::RR<sub>x</sub> = Filtered load excretion rate = FL - ER = (GFR * P<sub>x</sub>) - (V * U<sub>x</sub>)}}</div>
1405461485025 1395802358422 What is the equation for the renal secretion rat
e of a substance?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SR<sub>x</sub>&nbs;= excretion rat
e - filtered load = ER - FL = (V * U<sub>x</sub>) - (GFR * P<sub>x</sub>)}}</div
>
1405461541013 1395802358422 At which lasma concentration of glucose does <b
>glucosuria</b>&nbs;begin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::~ 200 mg/dL}}</div>
1405461588228 1395802358422 At which lasma concentration of glucose are all
renal glucose transorters fully saturated?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::~ 375 mg
/dL}}</div>
1405461613523 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Hartnu Disea
se?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1405461649054 1395802358422 {{c1::Hartnu Disease}} is a disorder of amino a
cid reabsortion that is characterized by <b>deficiency of neutral amino acid tr
ansorters in the PCT and enterocytes</b>.
<br /><div><i>Hence causing neut
ral aminoaciduria and decreased absortion from the gut.</i></div><div><i>Result
s in <b>ellagra-like symtoms</b>&nbs;due to subsequent <b>Niacin (Vitamin B3)
</b>&nbs;deficiency.</i></div>
1405461720032 1395802358422 Where along the nehron is <b>glucose</b>&nbs;r
eabsorbed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PCT (with Na)}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-12704513262182.jg" /></div>
1405461835829 1395802358422 Where along the nehron are <b>amino acids</b>&n
bs;reabsorbed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PCT (with Na)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><img src="aste-12700218294886.jg" /></div>
1405461913260 1395802358422 Where along the nehron is <b>most</b>&nbs;of t
he filtered HCO<sub>3</sub>&nbs;reabsorbed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><img src="aste-12700218294886.jg" /></div>
he filtered Na reabsorbed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PCT (esecially with gluco
se and amino acids)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="aste-12700218294886.jg" /
></div>
he filtered Cl reabsorbed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<br /><d
he filtered PO<sub>4</sub>&nbs;reabsorbed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</di
v>
1405462030541 1395802358422 Where along the length of the nehron is <b>most
</b>&nbs;of the filtered K reabsorbed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
he filtered H<sub>2</sub>O reabsorbed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
1405462066632 1395802358422 What tye of osmotic absortion is seen at the P
CT of the nehron?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Isosmotic absortion}}</div>
1405462183699 1395802358422 Which section of the nehron functions to <b>gen
erate and secrete NH<sub>3</sub>&nbs;</b>which acts as a buffer for secreted H<
su>+</su>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="as
te-12700218294886.jg" /></div>
1405462231006 1395802358422 At which section of the nehron does PTH functio
n to <b>inhibit Na/PO<sub>4</sub>&nbs;cotransort</b>&nbs;to induce PO<sub>4</
sub>&nbs;excretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-12700218294886.jg" /></div>
1405462394955 1395802358422 At which section of the nehron does Angiotensin
II <b>stimulate Na/H exchange</b>, thereby leading to <b>increased Na, H<sub>2<
/sub>O and HCO<sub>3</sub>&nbs;reabsortion</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PCT
}}</div>
1405462726872 1395802358422 What ercentage of filtered Na is reabsorbed at
the PCT?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::65-80%}}</div>
te-13980118549085.jg" /></div>
1405462748772 1395802358422 Which section of the nehron <b>assively reabso
rbs H<sub>2</sub>O </b>due to the renal medulla's hyertonicity?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Thin descending limb of the Loo of Henle}}</div>
1405462822160 1395802358422 What is the Na ermeability in the thin <b>desce
nding</b>&nbs;limb of loo of Henle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Zero}}</div>
1405462843331 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo of Henle is imermeable t
o Na?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thin descending limb}}</div>
1405462865292 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo of Henle functions to mak
e urine <b>hyertonic</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thin descending limb of th
e loo of Henle}}</div> <br /><div><i>Achieved through assive reabsortion of H
<sub>2</sub>O by virtue of the medulla's hyertonicity and the limb's imermeabi
lity to Na.</i></div>
1405462924033 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo of Henle is imermeable t
o H<sub>2</sub>O?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending limb}}</div>
1405463319257 1395802358422 What is the H<sub>2</sub>O ermeability of the t
hick ascending limb of the loo of Henle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Zero}}</div
>
1405463346361 1395802358422 At which section of the nehron is <b>Mg<su>2+<
/su>&nbs;and Ca<su>2+ </su>reabsorbed <u>aracellularly</u>?</b><div><b><br
/></b></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending limb of the loo of Henle}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This occurs via a <b>ositive lumen otential generated by K<su>+
</su>&nbs;backleak.</b></i></div><div><i><b><img src="aste-14856291877387.jg
" /></b></i></div>
1405463438606 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo of Henle functions to mak
e urine <b>less concentrated</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending lim
b}}</div>
the thick ascending limb of the loo of Henle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::10-20%
}}</div>
1405463491410 1395802358422 Which limb of the loo of Henle <b>actively reab

sorbs Na, K and Cl</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending limb of the l
oo of Henle}}</div>
1405463969362 1395802358422 Which section of the nehron <b>actively reabsor
bs Na and Cl</b>, thereby making urine hyotonic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ear
ly DCT}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-15491947037217.jg" /></div>
1405464031942 1395802358422 At which section of the nehron does PTH <b>incr
ease Ca/Na exchange</b>, thereby driving Ca reabsortion?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Early DCT}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-15487652069921.jg" /></div>
the early DCT?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::5-10%}}</div>
1405464110296 1395802358422 Which section of the nehron functions to <b>rea
bsorb Na</b>&nbs;<b>in exchange for secreting K and H</b>?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Collecting duct}}</div> <div><br /></div><div><i>Goverened by Aldosteron
e.</i></div><img src="aste-16011638080254.jg" />
1405464484483 1395802358422 At which area of the nehron does Aldosterone go
vern the <b>reabsortion of Na in exchange for K and H?</b><div><b><br /></b></d
iv><div>{{c1::Collecting Duct}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-1600734311295
8.jg" /></div>
1405464508946 1395802358422 {{c1::Aldosterone}} is a mineralocorticoid that
acts on the collecting duct to insert Na channels on the luminal membrane.
1405464544259 1395802358422 {{c1::ADH}} is a hormone that acts on the V<sub>
2</sub>&nbs;recetor at the collecting duct and induces the <b>insertion of aqu
aorin H<sub>2</sub>O channels on the luminal membrane</b>.
<br /><div><img
src="aste-16007343112958.jg" /></div>
1405464585709 1395802358422 At which segment of the nehron does ADH act to
insert aquaorin H<sub>2</sub>O channels into the luminal membrane?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Collecting duct}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-1600734311295
8.jg" /></div>
1405464609637 1395802358422 What ercentage of filtered Na is reabsorbed in
the collecting duct?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3-5%}}</div>
1405464633208 1395802358422 Which section of the nehron is defective in Fan
coni Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div> <br /><div><img src="as
te-16496969384205.jg" /></div>
1405466046970 1395802358422 {{c1::Fanconi Syndrome}} is a disorder of the PC
T that is associated with <b>increased excretion of nearly all amino acids, gluc
ose, HCO</b><sub style="font-weight: bold; ">3</sub><b>&nbs;and PO</b><sub styl
e="font-weight: bold; ">4</sub>.
<br /><div><i>May result in metabolic ac
idosis due to this (roximal renal tubular acidosis).</i></div><div><i>Causes in
clude hereditary defects, ischemia and nehrotoxins/drugs.</i></div>
1405466102654 1395802358422 {{c1::Metabolic acidosis}} is an acid-base imbal
ance seen in Fanconi Syndrome that resents due to the increased excretion of HC
O<sub>3</sub>.
1405466142205 1395802358422 Which section of the nehron is defective in Bar
ttner Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thick ascending loo of Henle}}</div>
1405466205768 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of the renal tub
ular defect Bartter Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive}}</
div>
1405466235909 1395802358422 {{c1::Bartter Syndrome}} is an autosomal recessi
ve disorder that affects the <b>Na/K/2Cl cotransorter of the thick ascending li
mb of the loo of Henle</b>.
<br /><div><i>Hence results in <b>hyokalemia, m
etabolic alkalosis</b>&nbs;and <b>hyocalcemia</b>.</i></div>
1405466443306 1395802358422 How do K levels change in Bartter Syndrome?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <br /><div><i>Due to defective Na/K/2Cl
cotransorter in the thick ascending limb.</i></div>
1405466484251 1395802358422 {{c1::Metabolic Alkalosis}} is an acid-base imba
lance seen in Bartter Syndrome due to the hyokalemia that is seen.
<br /><d
iv><i>Hyokalemia results due to defective function of the Na/K/2Cl cotransorte
r in the thick ascending limb.</i></div>

1405466560493 1395802358422 Which section of the nehron is defective in Git
elman Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::DCT}}</div> <br /><div><img src="as
te-16492674416909.jg" /></div>
ular defect Gitelman Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}<
/div> <br /><div><img src="aste-16492674416909.jg" /></div>
1405466600971 1395802358422 How do urinary Ca levels change in Bartter Syndr
ome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyercalciuria}}</div> <br /><div><i>Comare th
is to Gitelman Syndrome which has <b>hyocalciuria</b>&nbs;or <b>normocalciuria
</b>.</i></div>
1405466675178 1395802358422 {{c1::Gitelman Syndrome}} is an autosomal recess
ive disorder of NaCl reabsortion at the DCT that resents with <b>hyokalemia,
metabolic alkalosis</b>&nbs;and <b>hyocalciuria</b>. <br /><div><i>It is less
severe than Bartter Syndrome.</i></div>
1405466721402 1395802358422 Which section of the nehron is defective in Lid
dle Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Collecting Duct}}</div>
<br /><d
1405466758810 1395802358422 {{c1::Liddle Syndrome}} is an autosomal dominant
disorder of the collecting duct that is characterized by <b>increased Na reabso
rtion</b>&nbs;due to <b>increased activity of eithelial Na channels</b>.
ular disorder Liddle Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</
div>
1405466818146 1395802358422 How do Aldosterone levels change in Liddle Syndr
ome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1405466836706 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyertension}} is a cardiovascular disorde
r seen in Liddle Syndrome due to <b>increased Na reabsortion</b>.
1405466860907 1395802358422 {{c1::Metabolic Alkalosis}} is an acid-base imba
lance seen in Liddle Syndrome due to the hyokalemia that arises from increased
Na reabsortion.
1405466928167 1395802358422 How do K levels change in Liddle Syndrome?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyokalemia (due to the increased Na reabsortion)}}</div>
1405466950655 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Liddle Syndrome?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Amiloride}}</div> <br /><div><i>K-saring diuretic.</i></d
iv>
1405466973484 1395802358422 How does the renal tubular concentration of Inul
in change along the length of the <b>roximal tubules</b>?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, <b>inulin is neither reabsorbed
or secreted</b>. Hence, <b>its concentration increases as a result of water bein
g reabsorbed</b>.</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-18438294602410.jg" /></i></d
iv>
1405467512264 1395802358422 How does a <b>decrease</b>&nbs;in blood ressur
e influence the RAAS?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation of JG cells}}</div>
1405467830062 1395802358422 How does a <b>decrease</b>&nbs;in Na delivery t
o the macula densa influence the RAAS?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</
div>
1405467848637 1395802358422 How do adrenergics influence the RAAS?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Activation via beta-1 adrenergic recetors}}</div>
<br /><d
1405467865499 1395802358422 Which adrenergic recetors function to activate
the RAAS?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-1}}</div>
te-18683107738214.jg" /></div>
1405467879957 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts Angiotensinogen to Angiote
nsin I?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Renin}}</div>
te-18683107738214.jg" /></div>
1405467899895 1395802358422 Where is Renin made?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Kidneys}}</div>
1405467907677 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to convert Angiotensin I
to Angiotensin II?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ACE}}</div>

<br /><div><img
src="aste-18683107738214.jg" /></div>
1405467922527 1395802358422 Where is Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) mad
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lungs}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="aste-18683
107738214.jg" /></div>
1405467935420 1395802358422 Which recetor does Angiotensin II bind to on va
scular smooth muscle to trigger vasocontriction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AT I
recetors}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This increases BP.</i></div><div><i><img s
rc="aste-18683107738214.jg" /></i></div>
1405468014561 1395802358422 Which glomerular arteriole is <b>constricted</b>
&nbs;by Angiotensin II action?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Efferent arteriole}}<
/div> <div><br /></div><i>This is <b>in efforts to reserve GFR</b>&nbs;(i.e.
kidney function) in states of low blood volume (which activates the RAAS).</i><
div><i>Remember, <b>decreased blood volume = decreased RPF</b>.<br /></i><div><i
mg src="aste-18683107738214.jg" /></div></div>
1405468093218 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II influence Aldosterone re
lease from the adrenal cortex?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Thereby resulting in <b>Na retention, K excretion, H excreti
on</b>.</i><div><i>This increases BP by triggering H<sub>2</sub>O reabsortion.<
br /></i><div><img src="aste-18683107738214.jg" /></div></div>
1405468185726 1395802358422 Which cells of the collecting duct resond to al
dosterone by inserting Na and Na/K ums into the aical and basolateral membran
es resectively?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Princial cells}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i>This drives the <b>reabsortion of Na</b>.</i><br /><div><img src="
aste-18683107738214.jg" /></div>
1405468224452 1395802358422 Which cells of the collecting duct resond to Al
dosterone by uregulating luminal K channels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Princi
al Cell}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>This drives the <b>excretion of K</b>.</i><b
r /><div><img src="aste-18683107738214.jg" /></div>
1405468267607 1395802358422 Which cells of the collecting duct resond to Al
dosterone by increasing the exression of H<su>+</su>&nbs;ATPases on the lumi
nal membrane?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Intercalated Cells}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>This drives <b>excretion of H</b>.</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-186831
07738214.jg" /></i></div>
1405468316467 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II influence ADH release fr
om the osterior ituitary?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Remember, ADH increases H<sub>2</sub>O reabsortion y <b>inserting aquaor
in channels at the luminal membrane of rincial cells</b>.</i></div><div><i><im
g src="aste-18683107738214.jg" /></i></div>
1405468381954 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II influence the activity o
f <b>roximal tubule Na/H transorters</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}
}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-18683107738214.jg" /></div>
1405468407919 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II influence thirst?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, Angiotensin II's
actions all revolve around correcting/maintaining blood volume/ressure.</i></d
iv><div><i><img src="aste-18683107738214.jg" /></i></div>
1405468459868 1395802358422 How does Angiotensin II limit reflex bradycardia
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::By affecting barorecetor function}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>The normal resonse to any vasoressive action would include reflex
bradycardia (e.g. with alha-1 adrenergic agonists). This resonse is mitigated
by AT2's action at barorecetors.</i><div><i><br /></i><div><i>Srsly though... l
ook at this diagram. Is there anything AT2 doesn't do?</i></div></div><div><i><i
mg src="aste-18683107738214.jg" /></i></div>
1405468580273 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrial Natriuretic Petide}} is a hormone
released by the cardiac atria in resonse to an <b>increase</b>&nbs;in blood vo
lume that functions to <b>relax vascular smooth muscle via cGMP</b>.
<br /><d
iv><i>Thereby increasing GFR and decreasing renin levels.</i></div><div><i>Essen
tially, ANP acts as a "brake" on the RAAS system. It acts in oosing fashion if
blood volume increases.</i></div>
1405468724299 1395802358422 {{c1::JG cells}} are a comonent of the JGA that
are described as modified smooth muscle of the afferent arteriole.

1405468766704 1395802358422 {{c1::Macula Densa}} is a comonent of the JGA t
hat is described as a <b>NaCl sensor</b>&nbs;and art of the DCT.
1405468791958 1395802358422 Which cells of the JGA secrete Renin in resonse
to <b>decreased</b>&nbs;renal BP or <b>beta-1 adrenergic</b>&nbs;stimulation?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::JG cells}}</div>
1405468846790 1395802358422 Which cells of the JGA secrete Renin in resonse
to a <b>decrease</b>&nbs;in NaCl delivery to the DCT?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::JG cells}}</div>
1405468873648 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythrooietin}} is a hormone released by
<b>interstitial cells in the eritubular caillary bed of the kidneys</b>&nbs;i
n resonse to hyoxia that functions to stimulate RBC roliferation.
1405468932028 1395802358422 Which section of the nehron functions to conver
t 25-OH Vitamin D into 1,25-(OH)<sub>2</sub>&nbs;Vitamin D (i.e. the active for
m)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PCT}}</div>
188769462.jg" /></div>
1405468989734 1395802358422 Which enzyme in the roximal tubule of the kidne
y converts 25-OH Vitamin D into 1,25-(OH)<sub>2</sub>&nbs;Vitamin D (i.e. activ
e vitamin D)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1-alha-hydroxylase}}</div>
<br /><d
1405469032495 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Renal Failure}} is a ossible renal
comlication of NSAID use as they function to <b>block the renal-rotective synt
hesis of rostaglandins</b>.
<br /><div><i>Remember, rostaglandins functions
to <b>dilate</b>&nbs;the afferent arteriole and decrease GFR.</i></div>
1405469122427 1395802358422 {{c1::Angiotensin II}} is a hormone synthesized
in resonse to decreased BP that functions to <b>constrict the efferent arteriol
e</b>&nbs;and <b>increase Na and H<sub>2</sub>O reabsortion</b>&nbs;to mainta
in GFR and FF. <br /><div><i>Just think of <b>why</b>&nbs;Angiotensin II is se
creted, brah.</i></div><div><i><b>Angiotensin II acts to reserve renal function
in low blood volume states</b>.</i></div><div><i>It also <b>acts to maintain ci
rculating blood volume by increasing both roximal and distal Na reabsortion.</
b></i></div><div><i><b><img src="aste-21556440859413.jg" /></b></i></div>
1405469338329 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrial Natriuretic Petide (ANP)}} is a ho
rmone released by the cardiac atria in resonse to <b>increased atrial ressure<
/b>&nbs;that functions to <b>increase GFR and Na filtration</b>&nbs;<u>without
causing comensatory Na reabsortion</u>.
<br /><div><i>The net effect is
<b>Na loss</b>&nbs;and <b>loss of blood volume</b>.</i></div><div><i>ANP acts i
n an oosite fashion of the RAAS and can be seen as a "brake" on the RAAS.</i><
/div><div><i><img src="aste-21552145892117.jg" /></i></div>
1405469431822 1395802358422 Which cells of the collecting duct resond to AD
H by increasing the number of aquaorin channels to increase H<sub>2</sub>O reab
sortion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Princial cells}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-21552145892117.jg" /></div>
1405479969734 1395802358422 How does Digitalis change K levels?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Hyerkalemia}}</div>
<br /><div><i>It shifts K out of cells.<
/i></div>
1405480134281 1395802358422 How does <b>hyer</b>osmolarity change K levels?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyerkalemia}}</div>
<br /><div><i>It brings
K out of the cell.</i></div>
1405480159841 1395802358422 How does Insulin deficiency influence K levels?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyerkalemia}}</div> <br /><div><i>It brings K out of
cells.</i></div>
1405480175664 1395802358422 How does cell lysis change K levels?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Hyerkalemia}}</div>
1405480189003 1395802358422 How does Acidosis change K levels?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Hyerkalemia}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Acidosis brings K out of c
ells.</i></div>
1405480211508 1395802358422 How do beta-adrenergic <b>antagonists</b>&nbs;c
hange K levels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyerkalemia}}</div> <br /><div><i>It
brings K out of cells.</i></div>
1405480241171 1395802358422 How does serum <b>hyo</b>-osmolarity change K l

evels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyokalemia}}</div> <br /><div><i>Drives K i
nto cells.</i></div>
1405480272898 1395802358422 How does Insulin change K levels?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Hyokalemia}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Insulin activates the Na/K
ATPase which moves K into cells.</i></div>
1405480293588 1395802358422 How does Alkalosis change K levels?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Hyokalemia}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Alkalosis shifts K into ce
lls.</i></div>
1405480308898 1395802358422 How do beta-adrenergic agonists change K levels?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyokalemia}}</div> <br /><div><i>They trigger K mov
ement into cells.</i></div>
1405480327248 1395802358422 Which serum electrolyte <b>deficiency</b>&nbs;i
s associated with <b>nausea, malaise, stuor </b>and <b>coma</b>?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Hyonatremia}}</div>
1405480374724 1395802358422 Which serum electrolyte&nbs;<b>deficiency</b>&n
bs;is associated with <b>U-waves on an ECG</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyo
kalemia}}</div>
bs;is associated with <b>flattened T-waves on ECG</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Hyokalemia}}</div> <br /><div><i>Arrhythmia and muscle weakness is also see
n.</i></div>
bs;is associated with <b>tetany, seizures </b>and <b>rolonged QT interval</b>?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyocalcemia}}</div>
bs;is associated with <b>tetany</b>&nbs;and <b>Torsades de Pointes</b>?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyomagnesemia}}</div>
bs;is associated with <b>bone loss</b>&nbs;and <b>osteomalacia</b>?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Hyohoshatemia}}</div>
1405480554384 1395802358422 Which serum electrolyte&nbs;<b>excess</b>&nbs;
is associated with <b>irritability</b>, stuor and coma?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::Hyernatremia}}</div>
is associated with <b>widened QRS intervals on ECG?</b><div><b><br /></b></div><
div>{{c1::Hyerkalemia}}</div>
is associated with <b>eaked T-waves on ECG</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hye
rkalemia}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Arrhythmia and muscle weakness are also se
en.</i></div>
is associated with <b>renal stones, bone ain, abdominal ain</b>&nbs;and <b>s
ychiatric overtones</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyercalcemia}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Psychiatric overtones = altered mental status, anxiety.</i></div>
is associated with <b>decreased dee tendon reflexes</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Hyermagnesemia}}</div>
is associated with <b>metastatic calcifications</b>&nbs;and <b>hyocalcemia</b>
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyerhoshatemia}}</div>
1405480768499 1395802358422 What is the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="aste-24734716657761.jg" />}}</div>
1405481377695 1395802358422 What is the Winters formula (used to redict the
resiratory comensation for metabolic acidosis)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i
mg src="aste-24975234826294.jg" />}}</div>
<br /><div><i>If the measured P<
sub>CO2</sub>&nbs;differs significantly from the redicted P<sub>CO2</sub>, the
n a mixed acid-base disorder is likely resent.</i></div>
1405481446894 1395802358422 What is normal arterial H?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::7.4}}</div>
1405481911651 1395802358422 What arterial H is diagnostic of acidosis?<div>

<br /></div><div>{{c1::< 7.4}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-2572255913654
1.jg" /></div>
1405481929717 1395802358422 What arterial H is diagnostic of Alkalosis?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::> 7.4}}</div>
264169245.jg" /></div>
1405481940601 1395802358422 What P<sub>CO2</sub>&nbs;value is seen in <b>re
siratory</b>&nbs;acidosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::P<sub>CO2</sub>&nbs;&gt
; 40 mmHg}}</div>
1405481988628 1395802358422 What P<sub>CO2</sub>&nbs;value is seen in <b>me
tabolic </b>acidosis <u>with resiratory comensation</u>?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::P<sub>CO2</sub>&nbs;< 40 mmHg}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-25718
264169245.jg" /></div>
1405482079952 1395802358422 What P<sub>CO2</sub>&nbs;value is seen in <b>re
siratory</b>&nbs;alkalosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::P<sub>CO2</sub>&nbs;&l
t; 40 mmHg}}</div>
<div><br /></div><img src="aste-25718264169245.jg" />
1405482109637 1395802358422 What P<sub>CO2</sub>&nbs;value is seen in <b>me
tabolic</b>&nbs;alkalosis <u>with resiratory comensation</u>?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::P<sub>CO2</sub>&nbs;> 40 mmHg}}</div> <br /><div><img src="as
te-25718264169245.jg" /></div>
1405482160888 1395802358422 What is the cause of <b>increased anion ga</b>&
nbs;metabolic acidosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="aste-266245022681
31.jg" />}}</div>
1405482213323 1395802358422 What is the cause of <b>normal anion ga</b>&nbs
;metabolic acidosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="aste-26658862006480.
jg" />}}</div>
1405482237905 1395802358422 What is the equation to calculate anion ga?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anion Ga = Na - (Cl + HCO<sub>3</sub>)}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Normal value is 8-12 mEq/L</i></div>
1405482278691 1395802358422 What is the normal value for anion ga?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::8-12 mEq/L}}</div>
1405482291749 1395802358422 {{c1::Renal Tubular Acidosis}} isa &nbs;disorde
r of the renal tubules that leads to <b>non-anion ga hyerchloremic metabolic a
cidosis</b>.
1405485319006 1395802358422 {{c1::Tye 1 RTA}} is a tye of renal tubular ac
idosis that is associated with a <b>defect in the ability of alha-intercalated
cells to secrete H</b><su style="font-weight: bold; ">+</su>, hence <b>no new
HCO<sub>3</sub>&nbs;is generated</b>. <br /><div><i>Thereby resulting in metab
olic acidosis.</i></div>
1405485393969 1395802358422 Which tye of renal tubular acidosis is also ref
erred to as <b>Distal</b>&nbs;RTA?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye 1}}</div>
1405485410606 1395802358422 What is the H of the urine in <b>Tye 1, Distal
</b>&nbs;renal tubular acidosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::> 5.5}}</div>
1405485442152 1395802358422 Which tye of renal tubular acidosis is associat
ed with a <b>defect in the ability of alha-intercalated cells to secrete H</b><
su style="font-weight: bold; ">+</su>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye 1/Dista
l RTA}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence, new HCO<sub>3</sub>&nbs;canot be generated
.</i></div>
1405485490688 1395802358422 How do K levels change in Tye 1, Distal renal t
ubular acidosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyokalemia}}</div>
1405485510541 1395802358422 How does the risk for calcium hoshate kidney s
tones change in Tye 1, Distal renal tubular acidosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Due to an <b>increase in urinary H</b>&nb
s;and <b>increased bone turnover</b>.</i></div>
ed with Amhotericin B toxicity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye 1/Distal}}</div
>
ed with analgesic nehroathy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye 1/Distal}}</div>
ed with a <b>defect in the roximal tubule's ability to reabsorb HCO</b><sub sty

le="font-weight: bold; ">3</sub>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye 2/Proximal}}</
div>
<br /><div><i>Hence there is increased excretion of HCO<sub>3 </sub>and
metabolic acidosis.</i></div>
1405486276951 1395802358422 {{c1::Tye 2/Proximal RTA}} is a tye of renal t
ubular acidosis that involves <b>defective HCO<sub>3</sub>&nbs;reabsortion at
the roximal tubule</b>, thereby resulting in <b>increased HCO<sub>3</sub>&nbs;
excretion</b>&nbs;in the urine.
<br /><div><i>The urine is eventually ac
idified by the alha-intercalated cells of the collecting duct as they secrete H
.</i></div>
ed with <b>hyokalemia</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye 1/Distal; Tye 2/Pro
ximal}}</div>
1405486367675 1395802358422 How does the level of K change in Tye 2/Proxima
l renal tubular acidosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyokalemia}}</div>
ed with <b>increased risk of hyohoshatemic rickets</b>?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Tye 2/Proximal}}</div>
1405486415845 1395802358422 What is the urinary H in Tye 2/Proximal renal
tubular acidosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::< 5.5}}</div>
ed with <b>Fanconi Syndrome</b>&nbs;(e.g. Wilson Disease)?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Tye 2/Proximal}}</div>
1405486467252 1395802358422 Which tye of renal tubular acidosis is also ref
erred to as <b>roximal</b>&nbs;renal tubular acidosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::Tye 2}}</div>
ed with <b>lead</b>&nbs;or <b>aminoglycosides</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T
ye 2/Proximal RTA}}</div>
ed with Multile Myeloma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye 2/Proximal RTA}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This is due to the amyloid light chains seen.</i></div>
ed with Carbonic Anhydrase inhibitors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye 2/Proxima
l RTA}}</div>
ed with&nbs;<b>hyoaldosteronism</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye 4/Hyerka
lemic RTA}}</div>
ed with&nbs;<b>aldosterone resistance</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye 4/Hy
erkalemic RTA}}</div>
ed with&nbs;K-saring diuretics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye 4/Hyerkalemic
RTA}}</div>
1405486924796 1395802358422 {{c1::Tye 4/Hyerkalemic RTA}} is a tye of ren
al tubular acidosis that involves <b>hyerkalemia</b>&nbs;that <b>imairs ammon
iagenesis in the PCT</b>, thereby resulting in <b>decreased buffering caacity</
b>&nbs;and <b>decreased H excretion</b>&nbs;into the urine.
1405486988523 1395802358422 What is the H in Tye 4/Hyerkalemic renal tubu
lar acidosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::< 5.5}}</div>
ed with&nbs;<b>hyerkalemia</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye 4/Hyerkalemic
RTA}}</div>
1405827187068 1395802358422 {{c1::Classical conditioning}} is a tye of cond
itioning where a <b>natural resonse is elicited by a conditioned or learned sti
mulus that was resented with an unconditioned stimulus</b>.
<br /><div><i><u
>e.g. Pavlov's dog.</u></i></div><div><i>Natural resonse = salivation</i></div>
<div><i>Conditioned Stimulus = bell</i></div><div><i>Unconditioned stimulus = fo
od</i></div>
1405828425670 1395802358422 Which tye of conditioning usually deals with <b
>involuntary </b>resonses?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Classical Conditioning}}<

/div>
1405828440359 1395802358422 {{c1::Oerant Conditioning}} is a tye of condit
ioning where a <b>articular action is elicited because it roduces a unishment
or reward</b>. <br /><div><img src="aste-54503134986454.jg" /></div>
1405828472197 1395802358422 Which tye of conditioning deals with <b>volunta
ry </b>resonses?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oerant Conditioning}}</div>
1405828486414 1395802358422 {{c1::Transference}} is a sychological hemonen
on where the <b>atient </b>rojects feeling about formative or other imortant
<br /><div><i>e.g. the hysician is seen as a a
ersons onto the hysician.
rent.</i></div>
1405828647046 1395802358422 {{c1::Countertransference}} is a sychological
henomenon where the <b>hysician</b>&nbs;rojects feelings about formative or o
ther imortant ersons onto the atient.
<br /><div><i>e.g. atient remin
ds the hysician of a younger sibling.</i></div>
1405828734471 1395802358422 {{c1::Ego Defenses}} are unconscious mental roc
esses used to resolve conflict and revent undesirable feelings.
1405829389229 1395802358422 {{c1::Acting out}} is an immature ego defense th
at involves exressing unaccetable feelings and thoughts through actions.
<br /><div><i>e.g. tantrums</i></div>
1405829572571 1395802358422 {{c1::Dissociation}} is an immature ego defense
that involves temorary, drastic change in ersonality, memory, consciousness or
motor behaviour to avoid emotional stress.
<br /><div><i>Extreme forms can
result in Dissociative Identity Disorder (multile ersonality disorder).</i></d
iv>
1405829607547 1395802358422 {{c1::Denial}} is an immature ego defense that i
nvolves avoiding the awareness of some ainful reality.
1405829633902 1395802358422 {{c1::Dislacement}} is an immature ego defense
that involves transferring avoided ideas and feelings to some <b>neutral erson
or object</b>. <br /><div><i>i.e. mother yells at her child because her husband
yelled at her</i></div>
1405829827102 1395802358422 {{c1::Fixation}} is an immature ego defense that
involves artially remaining at a more childish level of develoment.
1405829870338 1395802358422 {{c1::Identification}} is an immature ego defens
e that involves modeling behaviour after another erson who is more owerful (th
ough not necessarily admired) <br /><div><i>e.g. abusee indentifying with the
abuser</i></div>
1405829917276 1395802358422 {{c1::Isolation (of affect)}} is an immature ego
defense that involves searating feelings from ideas and events.
<br /><d
iv><i>e.g. described murder is grahic detail with no emotional resonse</i></di
v>
1405829966612 1395802358422 {{c1::Projection}} is an immature ego defense th
at involves <b>attributing an unaccetable internal imulse to an external sourc
e</b>. <br /><div><i>e.g. a man who wants to be with another woman thinking his
wife is cheating on him</i></div>
1405830030465 1395802358422 {{c1::Rationalization}} is an immature ego defen
se that involves roclaiming logical reasons for actions that are actually erfo
rmed for other reasons, usually to avoid self-blame.
<br /><div><i>e.g. after
getting fired, the erson claims the job wasn't even imortant</i></div>
1405830075689 1395802358422 {{c1::Reaction formation}} is an immature ego de
fense that involves relacing a warded-off idea or feeling by an unconsciously d
erived emhasis on its oosite.
1405830120230 1395802358422 {{c1::Regression}} is an immature ego defense th
at involves <b>turning back</b>&nbs;of the maturational clock and going back to
earlier modes of dealing with the world.
<br /><div><i>e.g. children unde
r stress</i></div>
1405830175638 1395802358422 {{c1::Reression}} is an immature ego defense th
at involves<b> involuntary </b>withholding of an idea or feeling from conscious
awareness.
1405830327441 1395802358422 {{c1::Slitting}} is an immature ego defense tha
t involves the belief that eole are either all good or bad at different times
due to an intolerance of ambiguity.
e.g., A atient says that all nurses are
cold/insensitive but all doctors are warm/friendly.
1405830367538 1395802358422 Which ego defense is commonly associated with Bo
rderline Personality Disorder?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Slitting}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.g. a atient says that all nurses are cold and insensitive but t
hat doctors are warm and friendly</i></div>
1405830380441 1395802358422 {{c1::Altruism}} is a <b>mature</b>&nbs;ego def
ense that involves alleviating of guilty feelings by unsolicited generosity towa
rds others.
<br /><div><i>e.g. mafia boss making a large donation to charity
</i></div>
1405830450866 1395802358422 {{c1::Humour}} is a <b>mature</b>&nbs;ego defen
se that involves areciating the amusing nature of an anxiety-rovoking or adve
rse situation. <br /><div><i>e.g. MS2's making jokes about how much Ste 1 is g
oing to destroy them</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><d
iv><i><br /></i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i><b
r /></i></div><div><i>.... i want my life back, ls</i></div>
1405830502966 1395802358422 {{c1::Sublimation}} is a <b>mature</b>&nbs;ego
defense that involves relacing of an unaccetable wish with a course of action
that is similar to the wish but does not conflict with one's value system.
1405830543713 1395802358422 {{c1::Suression}} is a <b>mature</b>&nbs;ego
defense that involves <b>intentional</b>&nbs;withholding of an idea or feeling
from conscious awareness.
<br /><div><i>Versus reression with involves <b
>involuntary withdrawal</b>.</i></div><div><i>e.g. choosing not to worry about t
he Ste 1 until test day (LOL YA RIGHT, BRAH)</i></div>
1405040462126 1395802358422 What is the normal remnant of the thyroglossal d
uct?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Foramen cecum}}</div> <br /><div><img src="as
te-28668906701396.jg" /></div>
1405040782510 1395802358422 What is the most common site of ectoic thyroid
tissue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tongue}}</div>
1405040798341 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::thyroglossal duct}} is an embryol
ogical structure that connects the descending thyroid to the tongue.
<br /><d
iv><i>It may ersist as the yramidal lobe of the thyroid.</i></div><div><i><img
src="aste-28664611734100.jg" /></i></div>
1405040851321 1395802358422 {{c1::Thyroglossal Duct Cyst}} is a congenital t
hyroid anomaly that resents as an <b>anterior midline neck mass</b>&nbs;that m
oves with swallowing or rotrusion of the tongue.<div><br /></div><div><img src=
"aste-28956669509910.jg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Comare this to a <b>Branc
hial Cleft Cyst</b>&nbs;which resents with a <b>ersistant cervical cinus in t
he lateral neck</b>.</i></div>
1405041318384 1395802358422 From which embryological tissue layer does the A
drenal <b>cortex</b>&nbs;form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
1405042330143 1395802358422 From which embryological tissue oulation does
the adrenal <b>medulla</b>&nbs;form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neural crest ce
lls}}</div>
1405042348905 1395802358422 Which area of the adrenal cortex secretes Minera
locorticoids?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Zona Glomerulosa}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i>GFR = salt, sugar, sex.</i><br /><div><img src="aste-29227252449625
.jg" /></div>
1405042661478 1395802358422 Which area of the adrenal cortex secretes Glucoc
orticoids?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Zona Fasciculata}}</div> <br /><div><i>GF
R = salt, sugar, sex</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-29227252449625.jg" /></i>
</div>
1405042715137 1395802358422 Which area of the adrenal cortex secretes sex ho
rmones?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Zona Reticularis}}</div>
<br /><div><i>GF
R = salt, sugar, sex</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-29227252449625.jg" /></i>
</div>
1405042755487 1395802358422 Which ortion of the adrenal glands secretes Cat
echolamines?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromaffin cells of the Adrenal medulla}

1405042842332 1395802358422 Which hormones act as the rimary regulatory con
trol factors for the Zona Glomerulosa?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Renin; Angiote
nsin}}</div>
1405042893479 1395802358422 What is the most common tumour of the adrenal me
dulla in <b>adults</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pheochromocytoma}}</div>
1405042923714 1395802358422 What is the most common tumour of the adrenal me
dulla in <b>children</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroblastoma}}</div>
1405042943197 1395802358422 What is the venous drainage for the <b>left</b>&
nbs;adrenal gland?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Left adrenal vein --> <u>Left
renal vein</u>&nbs;--> IVC}}</div>
1405043142571 1395802358422 What is the venous drainage for the <b>right</b>
&nbs;adrenal gland?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Right adrenal vein --> IVC}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>The right adrenal vein <b>does not drain into the right re
nal vein</b>&nbs;(unlike the left side).</i></div>
1405043184450 1395802358422 Which gland secretes Vasoressin (ADH)?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Posterior ituitary (neurohyohysis)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Made in the hyothalamus but is shied to the osterior ituitary.</i></d
iv>
1405044169837 1395802358422 Which gland secretes Oxytocin?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Posterior ituitary (neurohyohysis)}}</div> <br /><div><i>Made in th
e hyothalamus but is shied to the osterior ituitary.</i></div>
1405044227394 1395802358422 From which embryological tissue layer is the os
terior ituitary formed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405044257038 1395802358422 Which gland secretes FSH?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Anterior ituitary (adenohyohysis)}}</div>
te-30799210479781.jg" /></div>
1405044367157 1395802358422 Which gland secretes LH?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::Anterior ituitary}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-30794915512485.jg" /
></div>
1405044376762 1395802358422 Which gland secretes ACTH?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Anterior ituitary}}</div>
5.jg" /></div>
1405044386971 1395802358422 Which gland secretes TSH?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Anterior ituitary}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-30794915512485.jg" /
></div>
1405044395801 1395802358422 Which gland secretes Prolactin?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Anterior ituitary}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-3079491551248
5.jg" /></div>
1405044407801 1395802358422 Which gland secretes GH?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::Anterior ituitary}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-31293131718810.jg" /
></div>
1405048148748 1395802358422 Which gland secretes Melanotroin?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Anterior ituitary}}</div>
836751514.jg" /></div>
1405048167219 1395802358422 From which embryological layer is the anterior
ituitary formed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oral ectoderm (Rathke's ouch)}}</di
v>
1405048195911 1395802358422 {{c1::GH}} and&nbs;{{c2::Prolaction}} are anter
ior ituitary hormones secreted by the <b>acidohils</b>&nbs;of the gland.
1405048244530 1395802358422 {{c1::FSH}},&nbs;{{c2::LH}},&nbs;{{c3::ACTH}}
and&nbs;{{c4::TSH}} are the anterior ituitary hormones secreted by the <b>baso
hils</b>&nbs;of the gland.
></div>
1405048276866 1395802358422 Which cells of the ancreas secrete glucagon?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::alha cells}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Found at the eri
hery.</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-36103495090417.jg" /></i></div>
1405048997614 1395802358422 Which cells of the ancreas secrete insulin?<div

><br /></div><div>{{c1::beta cells}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Found centrally.</
i></div><div><i><img src="aste-36099200123121.jg" /></i></div><div><i><br /></
i></div><div><i><img src="aste-38809324486784.jg" /><br /><div><img src="aste
-38203734098560.jg" /></div></i></div>
1405049012375 1395802358422 Which cells of the ancreas secrete somatostatin
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::delta cells}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Found inte
rsersed throughout the Islets of Langerhans.</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-3
6099200123121.jg" /></i></div>
1405049041670 1395802358422 Where in the cell is reroinsulin formed?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::RER}}</div>
<br /><div><i>It is then cleaved into Pr
oinsulin which is stored in secretory granules.</i></div><div><i>Before exocytos
is, it is cleaved into Insulin and C-etide.</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-3
6356898161033.jg" /></i></div>
1405050093967 1395802358422 How does insulin influence Na<su>+</su>&nbs;r
etention at the kidneys?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1405050122871 1395802358422 How does insulin influence rotein synthesis?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405050132340 1395802358422 How does insulin influence cellular utake of K<
su>+</su>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405050146959 1395802358422 How does insulin influence the cellular utake o
f amino acids?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405050165109 1395802358422 How does insulin influence glucagon release?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405050175309 1395802358422 How does insulin influence triglyceride synthesi
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405050746298 1395802358422 How do beta-2 adrenergic agonists influence Insu
lin release?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405051700979 1395802358422 How does GH influence Insulin release?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Increase <u>via insulin resistance</u>}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>GH causes insulin resistance and hence insulin release.</i></div>
1405051731373 1395802358422 Which adrenergic recetor triggers an <b>increas
e</b>&nbs;in Insulin release?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::beta-2}}</div>
1405051781108 1395802358422 How does Glucagon influence glycogenolysis?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405051964460 1395802358422 How does Glucagon influence gluconeogenesis?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405051978262 1395802358422 How does Glucagon influence liolysis?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405051987850 1395802358422 How does Glucagon influence ketogenesis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405051997637 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence Glucagon levels?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405052018732 1395802358422 How does <b>hyoglycemia</b>&nbs;influence Gluc
agon levels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405052027474 1395802358422 How does <b>hyerglycemia</b>&nbs;influence Glu
cagon levels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405052079651 1395802358422 Which hyothalamic hormone functions to increase
ACTH secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CRH}}</div>
1405053241603 1395802358422 Which hyothalamic hormone functions to&nbs;inc
rease MSH (Melanotroin) secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CRH}}</div>
rease beta-endorhin secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CRH}}</div>
1405053274795 1395802358422 Which hyothalamic hormone functions to&nbs;dec
rease Prolactin secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Doamine}}</div>
rease FSH secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GnRH}}</div>
<br /><div><i>To
nic GnRH suresses the HPA axis.</i><div><i>Pulsatile GnRH triggers uberty and
fertility.</i></div></div>
rease LH secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GnRH}}</div>

<i><div></div></
i><i><br /></i>Tonic GnRH suresses the HPA axis.<div><i>Pulsatile GnRH trigger
s uberty and fertility.</i></div>
1405053308287 1395802358422 Which HPA axis hormone functions to&nbs;decreas
e GnRH secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Prolactin}}</div> <br /><div><i><b
r /></i></div>
rease GH secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Somatostatin}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Somatostatin analogs are used to treat acromegaly.</i></div>
rease TSH secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Somatostatin}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Somatostatin analogs are used to treat acromegaly.</i></div>
rease TSH secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::TRH}}</div>
rease Prolactin secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::TRH}}</div>
1405053414496 1395802358422 {{c1::Pituitary rolactinoma}} is a ituitary tu
mour that resents with <b>amenorrhea</b>&nbs;and <b>osteoorosis</b>.
1405094340172 1395802358422 {{c1::Prolactin}} is a hormone secreted by the a
nterior ituitary that functions to stimulate milk roduction in breasts.
1405094394080 1395802358422 {{c1::Prolactin}} is a hormone roduced by the a
nterior ituitary that <b>inhibits ovulation in females and sermatogenesis in m
ales by inhibiting GnRH synthesis and release</b>.
<br /><div><i>Hyerrola
ctinemia is also associated with decreased libido.</i></div><div><i><img src="a
ste-1039382086420.jg" /></i></div>
1405094433387 1395802358422 Which hormone from the anterior ituitary functi
ons to <b>inhibit GnRH synthesis and release</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pro
lactin}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-1035087119124.jg" /></div>
1405094452302 1395802358422 Which neurotransmitter secreted by the Hyothala
mus functions to tonically inhibit Prolactin secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Doamine}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Prolactin then inhibits its own secr
etion via negative feedback by triggering Doamine release from the hyothalamus
.</i><br /><div><img src="aste-1035087119124.jg" /></div>
1405094592247 1395802358422 How does Doamine influence Prolactin secretion?
87119124.jg" /></div>
1405094603184 1395802358422 How does TRH influence Prolactin secretion?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-1035087119124
.jg" /></div>
1405094659682 1395802358422 {{c1::Bromocritine}} is a doamine agonist that
is used to treat Prolactinoma as it inhibits rolactin secretion.
<br /><d
iv><i>Similarly, doamine antagonists (antisychotics) and estrogens (OCPs; reg
nancy) stimulate Prolactin secretion.</i></div>
1405094691987 1395802358422 How do estrogens (e.g. OCPs) influence Prolactin
secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405099806628 1395802358422 {{c1::GH}} is a hormone secreted by the anterior
ituitary that functions to stimulate linear growth and muscle mass growth via
<b>IGF-1/Somatomedin</b>&nbs;secretion.
1405100021446 1395802358422 How does GH influence insulin resistance?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><i>GH is diabetogenic.</i></d
iv>
1405100050495 1395802358422 {{c1::GHRH}} is a hormone that triggers ulsatil
e release of GH.
1405100170048 1395802358422 How does glucose influence GH release?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405100183271 1395802358422 How does GH secretion change during exercise and
slee?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405100198833 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence GH release?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405100210326 1395802358422 {{c1::Acromegaly}} is an endocrine disorder caus
ed by excess GH secretion <b>in adults</b>.

1405100229790 1395802358422 {{c1::Gigantism}} is an endocrine disorder cause
d by excess GH secretion <b>in children</b>.
1405100265583 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the Hyothalamus synthesized AD
H (Vasoressin)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Suraotic Nuclei}}</div>
1405100373343 1395802358422 Which Vasoressin recetors function to regulate
serum osmolarity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V<sub>2</sub>}}</div>
1405100396503 1395802358422 Which Vasoressin recetor functions to regulate
blood ressure?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V<sub>1</sub>}}</div>
1405100429996 1395802358422 {{c1::Vasoressin (ADH)}} is a hormone released
by the osterior ituitary that functions to regulate serum osmolarity (V<sub>2<
/sub>) and blood ressure (V<sub>1</sub>).
1405100482736 1395802358422 {{c1::Vasoressin (ADH)}} is a hormone secreted
from the osterior ituitary that rimarily <b>decreases</b>&nbs;serum osmolari
ty by influencing aquaorin channel transcrition in rincial cells of the coll
ecting duct.
<br /><div><i>ADH <b>increases </b>urine osmolarity and <b>decre
ases</b>&nbs;serum osmolarity by <b>inducing water retention</b>.</i></div>
1405100640508 1395802358422 How do ADH levels change in Central Diabetes Ins
iidus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405100759050 1395802358422 How do ADH levels change in Nehrogenic Diabetes
Insiidus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Normal or Increased}}</div>
1405100783653 1395802358422 How do ADH levels change in rimary olydisia?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1405100795612 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmoressin}} is an ADH analog used to tr
eat Central Diabetes Insiidus.
1405100816809 1395802358422 What is the rimary control for ADH release?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Osmorecetors in the hyothalamus}}</div>
1405100838378 1395802358422 What is the secondary control of ADH release?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyovolemia}}</div>
1405100849436 1395802358422 How does Ketoconazole influence Cholesterol Desm
olase activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="aste-1670742278921.jg" /></div>
1405105404198 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to convert Testosterone i
nto Estradiol?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aromatase}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-1666447311625.jg" /></div>
1405105553676 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to convert Testosterone i
nto Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::5-alha-reductase}}</d
iv>
1405106002238 1395802358422 How do mineralocorticoid levels change in 17-al
ha-hydroxylase deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><d
1405106031534 1395802358422 How do Cortisol levels change in 17-alha-hydrox
ylase?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405106044483 1395802358422 How do sex hormone levels change in 17-alha-hyd
roxylase deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><d
1405106085056 1395802358422 {{c1::17-alha-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a ty
e of congenital adrenal hyerlasia that resents with <b>hyertension</b>&nbs;
and <b>hyokalemia</b>. <br /><div><img src="aste-1666447311625.jg" /></div>
e of congenital adrenal hyerlasia that resents with <b>decreased DHT</b>&nbs
;levels.
e of congenital adrenal hyerlasia that resents with <b>seudo-hermahroditism
in males</b>&nbs;(ambiguous genitalia, undescended testes). <br /><div><img
src="aste-1666447311625.jg" /></div>
e of congenital adrenal hyerlasia that resents with a <b>lack of secondary se
xual develoment in females</b>.
.jg" /></div>
1405106573181 1395802358422 How do mineralocorticoid levels change in 21-hyd

roxylase activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="aste-1666447311625.jg" /></div>
1405106613705 1395802358422 How do Cortisol levels change in 21-hydroxylase
deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <br /><div><img src="as
te-1666447311625.jg" /></div>
1405106631061 1395802358422 How do sex hormone levels change in 21-hydroxyla
se deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-1666447311625.jg" /></div>
1405106664250 1395802358422 {{c1::21-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a tye of c
ongenital adrenal hyerlasia that resents with <b>hyotension</b>&nbs;and <b>
hyerkalemia</b>.
1405106708464 1395802358422 How does blood ressure change in 17-alha-hydro
xylase deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="aste-1666447311625.jg" /></div>
1405106720676 1395802358422 How do K<su>+</su>&nbs;levels change in 17-al
ha-hydroxylase deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <br /><d
1405106738795 1395802358422 How does blood ressure change in 21-hydroxylase
deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-1666447311625.jg" /></div>
1405106754423 1395802358422 How do K<su>+</su>&nbs;levels change in 21-hy
droxylase deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><d
ongenital adrenal hyerlasia that involves an accumulation of <b>17-hydroxyrog
esterone</b>. <br /><div><img src="aste-1666447311625.jg" /></div>
ongenital adrenal hyerlasia that resents with <b>increased renin activity</b>
.
1405106842304 1395802358422 What is the most common enzyme deficiency in Con
genital Adrenal Hyerlasia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::21-hydroxylase deficienc
y}}</div>
ongenital adrenal hyerlasia that resents in infancy as <b>salt wasting</b>&nb
s;or in childhood as <b>recocious uberty</b>.
<div><br /></div><i>Fema
les will see <b>virilization</b>.</i><br /><div><img src="aste-1666447311625.j
g" /></div>
1405106914693 1395802358422 How do mineralocorticoid levels change in 11-bet
a-hydroxylase deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased aldosterone but i
ncreased 11-deoxycorticosterone}}</div> <br /><div><i>There is decreased Aldoste
rone but <b>accumulation of 11-deoxycorticosterone</b>&nbs;which yields an incr
ease in blood ressure.</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-1666447311625.jg" /></
i></div>
1405106978074 1395802358422 How do cortisol levels change in 11-beta-hydroxy
lase deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-1666447311625.jg" /></div>
1405106999858 1395802358422 How do sex hormone levels change in 11-beta-hydr
oxylase deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i>Hence females will resent with <b>virilization</b>.</i><br /><div><img src=
"aste-1666447311625.jg" /></div>
1405107013558 1395802358422 {{c1::11-beta-hydroxylase deficiency}} is a tye
of congenital adrenal hyerlasia that resents with <b>hyertension</b>&nbs;w
ith <b>low-renin activity</b>. <br /><div><img src="aste-1666447311625.jg" />
</div>
1405107038395 1395802358422 How does blood ressure change in 11-beta-hydrox
ylase deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="aste-1666447311625.jg" /></div>
1405107071586 1395802358422 How do ACTH levels change in Congenital Adrenal
Hyerlasia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th
is is <b>always</b>&nbs;the case as <b>Cortisol levels are always decreased in

congenital adrenal hyerlasia</b>.</i></div><div><i>The lack of Cortisol feedba
ck results in elevated ACTH levels and subsequent adrenal gland hyerlasia.</i>
</div>
1405107555750 1395802358422 Which zone of the adrenal cortex secretes Cortis
ol?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Zona Fasciculata}}</div>
1405107999349 1395802358422 Which lasma rotein rimarily binds to Cortisol
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Corticosteroid-binding globulin}}</div>
1405108016180 1395802358422 How does Cortisol influence blood ressure?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><i>Cortisol <b>uregulates al
ha-1 adrenergic recetors on arterioles</b>, thereby increasing the sensitivity
to noreinehrine and einehrine.</i></div>
1405108188806 1395802358422 Which adrenergic recetors are uregulated by Co
rtisol on arterioles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alha-1}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>This is how Cortisol increases blood ressure.</i></div>
1405108209770 1395802358422 How does Cortisol influence insulin resistance?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Cortisol is diabet
ogenic.</i></div>
1405108240611 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence gluconeogenesis?<div
1405108255543 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence Liolysis?<div><br /
1405108260623 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence Proteolysis?<div><br
1405108268797 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence fibroblast activity?
<br /><div><i>This is how is cau
ses <b>striae</b>.</i></div>
1405108287793 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence leukotriene and ros
taglandin synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Through this Cortisol is anti-inflammatory and immunosuressive.</i></div
>
1405108337602 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence luekocyte adhesion?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Thereby causing <b
>neutrohilia</b>.</i></div><div><i>This also adds to the anti-inflammatory and
immunosuressive role of glucocorticoids.</i></div>
1405108368578 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence Histamine release fr
om mast cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><div><i>He
nce it is anti-inflammatory and immunosuressive.</i></div>
1405108386985 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence IL-2 roduction?<div
<br /><div><i>Hence it is immuno
suressive and anti-inflammatory.</i></div><div><i>Because of this, <b>exogenou
s corticosteroids can cause reactivation of TB and candidiasis</b>.</i></div>
1405108416947 1395802358422 How does cortisol influence osteoblast activity?
<br /><div><i>Thereby decreasing
bone formation.</i></div>
1405108430948 1395802358422 How does Cortisol influence ACTH secretion?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405108498352 1395802358422 Where is Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) secreted from
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chief cells of the arathyroid}}</div>
1405111334971 1395802358422 How does PTH influence the resortion of Ca<su>
2+</su>&nbs;at bone?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><d
1405111397321 1395802358422 How does PTH influence the reabsortion of Ca<su
>2+</su>&nbs;in the distal convoluted tubule?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr
ease}}</div>
1405111424232 1395802358422 How does PTH change serum [Ca<su>2+</su>]?<div
66042884.jg" /></div>
1405111446988 1395802358422 How does PTH influence PO<sub>4</sub><su>3-</su
>&nbs;resortion at<b>&nbs;bone</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</d
iv>
1405111521483 1395802358422 How does PTH influence PO<sub>4</sub><su>3- </s
u>reabsortion at the roximal convoluted tubule?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::De
crease}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-6816113099264.jg" /></div>
1405111780046 1395802358422 {{c1::PTH}} is a hormone secreted by the arathy
roid hormone that increases Calcitriol [1,25-(OH)<sub>2</sub>&nbs;D<sub>3</sub>
] roduction by activating kidney <b>1-alha-hydroxylase</b>. <br /><div><img
src="aste-7301444403975.jg" /></div>
1405111844244 1395802358422 {{c1::RANKL}} is a recetor ligand secreted by O
steoblasts that binds to&nbs;{{c2::RANK}} on Osteoclasts to stimulate osteoclas
t activity.
<br /><div><i>Resulting in bone resortion.</i></div>
1405111924534 1395802358422 Which bone cell secretes RANKL?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Osteoblasts}}</div>
1405112032076 1395802358422 {{c1::PTH-related etide (PTHrP)}} is a PTH-lik
e hormone that functions similarly to PTH and is commonly seen in araneolastic
syndrome.
1405112079609 1395802358422 How do&nbs;<b>decreased</b>&nbs;Ca<su>2+</su
>&nbs;levels influence PTH secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</di
v>
1405112110458 1395802358422 How do marginally decreased Mg<su>2+</su>&nbs
;levels influence PTH release?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405112135842 1395802358422 How doe <b>significantly reduced</b>&nbs;Mg<su
>2+</su>&nbs;levels influence PTH secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrea
se}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Mg can decrease in diarrhea, aminoglycoside use, d
iuresis and alcohol abuse.</i></div>
1405112173526 1395802358422 How does an increase in blood H influence Album
in's affinity for Ca<su>2+</su>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence, alkalosis can yield </i><b><i>clinical manifestations of hy
ocalcemia</i>&nbs;</b><i>(crams, ain, aresthesias, caroedal sasm).</i></
div>
1405114053471 1395802358422 Which form of Vitamin D is made at the skin?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::D<sub>3</sub>}}</div>
1405114088127 1395802358422 Which form of Vitamin D is ingested from lants?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D<sub>2</sub>}}</div>
1405114101534 1395802358422 Which form of Vitamin D is made in the liver?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::25-OH Vitamin D}}</div>
1405114120497 1395802358422 Which form of vitamin D is the active form made
in the kidneys?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1,25-(OH)<sub>2</sub>&nbs;Vitamin D}
}</div>
1405114142029 1395802358422 How does Vitamin D influence the absortion of d
ietary Ca<su>2+</su>&nbs;and PO<sub>4</sub><su>3-</su>?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405114958754 1395802358422 How does Vitamin D influence bone resortion?<di
<br /><div><i>Hence increased Ca
and PO<sub>4</sub>.</i></div>
1405114978976 1395802358422 How does PTH influence Vitamin D roduction?<div
1405115000577 1395802358422 How does <b>decreased</b>&nbs;Ca influence Vita
min D roduction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405115020016 1395802358422 How does <b>decreased</b>&nbs;PO4 influence Vit
amin D roduction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405115075165 1395802358422 Which gland secreted Calcitonin?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Parafollicular cells (C cells) of the Thyroid}}</div>
1405116510202 1395802358422 What is the function of Calcitonin?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Decreases bone resortion of Ca<su>2+</su>}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>i.e. oosite of PTH</i></div><div><i>"Calci<b>TON</b>in <b>TON</b>es down
Ca<su>2+</su>&nbs;levels."</i></div>
1405116528975 1395802358422 How does increased serum [Ca<su>2+</su>] influ
ence Calcitonin secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405116585372 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is involved wi

th ANP and NO (vasodilators)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::cGMP}}</div> <br /><d
1405117065010 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is associated
with the ADH V<sub>2</sub>-recetor?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
with FSH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
te-9466107920916.jg" /></div>
with LH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
te-9466107920916.jg" /></div>
with ACTH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
te-9466107920916.jg" /></div>
with TSH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
te-9466107920916.jg" /></div>
with CRH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
te-9466107920916.jg" /></div>
with hCG?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
te-9466107920916.jg" /></div>
with MSH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
te-9466107920916.jg" /></div>
with PTH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
te-9466107920916.jg" /></div>
1405117203936 1395802358422 WHich cellular signalling cascade is associated
with Calcitonin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-9466107920916.jg" /></div>
1405117216020 1395802358422 &nbs;Which cellular signalling cascade is assoc
iated with GHRH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::cAMP}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-9466107920916.jg" /></div>
with GnRH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div>
te-9466107920916.jg" /></div>
with Oxytocin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div> <br /><div><img src="as
te-9466107920916.jg" /></div>
1405117285586 1395802358422 Which cellular signalling cascade is assocaited
with the ADH V<sub>1</sub>&nbs;recetor?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div>
with the Histamine H<sub>1</sub>&nbs;recetor?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}
</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-9466107920916.jg" /></div>
with Angiotensin II?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-9466107920916.jg" /></div>
with Gastrin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IP3}}</div>
te-9466107920916.jg" /></div>
1405117350241 1395802358422 Which cellular cascade is associated with rolac
tin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Recetor-associated tyrosine kinases}}</div>
1405117377313 1395802358422 Which cellular cascade is associated with GH?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Recetor-associated tyrosine kinase}}</div>
<br /><d
1405117396371 1395802358422 How does an <b>increase</b>&nbs;in sex hormonebinding globulin (SHBG) influence free testosterone levels?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <br /><div><i>In men this causes <b>gynecomastia</b>.</i
></div>
1405117736449 1395802358422 How does a <b>decrease</b>&nbs;in sex hormone-b
inding globulin influence free testosterone levels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I
ncrease}}</div> <br /><div><i>In women this causes <b>hirsutism</b>.</i></div>
1405117779261 1395802358422 How do oral contracetives (or regnancy) influe
nce sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) levels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incre
ase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Free testosterone levels decrease.</i></div><div><
i>Free estrogen levels <b>remain unchanged</b>.</i></div>
1405117856963 1395802358422 Where is most T<b><sub>3</sub>&nbs;</b>made?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::At target tissue}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Thyroid fo
llicles rimarily make T<sub>4</sub>.</i></div>
1405119361237 1395802358422 {{c1::T<sub>3</sub>/T<sub>4</sub>}} is a hormone
secreted from the thyroid that functions to uregulate <b>beta-1 adrenergic rec
etors</b>&nbs;in the heart. <br /><div><i>Similar to Cortisol, it <b>increas
es the sensitivity of the tissue to catecholamines</b>.</i></div><div><i>Through
this it increases CO, HR, SV and contractility.</i></div><div><i><img src="ast
e-11145440133320.jg" /></i></div>
1405119466323 1395802358422 Which adrenergic recetor is uregulated by thyr
oid hormone?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-1; esecially at the heart}}</div>
1405119500436 1395802358422 {{c1::Thyroid hormone (T<sub>3</sub>/T<sub>4</su
b>)}} is a hormone secreted by the thyroid that functions to increase basal meta
bolic rate by <b>increasing Na/K ATPase activity</b>. <br /><div><i>Increased
Na/K ATPase activity results in <b>increased O<sub>2</sub>&nbs;consumtion, RR
and body temerature</b>.</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-11141145166024.jg" /
></i></div>
1405119710037 1395802358422 How does thyroid hormone influence basal metabol
ic rate?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405119726409 1395802358422 How does thyroid hormone influence glycogenolysi
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405119739066 1395802358422 How does thyroid hormone influence gluconeogenes
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405119749619 1395802358422 How does thyroid hormone influence liolysis?<di
1405119761351 1395802358422 Which lasma rotein binds to most T<sub>3</sub>
/T<sub>4 </sub>in the blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thyroxine-binding globul
in (TBG)}}</div>
1405120330410 1395802358422 How do Thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG) levels c
hange in heatic failure?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405120360300 1395802358422 How do Thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG) levels c
hange in OCP use or regnancy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Due to the estrogen.</i></div>
1405120388244 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts T<sub>4</sub>&nbs;into ac
tive T<sub>3</sub>&nbs;in eriheral tissue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::5'-deio
dinase}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, T<sub>4</sub>&nbs;is the major roduct
of the thyroid and is converted into the active T<sub>3</sub>.</i></div>
1405120439205 1395802358422 Which form of thyroid hormone has <b>greater aff
inity</b>&nbs;for Thyroid hormone recetors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T<sub>3
</sub>&nbs;> T<sub>4</sub>}}</div>
1405120469165 1395802358422 Which enzyme is resonsible for the oxidation an
d organification of Iodide?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Peroxidase}}</div>
1405120541035 1395802358422 Which enzyme is resonsible for the couling of
monoiodotyrosine (MIT) and diiodotyrosine (DIT)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pero
xidase}}</div>
1405120567844 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Proylthiouracil in the treat
ment of hyerthyroidism?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of 5'-deiodinase
<u>and</u>&nbs;eroxidase}}</div>
6.jg" /></div>
1405120611341 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Methimazole in the treatment
of hyerthyroidism?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Peroxidase <u>only<
/u>}}</div>
1405120638892 1395802358422 How does TRH from the hyothalamus influence TSH
activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405122146293 1395802358422 {{c1::Graves Disease}} is an autoimmune disorder
characterized by <b>hyerthyroidism</b>&nbs;due to the resence of thyroid sti
mulating immunoglobulins.
1405122194189 1395802358422 Negative feedback of T<sub>3</sub>&nbs;and T<su
b>4</sub>&nbs;to the anterior ituitary <b>decreases</b>&nbs;the sensitivity t
o&nbs;{{c1::TRH}}, thereby resulting in decreased Thyroid hormone roduction.
1405122334042 1395802358422 {{c1::Wolff-Chaikoff Effect}} is a henomenon th
at involves the <b>temorary</b>&nbs;<b>inhibition of thyroid eroxidase</b>&nb
s;due to <b>excess iodine levels</b>. <br /><div><img src="aste-1243822528955
6.jg" /></div>
1405141647568 1395802358422 Which drug used to treat hyerthyroidism is used
in <b>regnancy</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Proylthiouracil (PTU)}}</div>
1405141731050 1395802358422 {{c1::Alasia Cutis}} is a ossible teratogenic
comlication of Methimazole.
1405141749030 1395802358422 Which drug used to treat hyerthyroidism is a o
ssible teratogen?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Methimazole}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Can cause alasia cutis.</i></div>
1405141770453 1395802358422 {{c1::Agranulocytosis}} is a rare hematological
comlication of Proylthiouracil and Methimazole use. <br /><div><i>Alastic a
naemia is also a ossible comlication.</i></div>
1405141793183 1395802358422 Which drug used to treat hyerthyroidism is asso
ciated with heatotoxicity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Proylthiouracil}}</div>
1405141828670 1395802358422 {{c1::Levothyroxine}} and&nbs;{{c2::Triiodithyr
onine}} are thyroxine relacements that are used to treat hyothyroidism and myx
edema.
1405141875461 1395802358422 {{c1::GH}} is a hormone analog used to treat Tur
ner Syndrome.
1405141896851 1395802358422 Which somatostatin analog is used to treat Carci
noid tumours?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Octreotide}}</div>
1405141924843 1395802358422 Which somatostatin analog is used to treat Gastr
inoma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Octreotide}}</div>
1405141933394 1395802358422 Which somatostatin analog is used to treat Gluca
gonoma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Octreotide}}</div>
1405141940741 1395802358422 Which somatostatin analog is used to treat Esoh
ageal Varices?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Octreotide}}</div>
1405141955250 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Central Diabetes Insi
idus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::DDAVP}}</div>
1405141973751 1395802358422 {{c1::Oxytocin}} is a osterior ituitary hormon
e that is used to <b>stimulate labour, uterine contractions </b>and <b>milk letdown</b>.
1405142007029 1395802358422 Which tetracycline antibiotic is used to treat S
IADH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Demeclocycline}}</div>
1405142023011 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Demeclocycline in the treatme
nt of SIADH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ADH antagonism}}</div>
1405142036083 1395802358422 What tye of Diabetes Insiidus is a otential c
omlication of Demeclocycline use?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nehrogenic DI}}</
div>
1405142067031 1395802358422 {{c1::Photosensitivity}} is a cutaneous comlica
tion of Demeclocycline use.
1405142084123 1395802358422 {{c1::Demeclocycline}} is a drug used to treat S
IADH that is associated with <b>abnormalities of bone and teeth</b>.
1405142102856 1395802358422 {{c1::NF-kB}} is a transcrition factor hat is o
ften inhibited by Glucocorticoids, thereby leading to downstream anti-inflammato
ry and immunosuressive effects.

1405142159010 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Osteoorosis seen in I
atrogenic Cushing Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bishoshonates}}</div>
1405142186359 1395802358422 {{c1::Adrenal Insufficiency}} is a comlication
of <u style="font-weight: bold; ">abrut cessation</u>&nbs;of glucocorticoids f
ollowing chronic use.
1397317135284 1395802358422 What is the outermost layer of the eidermis?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Stratum Corneum}}</div>
<br /><div><i>California
ns Love Girls in String Bikinis</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i><img sr
c="aste-1254130450966.jg" /></i></div>
1397323054173 1395802358422 {{c1::Stratum Corneum}} is the outermost layer o
f the eidermis and rimarily full of keratin. <br /><div><br /></div><div><div
><i>Californians Love Girls in String Bikinis</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><
div><i><img src="aste-1254130450966.jg" /></i></div></div>
1397323079471 1395802358422 {{c1::Stratum Sinosum}} is a layer of the eide
rmis that involves visible sines between keratinocytes that are formed by desmo
somes. <br /><div><br /></div><div><div><i>Californians Love Girls in String Bi
kinis</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i><img src="aste-1254130450966.jg
" /></i></div></div>
1397323193363 1395802358422 Which layer of the eidermis is the stell cell l
ayer?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Stratum Basale}}</div> <br /><div><br /></div><
div><div><i>Californians Love Girls in String Bikinis</i></div><div><i><br /></i
1397323208442 1395802358422 {{c1::Stratum Basale}} is the deeest layer of t
he eidermis and is the layer that contains <b>stem cells</b>. <br /><div><div>
<i>Californians Love Girls in String Bikinis</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><d
iv><i><img src="aste-1254130450966.jg" /></i></div></div>
1397323236305 1395802358422 {{c1::Tight Junctions (Zonula Occludens)}} are a
tye of eithelial cell junction that revent aracellular movement of solutes.
1397323803527 1395802358422 Which tye of Eithelial Cell Junction revents
the aracellular movement of solutes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tight Junctions
}}</div>
1397323832600 1395802358422 {{c1::Tight Junction (Zonula Occludens)}} is a t
ye of eithelial cell junction that is comosed of Claudins and Occludins.
1397323864739 1395802358422 {{c1::Claudins}} and&nbs;{{c2::Occludins}} are
the 2 eithelial cell junction roteins that make u tight junctions (Zonula Occ
ludens).
1397323901053 1395802358422 {{c1::Tight Junction}} is a tye of eithelial c
ell junction that is also known as Zonula Occludens.
1397323959545 1395802358422 {{c1::Adherens Junction (Zonula Adherens)}} is a
tye of eithelial cell junction found just below tight junctions that form <b>
"belt-like"</b>&nbs;connections between actin cytoskeletons of adjacent cells.
1397324311204 1395802358422 What tye of eithelial cell junction is found j
ust below tight junctions and forms <b>"belt-like"</b>&nbs;connections between
actin cytoskeletons of adjacent cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Adherens Junct
ion (Zonula Adherens)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-2031519531533.jg" />
</div>
1397324355398 1395802358422 {{c1::Adherens Junction}} is a tye of eithelia
l cell junction that is also known as Zonula Adherens. <br /><div><img src="as
te-2031519531533.jg" /></div>
1397324376155 1395802358422 Which adhesion rotein is associated with Adhere
ns Junctions (Zonula Adherens)?<div><br />{{c1::Cadherins}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i style="font-weight: bold; ">CAD</i><i>herins are <b>Ca</b><su style="font
-weight: bold; ">2+</su>&nbs;deendent <b>ad</b>hesion roteins</i></div><div>
<i><img src="aste-2031519531533.jg" /></i></div>
1397324450216 1395802358422 The loss of which adhesion rotein in Adherens J
unctions romotes metastasis of eithelial neolasms?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:E-cadherin}}</div>
1397324506076 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmosome (Macula Adherens)}} are a tye o
f eithelial cell junction that act as structural suort via keratin interactio
ns.
1397324647010 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmosome}} is a tye of eithelial cell j
unction that is also known as Macula Adherens. <br /><div><img src="aste-20315
19531533.jg" /></div>
1397324715667 1395802358422 Which tye of cytoskeletal filaments are Desmoso
mes associated with?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Keratin}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="aste-2031519531533.jg" /></div>
1397324745232 1395802358422 Which tye of cytoskeletal filaments are Adheren
s Junctions (Zonula Adherens) associated with?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Actin
Filaments}}</div>
1397324773148 1395802358422 What adhesion rotein is associated with Desmoso
mes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Desmolakin}}</div>
te-2031519531533.jg" /></div>
1397324790934 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmolakin}} is an adhesion rotein that
is associated with Desmosomes and coules with keratin. <br /><div><img src="as
te-2031519531533.jg" /></div>
1397324814071 1395802358422 Which eithelial cell junction is targeted by th
e autoantibodies in Pemhigus Vulgaris?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Desmosomes}}<
1397324844724 1395802358422 {{c1::Ga Junctions}} are a tye of eithelial c
ell junction that involve channel roteins called Connexons that allow for elect
rical and chemical communication between cells. <br /><div><img src="aste-20315
19531533.jg" /></div>
1397324904822 1395802358422 What transmembrane channels are associate with G
a Junctions?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Connexons}}</div>
1397324927042 1395802358422 What tye of eithelial cell junction allow for
electrical and chemical communication between cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Ga Junctions via Connexons}}</div>
.jg" /></div>
1397324959844 1395802358422 {{c1::Integrins}} are membrane adhesion roteins
that maintain the integrity of the <b>basolateral membrane</b>&nbs;by binding
to <b>collagen and laminin</b>&nbs;on the basement membrane. <div><br /></div
><i><b>INTEG</b>rins maintain the <b>INTEG</b>rity of the basolateral membrane.<
/i><br /><div><img src="aste-2031519531533.jg" /></div>
1397325374651 1395802358422 What does Integrin bind to in the basement membr
ane to maintain integrity of the cell's basolateral membrane?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Collagen and Laminin}}</div>
1397325402722 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemidesmosome}} is an eithelial cell junc
tion that connects keratin in basal cells to the underlying basement membrane.
1397325441886 1395802358422 Which tye of eithelial cell junction connects
keratin in basal cells to the underlying basement membrane?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Hemidesmosomes}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-2031519531533.jg" />
</div>
1397325465093 1395802358422 Which eithelial cell junction do autoantibodies
in Bullous Pemhigoid target?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hemidesmosome}}</div>
1397325518295 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with an Anterior
Drawer Sign?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ACL injury}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-5716601471227.jg" /></div>
1397325755670 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with a Posterior
Drawer Sign?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PCL injury}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-5712306503931.jg" /></div>
1397325767329 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with abnormal a
ssive <b>abduction </b>(valgus stress)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::MCL injury}}<
1397325951674 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with abnormal a
ssive <b>adduction</b>&nbs;(varus stress)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LCL injur

y}}</div>
1397326018932 1395802358422 Which clinical test looks for the resnce of a m
eniscus knee injury?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::McMurray Test}}</div> <br /><d
1397326046210 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with ain on <b>
external rotation</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Medial Meniscus injury}}</div>
1397326069174 1395802358422 Which knee injury is associated with ain on <b>
internal rotation</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral meniscus injury}}</div
>
1397326095938 1395802358422 Which cruciate ligament in the knee attaches to
the anterior asect of the tibia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ACL}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>The naming refers to the site of tibial attachment.</i><br /
><div><img src="aste-5712306503931.jg" /></div>
1397326146119 1395802358422 Which cruciate ligament in the knee attaches to
the osterior asect of the tibia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PCL}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The naming refers to the site of tibial attachment.</i></div><div>
1397326180110 1395802358422 {{c1::Unhay Triad}} is a common sorts injury
that resents due to <b>lateral force alied to a lanted leg</b>.
1397326222696 1395802358422 {{c1::Unhay Triad}} is a common sorts injury
that classically involves damage to the ACL, MCL and Medial Meniscus as it is at
tached to the MCL.
1397326476784 1395802358422 Which 3 structures in the knee are commonly inju
red in Unhay Triad?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ACL; MCL; Medial Meniscus}}</di
v>
1397326515369 1395802358422 Which side of the knee involves a meniscus that
is attached to a collateral ligament?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Medial (MCL + M
edial Meniscus)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-5712306503931.jg" /></div>
1397326542847 1395802358422 Which meniscus in the knee is attached to a coll
ateral ligament?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Medial Meniscus (and MCL)}}</div>
1397326562076 1395802358422 Which meniscus in the knee is more commonly inju
red?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral meniscus}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-5712306503931.jg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>&nbs;"In the case o
f an unhay triad, the lateral is actually more commonly involved than the medi
al (contrary to the classic descrition of ACL, MCL, medial meniscus). When it c
omes to isolated meniscus injury, though, the medial is more commonly injured be
cause it is less mobile than the lateral meniscus."</div>
1397326616531 1395802358422 Which anatomical landmark is associated with the
Pudendal Nerve for Pudendal Nerve Block in relieving the ain of delivery?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Ischial sine}}</div>
1397326664588 1395802358422 Which anatomical surface landmark is associated
with the Aendix?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::McBurney's Point (2/3 of the dista
nce between the umbilicus and ASIS)}}</div>
1397326716442 1395802358422 Which anatomical surface landmark is associated
with Lumbar Puncture?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The level of the Iliac Crest}}<
/div>
1397326744170 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::Rotator Cuff Muscles}} are a grou
of shoulder muscles that form the rotator cuff.
te-8538394984672.jg" /></div>
1397326791714 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle is most commonly injur
ed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Surasinatus}}</div>
te-8534100017376.jg" /></div>
1397327008289 1395802358422 Which nerve innervates the Surasinatus?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Surascaular N}}</div>
1397327029752 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle abducts the arm initia
lly before the action of the deltoid takes over?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sur
asinatus}}</div>
1397327061525 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle injury is commonly see

n in baseball itchers?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Infrasinatus injury}}</div>
1397327105520 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the Infrasinatus mus
cle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Surascaular nerve}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-8534100017376.jg" /></div>
1397327137355 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle laterally rotates the
arm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Infrasinatus}}</div>
1397327167103 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle both adducts <u>and</u
>&nbs;laterally rotates the arm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Teres Minor}}</div>
1397327191613 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the Teres Minor muscl
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Axillary Nerve}}</div>
1397327369287 1395802358422 Which rotator cuff muscle medially rotates and a
dducts the arm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Subscaularis}}</div>
<br /><d
1397327392350 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the Subscaular muscl
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Subscaular nerve}}</div> <br /><div><img src="as
te-8534100017376.jg" /></div>
1397327410469 1395802358422 Which sinal cord nerve roots rimarily innervat
e the Rotator Cuff Muscles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C5-C6}}</div>
1397327444207 1395802358422 What are the 4 rotator cuff muscles?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Surasinatus; Infrasinatus; Teres Minor; Subscaularis}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"SItS"</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-8534100017376.jg" /></i><
/div>
1397327482467 1395802358422 What is the most commonly fractured caral bone?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Scahoid}}</div>
446674205.jg" /></div>
1397327788124 1395802358422 Which caral bone can be alated in the anatomi
cal snuff box?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Scahoid}}</div>
1397327804309 1395802358422 {{c1::Scahoid}} is a caral bone that is the mo
st commonly fractured caral bone and is rone to avascular necrosis due to retr
ograde blood suly.
1397327847711 1395802358422 Dislocation of which caral bone may cause Acute
Caral Tunnel Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lunate}}</div>
<br /><d
1397327889757 1395802358422 Which nerve can be damaged following a fall onto
an outstretched that results in fracture to the hook of the Hamate?<div><br /><
/div><div><img src="aste-10282151706909.jg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Ulnar Nerve}}</div>
1397328031852 1395802358422 {{c1::Caral Tunnel Syndrome}} is a wrist injury
that involves entrament of the Median Nerve in the caral tunnel and hence re
sents with aresthesia, ain and numbness.
1397328122571 1395802358422 Which nerve is entraed in the caral tunnel to
cause Caral Tunnel Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Median Nerve}}</div>
1397328148762 1395802358422 {{c1::Guyon Canal Syndrome}} is a wrist injury t
hat involves comression of the Ulnar Nerve at the wrist of hand, resenting wit
h aresthesia, ain and numbness.
1397328194858 1395802358422 Which nerve is comressed at the wrist or hand i
n Guyon Canal Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ulnar Nerve}}</div>
1397328209301 1395802358422 {{c1::Guyon Canal Syndrome}} is a wrist injury t
hat is classically seen in cyclists due to constant ressure on the wrist/hand f
rom the handlebars.
1397328233085 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Erb Palsy (Waiter's Ti)?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lesion to the <b>uer</b>&nbs;trunk at C5-C6 roots
}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i><b>ERB</b>er = Uer trunk<br /></i><div><im
g src="aste-11858404704811.jg" /></div>
1397330340192 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Erb Palsy in <b
>infants</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral traction on the neck during del
ivery}}</div>
1397330363923 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Erb Palsy in <b
>adults</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trauma}}</div>
1397330380176 1395802358422 {{c1::Erb Palsy}} is a Brachial Plexus lesion th
at involves lesion to the <b>uer trunk</b>&nbs;(C5-C6) and resents as an add
ucted, medially rotated, extended and ronated isilateral uer limb.<div><br /
></div><div><img src="aste-12141872546039.jg" /></div>
<div><br /></div
><i>Due to deficit of the deltoid, surasinatus, infrasinatus and bices brach
ii.</i><br /><div><img src="aste-11854109737515.jg" /></div>
1397330522125 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Klumke's Palsy?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Lesion of the <b>lower trunk</b>&nbs;(C8-T1 roots)}}</div>
1397330681779 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Klumke's Palsy
in <b>infants</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Uward force on the arm during de
livery}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-11854109737515.jg" /></div>
1397330708506 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Klumke Palsy i
n adults?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trauma (e.g. grabbing a tree branch while f
alling down a tree)}}</div>
></div>
1397330757872 1395802358422 {{c1::Klumke Palsy}} is a brachial lexus lesio
n that is due to lesion of the <b>lower trunk</b>&nbs;at C8-T1 roots and involv
es a <b>total claw hand</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-13052405612715
.jg" /></div> <br /><div><img src="aste-11854109737515.jg" /></div>
1397331125784 1395802358422 {{c1::Thoracic Outlet Syndrome}} is a brachial
lexus lesion that involves comression of the <b>lower trunk</b>&nbs;and <b>sub
clavian vessels</b>.
<br /><div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-118541097375
15.jg" /></div>
1397331202876 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Thoracic Outlet Syndrome?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Comression of the <b>lower</b>&nbs;trunk of the br
achial lexus and <b>subclavian vessels</b>}}</div>
<br /><div><br /></div><
div><img src="aste-11854109737515.jg" /></div>
1397331267972 1395802358422 Which tye of tumour is associated with Thoracic
Outlet Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pancoast tumour (at the aex of the
lung)}}</div>
1397331286413 1395802358422 {{c1::Cervical Rib}} is a congenital anatomical
anomaly that may cause Thoracic Outlet Syndrome.
1397331337403 1395802358422 {{c1::Thoracic Outlet Syndrome}} is a brachial
lexus lesion that involves the atrohy of intrinsic hand muscles along with isch
emic, ain, edema of the hand due to vascular comression.
1397331385231 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Winged Scaula?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Lesion of the Long Thoracic Nerve}}</div>
1397331400731 1395802358422 What muscle deficit is seen in Winged Scaula?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Serratus Anterior}}</div>
1397331428745 1395802358422 {{c1::Winged Scaula}} is a brachial lexus lesi
on that involves lesion to the Long Thoracic Nerve and resents with an inabilit
y to anchor the scaula to the thoracic cage due to a Serratus Anterior defect.<
div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-14242111553704.jg" /></div>
<br /><d
iv><br /></div><div><img src="aste-11854109737515.jg" /></div>
1404608091119 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the A
xillary Nerve (C5-C6)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fracture surgical neck of the
humerus; Anterior dislocation of the humerus}}</div>
ents with <b>flattened deltoid</b>, <b>loss of arm abduction at the shoulder </b
>(> 15 degrees), <b>loss of sensation over the deltoid muscle and lateral arm
</b>.</i><br /><div><img src="aste-17141214478924.jg" /></div>
1404609666551 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the M
usculocutaneous Nerve (C5-C7)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Uer trunk comressio
n}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Presents with <b>loss of forearm flexion and
suination</b>&nbs;and <b>loss of sensation over the lateral forearm</b>.</i><
br /><div><img src="aste-17136919511628.jg" /></div>
1404609714536 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the R
adial Nerve (C5-T1)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Midshaft fracture of the humerus
; Comression of the axilla (crutches; Saturday Night Palsy)}}</div>

<div><br
/></div><i>Presents with <b>wrist dro</b>, <b>decreased gri strength, loss of
sensation over osterior arm/forearm/dorsal hand.</b></i><br /><div><img src="
aste-17136919511628.jg" /></div>
1404610097409 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <b>roximal</b>
injury to the Median Nerve (C5-T1)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Suracondylar fr
acture of the humerus}}</div> <div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-1713691951
1628.jg" /></div>
1404610169014 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <b>distal</b>&n
bs;injury to the Median Nerve (C5-T1)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Caral Tunnel
Syndrome; Wrist laceration}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Presents with <b>Ae
Hand</b>&nbs;or <b>Benedict's Hand</b>.</i><div><i>Presents with <b>loss of wr
ist and lateral finger flexion, thumb oosition.</b><br /></i><div><img src="a
ste-17136919511628.jg" /></div></div>
1404610467566 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <b>roximal </b
>injury to the Ulnar Nerve (C8-T1)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fracture of the m
edial eicondyle of the humerus (i.e. "funny bone")}}</div>
<br /><div><i></
i><i></i><i>Presents with&nbs;<b>Claw Hand</b>&nbs;uon digit extension.</i></
div><div><i>Presents with&nbs;<b>radial deviation of wrist uon extension</b>.<
/i></div><div><i>Presents with <b>loss of flexion of wrist and medial fingers, a
bduction and adduction of fingers.</b></i></div><div><i>Presents with <b>loss of
sensation over the medial 1/2 of fingers including hyothenar eminence</b>.</i>
</div><div><i><div style="font-weight: bold; "><div><img src="aste-171369195116
28.jg" /></div></div></i></div>
1404611375079 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <b>distal</b>&n
bs;injury to the Ulnar Nerve (C8-T1)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fractured hook
of the hamate}}</div> <div><div><i></i><i><br class="Ale-interchange-newline
" />Presents with&nbs;<b>Claw Hand</b>&nbs;uon digit extension.</i></div><div
><i>Presents with&nbs;<b>loss of flexion of wrist and medial fingers, abduction
and adduction of fingers.</b></i></div><div><i>Presents with&nbs;<b>loss of se
nsation over the medial 1/2 of fingers including hyothenar eminence</b>.</i></d
iv><div><i><div style="font-weight: bold; "><div><img src="aste-17136919511628.
jg" /></div></div></i></div></div>
1404611388759 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the R
ecurrent Branch of the Median Nerve (C5-T1)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Suerfic
ial laceration of the alm}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Presents with <b>Ae
Hand</b></i><div><i>Presents with <b>loss of thenar muscle grous</b>&nbs;(o
osition, abduction, flexion of the thumb).</i></div><div><i>No loss of sensation
.<br /></i><div><i><div style="font-weight: bold; "><div><img src="aste-1713691
9511628.jg" /></div></div></i></div></div>
1404611452458 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Axillary Nerve?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C5-C6}}</div>
<br /><div><i>3 Musketeers (Musc
ulocutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of brachial lexus)</i></div><div><i>Assassin
ated (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 men (Median nerve = all
5 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><di
v><i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div><img src="aste-19219
978650178.jg" /></div>
1404611478769 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Musculocutaneou
s Nerve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C5-C7}}</div>
<br /><div><div><i>3 Mus
keteers (Musculocutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of brachial lexus)</i></div><di
v><i>Assassinated (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 men (Media
n nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all 5 roots)
</i></div><div><i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div><img src
="aste-19219978650178.jg" /></div></div>
1404611488223 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Radial Nerve?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::C5-T1}}</div> <br /><div><div><i>3 Musketeers (Musculo
cutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of brachial lexus)</i></div><div><i>Assassinate
d (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 men (Median nerve = all 5
roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><div><
i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div><img src="aste-19219978
650178.jg" /></div></div>
1404611497410 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Median Nerve?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::C5-T1}}</div> <br /><div><div><i>3 Musketeers (Musculo
650178.jg" /></div></div>
1404611505977 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Ulnar Nerve?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::C8-T1}}</div> <br /><div><div><i>3 Musketeers (Musculo
650178.jg" /></div></div>
1404611518719 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Recurrent branc
h of the Median Nerve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C5-T1}}</div> <br /><div><div>
<i>3 Musketeers (Musculocutaneous nerve = first 3 roots of brachial lexus)</i><
/div><div><i>Assassinated (Axillary nerve = first 2 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 me
n (Median nerve = all 5 roots)</i></div><div><i>5 rats, and (Radial nerve = all
5 roots)</i></div><div><i>2 unicorns (Ulnar nerve = last 2 roots)</i></div><div>
<img src="aste-19219978650178.jg" /></div></div>
1404614495031 1395802358422 {{c1::Clawing}} is a distortion of the hand that
is commonly seen best with <b>distal</b>&nbs;lesions of the median or ulnar ne
rves. <br /><div><i>The remaining extrinsic flexors of the digits exaggerate t
he loss of the lumbricals. Hence the <b>fingers extend at the MCP but flex at th
e DIPs and PIPs.</b></i></div><div><i>In <b>roximal lesions</b>, deficits rese
nt during voluntary flexion of the digits.</i></div>
1404614907599 1395802358422 {{c1::Claw Hand (Ulnar Claw)}} is a distortion o
f the hand due to a <b>distal ulnar nerve</b>&nbs;<b>lesion</b>&nbs;that rese
nts with a <b>loss of flexion of the medial digits and wrist</b>&nbs;<u style="
font-weight: bold; ">at rest</u>&nbs;or while <u style="font-weight: bold; ">ex
tending the fingers</u>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-21118354194697.jg
" /></div>
1404615452035 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Ulnar Claw (Claw Hand)?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Distal Ulnar Nerve lesion}}</div><div><br /></div><div
><img src="aste-21114059227401.jg" /></div>
1404615471575 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Benedict's Hand (Poe's B
lessing)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Proximal</u>&nbs;median nerve lesion}}<
/div><div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-21114059227401.jg" /></div>
1404615539717 1395802358422 {{c1::Benedict's Hand (Poe's Blessing)}} is a d
istortion of the hand that is due to <b>roximal median nerve lesion</b>&nbs;an
d resents with <b>loss of lateral digit flexion</b>&nbs;when romted to <u st
yle="font-weight: bold; ">make a fist</u>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="aste21114059227401.jg" /></div>
1404615608564 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Ae Hand (Median Claw)?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Distal</u>&nbs;median nerve lesion}}</div><div><br
/></div><div><img src="aste-21530671055107.jg" /></div>
1404616013207 1395802358422 {{c1::Ae Hand (Median Claw)}} is a distortion o
f the hand that is due to a <b>distal median nerve</b>&nbs;lesion and resents
with <b>loss of thumb oosition</b>&nbs;and <b>medial digit flexion</b>&nbs;<
u style="font-weight: bold; ">at rest</u>&nbs;or when <u style="font-weight: bo
ld; ">extending the fingers</u>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-2153067105
5107.jg" /></div>
1404616245928 1395802358422 {{c1::"OK Gesture"}} is a distortion of the hand
that is due to a <b>roximal ulnar nerve lesion</b>&nbs;and resents with <b>f
lexion of the first 3 digits only</b>&nbs;uon <u style="font-weight: bold; ">m
aking a fist</u>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-21530671055107.jg" /></d
iv>
<br /><div><i>Strong creativity with the naming here. "OK Gesture". Lol.
</i></div>
1404616520821 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in the "OK Gesture" hand dis
tortion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Proximal ulnar nerve lesion}}</div><div><br
1404616621226 1395802358422 Which <b>grou</b>&nbs;of hand muscles can beco
me atrohied in <b>median nerve lesions</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thenar}}
</div> <div><br /></div><i>Hence there will be unoosable thumb.</i><br /><div
><img src="aste-23351737188724.jg" /></div>
1404616684829 1395802358422 Which <b>grou</b>&nbs;of hand muscles can beco
me atrohied in <b>ulnar nerve lesions</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyothena
r muscles}}</div>
1404622467026 1395802358422 Which nerve innervates the Thenar muscles?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Median Nerve}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="aste597000454487.jg" /></div>
1404622498946 1395802358422 Which nerve innervates the Hyothenar muscles?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ulnar Nerve}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="as
te-601295421783.jg" /></div>
1404670901243 1395802358422 {{c1::Oonens ollicis}},&nbs;{{c2::Abductor
ollicis brevis}} and&nbs;{{c3::Flexor ollicis brevis}} are the 3 hand muscles
that make u the thenar grou.<div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-592705487210
.jg" /></div> <div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-605590388941.jg" /></div>
1404671073406 1395802358422 {{c1::Oonens digiti minimi}},&nbs;{{c2::abduc
tor digiti minimi}} and&nbs;{{c3::flexor digiti minimi brevis}} are the 3 hand
muscles that make u the hyothenar grou.<div><br /></div><div><img src="aste592705487210.jg" /></div>
<div><br /><div><img src="aste-605590388941.jg
" /></div></div>
1404671129671 1395802358422 What is the action of the <b>dorsal</b>&nbs;int
erosseous muscles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Finger abduction}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i><b>"DAB"</b>&nbs;= <b>D</b>orsals <b>AB</b>duct the fingers</i></div>
1404671175861 1395802358422 What is the action of the <b>almar</b>&nbs;int
erosseous muscles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Adduction of the fingers}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"<b>PAD</b>" = <b>P</b>almars <b>AD</b>duct the fingers.</i></div>
1404671228254 1395802358422 What is the action of the Lumbrical muscles?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Flexion of the MCP joint; Extension of the PIP and DIP j
oints}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-833223655794.jg" /></div>
1404671357521 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Obturator Nerve
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L2-L4}}</div>
1404672355915 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Femoral Nerve?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L2-L4}}</div>
1404672382737 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Common Peroneal
Nerve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L4-S2}}</div>
1404672389705 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Tibial Nerve?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::L4-S3}}</div>
1404672396153 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Suerior Glutea
l Nerve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L4-S1}}</div>
1404672402099 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Inferior Glutea
l Nerve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L5-S2}}</div>
1404672412114 1395802358422 What are the nerve roots for the Sciatic Nerve?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L4-S3}}</div>
1404672424927 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the O
bturator Nerve (L2-L4)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pelvic Surgery}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Presents with <b>loss of medial thigh sensation</b>&nbs;and <b>lo
ss of adduction</b>.</i></div>
1404672719909 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the F
emoral Nerve (L2-L4)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pelvic fracture}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Presents with <b>loss of thigh flexion and leg extension</b>.</i><
/div>
1404673296558 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the C
ommon Peroneal Nerve (L4-S2)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trauma/comression to t
he <u>lateral leg</u>; Fibular neck fracture}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Presents a
s <b>Foot Dro</b>&nbs;(inverted and lantarflexed foot at rest; loss of eversi
on and dorsiflexion; Steage gait; loss of sensation on the dorsum of the foot)
.</i></div>
1404673420680 1395802358422 {{c1::Foot Dro}} is a leg injury that results d
ue to injury to the <b>common eroneal nerve</b>&nbs;and resents with <b>inver
sion/lantarflexion of the foot at rest</b>&nbs;and a <b>loss of eversion and d
orsiflexion</b>.
1404673605898 1395802358422 Which nerve injury causes <b>Foot Dro</b>?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Common eroneal nerve}}</div>
1404673624105 1395802358422 {{c1::Foot Dro}} is a leg injury due to injury
to the <b>common eroneal nerve</b>&nbs;and resents with a <b>"steage gait."
</b>
1404673661071 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <b>roximal</b>
injury to the Tibial Nerve (L4-S3)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Knee trauma; Bak
er cyst}}</div> <br /><div><i>Presents with <b>loss of ability to curl toes</b>&
nbs;and <b>loss of sensation on the sole of the foot</b>.</i></div><div><i>Prox
imal lesion resents with <b>foot eversion at rest</b>&nbs;with <b>loss of inve
rsion and lantarflexion</b>.</i></div>
1404673709617 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <b>distal</b> i
njury to the Tibial Nerve (S4-L3)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tarsal tunnel synd
rome}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Presents with&nbs;<b>loss of ability to curl toes
</b>&nbs;and&nbs;<b>loss of sensation on the sole of the foot</b>.</i></div>
1404673804292 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the S
uerior Gluteal Nerve (L4-S1)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior hi dislocat
ion; Polio}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Presents with <b>Trendelenburg Sign/Gait</
b>&nbs;(elvis tilts because the weight-bearing leg cannot maintain alignment o
f the elvis through hi abduction.</i></div><div><i>The lesion is <b>contralate
ral to the side of the hi that dros</b>&nbs;and <b>isilateral to the side of
the weight bearing limb</b>.</i></div>
1404673946434 1395802358422 Which gluteal muscles are innervated by the Sue
rior Gluteal Nerve (L4-S1)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gluteus medius; Gluteus m
inimus}}</div>
1404674435457 1395802358422 Which nerve injury can cause Trendelenburg Sign/
Gait?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Suerior Gluteal Nerve}}</div> <br /><div><div>
<i>Presents with&nbs;<b>Trendelenburg Sign/Gait</b>&nbs;(elvis tilts because
the weight-bearing leg cannot maintain alignment of the elvis through hi abduc
tion.</i></div><div><i>The lesion is&nbs;<b>contralateral to the side of the hi
that dros</b>&nbs;and&nbs;<b>isilateral to the side of the weight bearing
limb</b>.</i></div></div>
1404674460830 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of injury to the I
nferior Gluteal Nerve (L5-S2)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior hi dislocat
ion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Presents with <b>difficulty climbing stairs</b>&nb
s;and <b>rising from a seated osition</b>&nbs;due to a <b>loss of hi extensi
on</b>.</i></div>
1404674833365 1395802358422 Which gluteal muscles are innervated by the <b>I
nferior</b>&nbs;Gluteal Nerve (L5-S2)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gluteus maxim
us}}</div>
1404674891756 1395802358422 Which nerve of the leg mediates <b>eversion</b>&
nbs;and <b>dorsiflexion</b>&nbs;of the foot?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Common
eroneal nerve (L4-S2)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-3560527888510.jg" />
</div>
1404674952723 1395802358422 Which nerve of the leg <b>inverts</b>&nbs;and <
b>lantarflexes</b>&nbs;the foot?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tibial nerve}}</di
v>
1404674973741 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Long Thoraci
c Nerve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral Thoracic Artery}}</div>
1404675302359 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Axillary ner
ve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Circumflex Artery}}</div>
1404675347363 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Radial nerve
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dee Brachial Artery}}</div>
1404675358136 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Median Nerve
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Brachial artery}}</div>

1404675372598 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Tibial Nerve
<b>at the oliteal fossa</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Politeal artery}}</d
iv>
1404675387127 1395802358422 Which artery is associated with the Tibial Nerve
<b>osterior to the medial malleolus</b>?<div><br />{{c1::Posterior Tibial Arte
ry}}</div>
1404676055360 1395802358422 The {{c1::dihydroyridine recetor}} is a voltag
e-gated recetor that is mechanically couled to the ryanodine recetor on the s
arcolasmic reticulum of muscle.
<br /><div><i>Deolarization of the Dihy
droyridine Recetor induces a conformational change in the Ryanodine Recetor a
nd subsequent Ca<su>2+</su>&nbs;release from the sarcolasmic reticulum.</i><
1404676262836 1395802358422 Which recetor on the cell membrane of muscle ce
lls is mechanically couled to the Ryanodine Recetor on the sarcolasmic reticu
lum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dihydroyridine Recetor}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Deolarization of the Dihydroyridine Recetor induces a conformational ch
ange in the Ryanodine Recetor and subsequent release of Ca<su>2+</su>&nbs;fr
om the sarcolasmic reticulum.</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-4393751544457.j
g" /></i></div>
1404676357104 1395802358422 {{c1::Troonin C}} is a rotein in muscle that b
inds to Ca<su>2+</su>&nbs;and causes a conformational change that moves troo
myosin out of the myosin-binding site on actin filaments.
1404676820705 1395802358422 How does the length of the H and I bands of the
sarcomere change in muscle contraction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both <u>decre
ase</u>}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-4393751544457.jg" /></div>
1404676900232 1395802358422 How does the length of the A band of the sarcome
re change in muscle contraction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"<b>A</b>-band is <b>A</b>lways the same length."</i></div><div><i
><img src="aste-4393751544457.jg" /></i></div>
1404676932303 1395802358422 Which tye of muscle fibers are referred to as <
b>slow</b>&nbs;twitch fibers?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye 1}}</div>
1404677844113 1395802358422 Which tye of muscle fibers are referred to as <
b>fast </b>twitch fibers?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye 2}}</div>
1404677865821 1395802358422 Which tye of muscle fibers are <b>red </b>fiber
s due to an <b>increased mitochondria</b>&nbs;and <b>myoglobin concentration</b
>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye 1}}</div>
1404678139240 1395802358422 {{c1::Tye 1 muscle fibers}} are a tye of muscl
e fiber that erform <b>sustained contraction</b>&nbs;due to an <b>increased co
ncentration of mitochondria and myoglobin</b>&nbs;(i.e. increased oxidative ho
shorylation caacity). <br /><div><i>Hence these fibers are "red" fibers.</i></
div>
1404678196261 1395802358422 Which tye of muscle fiber is referred to as <b>
white</b>&nbs;fibers due to their decreased mitochondria and myoglobin concentr
ation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye 2}}</div>
1404678228499 1395802358422 {{c1::Tye 2 muscle fibers}} are a tye of muscl
e fiber that are <b>white</b>&nbs;as there is a <b>decreased concentration of m
itochondria </b>and <b>myoglobin concentration</b>&nbs;(i.e. increased anaerobi
c glycosis).
1404678287456 1395802358422 Which tye of muscle fibers tyically yield hye
rtrohy as a result of weight training?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye 2, fasttwitch, white muscle fibers}}</div>
1404678329753 1395802358422 Which tye of Ca<su>2+</su>&nbs;channels on s
mooth muscle govern smooth muscle contraction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<u>L-t
ye</u>&nbs;voltage-gated Ca<su>2+</su>&nbs;channels}}</div>
<br /><d
1404678963543 1395802358422 Which rotein in smooth muscle binds to Ca<su>2
+</su>&nbs;in order to activate Myosin Light-chain Kinase (MLCK)?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Calmodulin}}</div>
.jg" /></div>
1404679015149 1395802358422 Which enzyme in smooth muscle functions to hos

horylate myosin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myosin Light-chain kinase (MLCK)}}</
div>
1404679044249 1395802358422 How does an increase in Ca<su>2+</su>&nbs;lev
el influence smooth muscle contraction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</d
iv>
1404679687526 1395802358422 Which enzyme in smooth muscle cells does Nitric
Oxide activated to trigger muscle relaxation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Guanyla
te cyclase}}</div>
1404679691862 1395802358422 Which enzyme in smooth muscle cells functions to
<b>dehoshorylate</b>&nbs;myosin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myosin Light-cha
in Phoshatase (MLCP)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-5854040425185.jg" />
</div>
1404679732651 1395802358422 Which secondary messenger in smooth muscle cells
functions to activate Myosin Light-chain Phoshatase (MLCP)?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::cGMP (via NO activating Guanylate Cyclase)}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-5854040425185.jg" /></div>
1404679773180 1395802358422 How does Nitric Oxide influence smooth muscle re
laxation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><img src="as
te-5854040425185.jg" /></div>
1404679791660 1395802358422 Which mechanism of bone formation is associated
with bones of the axial and aendicular skeleton?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::En
dochondral ossification}}</div>
with&nbs;the base of the skull?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Endochondral ossific
ation}}</div>
with&nbs;bones of the calvarium?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Membranous ossifica
tion}}</div>
with&nbs;facial bones?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Membranous ossification}}</di
v>
with&nbs;a cartilaginous model of bone first made by chondrocytes?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Endochondral ossification}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The cartil
aginous model of bone is first made by chondrocytes.</i></div><div><i>Osteoclast
s and osteoblasts then later relace it with woven bone and then remodel it to l
amellar bone.</i></div>
with&nbs;the relacement of cartilaginous bone with woven bone by osteoclasts a
nd osteoblasts?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Endochondral ossification}}</div>
<br /><div><div><i>The cartilaginous model of bone is first made by chondrocytes
.</i></div><div><i>Osteoclasts and osteoblasts then later relace it with woven
bone and then remodel it to lamellar bone.</i></div></div>
with <b>direct formation</b>&nbs;of woven bone without cartilage?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Membranous ossification}}</div> <br /><div><i>Woven bone is form
ed directly without cartilage and is later remodeled to lamellar bone.</i></div>
1404681541884 1395802358422 Which bone cells function to build bone by secre
ting collagen and catalyzing mineralization?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Osteobla
sts}}</div>
1404681690759 1395802358422 Which bone cells differentiate from the <b>mesen
chymal stem cell oulation</b>&nbs;in the eriosteum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Osteo<u>b</u>lasts}}</div>
1404681732635 1395802358422 Which bone cells are multinucleated cells that f
unction to <b>dissolve bone</b>&nbs;by secreting acid and collagenases?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Osteoclasts}}</div>
1404681760694 1395802358422 Which bone cells differentiate from monocytes an
d macrohages?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Osteoclasts}}</div> <br /><div><i>Th
is is very imortant to remember when it comes to the treatment of Osteoetrosis
(bone marrow translantation, as osteoclasts form from monocytes).</i></div>

1404681863809 1395802358422 {{c1::Parathyroid Hormone}} is a hormone that ca
uses <b>anabolic</b>&nbs;effects at the bone via osteoblasts and osteoclasts wh
en it is resent in <u style="font-weight: bold; ">low, intermittent levels</u>.
<br /><div><i>It builds bone directly via osteoblasts and indirectly via osteocl
asts.</i></div>
1404681945984 1395802358422 {{c1::Parathyroid Hormone}} is a hormone from th
e arathyroid that causes <b>catabolic effects</b>&nbs;when it is found in <u s
tyle="font-weight: bold; ">chronic, high levels</u>.
1404682004948 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteitis Fibrosa Cystica}} is a skeletal c
omlication of chronic high PTH levels that results from the catabolic effects t
he hormone yields.
1404682971482 1395802358422 How does Estrogen influence aotosis in Osteobl
asts?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence, Est
rogen favours bone formation.</i></div>
1404682997924 1395802358422 How does Estrogen influence aotosis in Osteocl
asts?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence, Est
rogen inhibits bone resortion.</i></div><div><i>Hence, in estrogen deficiency (
surgical or menoausal), excess remodelling cycles carried out by Osteoclasts le
ads to osteoorosis.</i></div>
1395771507741 1390229673821 In which week of gestation do the neuroores nor
mally fuse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4th}}</div>
1395772170509 1390229673821 Which vitamin/mineral is associated with Neural
Tube Defects?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Folic Acid (Vitamin B9/M)}}</div>
1395772254745 1390229673821 Low intake of the vitamin {{c1::Folic Acid (Vita
min B9/M)}} before concetion and during regnancy is associated with neural tub
e defects.
1395772321641 1390229673821 Which serum rotein marker is associated with Ne
ural Tube Defects?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alha-fetorotein (AFP)}}</div>
1395772350314 1390229673821 Which amniotic fluid rotein marker is associate
d with Neural Tube Defects?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alha-fetorotein (AFP)}}
</div>
1395772378187 1390229673821 Which enzyme in the amniotic fluid is a helful
confirmatory test in the diagnosis of Neural Tube Defects if it is elevated?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Elevated Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Fetal AChE in the CSF transudates across/through the neural tube defect in
to the amniotic fluid.</i></div>
1395772565076 1390229673821 {{c1::Sina Bifida Occulta}} is a Neural Tube De
fect that results from a failure of the bony sinal canal to close, but does not
involve a structural herniation.
<br /><div><i>Seen at lower vertebral le
vels with tuft of hair or dimle of skin.</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div>
1395773085765 1390229673821 {{c1::Sina Bifida Occulta}} is a Neural Tube De
fect that is associated with a tuft of hair or dimle of the skin at the level o
f the defect. <br /><div><img src="aste-32087700668841.jg" /></div>
1395773113205 1390229673821 {{c1::Meningocele}} is a Neural Tube Defect that
involves normal AFP levels and herniation of the <b>meninges only</b>&nbs;thro
ugh the defect. <br /><div><img src="aste-32083405701545.jg" /></div>
1395773183831 1390229673821 {{c1::Meningomyelocele}} is a Neural Tube Defect
that involves hernation of <b>meninges and sinal cord</b>&nbs;through the def
ect.
1395773206448 1390229673821 {{c1::Anencehaly}} is a congenital CNS malforma
tion that involves malformation of the anterior neural tube, resulting in no for
ebrain and an oen calvarium. <br /><div><i>Note the "frog-like aearance".</
i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i><img src="aste-3242700308680.jg" /></i
></div>
1395773632547 1390229673821 How does the level of Alha-Fetorotein change i
n Anencehaly?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1395773686471 1390229673821 {{c1::Polyhydramnios}} is a feature of Anenceha
ly that results from a lack of the swallowing center in the brain, thereby resul
ting in an increased volume of amniotic fluid.

1395773765653 1390229673821 Which maternal endocrine disorder is associated
with Anencehaly?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T1DM}}</div>
1395773794951 1390229673821 {{c1::Holorosencehaly}} is a congenital CNS ma
lformation that involves failure of the left and right hemisheres to searate.
<br><div><img src="aste-3539053052624.jg" /></div>
1395773879202 1390229673821 In which weeks of gestation do the left and righ
t hemisheres fail to searate, thereby causing Holorosencehaly?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::5-6}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Etiology is multifactorial; may be
related to sonic hedgehog signaling athway.</i></div>
1395773986971 1390229673821 {{c1::Cycloia}} is a characteristic of severe H
olorosencehaly and involves a single, midline eye due to failure of the rosen
cehalon to divide.<div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-3740916515199.jg" /></
div>
1395774086394 1390229673821 {{c1::Arnold-Chiari (Chiari II) Malformation}} i
s a congenital CNS malformation that involves significant herniation of the cere
bellar tonsils and vermis through the foramen magnum.
1395774192578 1390229673821 {{c1::Hydrocehalus (via Cerebral Aqueductal Ste
nosis)}} is a comlication of Arnold-Chiari (Chiari II) Malformation due to com
ression of the cerebral aqueduct as a result of the cerebellar herniation.
1395774272454 1390229673821 {{c1::Lumbosacral Myeomeningocele}} is a tye of
Myelomeningocele that often resents alongside Arnold-Chiari (Chiari II) Malfor
mations.
<br /><div><i>There is also often <b>aralysis</b>&nbs;below th
e defect.</i></div>
1395774317566 1390229673821 {{c1::Dandy-Walker Malformation}} is a congenita
l CNS malformation that involves agenesis of the cerebellar vermis with a cystic
enlargement of the 4th ventricle.
<br /><div><i>Associated with hydroceha
lus and sina bifida.</i></div>
1395774447103 1390229673821 Which Neural Tube Defect is associated with Arno
ld-Chiari (Chiari II) Malformations?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lumbosacral Meni
ngomyelocele}}</div>
1395774478476 1390229673821 Which Neural Tube Defect is associated with Dand
y-Walker Malformations?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sina Bifida}}</div>
1395774511584 1390229673821 {{c1::Syringomyelia}} is a congenital CNS malfor
mation that involves cystic cavitation of the sinal cord.
<div><br /></div
><div><i>Syrinx = tube/cystic cavity</i></div><br /><div><img src="aste-3231962
8902866.jg" /></div>
1395775441722 1390229673821 {{c1::Hydromyelia}} is a secific tye of Syring
omyelia that involves cystic cavitation of the central canal.
1395775513974 1390229673821 {{c1::Syringomyelia}} is a congenital sinal cor
d malformation that results in a <b>bilateral "cae-like"</b>&nbs;loss of ain
and temerature sensation from the uer extremities. <br /><div><i>Touch is
reserved as the dorsal column is tyically unnaffected.</i></div><div><i><br /><
/i></div><div><i><img src="aste-32315333935570.jg" /></i></div>
1395775599511 1390229673821 Which vertebral levels are the most common locat
ion of Syringomyelia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C8-T1}}</div>
1395775620034 1390229673821 Which Chiari malformation is associated with Syr
ingomyelia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chiari I (Tye I)}}</div>
<br /><d
1395775655239 1390229673821 What sinal cord malformation is associated with
Chiari I (Tye I) malformations?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Syringomyelia}}</di
v>
1395775679351 1390229673821 {{c1::Chiari I}} is a congenital CNS malformatio
n that involves a > 3-5 mm cerebellar tonsillar ectoia and is usually asymt
omatic. <br /><div><img src="aste-4367981740214.jg" /></div>
1395775781031 1390229673821 Which tye of Chiari malformation is usually asy
mtomatic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye I}}</div>
1395775819639 1390229673821 Which Doamine recetor is involved in the direc
t athway of the Basal Ganglia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D1}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>"<b>D1</b>rect"</i></div>
1395776362419 1390229673821 The&nbs;{{c1::Basal Ganglia}} is a dee structu

re of the brain that involves a grou of nuclei that collectively govern volunta
ry movement and ostural adjustments. <br /><div><i>It received cortical inut
and rovides negative feedback to the motor cortex to modulate movement.</i></d
iv><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i><img src="aste-48760763712284.jg" /></i></d
iv>
1395776440373 1390229673821 What is the only excitatory nucleus of the Basal
Ganglia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Subthalamic Nucleus (STN)}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>The rest are all inhibitory.</i></div>
1395776597738 1390229673821 The&nbs;{{c1::direct}} athway of the Basal Ban
glia <b>disinhibits</b>&nbs;the Thalamus, thereby resulting in cortical activat
ion and movement.
<br /><div><i>"<b>DI</b>rect <b>DI</b>sinhibits the Thal
amus causing <b>activation</b>&nbs;of movement"</i></div><div><i><br /></i></di
v><div><i><img src="aste-5729486373230.jg" /></i></div>
1395776653470 1390229673821 The&nbs;{{c1::indirect}} athway of the Basal G
anglia <b>inhibits</b>&nbs;the Thalamus, thereby resulting in no cortical activ
ation and a lack of movement. <br /><div><i>"<b>IN</b>direct <b>IN</b>hibits t
he Thalamus causing <b>inhibition</b>&nbs;of movement"</i></div><div><i><br /><
/i></div><div><i><img src="aste-48760763712284.jg" /></i></div>
1395776806143 1390229673821 What Doamine recetor is involved with the Indi
rect Pathway of the Basal Ganglia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D2}}</div>
1395776941011 1390229673821 The SNc of the Basal Ganglia <b>inhibits</b>&nbs
;the&nbs;{{c1::indirect}} athway of the Basal Ganglia via&nbs;{{c2::D2}} rec
etors, thereby leading to the initiation of the movement.
<br /><div><i>"S
Nc <b>IN</b>hibits the <b>IN</b>direct athway"</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div
1395777039552 1390229673821 The SNc of the Basal Ganglia&nbs;<b>activates</
b>&nbs;the&nbs;{{c1::direct}} athway of the Basal Ganglia via&nbs;{{c2::D1}}
recetors, thereby leading to the initiation of the movement. <br /><div><i>"S
Nc <b>activates</b>&nbs;the <b>D1</b>rect athway"</i></div><div><i><br /></i><
1395777128397 1390229673821 <u>The Direct Basal Ganglia Pathway</u><div><u><
br /></u></div><div>Motor Cortex -->&nbs;{{c1::Striatum}} -->&nbs;{{c2::
GPi}} -->&nbs;{{c3::Thalamus}} --> Motor Cortex</div>
<br /><div><i>"T
he Globus Pallidus <u style="font-weight: bold; ">IN</u>ternus is always <u styl
e="font-weight: bold; ">IN</u>cluded in Basal Ganglia athways."</i></div><div><
i><br /></i></div><div><i><img src="aste-48765058679580.jg" /></i></div>
1395777310186 1390229673821 <u>The Indirect Basal Ganglia Pathway</u><div><u
><br /></u></div><div>Motor Cortex -->&nbs;{{c1::Striatum}} -->&nbs;{{c2
::GPe}} -->&nbs;{{c3::STN}} -->&nbs;{{c4::GPi}} -->&nbs;{{c5::Thalam
us}} --> Motor Cortex</div> <div><br /></div><div><i>"The Globus Pallidus <u
style="font-weight: bold; ">IN</u>ternus is always <u style="font-weight: bold;
">IN</u>cluded in Basal Ganglia athways."</i></div><div><i>"<b>I</b>&nbs;(GPi
) before <b>E</b>&nbs;(GPe), excet after <b>C</b>&nbs;(cortex)"</i></div><br
/><div><img src="aste-48760763712284.jg" /></div>
1395777819017 1390229673821 {{c1::Parkinson's Disease}} is a movement disord
er that involves degeneration of doaminergic neurons of the SNc of the Basal Ga
nglia, thereby resulting in decreased movement.
1395778019298 1390229673821 {{c1::Lewy Bodies}} are intracellular inclusions
seen in Parkinson's Disease and are comosed of alha-synuclein.<div><br /></di
v><div><img src="aste-8177617731835.jg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>(The small
er, dark urle inclusions)</i></div>
1395778199299 1390229673821 What rotein is found in the Lewy Bodies of Park
insons and Lewy Body Dementia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alha-synuclein}}</div
>
1395778271752 1390229673821 {{c1::Parkinson's Disease}} is a movement disord
er of the Basal Ganglia that resents with a <b>resting tremor</b>, <b>cogwheel
rigidity</b>, akinesia/bradykinesia, ostural instability and a <b>shuffling gai
t</b>.
1395778333705 1390229673821 {{c1::MPTP}} is a contaminant in illicit IV drug
s and is a rare cause of Parkinson's Disease.

1395778428732 1390229673821 {{c1::Huntington's Disease}} is a movement disor
der of the Basal Ganglia that is characterized by bilateral degeneration of the
Caudate Nucleus, esecially its cholinergic and GABAergic neurons.
<br /><d
1395778551807 1390229673821 What is the genetic inheritance of Huntington's
Disease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1395778569980 1390229673821 {{c1::Huntington's Disease}} is an&nbs;<u>autos
omal dominant</u>&nbs;movement disorder of the Basal Ganglia that involves <b>c
horeiform movements</b>, aggression, deression and dementia. <br /><div><i>Pr
esentation tyically begins at 20-30 y/o and rogresses from frontal lobe behavi
our roblems to chorea to dementia and eventually death in 5-10 years from Dx.</
i></div>
1395778613975 1390229673821 How do CNS levels of GABA change in Huntington's
Disease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1395778635218 1390229673821 How do CNS levels of ACh change in Huntington's
Disease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1395778651313 1390229673821 {{c1::Huntington's Disease}} is an&nbs;<u>autos
omal dominant</u>&nbs;movement disorder that involves neurodegeneration via NMD
A Recetor Glutamate toxicity. <br /><div><br /></div>
1395778771287 1390229673821 Which nuclei of the Basal Ganglia are atrohied
in Huntington's Disease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Caudate Nucleus, esecially
the head}}</div>
1395778961004 1390229673821 Which trinucleotide reeat is associated with Hu
ntington's Disease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CAG}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Au
tosomal dominant with anticiation.</i></div>
1395779153784 1390229673821 {{c1::Hemiballismus}} is a movement disorder tha
t involves sudden, <b>wild flailing</b>&nbs;of <u>1 arm and otentially the is
ilateral leg</u>.
<br /><div><i>i.e. half of the body is ballistic</i></di
v>
1395779374113 1390229673821 What nucleus is characteristically lesioned in H
emiballismus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The <u style="font-weight: bold; ">cont
ralateral</u>&nbs;Subthalamic Nucleus (STN)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hemiballis
mus is a contralateral lesion and tyically resents unilaterally. Often due to
a lacunar stroke.</i></div>
1395779539462 1390229673821 What is the most common cause of Hemiballismus?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lacunar Stroke at the Subthalamic Nucleus}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, it will cause <b>contralateral</b>&nbs;deficits.</i></d
iv>
1395779619390 1390229673821 {{c1::Chorea}} is a movement disorder that invol
ves sudden, <b>jerky</b>, <b>uroseless</b>&nbs;movements.
1395779719497 1390229673821 {{c1::Athetosis}} is a movement disorder that in
volves slow, <b>writhing "snake-like" </b>movements, esecially in the fingers.
1395779746345 1390229673821 {{c1::Myoclonus}} is a movement disorder that in
volves sudden, <b>brief, uncontrolled muscle contractions</b>&nbs;such as in je
rks and hiccus.
<br /><div><i>Also common in metabolic abnormalities suc
h as renal and liver failure.</i></div>
1395779886566 1390229673821 {{c1::Dystonia}} is a movement disorder that inv
olves <b>sustained, involuntary</b>&nbs;muscle contraction.
1395779914792 1390229673821 {{c1::Bleharosasm}} is a tye of Dystonia desc
ribed as a sustained eyelid twitch.
1395779952957 1390229673821 {{c1::Essential/Postural Tremor}} is a tye of t
remor that is described as an action tremor and is exacerbated by holding ostur
e/limb osition.
<br /><div><i>Has a genetic redisosition.</i></div>
1395780228727 1390229673821 What do atients often use to self-medicate with
to treat their Essential Tremor?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alcohol as it decre
ases tremor amlitude}}</div>
1395780284575 1390229673821 {{c1::Beta-blockers}} are a <b>tye</b>&nbs;of
drug (other than Primidone) that can be given to treat Essential Tremors.
1395780476746 1390229673821 {{c1::Primidone}} is a Barbiturate that can be g
iven to treat Essential Tremors.

1395780490634 1390229673821 {{c1::Resting Tremor}} is a tye of tremor that
involves uncontrolled movement of the distal aendages at rest and is most noti
ceable in the hands.
1395780554690 1390229673821 {{c1::Resting Tremor}} is a tye of tremor that
is alleviated by initiating <b>intentional</b>&nbs;movement.
1395780571397 1390229673821 What tye of tremor is commonly seen in Parkinso
n's Disease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Resting Tremor (secifically, a ill-rol
ling tremor at the hands)}}</div>
1395780608517 1390229673821 {{c1::Intention Tremor}} is a tye of tremor tha
t involves slow, zigzag motion when ointing or extending towards a target.
1395780642036 1390229673821 {{c1::Intention Tremor}} is a tye of tremor tha
t is due to cerebellar dysfunction.
1395780666981 1390229673821 {{c1::Central Pontine Myelinolysis}} is an osmot
ic demyelination syndrome that can cause Locked-In Syndrome.
<br /><div><img
src="aste-12627203850381.jg" /></div>
ic demyelination syndrome that involves massive axonal demyelination in ontine
white matter tracts.<div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-12631498817677.jg" />
</div>
ic demyelination syndrome that is commonly iatrogenic, tyically caused by <b>ov
erly raid correction of hyonatremia</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="aste12627203850381.jg" /></div>
1395781992263 1390229673821 What is the most common <b>iatrogenic</b>&nbs;c
ause of Central Pontine Myelinolysis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Overly raid co
rrection of Hyonatremia}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"Bring serum Na too fast f
rom low to high and your ons will die."</i></div>
1395783524556 1390229673821 The&nbs;{{c1::Circle of Willis}} is a system of
vascular anastomoses between the anterior and osterior blood sulies to the b
rain. <br /><div><img src="aste-2637109920499.jg" /></div>
1395783689422 1390229673821 Which cerebral artery sulies the anteromedial
surface of the brain?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Cerebral Artery}}</div
>
1395783719922 1390229673821 Which cerebral artery sulies the lateral surfa
ce of the brain?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Middle Cerebral Artery (MCA)}}</div>
1395783738861 1390229673821 Which cerebral artery sulies the osterior and
inferior surfaces of the brain?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Cerebral A
rtery}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-2757369004531.jg" /></div>
1395783763903 1390229673821 An occlusion of the&nbs;{{c1::Middle Cerebral}}
Artery will result in contralateral sensory/motor deficits to the <b>uer limb
and face</b>. <br /><div><img src="aste-2637109920499.jg" /></div>
1395784056169 1390229673821 Which cerebral hemishere is most commonly assoc
iated with ahasia following a stroke of the Middle Cerebral Artery?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Left hemishere (commonly the dominant hemishere)}}</div>
1395784206001 1390229673821 Which cerebral hemishere is most commonly assoc
iated with hemineglect following a stroke of the Middle Cerebral Artery?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Right (commonly the non-dominant side)}}</div>
1395784225701 1390229673821 Occlusion of the&nbs;{{c1::Anterior Cerebral}}
Artery will result in contralateral sensory/motor deficits to the <b>lower limbs
</b>. <br /><div><img src="aste-2637109920499.jg" /></div>
1395784455868 1390229673821 How does an occlusion of the Lenticulostriate Ar
tery resent?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Contralateral hemiaresis/hemilegia}}<
1395784530993 1390229673821 The&nbs;{{c1::Lenticulostriate}} Artery is an a
rtery of the anterior CNS circulation that is a common location of lacunar infar
cts, esecially in unmanaged hyertension.
09920499.jg" /></div>
1395784595461 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery will cause Medial M
edullary Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Sinal Artery}}</div>

<div><br /></div><div><i>Secifically the aramedian branches of the ASA (or eve
n Vertebral Artery).</i></div><br /><div><img src="aste-2637109920499.jg" /></
div>
1395785011167 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery causes Lateral Medu
llary (Wallenberg's) Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Inferior Cer
ebellar Artery (PICA)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-2637109920499.jg" />
</div>
1395785069629 1390229673821 {{c1::Lateral Medullary Syndrome}} is a stroke s
yndrome caused by occlusion to the Posterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery (PICA) a
nd is also referred to as Wallenberg's Syndrome.
1395785092954 1390229673821 {{c1::Medial Medullary Syndrome}} is a stroke sy
ndrome that is caused by an occlusion to the Anterior Sinal Artery (ASA).
1395785142153 1390229673821 Which CNS artery is associated with Nucleus Ambi
guus defects following a stroke?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Inferior Cer
ebellar Artery (PICA)}}</div>
1395785977234 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery causes Lateral Pont
ine Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery (AI
CA)}}</div>
1395786002276 1390229673821 {{c1::Lateral Pontine Syndrome}} is a stroke syn
drome that occurs due to occlusion of the Anterior Inferior Cerebellar Artery.
1395786119211 1390229673821 {{c1::Lateral Pontine Syndrome}} is a stroke syn
drome that resents similar to Wallenberg's Syndrome but <b>lacks hoarseness, dy
shagia and taste deficits</b>.
1395786187939 1390229673821 Which stroke syndrome is associated with <b>ara
lysis</b>&nbs;of the face?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral Pontine Syndrome}
}</div> <br /><div><i>"Facial droo means the AICA is ooed."</i></div>
1395786227603 1390229673821 Which stroke syndrome is associated with hoarsen
ess and dyshagia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral Medullary (Wallenberg's) S
yndrome}}</div> <br /><div><i>aka Nucleus Ambiguus deficits</i></div>
1395786319554 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery causes Suerior Alt
ernating (Weber's) Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Cerebral Arter
y}}</div>
1395786600644 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery causes Benedict's S
yndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Cerebral Artery}}</div> <br /><d
1395786654858 1390229673821 {{c1::Suerior Alternating (Weber's) Syndrome}}
is a stroke syndrome that results from an occlusion to the Posterior Cerebral Ar
tery and resents with <b>CN III alsy</b>&nbs;and <b>contralateral hemilegia<
/b>.
1395786697163 1390229673821 {{c1::Benedict's Syndrome}} is a stroke syndrome
that resents similarly to Suerior Alternating (Weber's) Syndrome, excet it i
ncludes ataxia.
1395786775134 1390229673821 An occlusion to which artery will cause "LockedIn" Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Basilar Artery}}</div> <div><i><br /></
i></div>
1395787174337 1390229673821 {{c1::Locked-In Syndrome}} is a stroke syndrome
due to occlusion of the Basilar Artery and involves <b>quadrilegia</b>&nbs;wit
h <b>reserved consciousness/blinking</b>&nbs;and a loss of voluntary facial, m
outh and tongue movements.
<br /><div><i>This was also a retty cool House
eisode with Mos Def...</i></div>
1395787180165 1390229673821 What is the most common site of a Berry (Saccula
r) Aneurysm?<div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-3667902071128.jg" /><br /><di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Communicating Artery}}</div></div>
<br /><d
1395787245574 1390229673821 What is the 2nd most common site of Berry (Saccu
lar) Aneurysm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Communicating Artery}}</div>
1395787288466 1390229673821 {{c1::CN III Palsy}} is a common cranial nerve
alsy involved with strokes that resents with <b>"down and out" eyes</b>&nbs;wi
th tosis and mydriasis.<div><br /><div><img src="aste-18769007083916.jg" /></

div></div>
1395787523740 1390229673821 {{c1::Bitemoral Hemianoia}} is a ossible com
lication of Berry Aneurysm due to comression of the Otic Chiasm.
1395787615018 1390229673821 Which genetic renal disorder is associated with
Berry Aneurysms?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney
Disease (ADPKD)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence <u>always</u>&nbs;get a cra
nial angiogram/CT/MRI of a atient with ADPKD.</i></div>
1395787667212 1390229673821 {{c1::Berry Aneurysm}} is a tye of cerebral ane
urysm that is associated with connective tissue disorders such as Ehlers-Danlos
Syndrome and Marfan's Syndrome. <br /><div><img src="aste-3663607103832.jg" />
</div>
1395787712622 1390229673821 Which race has an increased risk of develoing a
Berry Aneurysm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blacks}}</div>
1395787909353 1390229673821 {{c1::Charcot-Bouchard Microaneurysm}} is a tye
of CNS aneurysm that is associated with chronic hyertension and commonly affec
ts the small vessels of the dee brain (i.e. at the basal ganglia, thalamus).
1395787972725 1390229673821 Which tye of CNS aneurysm is commonly associate
d with chronic Hyertension?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Charcot-Bouchard microan
eurysm}}</div>
1395788000135 1390229673821 Which artery is commonly rutured in Eidural He
matoma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Middle Meningeal Artery (branch of the Maxill
ary Artery)}}</div>
1395797998860 1390229673821 Which cranial bone is most commonly fractured in
an Eidural Hematoma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Temoral Bone}}</div>
1395798040267 1390229673821 What tye of CNS herniation is seen in an Eidur
al Hematoma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Transtentorial herniation (with CN III P
alsy)}}</div>
1395798157863 1390229673821 {{c1::CN III (Oculomotor) Palsy}} is a comlicat
ion of Eidural Hematoma that will resent with <b>"down and out" eyes</b>&nbs;
and mydriasis due to comression of the Oculomotor Nerve via herniation.
1395798220380 1390229673821 What tye of intracranial hematoma resents as a
<b>biconvex</b>&nbs;(lentiform), <b>lens-shaed</b> lesion on CT?<div><br /></
div><div><img src="aste-3740916515098.jg" /><br /><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Eidural Hematoma}}</div></div>
1395798348470 1390229673821 What tye of intracranial hematoma <b>cannot</b>
&nbs;cross cranial <b>suture lines</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Eidural Hem
atoma}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-3740916515098.jg" /></div>
1395798391876 1390229673821 What tye of intracranial hematoma <b>can</b>&nb
s;cross the midline, falx and tentorium?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Eidural He
matoma}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-3745211482394.jg" /></div>
1395798482213 1390229673821 What tye of intracranial hematoma involves a <b
>lucid interval</b>&nbs;before neurological symtoms resent?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Eidural Hematoma}}</div>
.jg" /></div>
1395798509902 1390229673821 {{c1::Eidural Hematoma}} is a tye of intracran
ial hematoma that involves a collection of blood between the dura and the skull.
1395798607964 1390229673821 Which blood vessels are commonly rutured in Sub
dural Hematoma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bridging vessels between the dura and
arachnoid mater}}</div>
1395798894538 1390229673821 Which intracranial hematoma results in <b>raid
exansion</b>&nbs;of the hematoma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Eidural Hematoma
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Attributed to the fact that it is the arterial re
ssure that feeds into the hematoma out of the rutured artery.</i></div>
1395798974108 1390229673821 Which intracranial hematoma involves <b>slow ble
eding</b>&nbs;over time?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Subdural hematoma}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Attributed to the fact that it is the venous system that feeds int
o the hematoma, resulting in a slow growing hematoma.</i></div>
1395799025178 1390229673821 Which kind of intracranial hematoma is associate
d with brain atrohy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Subdural Hematoma}}</div>
1395799044939 1390229673821 Which tye of intracranial hematoma dislays a <

b>crescent</b>&nbs;shaed lesion on CT?<div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-38
35405795608.jg" /><br /><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Subdural Hematoma}}</div></
div>
1395799106587 1390229673821 Which tye of intracranial hemorrhage <b>can</b>
&nbs;cross cranial <b>suture lines</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Subdural Hem
atoma}}</div>
1395799136620 1390229673821 Which tye of intracranial hematoma <b>cannot</b
>&nbs;cross the midline, falx or tentorium?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Subdural
Hematoma}}</div>
1395799181989 1390229673821 {{c1::Subdural Hematoma}} is a tye of intracran
ial hematoma that involves collection of the blood underneath the dura over the
surface of the brain. <br /><div><img src="aste-22346714841200.jg" /></div>
1395799241563 1390229673821 {{c1::Subarachnoid hemorrhage}} is a tye of int
racranial hemorrhage that involves bleeding into the subarachnoid sace.<div><br
1395799568907 1390229673821 What is the most common cause of Subarachnoid He
morrhage?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ruture of a Berry (Saccular) aneurysm}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><i>Don't forget the association with Autosomal Dominant Polyc
ystic Kidney Disease, brah!!</i></div>
1395799621586 1390229673821 What is the 2nd most common cause of Subarachnoi
d Hemorrhage?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arteriovenous Malformations}}</div>
1395799661587 1390229673821 What tye of intracranial hemorrhage is often de
scribed as "the worst headache of my life"?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Subarachn
oid Hemorrhage}}</div>
1395800369260 1390229673821 What tye of intracranial hemorrhage is associat
ed with a bloody or <b>xanthochromatic</b>&nbs;(yellow) fluid after Lumbar Punc
ture?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Subarachnoid Hemorrhage}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>The yellow hue is due to the bilirubin breakdown that occurs in the CSF.</
i></div>
1395800469980 1390229673821 {{c1::Subarachnoid Hemorrhage}} is a tye of int
racranial hemorrhage that involves a risk of <b>vasosasm</b>&nbs;<b>2-3 days</
b>&nbs;after onset of the injury due to blood breakdown.
1395800525948 1390229673821 Which drug is commonly used to treat the vasosa
sm seen in Subarachnoid Hemorrhage 2-3 days after the injury?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Nimodiine}}</div>
<br /><div><i>A Calcium channel blocker</i></div
>
1395800810690 1390229673821 {{c1::Intracerebral/Intraarenchymal Hemorrhage}
} is a tye of intracranial hemorrhage that involves bleeding into the brain ar
enchyma.<div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-3972844749079.jg" /></div>
1395800892646 1390229673821 What is the most common cause of Intracerebral/I
ntraarenchymal Hemorrhage?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ruture of Charcot-Boucha
rd microaneurysms due to systemic hyertension}}</div>
1395800930959 1390229673821 Where are&nbs;Intracerebral/Intraarenchymal He
morrhages tyically located in the brain?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Basal Gangl
ia and Internal Casule (i.e. dee brain)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Basal gang
lia is the most common however it can be lobar.</i></div>
1395801002154 1390229673821 Which cerebral vessels are tyically affected in
&nbs;Intracerebral/Intraarenchymal Hemorrhage?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lent
iculostriate vessels (at/around the dee brain)}}</div>
1405725640979 1395802358422 Which embryological structure induces the overly
ing ectoderm to differentiate into the neuroectoderm and form the neural late?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Notochord}}</div>
835843424.jg" /></div>
1405725776381 1395802358422 What does the notochord develo into?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Nucleus ulosus of the intervertebral disc in adults}}</div>
1405725804658 1395802358422 Which embryological structure develos into the
<b>dorsal/sensory</b>&nbs;ortion of the sinal cord?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Alar Plate}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"Give <b>DAP</b>s to the sinal cord, brah
."</i></div>
<b>ventral/motor</b>&nbs;ortion of the sinal cord?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Basal late}}</div>
1405725918702 1395802358422 On which day of gestation does the neural late
form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Day 18}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-30090
540876128.jg" /></div>
1405725935400 1395802358422 Which <b>rimary</b>&nbs;CNS vesicle develos i
nto the Telencehalon and Diencehalon?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Prosencehalo
n}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Or what I like to call it: the Brosencehalon.</i>
</div><div><i><img src="aste-30305289241310.jg" /></i></div>
nto the Mesencehalon?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesencehalon}}</div> <br /><d
nto the Metencehalon and Myelencehalon?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rhombenceh
alon}}</div>
1405726091147 1395802358422 Which <b>secondary</b>&nbs;CNS vesicle develos
into the cerebral hemisheres?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Telencehalon}}</div>
into the lateral ventricles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Telencehalon}}</div>
into the thalamus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Diencehalon}}</div>
<br /><d
into the third ventricle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Diencehalon}}</div>
into the midbrain?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesencehalon}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><div><i>"<b>Mes met my</b>&nbs;brainstem"</i></div><div><i>- From rostral to
caudal, it is the Mesencehalon, Metencehalon and Myelencehalon whic develos
into the brainstem structures (midbrain, ons, medulla resectively)</i></div><
div><i><img src="aste-30300994274014.jg" /></i></div></div>
into the cerebral aqueduct?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesencehalon}}</div>
<br /><div><div><i>"<b>Mes met my</b>&nbs;brainstem"</i></div><div><i>- From ro
stral to caudal, it is the Mesencehalon, Metencehalon and Myelencehalon whic
develos into the brainstem structures (midbrain, ons, medulla resectively)</i
into the <b>ons</b>&nbs;and <b>cerebellum</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Met
encehalon}}</div>
<br /><div><div><i>"<b>Mes met my</b>&nbs;brainstem"</i
></div><div><i>- From rostral to caudal, it is the Mesencehalon, Metencehalon
and Myelencehalon whic develos into the brainstem structures (midbrain, ons,
medulla resectively)</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-30300994274014.jg" /></i
></div></div>
into the uer art of the fourth ventricle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Metence
halon}}</div> <br /><div><div><i>"<b>Mes met my</b>&nbs;brainstem"</i></div><
div><i>- From rostral to caudal, it is the Mesencehalon, Metencehalon and Myel
encehalon whic develos into the brainstem structures (midbrain, ons, medulla
resectively)</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-30300994274014.jg" /></i></div><
/div>
into the medulla?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myelencehalon}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>"<b>Mes met my</b>&nbs;brainstem"</i></div><div><i>- From rostral to caud
al, it is the Mesencehalon, Metencehalon and Myelencehalon whic develos into
the brainstem structures (midbrain, ons, medulla resectively)</i></div><div><
i><img src="aste-30300994274014.jg" /></i></div>

into the lower art of the fourth ventricle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myelenc
ehalon}}</div> <br /><div><br /></div><div><div><i>"<b>Mes met my</b>&nbs;brai
nstem"</i></div><div><i>- From rostral to caudal, it is the Mesencehalon, Meten
cehalon and Myelencehalon whic develos into the brainstem structures (midbrai
n, ons, medulla resectively)</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-30300994274014.j
g" /></i></div></div>
1405726449490 1395802358422 From which embryological tissue layer/oulation
do eendymal cells develo?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}&nbs;</d
iv>
do oligodendrocytes develo?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
do astrocytes develo?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
do Schwann cells form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neural crest}}</div>
do microglia form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
1405726596990 1395802358422 Which branchial arches develo into the <b>anter
ior 2/3</b>&nbs;of the tongue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st and 2nd}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Hence the sensation (CN V<sub>3</sub>)&nbs;and taste (CN VI
I) is in line with the associated cranial nerves.</i><br /><div><img src="aste32654636352006.jg" /></div>
1405727024434 1395802358422 Which branchial arches develo into the <b>oste
rior 1/3</b>&nbs;of the tongue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3rd and 4th}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Hence sensory (CN IX, CN X) and taste (CN IX, CN X) innervat
ion is via the associated cranial nerves.</i><br /><div><img src="aste-32650341
384710.jg" /></div>
1405727100789 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs the motor innervatio
n of the tongue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN XII}}</div>
1405727115491 1395802358422 Which embryological myotomes develos into the m
uscles of the tongue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Occiital myotomes}}</div>
1405727142116 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs the <b>sensation</b>
&nbs;of the <b>anterior 2/3</b>&nbs;of the tongue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
CN V<sub>3</sub>}}</div>
1405727162340 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs <b>taste</b>&nbs;at
the <b>anterior 2/3</b>&nbs;of the tongue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}
</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-32650341384710.jg" /></div>
1405727195901 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve <b>mainly</b> governs taste
and sensation at the <b>osterior 1/3</b>&nbs;of the tongue?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::CN IX}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-32650341384710.jg" /></div>
1405727233846 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs taste and sensation
at the <b>extreme osterior </b>of the tongue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}
</div>
1405727262948 1395802358422 Which 3 cranial nerves govern <b>taste</b>&nbs;
at the tongue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII; CN IX; CN X}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>via the <b>Solitary nucleus</b></i></div><div><i><b><img src="aste-326503
41384710.jg" /></b></i></div>
1405727292154 1395802358422 Which <b>nucleus</b>&nbs;is involved in taste
ercetion from the tongue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Solitary nucleus}}</div>
<br /><div><i>via CN VII, IX, X</i></div>
1405727311689 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves are involves with ain and
sensation from the tongue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<sub>3</sub>; CN IX; C
N X}}</div>
1405735410086 1395802358422 {{c1::Wallerian degeneration}} is a tye of axon
al degeneration that involves <b>degeneration distal to the injury</b>&nbs;and
<b>axonal retraction roximally</b>.
<br /><div><i>This allows for otential
regeneration of the PNS.</i></div>
1405737348696 1395802358422 Which rotein is used as an astrocyte marker?<di

v><br /></div><div>{{c1::GFAP}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-3640414280110
8.jg" /></div>
1405737371569 1395802358422 Which cells are the hagocytes of the CNS?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Microglia}}</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-364
64272343244.jg" /></div>
1405737384858 1395802358422 Which tye of CNS cell fuse to form multinucleat
ed giants cells in the CNS if they are HIV infected?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Microglia}}</div>
1405737430020 1395802358422 Which cells roduce myelin in the CNS?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendrocytes}}</div>
890711803.jg" /></div>
1405737627458 1395802358422 Which cells of the CNS yield a<b>&nbs;"fried eg
g"&nbs;</b>aearance on H&am;E stain?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendroc
ytes}}</div>
1405737706774 1395802358422 Which cells of the CNS are targeted in Multile
Sclerosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendrocytes}}</div>
1405737718746 1395802358422 Which cells of the CNS are targeted in leukodyst
rohies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendrocytes}}</div>
1405737733357 1395802358422 Which cells of the CNS are targeted in Progressi
ve Multifocal Leukoencehaloathy (PML)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oligodendroc
ytes}}</div>
1405737756265 1395802358422 Which cell of the PNS roduce myelin?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Schwann Cells}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-3667472574072
6.jg" /></div>
1405737816394 1395802358422 Which cells of the PNS are targeted in Gullain-B
arr Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Schwann Cells}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="aste-36670430773430.jg" /></div>
1405737841637 1395802358422 {{c1::Acoustic Neuroma}} is a tye of schwannoma
that is tyically located in the <b>internal acoustic meatus</b>, thereby affec
ting CN VIII.
1405737887058 1395802358422 {{c1::C fibers}} are a tye of free nerve ending
that is <b>slow</b>&nbs;and <b>unmyelinated</b>.
1405737971879 1395802358422 {{c1::A fibers}} are a tye of free nerve endings
that are <b>fast</b>&nbs;and <b>myelinated</b>.
1405737995347 1395802358422 What do free nerve endings sense?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Pain and temerature}}</div>
1405738018985 1395802358422 Which tye of sensory coruscle sense <b>dynamic
, fine/light touch</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Meissner coruscle}}</div>
1405738046691 1395802358422 Which tye of sensory coruscle sense <b>vibrati
on</b>&nbs;and <b>raid changes in&nbs;ressure</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Pacinian coruscle}}</div>
1405738061330 1395802358422 Which tye of sensory coruscle sense <b>ressur
e, dee static touch</b>&nbs;and <b>osition sense</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::Merkel Disc}}</div>
1405738081941 1395802358422 What tye of adatation is exhibited by Meissner
coruscles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fast}}</div>
1405738111285 1395802358422 What tye of adatation is exhibited by Pacinian
Coruscles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fast}}</div>
1405738117420 1395802358422 What tye of adatation is exhibited by Merkel D
isc?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Slow}}</div>
1405738123808 1395802358422 {{c1::Perineurium}} is a connective tissue layer
that surrounds a <b>fascicle of nerve fibers</b>.
<div><br /></div><i>Endo
, eri, ei =&nbs;</i><i>Inner, middle, outer</i><div><div><img src="aste-3757
2373905617.jg" /></div></div>
1405738214377 1395802358422 {{c1::Eineurium}} is a dense connective tissue
that surrounds entire nerves. <br /><div><i>Endo, eri, ei =&nbs;</i><i>Inne
r, middle, outer</i><div><div><img src="aste-37572373905617.jg" /></div></div>
</div>
1405738246776 1395802358422 Which connective tissue surrounding single nerve
fiber layers is the site of inflammatory infiltration in Guillain-Barr Syndrome?

<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Endoneurium}}</div> <br /><div><i>Endo, eri, ei =&
nbs;</i><i>Inner, middle, outer</i><div><div><img src="aste-37572373905617.jg
" /></div></div></div>
1405738286683 1395802358422 How do Noreinehrine levels change in anxiety?<
1405738649658 1395802358422 How do Noreinehrine levels change in deressio
n?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738655565 1395802358422 How do Doamine levels change in Huntington Dise
ase?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405738669763 1395802358422 How do Doamine levels change in Parkinson Disea
se?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738678624 1395802358422 How do Doamine levels change in deression?<div
1405738684190 1395802358422 How do 5-HT levels change in Parkinson?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::decrease}}</div>
1405738695411 1395802358422 How do 5-HT levels change in anxiety?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738700084 1395802358422 How do 5-HT levels change in deression?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738707468 1395802358422 How do ACh levels change in Parkinson?<div><br /
1405738723515 1395802358422 How do ACh levels change in Alzheimer Disease?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405738733299 1395802358422 How do ACh levels change in Huntington Disease?<
1405738740730 1395802358422 How do GABA levels change in anxiety?<div><br />
1405738752452 1395802358422 How do GABA levels change in Huntington Disease?
1405738761954 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of Norein
ehrine ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Locus ceruleus (which also governs ain)}}<
/div>
1405738956168 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of&nbs;Do
amine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ventral tegmentum; SNc}}</div>
1405738969295 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of&nbs;5HT?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rahe nuclei}}</div>
1405738979030 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of&nbs;AC
h?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Basal nucleus of Meynert}}</div>
1405738989730 1395802358422 What is the CNS location of synthesis of&nbs;GA
BA?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus accumbens}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Nu
cleus accumbens is also a <b>reward center</b>&nbs;and it governs <b>leasure,
addiction and fear</b>.</i></div>
1405739026255 1395802358422 Which 3 structures make u the blood-brain barri
er?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tight junctions between nonfenestrated caillary
endothelium; Basement membrane; Astrocyte foot rocesses}}</div>
<br /><d
1405739077438 1395802358422 {{c1::Area Postrema}} is a nucleus that is art
of the circumventricular system that governs <b>vomiting.</b>
1405739171726 1395802358422 {{c1::Organ Vasculosum of the Lamina Terminalis
(OVLT)}} is a nucleus art of the circumventricular system that <b>senses change
s in osmolarity</b>.
1405739191843 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::circumventricular system}} is a g
rou of secialized brain regions that have <b>fenestrated caillaries</b>&nbs;
and <b>no blood-brain barrier</b>, thereby allowing for molecules in the blood t
o affect brain function.
<br /><div><i>Normally there are non-fenestrated
caillaries and a blood-brain barrier.</i></div>
1405739240133 1395802358422 {{c1::Vasogenic edema}} is a tye of cerebral ed
ema that involves <b>infarction</b>&nbs;or <b>neolastic damage</b>&nbs;to the
endothelial tight junctions.
1405739502861 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the hyothalamus makes ADH?<div

><br /></div><div>{{c1::Suraotic nucleus}}</div>
1405739705032 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the hyothalamus makes Oxytocin
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Paraventricular Nucleus}}</div>
1405739723108 1395802358422 How does Letin influence the activity of the la
teral area of the hyothalamus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
1405739759666 1395802358422 How does Letin influence the activity of the Ve
ntromedial Area of the Hyothalamus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</di
v>
1405739778535 1395802358422 Which area of the hyothalamus governs <b>hunger
</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral area}}</div>
1405740013016 1395802358422 Which area of the hyothalamus governs <b>satiet
y</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ventromedial area}}</div>
1405740024639 1395802358422 Which area of the hyothalamus governs <b>coolin
g</b>&nbs;and the <b>arasymathetic</b>&nbs;system?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Anterior hyothalamus}}</div> <br /><div><i>"AC = air conditioning = <b>anteri
or, cooling</b>."</i></div>
1405740065988 1395802358422 Which area of the hyothalamus governs <b>heatin
g</b>&nbs;and the <b>symathetic </b>nervous system?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Posterior hyothalamus}}</div>
1405740080879 1395802358422 Which area of the hyothalamus governs circadian
rhythms?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Surachiasmatic Nucleus}}</div>
1405740097741 1395802358422 Lesion to which area of the hyothalamus will re
sult in <b>anorexia</b>&nbs;and <b>failure to thrive </b>(in infants)?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Lateral area}}</div>
1405740135331 1395802358422 Lesion to which area of the hyothalamus will re
sult in <b>hyerhagia</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ventromedial area}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.g. by a cranioharyngioma</i></div>
1405740155309 1395802358422 How does the amount of slee change with increas
ing age?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405741500451 1395802358422 How does the <b>length</b>&nbs;of REM slee cha
nge with increasing age?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405741525933 1395802358422 How does the <b>roortion</b>&nbs;of REM slee
change with increasing age?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Constant}}</div>
1405741546373 1395802358422 {{c1::Slee Fragmentation}} is a slee disorder
that involves the <b>choing u of slee cycles</b>, thereby resulting in a lac
k of rest and groggyness.
<br /><div><i>Do not confuse this with slee de
rivation, which is a straight u lack of slee.</i></div><div><i>This is also a
great tie into why babies ruin the lives of young arents. Babies have 30-40 min
ute slee cycles, which are much shorter than an adults. Hence when they wake u
and cry, they cause <b>slee fragmentation</b>&nbs;in adults, leading to the
arents hating their lives.</i></div>
1405741668037 1395802358422 "Which stages of slee are shortened in the elde
rly? {{c1::N3 and REM}} <br /><div><i>Hence, <u>always look at the atient's age
in the vignette</u>. A 15 year old with a lack of stage 3 or 4 slee is bad new
s bears. But in the elderly it may not be athological.</i></div>
1405741784528 1395802358422 What are the 4 key neurotransmitters involved wi
th slee?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::5-HT; ACh; NE; DA}}</div> <br /><div><i>"<
b>SAND</b>man"</i></div>
1405741809877 1395802358422 Which neurotransmitter is involved in the <b>ini
tiation</b>&nbs;of slee?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::5-HT (Serotonin)}}</div>
1405741829446 1395802358422 How do ACh levels change in REM slee?<div><br /
<br /><div><i>An increased ACh:NE ratio
triggers REM slee.</i></div><div><i>This is also why <b>erections occur in men
during REM slee</b>&nbs;(i.e. dat dere morning wood).</i></div>
1405741852420 1395802358422 How do NE levels change in REM slee?<div><br />
<br /><div><i>An increased ACh:NE ratio
triggers REM slee.</i></div>
1405741863367 1395802358422 Which neurotransmitter ratio is the trigger for
REM slee?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ACh:NE}}</div>
<br /><div><i>An increas
ed ACh:NE ratio triggers REM slee.</i></div>

1405741887748 1395802358422 Which neurotransmitter is associated with <b>aro
usal</b>&nbs;and <b>wakefulness</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Doamine}}</div
>
1405741944855 1395802358422 How does an <b>increase</b>&nbs;in the <b>durat
ion and frequency</b>&nbs;of REM slee influence the suscetibility for deress
ion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405741989281 1395802358422 How does light influence surachiasmatic nucleus
activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405742330685 1395802358422 Which ontine nucleus governs the extraocular mo
vements during REM slee?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Paramedian Pontine Reticula
r Formation (PPRF)}}</div>
1405742489274 1395802358422 What is the normal length of an adult slee cycl
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::90 min}}</div>
1405742502563 1395802358422 How does alcohol influence REM slee and delta w
ave slee?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405742535465 1395802358422 How do benzodiazeines influence REM slee and d
elta wave slee?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405742546236 1395802358422 How do barbiturates influence REM slee and delt
a wave slee?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405742557976 1395802358422 What is the treatment for slee enuresis (bedwet
ting)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oral desmoressin acetate (DDAVP)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Preferred over <b>Imiramine</b>&nbs;due to a better adverse effe
ct rofile.</i></div>
1405742603688 1395802358422 What tye of EEG waves are seen in <b>eyes oen<
/b>&nbs;wakefulness?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Beta}}</div> <i><div></div></
i><i><br />Highest frequency, lowest amlitude.</i><div><i><img src="aste-43319
040147775.jg" /></i></div>
1405742889875 1395802358422 What tye of EEG waves are seen in <b>eyes close
d</b>&nbs;wakefulness?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alha}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i>8-12 cs</i><br /><div><img src="aste-43314745180479.jg" /></div>
1405742904673 1395802358422 What tye of EEG waves are seen in <b>Stage N1</
b>&nbs;slee?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Theta}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>3-7
cs</i><br /><div><img src="aste-43314745180479.jg" /></div>
1405742938118 1395802358422 What tye of EEG waves are seen in <b>Stage N2</
b>&nbs;slee?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Slee sindles and K comlexes}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>12-14 cs</i><br /><div><img src="aste-43314745180479.jg"
/></div>
1405742955674 1395802358422 What tye of EEG waveforms are seen in <b>Stage
N3</b>&nbs;slee?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Partial Delta}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Lowest frequency, highest amlitude.</i></div><div><i>Delta = deeest slee
= slow-wave slee</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-43314745180479.jg" /></i><
/div>
1405743023647 1395802358422 Which tye of EEG waves are seen in <b>Stage N4<
/b>&nbs;slee?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Full delta}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="aste-43314745180479.jg" /></div>
1405743046860 1395802358422 Which tye of EEG waves are seen in <b>REM</b>&n
bs;slee?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Beta}}</div>
te-43314745180479.jg" /></div>
1405743065766 1395802358422 Which hase of NREM slee is the hase where neu
rotransmitters are relaced?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Stages 3 and 4}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. the stores are refilled</i></div>
1405743107835 1395802358422 A loss of which hase of slee is<b>&nbs;associ
ated with</b>&nbs;(not causal) dementia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Delta slee
(i.e. stage 3 and 4 NREM)}}</div>
1405743141407 1395802358422 What is the most common stage of slee?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Stage N2}}</div>
1405743151287 1395802358422 Which stage of slee is where <b>bruxism</b>&nbs
;occurs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Stage N2}}</div>
1405743173876 1395802358422 Which stage of slee involves <b>sleewalking, n
ight terrors</b>&nbs;and <b>bedwetting</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Stages 3

and 4}}</div>
1405743223116 1395802358422 Which stage of slee involves <b>loss of motor t
one</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::REM}}</div>
1405743853321 1395802358422 Which stage of slee involves an <b>increase in
brain O<sub>2</sub>&nbs;usage</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::REM slee}}</div>
1405743870356 1395802358422 Which stage of slee involves an <b>increase in
variable ulse and blood ressure</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::REM slee}}</d
iv>
1405743942182 1395802358422 Which stage of slee involves <b>dreaming</b>?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::REM slee}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This includes thos
e kinky wet dreams you have of me, Sohaib.</i></div><div><i>If you wake u and r
emember your dream, you likely woke u out of REM slee.</i></div><div><i>If you
wake u and don't remember your dream (but still know you dreamt), you likely w
oke u out of Stage 2 slee.</i></div><div><i>If you wake u groggy and disorien
ted, you likely woke u out of delta slee (stage 3 or 4). This is why alarm clo
cks suck.</i></div>
1405743969914 1395802358422 Which stage of slee involves <b>enil and clitt
oral tumescence</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::REM slee}}</div>
1405743985373 1395802358422 What is the second most common stage of slee?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Stage N3}}</div>
1405744022317 1395802358422 {{c1::Slee latency}} is defined as the time it
takes to fall aslee.
1405744348978 1395802358422 {{c1::REM latency}} is defined as the time it ta
kes <b>from slee to the first REM eriod</b>. <br /><div><i>Tyically ~90 min.
</i></div>
1405744395457 1395802358422 What is the normal cycle of slee stages?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, REM......}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i><b>Notice how stage 2 slee is the crossroad</b>, this is wh
y it is the most common stage.</i><br /><div><div><i>If you wake u and remember
your dream, you likely woke u out of REM slee.</i></div><div><i>If you wake u
and don't remember your dream (but still know you dreamt), you likely woke u
out of Stage 2 slee.</i></div><div><i>If you wake u groggy and disoriented, yo
u likely woke u out of delta slee (stage 3 or 4). This is why alarm clocks suc
k.</i></div></div>
1405744552015 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives inut from the s
inothalamic tract?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::VPL}}</div>
1405745430016 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives inut from the d
orsal column/medial lemniscus (DCML)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::VPL}}</div>
1405745448345 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives inut from the t
rigeminal athway?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::VPM}}</div>
1405745461749 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives inut from the g
ustatory athway?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::VPM}}</div>
1405745467649 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives inut from the o
<br /><div><i>Lateral ge
tic athway?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LGN}}</div>
niculate nucleus.</i></div>
1405745484187 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives inut from the s
uerior olivary nucleus (auditory athway)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::MGN}}</di
v>
<br /><div><i>Medial geniculate nucleus.</i></div><div><i><b>M</b>&nbs;
for <b>M</b>usic.</i></div>
1405745518357 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives inut from the i
nferior colliculus of the tectum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::MGN}}</div>
<br /><div><i>In the auditory athway.</i></div>
1405745534095 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives inut from the b
asal ganglia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ventral lateral (VL)}}</div>
1405745545486 1395802358422 Which thalamic nucleus receives inut from the c
erebellum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ventral lateral (VL)}}</div>
1405745553532 1395802358422 To which cortical area does the thalamic nucleus
VPL send ain and temerature information?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Primary s
omatosensory cortex}}</div>

VPL send ressure, touch, vibration and roriocetion information?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Primary somatosensory cortex}}</div>
VPM send face sensation and taste information?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Prima
ry Somatosensory Cortex}}</div>
LGN send visual information?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Calcarine sulcus}}</div
>
MGN send hearing information?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Auditory cortex of the
temoral lobe}}</div>
VL send motor information?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Motor cortex}}</div>
1405745771137 1395802358422 {{c1::Limbic system}} is a collection of neural
structures involved in <b>emotion, long-term memory, olfaction, behaviour</b>&nb
s;and <b>autonomic function</b>.
<br /><div><i>Basically, the 5 F's.</i><
/div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>Fighting, fleeing, feeding, feeling and for
nication.</i></div>
1405745861356 1395802358422 Through which cerebellar eduncle does the <b>co
ntralateral motor cortex</b>&nbs;communicate with the cerebellum?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Middle Cerebellar Peduncle}}</div>
1405746136895 1395802358422 Through which cerebellar eduncle does the <b>i
silateral roriocetive information</b>&nbs;from the sinal cord roject to th
e cerebellum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inferior cerebellar eduncle}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, <b>cerebellar roriocetive tracts are always isilater
al</b>.</i></div>
1405746204993 1395802358422 From <b>lateral to medial</b>, what are the dee
nuclei of the cerebellum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dentate; Emboliform; Globo
se; Fastigial}}</div> <br /><div><i>"<b>D</b>on't <b>E</b>at <b>G</b>reasy <b>
F</b>oods"</i></div>
1405746261619 1395802358422 Which cells of the cerebellum are the <b>outut
cells</b>&nbs;that send signals to the contralateral motor cortex via the suer
ior cerebellar eduncle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Purkinje cells}}</div>
1405746299184 1395802358422 Lesions to the&nbs;{{c1::lateral}} side of the
cerebellum affects <b>voluntary movement of the extremities</b>&nbs;and resent
s with the <b>roensity to fall towards the injured (isilateral) side</b>.
1405746376983 1395802358422 Lesions to the&nbs;{{c1::medial}} side of the c
erebellum result in <b>truncal ataxia, nystagmus</b>&nbs;and <b>head tilting</b
>&nbs;due to damage to the vermis, fastigial nuclei or flocconodular lobe.
<br /><div><i>The <b>vermis</b>&nbs;and <b>fastigial nuclei</b>&nbs;are midlin
e structures.</i></div>
1405746579633 1395802358422 Which area of cerebral cortex governs <b>motor s
<br /><div><img
eech</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Broca Area}}</div>
src="aste-49417893708241.jg" /></div>
1405747595669 1395802358422 Which area of the cerebral cortex functions as t
he <b>associative auditory area</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Wernicke area}}<
1405747675305 1395802358422 In which lobe of the brain is the rincial visu
al cortex found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Occiital lobe}}</div>
<br /><d
1405747733973 1395802358422 In which lobe of the brain is rimary auditory c
ortex found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Temoral lobe}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="aste-49413598740945.jg" /></div>
1405747755176 1395802358422 Which body arts are reresented on the <b>later
al</b>&nbs;side of the brain in the homunculus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rost
ral structures (head, tongue, etc)}}</div>
800503311.jg" /></div>
1405747950499 1395802358422 Which arts of the body are found on the <b>medi
al</b>&nbs;side of the brain on the homunculus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Caud
al structures (legs; feet)}}</div>

<div><br /></div><i>"The feet hang off t
he edge."</i><br /><div><img src="aste-49834505536015.jg" /></div>
1405786797020 1395802358422 {{c1::Kluver-Bucy Syndrome}} is a CNS lesion tha
t results from <b>bilateral amygdala lesion</b>&nbs;and resents with <b>hyero
rality, hyersexuality</b>&nbs;and <b>disinhibited behaviour</b>.
1405786856914 1395802358422 What lesion is seen in Kluver-Bucy Syndrome?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bilateral amygdala}}</div>
1405786876709 1395802358422 Which heresvirus is associated with Kluver-Bucy
Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1}}</div>
1405786887860 1395802358422 A&nbs;{{c1::frontal lobe lesion}} is a CNS lesi
on that resents with <b>disinhibition and deficits in concentration, orientatio
n</b>&nbs;and <b>judgement</b>.
<br /><div><i>May involve re-emergence o
f rimitive reflexes.</i></div>
1405786943021 1395802358422 {{c1::Satial Neglect Syndrome}} is a CNS disord
er due to a <b>right arietal-temoral cortex lesion</b>&nbs;and resents with
<b>agnosia of the contralateral side of the world</b>.
1405787033295 1395802358422 Which lesion is seen in satial neglect syndrome
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Right arietal-temoral cortex lesion}}</div>
1405787051947 1395802358422 {{c1::Gerstmann Syndrome}} is a CNS disorder tha
t is due to a <b>left arietal-temoral cortex lesion</b>&nbs;and resents with
<b>agrahia, acalculia, finger agnosia</b>&nbs;and <b>left-right disorientatio
n</b>.
1405787090039 1395802358422 Which CNS lesion is seen in Gerstmann Syndrome?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Left arietal-temoral cortex lesion}}</div>
1405787108302 1395802358422 A CNS lesion to the&nbs;{{c1::reticular activat
ing system}} in the <b>midbrain</b>&nbs;resents with <b>reduced levels of arou
sal and wakefulness</b>.
1405787140819 1395802358422 {{c1::Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome}} is a CNS dis
order due to <b>thiamine deficiency&nbs;</b>that resents with <b>confusion, o
hthalmolegia, ataxia</b>&nbs;and <b>memory loss</b>. <br /><div><i>Can be cau
sed by excessive alcohol use.</i></div>
1405787210806 1395802358422 Which CNS lesion is seen in Wernicke-Korsakoff S
yndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bilateral mamillary body lesion}}</div>
1405787226276 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Wernicke-Korsakoff Syn
drome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thiamine (Vitamin B<sub>1</sub>) <u>before</u>
&nbs;Glucose}}</div> <br /><div><i>Giving glucose before thiamine can exacerb
ate the thiamine deficiency.</i></div><div><i>Remember, thiamine is a vital cofa
ctor in 2 major enzymes involved in glucose metabolism. Administering glucose in
a Vitamin B<sub>1</sub>&nbs;deficiency atient simly further exacerbates the
deficiency.</i></div>
1405787312589 1395802358422 Which cerebellar lesion is associated with <b>tr
uncal ataxia</b>&nbs;and <b>dysarthria</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cerebell
ar vermis}}</div>
1405787353044 1395802358422 Which lesion is seen in Hemiballismus?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Contralateral subthalamic nucleus lesion}}</div>
1405787372934 1395802358422 Which CNS lesion can cause <b>anterograde</b>&nb
s;amnesia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bilateral hiocamal lesion}}</div>
1405787394123 1395802358422 In which direct do the eyes turn following a PPR
F lesion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Away</u>&nbs;from the lesion}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"Wrong way eyes."</i></div>
1405787423245 1395802358422 In which direction do the eyes turn in a Frontal
Eye Field lesion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Towards</u>&nbs;the lesion}}</
div>
<br /><div>"<i>Right way eyes"</i></div>
1405787441014 1395802358422 {{c1::Dysarthria}} is a CNS movement disorder th
at is described as the inability to seak.
1405787480489 1395802358422 {{c1::Ahasia}} is a CNS language deficit descri
bed as a high-order inability to seak.
1405787502375 1395802358422 {{c1::Broca Ahasia}} is a tye of ahasia that
involves <b>nonfluent seech</b>&nbs;with <b>intact comrehension</b>. <br><div
><i>Due to Broca's Area lesion.</i></div><div><i>These tye of atients will a
ear to be visibly frustrated as they can comrehend what you're saying, but cann
ot rely. They can also hear what their saying and will realise the roblem, get
ting even more frustrated.</i></div><div><i>This is often is not the case in Wer
nicke Ahasia as comrehension is defective in a Wernicke lesion.</i></div>
1405787568806 1395802358422 Which seech center is located at the <b>inferio
r frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe?</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div>{{c1::Broca
's Area}}</div>
1405787610394 1395802358422 {{c1::Wernicke Ahasia}} is a tye of ahasia th
at involves <b>fluent seech</b>&nbs;with <b>imaired comrehension</b>&nbs;an
d <b>reetition</b>.
<br /><div><i><b>W</b>ernicke's = <b>W</b>ord vomit.</i>
</div><div><i><br /></i></div>
1405787675043 1395802358422 Which seech center is located at the <b>suerio
r temoral gyrus of the temoral lobe</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Wernicke's
Area}}</div>
1405787694509 1395802358422 {{c1::Global Ahasia}} is a tye of ahasia that
involves <b>nonfluent seech</b>&nbs;with <b>imaired comrehension</b>.
<br /><div><i>i.e. Broca's <b>and</b>&nbs;Wernicke's lesions</i></div>
1405787790970 1395802358422 {{c1::Conduction Ahasia}} is a tye of ahasia
that involves <b>oor reetition but fluent seech and intact comrehension</b>.
<br /><div><i>These atients cannot reeat the hrase "No ifs, ands or buts."</i
></div>
1405787834268 1395802358422 Which lesion causes Conduction Ahasia?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Left suerior temoral lobe and/or left suramarginal gyrus}}
</div>
1405787859922 1395802358422 {{c1::Tanscortical Motor Ahasia}} is a tye of
ahasia that involves <b>nonfluent seech</b>&nbs;with <b>good comrehension an
d reetition</b>.
1405787889049 1395802358422 {{c1::Transcortical Sensory Ahasia}} is a tye
of ahasia that involves <b>oor comrehension</b>&nbs;with <b>fluent seech an
d reetition</b>.
1405787957662 1395802358422 {{c1::Mixed Transcortical Ahasia}} is a tye of
ahasia that involves <b>nonfluent seech, oor comrehension</b>&nbs;and <b>g
ood reetition</b>.
1405787979379 1395802358422 Which arterial blood gas rimarily drives cerebr
al erfusion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::P<sub>CO2</sub>&nbs;(increased CO<sub>
2</sub>&nbs;results in increased cerebral erfusion)}}</div> <br /><div><i>P<
sub>O2</sub>&nbs;modulates erfusion in severe hyoxia.</i></div><div><i><b>Thi
s is why theraeutic hyerventilation (i.e. a decrease in P<sub>CO2</sub>) hels
decrease ICP in cases of cerebral edema as the decrease in P<sub>CO2</sub>&nbs
;will decrease cerebral erfusion via vasoconstriction.</b></i></div><div><i><im
g src="aste-2843268350545.jg" /></i></div>
1405788260884 1395802358422 After how long in hyoxia does irreversible CNS
damage begin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::5 minutes}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Mo
st vulnerable area is hiocamus, neocortex, cerebellum, watershed areas</i></d
iv>
1405788824936 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event do red neuro
ns aear?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::12-48 hrs}}</div> <br /><div><img src="as
te-4428111282360.jg" /></div>
1405788905173 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event does necrosi
s and neutrohils aear?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::24-72 hrs}}</div> <br /><d
1405788922042 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event do macrohag
es aear?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3-5 days}}</div> <br /><div><img src="as
te-4423816315064.jg" /></div>
1405788935689 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event does <b>reac
tive gliosis</b>&nbs;and <b>vascular roliferation</b>&nbs;aear?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::1-2 weeks}}</div>
.jg" /></div>
1405788959655 1395802358422 How long after a CNS ischemic event does a <b>gl
ial scar</b>&nbs;aear?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::> 2 weeks}}</div>

1405788973267 1395802358422 What is the most common site of intracerebral he
morrhage?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Basal ganglia}}</div>
1405789036808 1395802358422 {{c1::Ischemic Stroke}} is a tye of stroke that
involves <b>acute blockage of vessels</b>&nbs;and resulting ischemia.
1405789064364 1395802358422 What tye of necrosis is seen following an ische
mic stroke?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Liquefactive necrosis}}</div>
1405789076539 1395802358422 {{c1::Thrombotic stroke}} is a tye of ischemic
stroke that involves <b>clot formation directly at the site of infarction</b>, t
yically over <b>atherosclerotic laque</b>.
1405789125130 1395802358422 Which major cerebral blood vessel is commonly th
e site of thrombotic stroke?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::MCA}}</div>
<br /><d
1405789139374 1395802358422 {{c1::Embolic Stroke}} is a tye of ischemic str
oke that involves <b>embolus formation from another art of the body obstructing
a vessel</b>.
1405789173434 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyoxic Stroke}} is a tye of ischemic str
oke that involves <b>hyoerfusion</b>&nbs;and <b>hyoxemia</b>.
<br /><d
iv><i>Commony during cardiovascular surgery, esecially at watershed zones.</i><
/div>
1405789259481 1395802358422 {{c1::Transient Ischemia Attack}} is an ischemic
brain disorder that involves <b>brief, reversible eisode(s) of focal neurologi
cal dysfunction</b>&nbs;lasting <u style="font-weight: bold; ">< 24 hrs</u>&
nbs;without acute infarction. <br /><div><i>The negative MRI confirms a lack o
f acute infarction.</i></div><div><i>Majority resolves in < 15 min.</i></div>
1405789334565 1395802358422 Into which major cerebral vein do the dural veno
us sinuses drain?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Internal jugular vein}}</div>
1405789380053 1395802358422 Which dural venous sinus is the main location of
CSF return via arachnoid granulations?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Suerior sagg
ital sinus}}</div>
1405789413799 1395802358422 Which foramen joins the lateral ventricles to th
e 3rd ventricle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Interventricular Foramen (of Monro)}
}</div> <br /><div><i>On both sides.</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-5759551144
305.jg" /></i></div>
1405789482456 1395802358422 Which structure joins the 3rd ventricle to the 4
th ventricle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cerebral Aqueduct (of Sylvius)}}</div>
1405789513070 1395802358422 Which foramina join the 4th ventricle to the sub
arachoid sace?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Foramina of Luschka (laterally) and t
he Foramen of Magendie (medially)}}</div>
1405789559602 1395802358422 Where is CSF made?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::E
endymal cells of the choroid lexus}}</div>
56177009.jg" /></div>
1405789572333 1395802358422 How many sinal nerves are there in total?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::31}}</div>
<br /><div><i>8 cervical + 12 thoracic +
5 lumbar + 5 sacral + 1 coccygeal.</i></div>
1405789823704 1395802358422 Which sinal nerves exit <b>above</b>&nbs;their
corresonding vertebra?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C1-C7}}</div>
1405789865811 1395802358422 Which sinal nerves <b>do not</b> exit <b>below<
/b>&nbs;their corresonding vertebrae?<div><br />{{c1::C8 and below}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. <b>only C1-C7 exit above their corresonding vertebrae</b></i
></div>
1405789934849 1395802358422 At which vertebral levels does Vertebral Disc He
rniation usually occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L4-L5; L5-S1}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Tyically occurs osterolaterally.</i></div>
1405789992247 1395802358422 Which ortion of the vertebral disc herniates in
disc herniation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus ulosus}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Remember, this is the only derivative of the notochord.</i></div>
1405790023202 1395802358422 Where does the sinal cord end in a<b>dults</b>?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L1-L2}}</div>
1405790048631 1395802358422 Where does the subarachnoid sace end in a<b>dul

ts</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lower border of S2 vertebra}}</div>
1405790072718 1395802358422 At which vertebral levels are lumbar unctures n
ormally erformed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L3-L4; L4-L5}}</div>
1405790099255 1395802358422 Which ascending sinal tract carries information
about <b>ressure, touch, vibration</b>&nbs;and <b>roriocetion?</b><div><b>
<br /></b></div><div>{{c1::Dorsal Column}}</div>
te-7490422964789.jg" /></div>
1405790857180 1395802358422 {{c1::Fasciculus Gracilis}} is an ascending sect
ion of the sinal cord that carries ressure/touch/vibration information <b>from
the lower body and leg</b>.
<div><br /></div><i><b>T7 and below</b></i><br /
1405790942260 1395802358422 {{c1::Fasciculus Cuneatus}} is an ascending sect
ion of the sinal cord that carries ressure/touch/vibration information from th
e <b>uer body and arms</b>. <br /><div><b><i>T6 and above</i></b></div><div>
<b><i><img src="aste-7486127997493.jg" /></i></b></div>
1405790990404 1395802358422 Which section of the dorsal column is found medi
ally?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fasciculus gracilis}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.
e. the dorsal column is organized as humans are; with the hands on the side; arm
s outside, legs inside</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-7486127997493.jg" /></i
></div>
1405791129424 1395802358422 Which section of the dorsal column is found late
rally?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fasciculus cuneatus}}</div> <div><br /></div
><div><div><i>i.e. the dorsal column is organized as humans are; with the hands
on the side; arms outside, legs inside</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-74861279
97493.jg" /></i></div></div>
1405791150197 1395802358422 Which ascending sinal tract carries <b>ain and
temerature</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral sinothalamic tract}}</div>
<br /><div><div><i><img src="aste-7486127997493.jg" /></i></div></div>
1405791226232 1395802358422 Which ascending sinal tract carries <b>crude to
uch</b>&nbs;and ressure information?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Sino
thalamic Tract}}</div> <br /><div><i><img src="aste-7486127997493.jg" /></i><
/div>
1405791258967 1395802358422 Which descending sinal tract carries <b>volunta
ry motor</b>&nbs;information?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior/Lateral Corti
cosinal Tract}}</div> <br /><div><i><img src="aste-7486127997493.jg" /></i><
/div>
1405791287164 1395802358422 What is the first synase in the Dorsal Column/M
edial Lemniscus (DCML)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Isilateral</u>&nbs;nucle
us cuneatus or nucleus gracilis at the medulla}}</div>
1405791750609 1395802358422 Where does the&nbs;Dorsal Column/Medial Lemnisc
us (DCML) decussate?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Medulla}}</div>
1405791763932 1395802358422 What is the 2nd synase in the&nbs;Dorsal Colum
n/Medial Lemniscus (DCML)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::VPL of the thalamus}}</div
>
1405791786121 1395802358422 What is the 1st synase of the Sinothalamic Tra
ct (STT)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Isilateral gray matter of the dorsal horn}
}</div>
1405791845625 1395802358422 Where does the&nbs;Sinothalamic Tract (STT) de
cussate?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior White Commisure}}</div>
1405791860785 1395802358422 What is the 2nd synase of the&nbs;Sinothalami
c Tract (STT)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::VPL}}</div>
1405791867608 1395802358422 What is the 1st synase of the Lateral Corticos
inal Tract (LCT)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LMN of the anterior horn of the si
nal cord}}</div>
1405791908071 1395802358422 What is the 2nd synase of the&nbs;Lateral Cort
icosinal Tract (LCT)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NMJ at the target voluntary mu
scle}}</div>
1405791928058 1395802358422 Where does the&nbs;Lateral Corticosinal Tract
(LCT) decussate?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pyramidal decussation at the caudal
medulla}}</div>
1405791961624 1395802358422 How do reflexes and muscle tone change in UMN le
sions?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
te-9702331121811.jg" /></div>
1405792717468 1395802358422 How do reflexes and muscle tone change in LMN le
sions?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
te-9706626089107.jg" /></div>
1405792741530 1395802358422 What tye of aralysis is seen in UMN lesions?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sastic aralysis}}</div>
1405792770376 1395802358422 What tye of aralysis is seen in LMN lesions?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Flaccid aralysis}}</div>
1405792783586 1395802358422 What motor neuron lesion is associated with a <b
>ositive</b>&nbs;Babinski sign?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::UMN}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Positive babinski is normal in infants.</i></div>
1405792842113 1395802358422 {{c1::Werdnig-Hoffman Disease (sinal muscular a
trohy)}} and {{c2::Poliomyelitis}} are sinal cord lesions that resent with <b
>LMN lesions only</b>&nbs;due to <b>destruction of the anterior horn</b>, there
by resenting with flaccid aralysis.<div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-10136
122818707.jg" /></div>
1405792997125 1395802358422 {{c1::Multile Sclerosis}} is a sinal cord lesi
on that occurs due to <b>demyelination</b>&nbs;of mostly white matter of the <b
>cervical region</b>, thereby resenting with <b>random, asymmetric lesions</b>.
<div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-10325101379736.jg" /></div>
<br /><d
iv><i>There is often scanning seech, intention tremor and nystagmus.</i></div>
1405793074339 1395802358422 {{c1::Amyotrohic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)}} is a
sinal cord lesion that involves <b>combined UMN and LMN deficits</b>&nbs;with
<u><b>no sensory, cognitive or oculomotor deficits</b>.</u><div><u><br /></u></
div><div><u><img src="aste-10591389352092.jg" /></u></div>
1405793134499 1395802358422 Which enzyme deficiency can cause&nbs;Amyotroh
ic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sueroxide Dismutase 1}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>Remember, SOD is required to eliminate ROS.</i></div>
1405793160853 1395802358422 {{c1::Amyotrohic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)}} is a
sinal cord lesions that often initially resents with <b>fasciculations, atro
hy</b>&nbs;and <b>weakness of the hands</b>.
1405793188900 1395802358422 {{c1::Riluzole}} is a drug that can modestly inc
rease survival of&nbs;Amyotrohic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) by <b>decreasing res
ynatic glutamate release</b>. <br /><div><i>Ri<b>lou</b>zole can be used in <b
>Lou</b>&nbs;Gehrig's Disease.</i></div>
1405793251109 1395802358422 An occlusion to the&nbs;{{c1::Anterior Sinal A
rtery}} results in lesion to the <b>entire sinal cord excet the dorsal column
and Lissauer tract</b>. <div><br /></div><i>The uer thoracic ASA territory is
a watershed area due to the <b>artery of Adamkiewicz</b>&nbs;sulying the ASA
area below ~T8.</i><br /><div><img src="aste-10866267259120.jg" /></div>
1405793592670 1395802358422 {{c1::Tabes Dorsalis}} is a sinal cord lesion t
hat is caused by <b>tertiary syhilis</b>&nbs;and involves <b>degeneration of t
he dorsal columns and roots</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-1121845457
7316.jg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Hence this will resent with <b>imaired s
ensation and roriocetion and rogressive sensory ataxia</b>.</i></div>
1405793652061 1395802358422 Which sinal cord lesion is associated with <b>C
harcot joints?</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div>{{c1::Tabes Dorsalis}}</div>
1405793675436 1395802358422 Which sinal cord lesion is associated with <b>A
rgyll-Robertson uils?</b><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tabes Dorsalis}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Argyll-Robertson uil is a a uil that exhibits accomodati
on and convergence, but not to light.</i><br /><div><img src="aste-112141596100
20.jg" /></div>
1405793759057 1395802358422 Which sinal cord lesion is associated with a <b
>ositive Romberg sign</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tabes Dorsalis}}</div>
1405793774076 1395802358422 {{c1::Syringomyelia}} is a sinal cord lesion th
at involves <b>exansion of the syrinx</b>&nbs;and <b>damage to the anterior wh

ite commissure of the STT</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-117381456201
24.jg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Hence this will resent with a bilateral l
oss of ain and temerature sensation <b>at the level of the lesion</b>.</i></di
v><div><i>The syrinx can grow and affect other tracts.</i></div>
1405794043596 1395802358422 Which sinal cord lesion is associated with <b>C
hiari tye 1 malformations</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Syringomyelia}}</div>
1405794069135 1395802358422 {{c1::Subacute Combined Degeneration}} is a sin
al cord lesion that occurs due to <b>vitamin B12</b>&nbs;or <b>vitamin E defici
ency</b>&nbs;and involves <b>demyelination of the dorsal column, LCST</b>&nbs;
and <b>STT</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-12004433592473.jg" /></div
>
<br /><div><i>Presents with <b>ataxic gait, aresthesia, imaires ositi
on sense, imaired vibration sense.</b></i></div>
1405794175984 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Poliomyelitis?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Poliovirus}}</div>
1405794200377 1395802358422 How is oliovirus transmitted?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Fecal oral}}</div>
1405794207918 1395802358422 {{c1::Poliovirus}} is a virus that causes Poliom
yelitis that <b>relicates in the oroharynx and small intestines before enterin
g the CNS via the bloodstream</b>.
1405794240791 1395802358422 Which area of the sinal cord is targeted in Pol
iomyelitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior horn of the sinal cord (i.e. LM
Ns)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence olio resents with LMN lesion signs.</i></d
iv>
1405794274944 1395802358422 How do CSF WBC levels change in Poliomyelitis?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405794290443 1395802358422 How do CSF rotein levels change in Poliomyeliti
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Slight increase}}</div>
1405794299952 1395802358422 How do CSF glucose levels change in oliomyeliti
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
1405794311078 1395802358422 What is the cause of&nbs;Werdnig-Hoffman Diseas
e (sinal muscular atrohy)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Congenital degeneration
of the anterior horn}}</div>
1405794384894 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of&nbs;WerdnigHoffman Disease (sinal muscular atrohy)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal
recessive}}</div>
1405794397462 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Friedreich At
axia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive}}</div>
1405794421954 1395802358422 What trinucleotide reeat is seen in Friedreich
Ataxia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GAA on chromosome 9}}</div>
1405794442471 1395802358422 Which gene is affected by GAA reeated in Friedr
eich Ataxia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Frataxin, an iron binding rotein}}</div
>
1405794462725 1395802358422 {{c1::Friedreich Ataxia}} is a CNS disorder due
to GAA reeats in the Frataxin gene that involves <b>imairment of mitochondrial
functioning.</b>
1405794521339 1395802358422 What is the cause of death in Friedreich Ataxia?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyertrohic Cardiomyoathy}}</div>
to GAA reeats that resents in childhood with <b>kyhoscoliosis.</b>
to GAA reeats that involves <b>staggering gait, frequent falling, nystagmus, dy
sarthria, es cavus</b>&nbs;and <b>hammer toes</b>.
1405794605952 1395802358422 {{c1::Brown-Squard Syndrome}} is a sinal cord sy
ndrome due to <b>hemisection of the sinal cord.</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div
><b><img src="aste-13752485281995.jg" /></b></div>
<br /><div><i>Findings a
re retty logical if you know your neuroanatomy. Just <b>don't forget the last 2
</b>:</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-13773960118708.jg" /><img src="aste-147
18852923951.jg" /></i></div>
1405796019342 1395802358422 {{c1::Brown-Squard Syndrome}} is a sinal cord sy

ndrome that resents with <b>isilateral loss of all sensation </b><u style="fon
t-weight: bold; ">at the level of the lesion</u>&nbs;due to hemisection of the
sinal cord.
1405796156219 1395802358422 {{c1::Brown Squard Syndrome}} is a sinal cord sy
ndrome that resents with <b>isilateral LMN deficits </b><u style="font-weight:
bold; ">at the level of the lesion</u>&nbs;due to hemisection of the sinal co
rd.
1405796200589 1395802358422 Above which vertebral level can Brown-Squard Synd
rome resent with Horner Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Above T1}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Due to damage of the oculosymathetic athway.</i></div>
1405796299101 1395802358422 {{c1::Horner Syndrome}} is an autonomic disorder
that results from sinal cord lesions <b>above T1</b>&nbs;and resents with <b
>tosis, miosis</b>&nbs;and <b>anhidrosis.</b><div><b><br /></b></div> <div><br
/></div><i>"Horny PAM"</i><div><i><img src="aste-15479062134931.jg" /><br /><
/i><div><img src="aste-14925011354154.jg" /></div></div>
1405797156788 1395802358422 {{c1::Ptosis}} is a feature of Horner Syndrome t
hat involves <b>slight drooing of the eyelid</b>&nbs;(via the Suerior Tarsal
Muscle).
1405797184151 1395802358422 {{c1::Anhidrosis}} is a feature of Horner Syndro
me that involves the <b>absence of sweating</b>.
te-14925011354154.jg" /></div>
1405797205008 1395802358422 {{c1::Miosis}} is a feature of Horner Syndrome t
hat involves <b>uil constriction</b>. <br><div><img src="aste-14925011354154.
jg" /></div>
1405797217241 1395802358422 Which dermatome is found at the osterior half o
f the skull ca?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C2}}</div> <br /><div><img src="as
te-15710990369162.jg" /></div>
1405797520620 1395802358422 Which dermatome is found at the <b>high turtlene
ck shirt level</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C3}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-15706695401866.jg" /></div>
1405797537896 1395802358422 Which dermatome is found at the <b>low-collar sh
irt</b>&nbs;level?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C4}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-15706695401866.jg" /></div>
1405797557839 1395802358422 Which dermatome is at the nile?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::T4}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-15706695401866.jg" /></div>
1405797568340 1395802358422 Which dermatome is at the xihoid rocess?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::T6}}</div>
The even numbered thoracic dermatomes ha
ve easily remembered sites to test for sensory blocks; T2 at axilla anteriorly,
T4 at nile, T6 at xihoid, T8 at lower margin of ribs anteriorly, T10 at umbili
cus, T12 at inguinal fold
1405797579780 1395802358422 Which dermatome is at the umbilicus?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::T10}}</div>
></div>
1405797589478 1395802358422 Which dermatome is at the inguinal ligament?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::L1}}</div>
6.jg" /></div>
1405797658880 1395802358422 Which dermatome is found at the kneecas?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::L4}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-15706695401866.jg" /
></div>
1405797670093 1395802358422 Which dermatome is involved with <b>erection and
sensation of the enile and anal zones</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::S2; S3;
S4}}</div>
1405797715029 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the bices reflex?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::C5}}</div>
0.jg" /><img src="aste-16492674416940.jg" /></div>
1405797760045 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the trices reflex?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::C7}}</div>
1405797770299 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the atellar reflex?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L4}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-1636812036530

1405797781911 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the achilles reflex?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::S1}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-1636812036530
1405797790832 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the cremaster reflex?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L1,L2}}</div>
969384236.jg" /></div>
1405797808455 1395802358422 What is the nerve root for the anal wink reflex?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::S3, S4}}</div>
674416940.jg" /></div>
1405797822766 1395802358422 How long after birth to the rimitive reflexes d
isaear?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st year}}</div> <br /><div><i>Eventually
, the <b>mature/develoing frontal lobe inhibits these reflexes</b>.</i></div>
1405798014578 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::moro reflex}} is a rimitive refl
ex that involves <b>abduction/extension of the arms when startled</b>, following
by <b>drawing of the arms together</b>.
<br /><div><i>Aka the "Hang on f
or life" reflex.</i></div>
1405798051396 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::rooting reflex}} is a rimitive r
eflex that involves <b>movement of the head towards one side if the cheek or mou
th is stroked</b>&nbs;(i.e. nile seeking).
1405798083509 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::sucking reflex}} is a rimitive r
eflex that involves a <b>sucking reflex when the roof of the mouth is touched</b
>.
1405798105409 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::almar reflex}} is a rimitive re
flex that involves <b>curling of the fingers if the alm is stroked</b>.
1405798122918 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::lantar reflex}} is a rimitive r
eflex that involves <b>dorsiflexion of the large toe and fanning of the other to
es with lantar stimulation</b>.
<br /><div><i>i.e. Babinski sign in infa
nts (which is normal, hence called the lantar reflex)</i></div>
1405798266406 1395802358422 The {{c1::Galant reflex}} is a rimitive reflex
that involves <b>lateral flexion of the lower body towards the stimulated side f
ollowing stroking along one side of the sine while the newborn is face down</b>
.
1405798444295 1395802358422 Which 3 cranial nerves lie medially at the brain
stem?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN III, CN VI, CN XII}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="aste-17901423690238.jg" /></div>
1405798541598 1395802358422 Which gland located at the brainstem secretes <b
>melatonin</b>&nbs;and influences <b>circadian rhythms</b>?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Pineal}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-18017387807271.jg" /></div>
1405798608630 1395802358422 Which nucleus at the dorsal brainstem is the <b>
conjugate vertical gaze center</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Suerior Collicul
is}}</div>
1405798636905 1395802358422 Which nucleus at the dorsal brainstem is is invo
lved in the auditory athway?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inferior colliculis}}</
div>
1405798656442 1395802358422 {{c1::Parinaud Syndrome}} is a CNS disorder that
involves <b>aralysis of conjugate vertical gaze due to a lesion to the suerio
r colliculis.</b>
<div><br /></div><i>e.g. by a inealoma.</i><br /><div><
img src="aste-18013092839975.jg" /></div>
1405798684216 1395802358422 Which dorsal brainstem structure is lesioned in
Parinaud Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Suerior Colliculis}}</div>
1405798706026 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve I?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::Olfactory}}</div>
1405799777636 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nbs;II?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Otic}}</div>
1405799782085 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nbs;III?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Oculomotor}}</div>
1405799787141 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nbs;IV?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Trochlear}}</div>
1405799792783 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nbs;V?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Trigeminal}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Includes the <b>Ohthalmic (V<sub>
1</sub>), Maxillary (V<sub>2</sub>) and Mandibular (V<sub>3</sub>) branches</b>.
</i></div>
1405799822533 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nbs;VI?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Abducens}}</div>
1405799827308 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nbs;VII?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Facial}}</div>
1405799830377 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nbs;VIII?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Vestibulocochlear}}</div>
1405799840247 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nbs;IX?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Glossoharyngeal}}</div>
1405799851801 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nbs;X?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Vagus}}</div>
1405799854651 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nbs;XI?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Sinal accessory}}</div>
1405799859356 1395802358422 What is cranial nerve&nbs;XII?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Hyoglossal}}</div>
1405799863915 1395802358422 What is the only cranial nerve that <b>does not<
/b>&nbs;have thalamic relay to the cortex?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN I, Olf
actory}}</div>
1405799894101 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls the muscles of mast
ication?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<sub>3</sub>, Mandibular branch of the T
rigeminal}}</div>
1405799957568 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs <b>sensation</b>&nbs
;at the face?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trigeminal}}</div>
1405799969736 1395802358422 What are the three branches of the Trigeminal ne
rve (CN V)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ohthalmic, Maxillary, Mandibular (V<sub>
1</sub>, V<sub>2</sub>, V<sub>3</sub>&nbs;resectively)}}</div>
1405800029370 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs lacrimation?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Facial}}</div>
1405800047148 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs salivation from the
<b>submandibular and sublingual glands</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}<
/div>
1405800069890 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs <b>closing</b>&nbs;
of the eyelid via <b>Orbicularis oculi</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}<
/div>
1405800093083 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls the <b>staedius</b
>&nbs;muscle in the ear?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}</div>
1405800106497 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is involved with hearing and
balance?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN VIII}}</div>
1405800118773 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve governs salivation from the
<b>arotid gland</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX}}</div>
1405800136943 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is involved with <b>carotid
body and sinus</b>&nbs;baro- and chemorecetors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN
IX}}</div>
1405800160351 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls the <b>styloharyng
eus</b>&nbs;muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX}}</div> <br /><div><i>It
elevates the harynx and larynx.</i></div>
1405800184186 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve carries <b>taste from the e
iglottis region</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}</div>
1405800368334 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve innervates the uvula?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}</div>
1405800403884 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve monitors <b>aortic arch </b>
chemo- and barorecetors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}</div>
1405800421768 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls shoulder shrugging
and head turning?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN XI via the SCM and traezius mus
cles.}}</div>
1405800448687 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve controls tongue movement?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN XII}}</div>

1405800473491 1395802358422 What is the mnemonic for remembering cranial ner
ve modalities?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Some Say Marry Money But My Brother Sa
ys Big Boobs Matter Most}}</div>
<br /><div><i><u>S,S,M,M,B,M,B,S,B,B,M,M
.</u></i></div><div><i>- S = sensory</i></div><div><i>- M = motor</i></div><div>
<i>- B = both</i></div>
1405800572527 1395802358422 Which is the only cranial nerve whose nucleus is
<b>in the sinal cord</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN XI (in the sinal cord
just caudal of the medulla)}}</div>
<img src="aste-20714627268833.jg" /><d
iv>CN I and II not shown (nuclei not in brainstem or sinal cord)</div>
1405800669193 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the <b>afferent</b>&nbs;
branch of the corneal reflex?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<sub>1</sub>&nbs;(
ohthalmic; secifically the nasociliary branch)}}</div>
1405800707292 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nbs;<b>afferent</b>&
nbs;branch of the Lacrimation Reflex?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<sub>1</su
b>&nbs;(loss of reflex does not reclude the loss of emotional tears)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>So you can still cry me a river...</i></div>
nbs;branch of the Jaw Jerk Reflex?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<sub>3</sub>&
nbs;(muscle sindles from the masseter muscle)}}</div>
nbs;branch of the uillary reflex?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN II}}</div>
nbs;branch of the Gag Reflex?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX}}</div>
1405800790099 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the <b>efferent</b>&nbs;
branch of the Corneal Reflex?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII (temoralis bran
ch to the orbicularis oculi which closes the eye)}}</div>
1405800910976 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is the&nbs;<b>efferent</b>&
nbs;branch of the Lacrimation Reflex?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII}}</div>
nbs;branch of the Jaw Jerk Reflex?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<sub>3</sub>&
nbs;(to the masseter muscle)}}</div>
nbs;branch of the uillary reflex?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div>
nbs;branch of the Gag Reflex?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN X}}</div>
1405800948089 1395802358422 Which vagal nucleus is involved with <b>visceral
sensory information</b>&nbs;such as taste, barorecetors and gut distention)?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus Solitarius}}</div>
1405800989337 1395802358422 Which vagal nucleus is involved with <b>motor in
nervation of the harynx, larynx and uer esohagus</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Nucleus Ambiguus}}</div>
1405801011375 1395802358422 Which vagal nucleus is associated with sending <
b>arasymathetic fibers to the heart, lungs and uer GI</b>?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Dorsal Motor Nucleus}}</div>
1405801042108 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nbs;{{c1::I}} travels through the
&nbs;{{c2::cribiform late}} of the skull.
1405801356266 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nbs;{{c1::II}} travels through th
e&nbs;{{c2::otic canal}} in the skull.
1405801373529 1395802358422 What are the contents of the otic canal?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::CN II, Ohthalmic Artery, Central Retinal Vein}}</div>
1405801394734 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves travel through the Suerior
Orbital Fissure?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN III, IV, V<sub>1</sub>&nbs;and
VI}}</div>
1405801421954 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nbs;{{c1::V<sub>2</sub>}} travels
through the&nbs;{{c2::foramen rotundum}} of the skull.
1405801445175 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nbs;{{c1::V<sub>3</sub>}} travels
through the {{c2::foramen ovale}} of the skull.
1405801467925 1395802358422 Which cranial artery travels through the Foramen
Sinosum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Middle Meningeal Artery}}</div>
1405801485946 1395802358422 Through which foramen does the Middle Meningeal

Artery travel in the skull?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Foramen Sinosum}}</div>
1405801507511 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves travel throgh the internal
auditory meatus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII, VIII}}</div>
1405801529791 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves travel through the jugular
foramen?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX, X, XI}}</div>
1405801549186 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nbs;{{c1::CN XII}} travels throug
h the&nbs;{{c2::hyoglossal canal}} of the skull.
1405801566883 1395802358422 Cranial nerve&nbs;{{c1::XI}} travels through th
e&nbs;{{c2::foramen magnum}} of the skull.
1405801618578 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::cavernous sinus}} is a collection
of venous sinuses found on either side of the ituitary that collects blood fro
m the eye and suerficial cortex.
<br><div><img src="aste-22230750724601.
jg" /></div>
1405801761044 1395802358422 Which cranial nerves ass <b>through</b>&nbs;th
e cavernous sinus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN III, IV, V<sub>1</sub>, V<sub>2
</sub>, VI}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. all of the CN's that deal with the ey
e + V<sub>2</sub>&nbs;(and not CN II)</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-22226455
757305.jg" /></i></div>
1405801821550 1395802358422 Which major cranial artery asses through the ca
vernous sinus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Internal Carotid Artery}}</div>
1405801841200 1395802358422 {{c1::Cavernous sinus syndrome}} is a neurologic
al disorder that results due to <b>mass effect, fistula or thrombosis</b>&nbs;i
n the cavernous sinus that resents with <b>ohthalmolegia</b>&nbs;and <b>decr
eased corneal/maxillary sensation</b>&nbs;with <b>normal visual acuity</b>.
1405801923481 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is commonly affected in Cave
rnous Sinus Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN VI}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="aste-22226455757305.jg" /></div>
1405801940976 1395802358422 Which way does the jaw deviate in a CN V motor l
esion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Towards</u>&nbs;the lesion}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>CN V innervation to the mastication muscles is <b>isilatera
l</b>.</i><br /><div><i>During oening of thw jaw, unoosed force from the oo
site terygoid muscle ushes the jaw.</i></div>
1405802012257 1395802358422 Which way does the uvula deviate in a CN X lesio
n?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Away</u>&nbs;from the lesion}}</div> <div><br
/></div><div><i>The weak side of the uvula collases and is henced ushed away
when the atient says "Ahhhhhhhhhh".</i></div>
1405802073459 1395802358422 Which way does the <b>left</b>&nbs;sternocleido
mastoid muscle hel turn the head?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Right}}</div>
1405802096917 1395802358422 Which side of the body will see a shoulder droo
following lesion to the <b>left</b>&nbs;CN XI?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Left
(isilateral)}}</div>
1405802177547 1395802358422 Which side of the body will the head have weakne
ss turning towards following a <b>left</b>&nbs;CN XI lesion?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Right (contralateral)}}</div>
1405802197426 1395802358422 Which way does the tongue deviate following a CN
XII LMN lesion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Towards</u>&nbs;the lesion}}</di
v>
<br /><div><i>i.e. <b>"the tongue licks the wound</b>"</i></div><div><i>
This is due to weakened tongue muscles on the side of the lesion. Think of it li
ke ushing a shoig cart with one hand on 1 side, the cart is going to move the
oosite side due to a lack of ushing.</i></div>
1405802275364 1395802358422 What is the Rinne's Test result in conductive he
aring loss?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Abnormal (bone > air conduction)}}</di
v>
1405802318716 1395802358422 What is the Rinne's Test result in sensorineural
hearing loss?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Normal (air > bone)}}</div>
1405802337568 1395802358422 To which ear does Weber's Test localize in condu
ctive hearing loss?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The affected ear}}</div>
1405802365700 1395802358422 To which ear does Weber's Test localize in senso

rineural hearing loss?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Unaffected ear}}</div>
1405802375296 1395802358422 Which frequency of sound is lost first in noiseinduced hearing loss?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::High frequency}}</div>
1405803541663 1395802358422 Which area of the face is aralyzed in a <b>cort
icobulbar (UMN) CN VII lesion</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Contralateral <u>L
ower</u>&nbs;face}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>The forehead is sared due t
o bilateral UMN innervation of the uer division of the facial nucleus.</i><div
><i><b>The lower division of the facial nucleus only receives contralateral inne
rvation</b>.<br /></i><div><img src="aste-24068996727271.jg" /></div></div>
1405804107837 1395802358422 Which area of the face is aralyzed in a <b>LMN
CN VII lesion</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Isilateral</u>&nbs;uer <u>a
nd</u>&nbs;lower face}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-24064701759975.jg" /
></div>
1405804151480 1395802358422 {{c1::Facial Nerve Palsy}} is a cranial nerve a
lsy that resents with <b>eriheral isilateral facial aralysis</b>&nbs;with
the <b>inability to close the eye on the isilateral side</b>.<div><br /></div><
div><img src="aste-24455543783656.jg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Due to com
lete destruction of the facial nucleus or it's efferent fibers.</i></div><div><
i><br /></i></div>
1405804484013 1395802358422 {{c1::Bell Palsy}} is a tye of facial nerve al
sy that occurs idioathically and gradually recovers.
1405804512841 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve alsy is associated with Lym
e disease (<i>Borrelia burgdorferi</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Facial nerve
alsy}}</div>
1405804537062 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve alsy is associated with HSV
and VZV?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Facial nerve alsy}}</div> <br /><div><i>HS
V is more common.</i></div>
1405804558708 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve alsy is associated with Sar
coidosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Facial nerve alsy}}</div>
1405804566918 1395802358422 What are the muscles of mastication?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Masseter; Temoralis; Medial &am; lateral terygoid}}</div>
1405804607561 1395802358422 Which terygoid muscle <b>oens</b>&nbs;the jaw
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral terygoid}}</div> <br /><div><i><b>L</b>at
eral <b>L</b>owers the jaw.&nbs;</i></div><div><i>The masseter, temoralis and
medial terygoid all close the jaw.</i></div>
1405804636657 1395802358422 What is the innervation of all the mastication m
uscles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<sub>3</sub>}}</div>
1405804650095 1395802358422 Which fibers in the eye attach the lens to the c
iliary body?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Zonula fibers}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="aste-25374666785302.jg" /></div>
1405806166965 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the lateral rectus mu
scle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN VI}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-31533
649887734.jg" /></div>
1405808058288 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the suerior oblique
muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN IV}}</div>
te-31529354920438.jg" /></div>
1405808073626 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the suerior rectus m
uscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div>
te-31529354920438.jg" /></div>
1405808089300 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the medial rectus mus
cle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-31529
354920438.jg" /></div>
1405808099700 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the inferior rectus m
uscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div>
te-31529354920438.jg" /></div>
1405808113195 1395802358422 What is the innervation of the inferior oblique
muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN III}}</div>
te-31529354920438.jg" /></div>
1405808124177 1395802358422 {{c1::Oculomotor alsy}} is a cranial nerve als
y that resents with <b>down and out eyes</b>, <b>tosis, uillary dilation</b>
&nbs;and <b>loss of accommodation</b>. <br /><div><img src="aste-3339337072661
3.jg" /></div>
1405808171192 1395802358422 {{c1::Trochlear Palsy}} is a cranial nerve alsy
that resents with <b>uwardly dislaced eyes</b>, esecially with contralatera
l gaze and <b>head tilt</b>&nbs;<u style="font-weight: bold; ">towards</u>&nbs
;the side of the lesion.
<br /><div><i>Hence there is often roblems goin
g down the stairs.</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-31529354920438.jg" /></i></
div>
1405808240053 1395802358422 {{c1::Abducens alsy}} is a cranial nerve alsy
that resents with <b>medially directed eyes that cannot abduct</b>.
<br /><d
1405808263899 1395802358422 Which way must a atient look in order to test t
he <b>inferior oblique</b>&nbs;muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Uwards}}</di
v>
<br /><div><i><b>The oblique eye muscles move the eye in </b><u style="f
ont-weight: bold; ">oosite directions</u>.</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-32
087700668723.jg" /></i></div>
1405808324692 1395802358422 Which arasymathetic nucleus sends signals to t
he ciliary ganglion via CN III to achieve <b>miosis</b>&nbs;(uillary constric
tion)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Edinger-Westhal nucleus}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>The ciliary ganglion then send <b>short ciliary nerves</b>&nbs;to the u
illary shincter muscles.</i></div>
1405808594265 1395802358422 Which ciliary nerves send signals to the <b>ui
llary shincter muscles</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Short ciliary nerves}}</
div>
1405808616547 1395802358422 Which uillary muscle is involved in <b>miosis<
/b>&nbs;(constriction)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Shincter muscles}}</div>
1405808641776 1395802358422 Which symathetic nucleus receives hyothalamic
inut to trigger <b>mydriasis</b>&nbs;(uillary dilation)?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Ciliosinal center of Budge (C8-T2)}}</div>
1405808829475 1395802358422 Which ciliary nerves innervate the uillary <b>
dilator</b>&nbs;muscles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Long</u>&nbs;ciliary ne
rve}}</div>
1405808852219 1395802358422 Which uillary muscles trigger <b>mydriasis?</b
><div><b><br /></b></div><div>{{c1::Puillary dilator muscles}}</div>
1405808884440 1395802358422 Which midbrain nucleus <b>directly </b>receives
light signals via CN II in the uillary light reflex?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Pretectal nucleus}}</div>
></div>
1405808947978 1395802358422 Which midbrain nucleus is activated by the Prete
ctal nuclei in the uillary light reflex?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Edinger-We
sthal nuclei}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-32800665239963.jg" /></div>
1405808978140 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the midbrain triggers bilateral
uil contraction in the uillary light reflex?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Edi
nger-Westhal Nucleus}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-32800665239963.jg" /
></div>
1405809021284 1395802358422 {{c1::Marcus-Gunn Puil}} is a athological ui
l that occurs due to <b>otic nerve damage or a severe retinal injury</b>&nbs;a
nd resents with a <b>loss/decrease of bilateral uillary constriction to light
</b>. <br /><div><i>Tested with the "<b>swinging flashlight test</b>"</i></div
1405809092063 1395802358422 {{c1::Retinal detachment}} is a retinal disorder
defined as searation of the neurosensory layer of the retina from the igmente
d eithelium, thereby leading to degeneration of hotorecetors.
<br /><d
iv><i>The neurosensory layer of the retina = rods and cones.</i></div><div><i>Re
tinal igmented eithelium = the layer that shields excess light and suorts th
e retina.</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-33801392619624.jg" /></i></div>
1405809602325 1395802358422 What visual field defect is seen in <b>lesion of
the otic nerve</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Isilateral anoia}}</div>
<div><br /></div>#1<br /><div><img src="aste-34243774251776.jg" /></div>
1405810216759 1395802358422 What visual field deficit is seen in <b>otic ch

iasm lesions</b>&nbs;(e.g. with a ituitary tumour)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Bitemoral hemianoia}}</div> <div><br /></div>#2<br /><div><img src="aste-34
239479284480.jg" /></div>
1405810259976 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in an<b>&nbs;otic
tract</b>&nbs;lesion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Contralateral homonymous hemia
noia}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>#3</i><br /><div><img src="aste-34239479284
480.jg" /></div>
1405810628319 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in <b>temoral lobe
lesion </b>(Meyer's Loo)<b>?</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div>{{c1::Contralatera
l uer quadrant anoia}}</div> <div><br /></div>#4<br /><div><img src="aste-34
239479284480.jg" /></div>
1405810678375 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in a <b>arietal lob
e lesion </b>(Dorsal Otic Radiation; Baum's Loo)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C
ontralateral lower quadrantic anoia}}</div>
<div><br /></div>#5<br /><div><i
mg src="aste-34239479284480.jg" /></div>
1405810710845 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in <b>infarction of
the Posterior Cerebral Artery (PCA)</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Contralatera
l hemianoia with macular saring}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This is because th
e macula has bilateral rojection to the occiut.</i></div><div><i>#6</i></div><
div><i><img src="aste-34239479284480.jg" /></i></div>
1405810785224 1395802358422 What visual deficit is seen in <b>macular degene
ration</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Central scotoma in the affected eye}}</di
v>
<br /><div>#7</div><div><img src="aste-34239479284480.jg" /></div>
1405810822359 1395802358422 {{c1::Meyer's Loo}} is a section of the otic t
ract that carries visual information from the <b>inferior retina</b>&nbs;around
the <b>inferior horn of the lateral ventricle</b>&nbs;through the <b>temoral
lobe</b>.
1405811062562 1395802358422 {{c1::Dorsal Otic Radiation (Baum's Loo)}} is
a section of the otic tract that carries information from the <b>suerior retin
a</b>&nbs;via the internal casule and <b>arietal lobe</b>. <br /><div><i>Th
is is the shortest route to the occiut.</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-342394
79284480.jg" /></i></div>
1405811109332 1395802358422 {{c1::Medial Longitudinal Fascicle}} is a visual
tract that allows for crosstalk between <b>CN VI</b>&nbs;and <b>CN III</b>&nbs
;nuclei, thereby coordinating <b>horizontal gaze</b>. <div><br /></div><i>It i
s very highly myelinated in order for extremely quick communication.</i><div><i>
Hence, <b>demyelinating disorders resent with symtoms</b>.<br /></i><div><img
src="aste-35781372543332.jg" /></div></div>
1405811243621 1395802358422 {{c1::Internuclear Ohthalmolegia (INO)}} is a
visual disorder that results from <b>lesion to the MLF</b>&nbs;and resents wit
h a <b>lack of adduction of the isilateral eye</b>&nbs;and <b>nystagmus</b>&nb
s;in the contralateral eye.
<div><br /></div><i>"<b>INO</b>&nbs;a <b>MLF</b
>&nbs;that can't <b>Add</b>(uct)."</i><div><i>When the CN VI nucleus activates
the isilateral lateral rectus, the contralateral medial rectus is not activated
by the contralateral CNIII nucleus.</i></div><div><i><u>This to me was unnecess
arily confusing. Whoever named the MLF's sucks balls.</u></i></div><div><i><b>Th
e MLF's are named according to which side they <u>synase on</u>, not the side f
rom which they originate </b>(which would make so much more sense to me).<br /><
/i><div><img src="aste-35948876267875.jg" /></div></div>
1405811550653 1395802358422 Which eye is unable to <b>adduct</b>&nbs;follow
ing a lesion to the <b>MLF</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The <b>IPSILATERAL</b
>&nbs;eye}}</div>
<br /><div><i>All cas for emhasis because this one alw
ays gets me by virtue of the MLF naming.</i></div><div><i></i><i><div></div></i>
<i><b>The MLF's are named according to which side they&nbs;<u>synase on</u>, n
ot the side from which they originate&nbs;</b>(which would make so much more se
nse to me).</i></div><div><i></i><i>Hence, l<u>esion to the LEFT MLF, result in
a loss of adduction in the LEFT eye (i.e. LEFT INO) even if the MLF is lesioned
in the right side of the body</u> (i.e. at the right Abducens nucleus).</i></div
><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i><div></div></i><i><b><br /></b></i><div><img sr
c="aste-35948876267875.jg" /></div></div>
1397777994357 1395802358422 Which tye of Pneumocyte is most abundant at alv
eolar surfaces?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye I neumocytes (97%)}}</div>
1397778928590 1395802358422 {{c1::Tye I neumocytes}} are a tye of neumoc
yte that are <b>squamous</b>&nbs;and thin, hence they are otimal for gas excha
nge.
<br /><div><i>97% of the alveolar lining is Tye I neumocytes</i>.</div
>
1397779013570 1395802358422 Which tye of neumocytes are the <b>stem cells<
/b>&nbs;of the lungs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye II neumocytes}}</div>
1397779040710 1395802358422 Which tye of neumocytes <b>secrete ulmonary s
urfactant</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tye II neumocytes}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Remember, ulmonary surfactant works to <b>decrease</b>&nbs;alveolar surf
ace tension and <b>revents alveolar collase</b>&nbs;(atelectasis).</i></div>
1397779108014 1395802358422 {{c1::Tye II neumocytes}} are a tye of neumo
cyte that is <b>cuboidal</b>&nbs;and <b>clustered</b>.
1397779134203 1395802358422 {{c1::Tye II neumocytes}} are a tye of neumo
cyte that function as the stem cells of the lungs, roliferating into Tye I and
Tye II cells during lung damage.
1397779163603 1395802358422 {{c1::Clara cells}} are a tye of neumocyte tha
t are <b>nonciliated</b>, <b>columnar cells</b>&nbs;with secretory granules.
1397779193280 1395802358422 {{c1::Clara cells}} are a tye of neumocyte tha
t degrades toxins and acts as reserve cells.
1397779214201 1395802358422 Which tye of neumocyte degrades toxins and act
s as reserve cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clara cells}}</div>
1397779260542 1395802358422 What is the equation for the <b>collasing ress
ure</b>&nbs;of an alveolus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Collasing Pressure = P
= [2(surface tension)]/radius}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence, alveoli have an inc
reased tendency to collase during exiration as radius decreases (this is Lala
ce's Law).</i></div>
1397779604235 1395802358422 What is the most imortant lechitin found in sur
factant?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dialmitoylhohatidylcholine}}</div>
1397779663483 1395802358422 During which week of gestation does lung surfact
ant roduction begin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Week 26}}</div>
1397779690179 1395802358422 During which week of gestation are <b>mature lev
els of surfactant</b>&nbs;achieves?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Week 35}}</div>
1397779717267 1395802358422 Which Lecithin:Shingomyelin ratio is indicative
of fetal lung maturity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L:S > 2.0}}</div>
1397779796585 1395802358422 Which lung has 3 lobes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Right}}</div>
1397779819124 1395802358422 Which lung has 2 lobes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Left}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-30322469110056.jg" /></div>
1397779826982 1395802358422 Which lung has the Lingula?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Left}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b>L</b>eft = <b>L</b>ingula</i></div><div
><i><img src="aste-30322469110056.jg" /></i></div>
1397779840806 1395802358422 {{c1::Lingula}} is a region of the left lung tha
t is a homologue of the right middle lobe (of the right lung).
1397779877330 1395802358422 Which lung is the more common site for inhaled f
oreign bodies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Right lung}}</div>
<br /><div><br /
></div>
1397779951676 1395802358422 {{c1::Right Lung}} is the lung that is the most
common site for inhaled foreign bodies because its main stem bronchus is wider a
nd more vertical than the oosite lung's.
469110056.jg" /></div>
1397780094689 1395802358422 Which lung &am; lobe will an asirated foreign
body get stuck in while the atient is <b>uright</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Lower ortion of the right inferior lobe}}</div>
te-30322469110056.jg" /></div>
1397780154188 1395802358422 Which lung &am; lobe will an asirated foreign
body get stuck in if the atient is <b>suine</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Su
erior ortion of the right inferior lobe}}</div>
te-30322469110056.jg" /></div>
1397780323867 1395802358422 What is the relation of the <b>ulmonary artery
to the bronchus</b>&nbs;at the <b>right lung</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::An
terior}}</div> <br /><div><i><b>RALS</b>&nbs;= <b>R</b>ight <b>A</b>nterior, <
b>L</b>eft <b>S</b>uerior</i></div>
1397780414904 1395802358422 What is the relation of the <b>ulmonary artery
to the bronchus</b>&nbs;at the <b>left lung</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Su
erior}}</div> <br /><div><i><b>RALS</b>&nbs;=&nbs;<b>R</b>ight&nbs;<b>A</b>
nterior,&nbs;<b>L</b>eft&nbs;<b>S</b>uerior</i></div>
1397780434886 1395802358422 At which vertebral level does the IVC erforate
the diahragm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T8}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>"I 8
10 eggs at 12"</i><br /><div><img src="aste-30988189040954.jg" /></div>
1397780538042 1395802358422 At which vertebral level does the esohagus erf
orate the diahragm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T10}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><div><i>"I 8 10 eggs at 12"</i><br /><div><img src="aste-30988189040954.jg" /
></div></div>
1397780558260 1395802358422 At which vertebral level does the Vagus Nerve (C
N X) erforate the diahragm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T10 (both trunks)}}</di
v>
<br /><div><i>"Cranial Nerve <b>10</b>&nbs;at T<b>10</b>"</i><br /><div
><img src="aste-30988189040954.jg" /></div></div>
1397780610916 1395802358422 At which vertebral level does the aorta erforat
e the diahragm?<div><br />{{c1::T12}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"I 8 10 eggs at 12
"</i></div><div><i></i><i>"At&nbs;<b>T-1-2</b>&nbs;its&nbs;<b>red, white and
blue</b>" (aorta = red; thoracic duct = white; azygos vein = blue)</i><div><img
src="aste-30988189040954.jg" /></div></div>
1397780629981 1395802358422 At which vertebral level does the Thoracic Duct
erforate the diahragm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T12}}</div> <br /><div><i>"A
t <b>T-1-2</b>&nbs;its <b>red, white and blue</b>" (aorta = red; thoracic duct
= white; azygos vein = blue)</i><br /><div><img src="aste-30988189040954.jg" /
></div></div>
1397780702805 1395802358422 At which vertebral level does the Azygos Vein e
rforate the diahragm?<div><br />{{c1::T12}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"At&nbs;<
b>T-1-2</b>&nbs;its&nbs;<b>red, white and blue</b>" (aorta = red; thoracic duc
t = white; azygos vein = blue)</i><br /><div><img src="aste-30988189040954.jg"
/></div></div>
1397780721375 1395802358422 Which nerve innervates the diahragm?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Phrenic Nerve}}</div>
1397781386335 1395802358422 Which <b>nerve roots</b>&nbs;innervate the dia
hragm via the hrenic nerve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C3, C4, C5}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"C3, 4, 5 kee the diahragm alive."</i></div><div><i>Hence diahr
agm ain can radiate the to shoulder (C5) or traezius ridge (C3, C4).</i></div>
1397829115104 1395802358422 Which lung volume equates the volume of air that
can still be breathed in after normal insiration?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I
nsiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-850403525001.
jg" /></div>
1397830119483 1395802358422 Which lung volume equates the volume of air that
moves into the lungs with each quiet insiration?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ti
dal Volume (TV)}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-846108557705.jg" /></div>
1397830145620 1395802358422 What is the tyical lung Tidal Volume (TV)?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::500 mL}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-846108557705.
jg" /></div>
1397830179778 1395802358422 Which lung volume equates to the volume of air t
hat can still be breathed out after normal exiration?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Exiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)}}</div>
8557705.jg" /></div>
1397830209139 1395802358422 Which lung volume equates to the volume of air t
hat remains in the lung after a maximal exiration?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::R
esidual Volume (RV)}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="aste-846108557705.jg" /><
/div>
1397830247804 1395802358422 Which lung voume cannot be measured on sirometr
y?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Residual Volume (RV)}}</div>

<br /><div><img
src="aste-846108557705.jg" /></div>
1397830267863 1395802358422 Which lung volumes make u lung Insiratory Caa
city (IC)?<div><br />{{c1::IRV + TV}}</div>
96984240.jg" /></div>
1397830442190 1395802358422 Which lung volumes make u lung Functional Resid
ual Caacity (FRC)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::RV + ERV}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="aste-1705102016944.jg" /></div>
1397830487091 1395802358422 Which lung volumes make u lung (Functional) Vit
al Caacity (VC)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::TV + IRV + ERV}}</div>
<br /><d
1397830673103 1395802358422 {{c1::(Functional) Vital Caacity (VC)}} is a lu
ng caacity that equates to the maximum volume of air that can be exired after
a maximal insiration. <div><br /></div><i>"FVC = inhaling maximally and then e
xhaling maximally = inhaling and blowing out birthday candles."</i><br /><div><i
mg src="aste-1705102016944.jg" /></div>
1397830828080 1395802358422 Which lung volumes make u Total Lung Caacity (
TLC)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IRV + TV + ERV + RV}}</div>
<div><br /></div
1397830859114 1395802358422 {{c1::Total Lung Caacity (TLC)}} is a lung caa
city that equates to the volume of air resent in the lungs after a maximal ins
iration.
1397830882061 1395802358422 Which lung caacity is equal to the volume of ga
s resent in the lungs after a maximal insiration?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T
otal Lung Caacity (TLC)}}</div>
.jg" /></div>
1397830912571 1395802358422 What is the equation for <b>Minute Ventilation (
V<sub>E</sub>)</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V<sub>E</sub>&nbs;= V<sub>T</sub
>&nbs;* RR}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Minute Ventilation = total volume of air e
ntering the lungs er minute</i></div><div><i>V<sub>T</sub>&nbs;= tidal volume<
/i></div><div><i>RR = resiratory rate</i></div>
1397831272415 1395802358422 What is the equation for&nbs;<b>Alveolar Ventil
ation (V<sub>A</sub>)</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V<sub>A</sub>&nbs;= (V<su
b>T</sub>&nbs;- V<sub>D</sub>) * RR}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Alveolar Ventilati
on = volume of gas er unit time that reaches the alveoli</i></div><div><i>V<sub
>T</sub>&nbs;= tidal volume</i></div><div><i>V<sub>D</sub>&nbs;= hysiological
dead sace</i></div><div><i>RR = resiratory rate</i></div>
1397831355730 1395802358422 Which globin chains are found in adult Hemoglobi
n (HbA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<sub>2</sub><su>2</su>}}</div> <r /><d
1397832346312 1395802358422 Which <>morphological form</>&nsp;of Hemoglo
in has <>lower</>&nsp;O<su>2</su>&nsp;affinity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Taut (T) form}}</div>
1397832384428 1395802358422 Which <>morphological form</>&nsp;of Hemoglo
in has <>high</>&nsp;O<su>2</su>&nsp;affinity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Relaxed (R) form; 300x more affinity than the taut form}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-3040836845747.jpg" /></div>
1397832421132 1395802358422 How does Hemogloin's affinity for O<su>2</su>
&nsp;change following an <>increase</>&nsp;in [H<sup>+</sup>] (i.e. decrease
d pH)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dis
sociation curve shifts to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
&nsp;change following an&nsp;<>increase</>&nsp;in CO<su>2</su>?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dissociation curve
shifts to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
&nsp;change following an&nsp;<>increase</>&nsp;in 2,3-BPG?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dissociation curve shifts
to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
&nsp;change following an&nsp;<>increase</>&nsp;in temperature?<div><r /></

div><div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dissociation curve shi
fts to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
&nsp;change following an&nsp;<>increase</>&nsp;in [Cl<sup>-</sup>]?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decreased affinity; taut form is favoured; dissociation curv
e shifts to the right; O2 unloading is favoured}}</div>
1397832672968 1395802358422 Where in the ody is the <>Taut (T)</>&nsp;fo
rm of Hemogloin typically found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::At tissue (where O2
unloading is needed)}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, the Taut form has <>dec
reased O<su>2</su>&nsp;affinity</></i></div>
1397832738046 1395802358422 Where in the ody is the <>Relaxed (R)</>&nsp
;form of Hemogloin typically found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lungs; Respirato
ry tract (where O2 loading is required)}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, the Rela
xed form of H has <>300x higher O<su>2</su>&nsp;affinity than the Taut form
</></i></div>
1397832776938 1395802358422 What gloin chains are found in <>fetal</>&ns
p;Hemogloin (HF)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<sub>2</sub><sub>2</sub>}}</div>
1397832817748 1395802358422 Why does fetal hemolobin (HbF) have a hiher af
finity for O<sub>2</sub>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::It has lower affinity for 2
,3-BPG, which decreases O<sub>2</sub> affinity}}</div>
1397832864087 1395802358422 {{c1::Methemolobin}} is a modified form of Hemo
lobin that is oxidized and thereby has a <b>ferric (Fe<sup>3+</sup>)</b> a
tom in its heme roup.
1397832958447 1395802358422 {{c1::Methemolobin}} is a modified form of hemo
lobin that is oxidized, and hence does not bind to O<sub>2</sub> as readil
y.
1397832983310 1395802358422 Which modified form of hemolobin has an <b>incr
eased affinity for cyanide</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Methemolobin}}</div>
1397833023131 1395802358422 In which state is iron normally found in Hemolo
bin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ferr<b>ous</b> (Fe<sup style="font-weiht:
bold; ">2+</sup>)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"Just the <b>2</b> of <b>us</
b>" = Fe<b><sup>2+</sup> </b>is Ferro<b>us</b></i></div>
1397833230303 1395802358422 Which modified form of hemolobin is associated
with cyanosis and <b>chocolate-coloured blood</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Methemolobin}}</div>
1397833270572 1395802358422 Which modified form of hemolobin is used to tre
at cyanide poisonin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Methemolobin}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>We use nitrates to oxidize hemolobin into methemolobin which then binds
to cyanide. Thiosulfate is then used to bind this cyanide, formin thiocyanate w
hich is renally excreted.</i></div>
1397833362782 1395802358422 {{c1::Methemolobin}} is a modified form of hemo
lobin that can be used to treat cyanide poisonin.
1397833381907 1395802358422 What <b>type</b> of drus do we use to oxid
ize Hemolobin into Methemolobin such that we can treat cyanide poisonin?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Nitrates}}</div> <br /><div><i>We use nitrates to oxidize
hemolobin into methemolobin which then binds to cyanide. Thiosulfate is then
used to bind this cyanide, formin thiocyanate which is renally excreted.</i></d
iv>
1397833414786 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Methemolobinemia?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Methylene Blue}}</div> <br /><div><i><b>Meth</b>emolob
inemia is treated with <b>meth</b>ylene blue.</i></div>
1397833462085 1395802358422 {{c1::Carboxyhemolobin}} is a modified form of
hemolobin that is bound to CO in place of O<sub>2</sub>.
1397833503353 1395802358422 Which modified form of hemolobin is bound to CO
instead of O2?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Carboxyhemolobin}}</div>
1397833527560 1395802358422 How does the O2-hemolobin dissociated curve shi
ft in <b>Carboxyhemolobinemia</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Left shift; there
is <b>decreased O2 bindin capacity</b> and <b>decreased O2 unloadin at t
issue</b>}}</div>
1397833584227 1395802358422 How many times reater is CO's affinity for Hb t

han O2's affinity for Hb?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::200x}}</div>
1397833619153 1395802358422 How does Hemolobin's affinity for O2 chane if
there is a <b>riht-shift</b> in the Hb saturation curve?<div><br /></div><
div><im src="paste-6433861009835.jp" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decre
ased affinity; i.e. <u>more O2 is needed to saturate Hb</u>}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>An increase in all of the parameters (includin H<sup>+</sup>) will cause
a riht-shift of the curve.</i></div><div><i></i><i>A decrease in all of the par
ameters (includin H<sup>+</sup>) will cause a left-shift of the curve.</i></div
>
1397835659436 1395802358422 What volume of Oxyen can be bound by 1 of Hb?
<div><br />{{c1::1.34 mL}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Normal [Hb] is 15 /dL</i>
</div>
1397835993703 1395802358422 What <b>deoxyenated</b> hemolobin blood concen
tration is associated with cyanosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Deoxyenated Hb
&t; 5 /dL}}</div>
1397843144868 1395802358422 Which area of the lun has the <b>hihest V
/Q ratio</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Apex of the lun (V/Q = 3)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hence there is wasted venilation.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste
-9332963934649.jp" /></i></div>
1397843864972 1395802358422 Which area of the lun has the <b>lowest V/Q rat
io</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base of lun (V/Q = 0.6)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hence there is wasted perfusion.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-93286689
67353.jp" /></i></div>
1397843924817 1395802358422 What does a V/Q ratio <b>close to zero</b>
indicate?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Airway obstruction}}</div> <br /><div><i>i.
e. ventilation = 0.</i></div>
1397844065841 1395802358422 What does a V/Q ratio close to <b>infinity</b>&n
bsp;indicate?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blood flow obstruction}}</div>
1397844087625 1395802358422 Which area of the lun has the reatest perfusio
n?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base}}</div>
1397844128273 1395802358422 Which area of the lun has the reatest ventilat
ion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base}}</div>
1397844140607 1395802358422 What form is the majority of CO<sub>2</sub>&nbsp
;found in the blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HCO<sub>3</sub><sup>-</sup>}}</d
iv>
<div><br /></div><im src="paste-10355166151167.jp" />
1404750780726 1395802358422 {{c1::Conductin Zone}} is a section of the resp
iratory tree that functions to <b>warm, humidify</b> and <b>filter</b>&nbsp
;air but does not participate in as exchane. <br /><div><i>i.e. physioloical
dead space</i></div>
1404752342227 1395802358422 Which type of epithelium is found in most of the
counductin zone of the luns?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pseudostratified cili
ated columnar epithelium}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Functions to beat mucous u
p and out of the luns.</i></div><div><i>Seen up to the terminal bronchioles at
which point it transitions to cuboidal cells.</i></div><div><i>Also, <b>airway s
mooth muscle extends to the end of the terminal bronchioles</b> (and is spa
rse beyond that point) while <b>cartilae and oblet cells extend to the end of
the bronchi</b>.</i></div>
1404752491676 1395802358422 {{c1::Respiratory Zone}} is a sement of the res
piratory tree that <b>participates in as exchane</b>. <br /><div><i>i.e. the l
un parenchyma (respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts and alveoli)</i></div><d
iv><i><im src="paste-2357937046019.jp" /></i></div>
1404753310737 1395802358422 Which type of epithelium is found in the respira
tory zone of the respiratory tree?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cuboidal cells in
respiratory bronchioles; simple squamous epithelium up to the alveoli}}</div>
<br /><div><i>There are n<b>o cilia</b> in the respiratory zone.</i></div><
div><i>There are also alveolar macrophaes that clear debris and participate in
the immune response.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-2353642078723.jp" /></i><
/div>
1404765729222 1395802358422 {{c1::Physioloical Dead Space}} is a respirator
y physioloical parameter defined as the <b>volume of anatomical dead space</b>&

nbsp;<u style="font-weiht: bold; ">plus</u> the <b>volume of functional de
ad space in alveoli</b>.
<br /><div><i>i.e. the volume of inspired air th
at does not take part in as exchane</i></div>
1404765844156 1395802358422 {{c1::Physioloical dead space}} is a respirator
y physioloical parameter that is defined as the <b>volume of inspired air that
does not take part in as exchane</b>. <br /><div><im src="paste-3143916060758
.jp" /></div>
1404765892175 1395802358422 Which area of the lun is the larest contributo
r of <b>functional</b> dead space?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Apex of the l
un}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, functional dead space = dead space in th
e alveoli.</i></div>
1404765938789 1395802358422 What is the equation for determinin Physioloic
al Dead Space (of the lun)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="paste-31396210
93462.jp" />}}</div> <br /><div><i>V<sub>T</sub> = tidal volume</i></div
><div><i>P<sub>a</sub>CO2 = arterial P<sub>CO2</sub></i></div><div><i>P<sub
>E</sub>CO2 = expired air P<sub>CO2</sub></i></div><div><i><sub><im src="paste3393024163950.jp" /></sub></i></div>
1404766068400 1395802358422 {{c1::Minute ventilation (V<sub>E</sub>)}} is a
respiratory physioloical parameter that is defined as the <b>total volume of a
s enterin the luns per minute</b>.
<br /><div><i>V<sub>E</sub> = V<sub
>T</sub> * RR</i></div>
1404769649028 1395802358422 What is the equation for Minute Ventilation (V<s
ub>E</sub>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V<sub>E</sub> = V<sub>T</sub>
x RR}}</div>
1404769678182 1395802358422 {{c1::Alveolar Ventilation (V<sub>A</sub>)}} is
a respiratory physioloical parameter defined as the <b>volume of as per unit t
ime that reaches the alveoli</b>.
<br /><div><i>V<sub>A</sub> = (V<su
b>T</sub> - V<sub>D</sub>) x RR</i></div>
1404769834488 1395802358422 What is the equation for Alveolar Ventilation (V
<sub>A</sub>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V<sub>A</sub> = (V<sub>T</sub>&nb
sp;- V<sub>D</sub>) x RR}}</div>
<br /><div><i>V<sub>D</sub> = physi
oloical dead space</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-3886945402962.jp" /></i></
div>
1404769886426 1395802358422 {{c1::Compliance}} is a physioloical parameter
of the luns that describes the oran's ability to <b>chane in volume for a iv
en chane in pressure</b>.
<br /><div><i>Think of compliance as the <b>abil
ity of the oran to distend/increase in volume with an increase in transmural pr
essure</b>.</i></div><div><i>Hence, <b>increased compliance</b> = <b>increa
sed ability to expand = less recoil</b></i></div><div><i>Hence, <b>decreased com
pliance = decreased ability to expand = more recoil</b></i></div>
1404770264260 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane in Pulmonary Fib
rosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404770276592 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane in Pneumonia?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404770284408 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane in Pulmonary Ede
ma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404770294774 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane in emphysema?<di
1404770305266 1395802358422 How does lun compliance chane with normal ain
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404770313052 1395802358422 What is the alveolar air pressure at FRC (Functi
onal Residual Capacity)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::0}}</div> <br /><div><im
src="paste-4170413244941.jp" /></div>
1404770384035 1395802358422 {{c1::Positive cooperativity}} is a kinetic feat
ure of oxyen-hemolobin bindin that ives the dissociation curve its simoidal
shape and is described as <b>hih affinity for O<sub>2</sub> for each subs
equent O<sub>2</sub> molecule bound</b>, as hemolobin is tetrameric.
<div><br /></div><i>Myolobin is monomeric and hence does not show positive coop
erativity.</i><br /><div><im src="paste-4574140170838.jp" /><im src="paste-45
95615007330.jp" /></div>
1404781030201 1395802358422 In which direction does the oxyen-hemolobin di
ssociation curve shift if there is a <b>decrease</b> in the affinity of hem
olobin for O<sub>2</sub>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Riht}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>An <b>increase</b> in all factors (includin [H<sup>+</sup>]) shifts
the curve to the riht.</i></div><div><i>A <b>decrease</b> </i><i>in all fa
ctors (includin [H<sup>+</sup>]) shifts the curve to the riht.</i></div><div><
i><b>Fetal Hb</b> has hiher affinity for O<sub>2</sub>, hence its curve is
shifted to the left.</i></div><div><im src="paste-4930622456100.jp" /></div>
1404781484491 1395802358422 Which way does <b>2,3-BPG</b> shift the oxy
en-hemolobin dissociation curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Riht (i.e. decrea
ses affinity)}}</div> <br /><div><im src="paste-4926327488804.jp" /></div>
1404782729280 1395802358422 Which way does CO<sub>2</sub> shift the oxy
en-hemolobin dissociation curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Riht (i.e. decrea
sed affinity)}}</div> <br /><div><im src="paste-4926327488804.jp" /></div>
1404782769339 1395802358422 Which way does acid shift the oxyen-dissociatio
n curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Riht (i.e. decreased affinity)}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="paste-4926327488804.jp" /></div>
1404782791164 1395802358422 Which way does increased altitude shift the oxy
en-dissociation curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Riht (i.e. decreased affinity
)}}</div>
1404782848212 1395802358422 Which way does increased temperature shift the o
xyen-dissociation curve?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Riht (i.e. decreased affin
ity)}}</div>
1404832416327 1395802358422 What is the equation for the O<sub>2</sub>
content of blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::O<sub>2</sub> content = (O<sub
>2</sub> bindin capacity * % saturation) + dissolved O<sub>2</sub>}}</div>
<br /><div><i>O<sub>2</sub> bindin capaci
ty ~ 20.1 mL O<sub>2</sub>/dL</i></
div><div><i>O<sub>2</sub> delivery to tissue = CO * O<sub>2</sub> cont
ent</i></div>
1404832500018 1395802358422 How much O<sub>2</sub> does 1 of hemolob
in normally bind?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1.34 mL O<sub>2</sub>}}</div>
1404832529966 1395802358422 What is the normal concentration of hemolobin i
n the blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::15 /dL}}</div>
1404832628076 1395802358422 At which concentration of <b>deoxyenated hemol
obin</b> does cyanosis occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::&t; 5 /dL of deo
xyenated hemolobin}}</div>
1404833656335 1395802358422 What is the equation for the amount of O<sub>2</
sub> delivered to tissue?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::O<sub>2</sub> del
ivery = CO * O<sub>2</sub> content}}</div>
1404833701334 1395802358422 How does % O<sub>2</sub> saturation of hemo
lobin chane with CO poisonin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease; CO compete
s with O<sub>2</sub> for bindin on Hb}}</div>
in turn decreases total O<sub>2</sub> content despite Hb levels stayin th
e same.</i><br /><div><im src="paste-1748051689886.jp" /></div>
1404834255352 1395802358422 How does % O<sub>2</sub> saturation of Hb c
hane in anaemia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No chane; Normal}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>Remember, saturation is a <b>percentae</b>.</i><br /><div><im src=
"paste-1743756722590.jp" /></div>
1404834290657 1395802358422 How does a <b>decrease</b> in <b>PA<sub>O2<
/sub> </b>influence pulmonary circulation/vasculature?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Causes <u>hypoxic vasoconstriction</u>}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is to
shift blood <b>away from poorly ventilated reions of the lun to well ventilat
ed reions of the lun</b>. This is also a unique feature of the luns. All othe
r tissues vasodilate in hypoxic conditions.</i></div><div><i>Normally, the pulmo
nary circulatory system is a low-resistance, hih-compliance system.</i></div>
1404835583966 1395802358422 {{c1::O<sub>2 </sub>(when healthy)}}, {{c2:
:CO<sub>2</sub>}} and {{c3::N<sub>2</sub>O}} are 3 <u style="font-weiht: b
old; ">perfusion limited</u> ases that equilibrate early alon the lenth
of the capillary.
<div><br /></div><i>Hence, diffusion can only be increas
ed by an increase in blood flow.</i><br /><div><im src="paste-2379411882402.jp

" /></div>
1404835893294 1395802358422 {{c1::O<sub>2</sub> (in emphysema or pulmon
ary fibrosis)}} and {{c2::CO}} are 2 <u style="font-weiht: bold; ">diffusi
on limited</u> ases that <b>do not</b> equilibrate in the blood alon
the lenth of the capillary. <br /><div><i>i.e. by time the blood reaches the
end of the capillary, the as has not equilibrated between the alveolus and cap
illary</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-2611340116381.jp" /></i></div>
1404835987190 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cor pulmonale</i>}} is a cardiac compli
cation of pulmonary hypertension that involves <b>riht ventricular failure</b>&
nbsp;and hence presents with juular venous distension, edema and hepatomealy.
1404836050035 1395802358422 What is the equation for diffusion of a as acro
ss the pulmonary surface?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V<sub>as</sub> = A/T
* D<sub>k</sub>(P<sub>1</sub>-P<sub>2</sub>)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>A = area (
<b>decreases in Emphysema</b>)</i></div><div><i>T = thickness (<b>increases in p
ulmonary fibrosis</b>)</i></div><div><i>D<sub>k</sub>(P<sub>1</sub>-P<sub>2</sub
>) = difference in partial pressure</i></div>
1404837087279 1395802358422 How does the diffusion of O<sub>2</sub> at
the luns chane in pulmonary fibrosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</d
iv>
1404837126283 1395802358422 What is the equation for pulmonary vascular resi
stance?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="paste-3006477107328.jp" />}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This is essentially a rearranement of <b>MAP = CO * TPR</b>
to salve for TPR (PVR).</i><div><i><br /></i><div><im src="paste-30279519
43949.jp" /></div></div>
1404837218619 1395802358422 What is the equation for PA<sub>O2</sub>?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="paste-3062311682263.jp" />}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><im src="paste-3075196584337.jp" /></div>
1404837261529 1395802358422 What is the equation for the A-a radient?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::A-a radient = PA<sub>O2</sub> - Pa<sub>O2</sub>&nbsp
;= 10-15 mmH}}</div> <br /><div><i>The A-a radient <b>may increase in hypoxe
mia</b> due to shuntin, V/Q mismatch and pulmonary fibrosis (which impairs
diffusion).</i></div>
1404837410294 1395802358422 How does the A-a radient chane with hih altit
ude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Normal; no chane}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-3354369458521.jp" /></div>
1404837742607 1395802358422 How does the A-a radient chane with hypoventil
ation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Normal; no chane}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-3350074491225.jp" /></div>
1404837755431 1395802358422 How does the A-a radient chane with V/Q mismat
ch?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><im src="paste-33500
74491225.jp" /></div>
1404837769846 1395802358422 How does the A-a radient chane with a Riht-to
-left cardiovascular shunt?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><d
1404837791346 1395802358422 How does the A-a radient chane when there is a
pulmonary diffusion limitation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404837821138 1395802358422 Which zone of the lun has the hihest V/Q ratio
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Apex (V/Q = 3)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>i.e.
there is <b>wasted ventilation at the apex of the lun</b>.</i><div><i>This is
attributed to ravity and it's effect on blood flow (Q), which is lower at the a
pex of the lun vs. the lower lun zones, despite the fact that ventilation is a
lso the lowest at the apex of the lun.<br /></i><div><im src="paste-3513283248
695.jp" /></div></div>
1404838093864 1395802358422 Which zone of the lun has the lowest V/Q ratio?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Base (V/Q = 0.6)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. there
is <b>wasted perfusion at the base</b> of the lun.</i></div><div><i><im
src="paste-3508988281399.jp" /></i></div><div><i><br /></i></div>
1404838108407 1395802358422 Which zone of the lun has <b>reater</b> v
entilation <u style="font-weiht: bold; ">and</u> perfusion?<div><br /></di

v><div>{{c1::Base}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="paste-3508988281399.jp" />
</div>
1404838147427 1395802358422 What is the ideal V/Q pulmonary ratio?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. ideally, ventilation would eq
ual perfusion, allowin for the most efficient as chane.</i></div><div><i><b>V
/Q approaches 1 durin exercise</b> (increased CO) due to vasodilation of t
he apical pulmonary capillaries.</i></div>
1404839332950 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</i>}} is a M
ycobacterial species that thrives in hih O<sub>2</sub> and flourishes in t
he apex of the lun.
1404839386030 1395802358422 What does a V/Q ratio of <b>zero</b> indica
te?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Airway obstruction (shunt)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>In this case, <b>100% O<sub>2</sub> will not improve P<sub>O2</sub>.<
/b></i></div>
1404839431224 1395802358422 What does a V/Q ratio of <b>infinity</b> in
dicate?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Obstructed blood flow (i.e. there is a lot of
physioloical dead space)}}</div>
<div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>Assumin
there is < 100% dead space, <b>100% O<sub>2</sub> will improve P<sub>O2
</sub>.</b></i></div>
1404839509445 1395802358422 In which form is CO<sub>2</sub> most common
ly transported from tissues to the luns?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HCO<sub>3</
sub><sup>-</sup> (90%)}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="paste-4913442587341
.jp" /></div>
1404841287711 1395802358422 {{c1::Carbaminohemolobin (HbCO<sub>2</sub>)}} i
s a molecule used as a form of CO<sub>2</sub> transport that is descibed as
<b>CO<sub>2</sub> bound to hemolobin at the N-terminus of <u>lobin</u>.<
/b>
1404841564207 1395802358422 {{c1::Haldane Effect}} is a respiratory physiolo
ical phenomenon that involves the <b>release of CO<sub>2</sub> from RBCs</
b> at the lun followin oxyenation of hemolobin and dissociation of H<su
p>+</sup> from Hb. <br /><div><i>Oxyenation of Hb promotes the dissociatio
n of H<sup>+</sup><sub> </sub>from Hb, thereby shiftin the equilibrium tow
ards CO<sub>2</sub> formation and resultin in CO<sub>2</sub> release
from RBCs.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-5501853106880.jp" /></i></div>
1404842174022 1395802358422 {{c1::Bohr Effect}} is a respiratory physioloic
al phenomenon that involves the <b>unloadin of O<sub>2</sub> at peripheral
tissue from RBCs</b> due to an <b>increase in [H<sup>+</sup>]</b>.
1404842224730 1395802358422 How does ventilation chane in response to hih
altitude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pas
te-5768141078871.jp" /></div>
1404843519089 1395802358422 How does EPO levels chane in response to hih a
ltitude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="pas
te-5763846111575.jp" /></div>
1404843565757 1395802358422 How do 2,3-BPG levels chane in resposne to hih
altitude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><i>The ration
ale here is that <b>2,3-BPG triers O<sub>2</sub> release from Hb</b>.</i>
</div><div><i><im src="paste-5763846111575.jp" /></i></div>
1404843621188 1395802358422 How does the amount of mitochondria in a cell ch
ane in response to hih altitude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404843648596 1395802358422 How does renal excretion of HCO<sub>3</sub>&nbsp
;chane in response to hih altitude?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div
>
<br /><div><i>i.e. there is a <b>compensatory metabolic acidosis</b>&nbs
p;due to the respiratory alkalosis caused by the hyperventilation.</i></div><div
><i><im src="paste-5763846111575.jp" /></i></div>
1404843702295 1395802358422 How does ventilation rate chane in response to
exercise?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is to
meet the increased O<sub>2</sub> demand and increased CO<sub>2</sub>
production.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-5961414607166.jp" /></i></div>

1404843748277 1395802358422 How does blood pH chane in response to exercise
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div> <br /><div><i>Secondary to lacti
c acidosis</i>.</div><div><im src="paste-5957119639870.jp" /></div>
1403716405340 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymph nodes}} are secondary lymphoid struc
tures that are <b>encapsulated</b> and function to filter passin content,
store lymphocyte and mediat eimmune response. <br /><div><im src="paste-54546
0847004.jp" /></div>
1403716839425 1395802358422 In which area of the lymph node does <b>B-cell l
ocalization and proliferation</b> occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Follicl
e; found in the outer cortex}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Primary follicles ar
e dense and dormant.</i><div><i>Secondary follicles have pale central erminal c
enters and are active.<br /></i><div><im src="paste-541165879708.jp" /></div><
/div>
1403716964276 1395802358422 {{c1::Medullary Cords}} are structures found in
the medulla of lymph nodes that consist of closely packed lymphocytes and plasma
cells. <br /><div><im src="paste-541165879708.jp" /></div>
1403717222093 1395802358422 {{c1::Medullary sinuses}} are structures found i
n the medulla of lymph nodes that contain <b>reticular cells</b> and <b>mac
rophaes</b>. <br /><div><i>These medullary sinuses communicate with efferent
lymphatics.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-541165879708.jp" /></i></div>
1403717278166 1395802358422 In which area of the lymph node are T cells foun
d?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Paracortex; the reion of the lymph node between f
ollicles and the medulla}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>The paracortex conta
ins many venules throuh which T and B cells enter from the blood.</i><br /><div
><im src="paste-541165879708.jp" /></div>
1403717392705 1395802358422 Which area of the lymph nodes are not well devel
oped in patients with DiGeore Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Paracortex}}
</div> <div><br /></div><i>Remember, the paracortex houses T cells. DiGeore sy
ndrome involves a defect in T-cell maturation.</i><br /><div><im src="paste-541
165879708.jp" /></div>
1403717453496 1395802358422 Which area of the lymph node enlares in extreme
cellular immune responses (e.. viral infection)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pa
racortex}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Paracortex = T cells.</i></div><div><i><im
src="paste-541165879708.jp" /></i></div>
1403717495660 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>head and
neck</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cervical}}</div>
1403718149923 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>luns</b>
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hilar}}</div>
1403718158106 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>trachea a
nd esophaus</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mediastinal}}</div>
1403718169671 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>upper lim
bs</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Axillary}}</div>
1403718183586 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>breasts</
b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Axillary}}</div>
1403718189320 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>skin abov
e the umbilicus</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Axillary}}</div>
1403718201041 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>upper duo
denum</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403718227881 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>liver</b>
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403718231841 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>stomach</
b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403718237913 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>spleen</b
>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403718252658 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>pancreas<
/b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac}}</div>
1403719276413 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>lowe
r duodenum</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Superior Mesenteric}}</div>
1403719293404 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>jeju
num</b> and <b>ileum</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Superior mesenteric}}<

/div>
1403719308692 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>colo
n to the splenic flexure</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Superior mesenteric}}</
div>
1403719330371 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>colo
n from the splenic flexure to the upper rectum</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I
nferior Mesenteric}}</div>
1403719349605 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>lowe
r rectum to the anal canal</b> (above the pectinate line)?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Internal Iliac}}</div>
1403719373994 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>blad
der</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Internal Iliac}}</div>
1403719380734 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>midd
le third of the vaina</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Internal Iliac}}</div>
1403719390032 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>pros
tate</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Internal Iliac}}</div>
1403719404052 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>test
es</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1403719414491 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>ovar
ies</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1403719421221 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>kidn
eys</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1403719432141 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>uter
us</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1403719442503 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>anal
canal below the pectinate line</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Superficial inu
inal}}</div>
1403719468681 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>skin
below the umbilicus</b> (except the popliteal territory)?<div><br />{{c1::
Superficial inuinal}}</div>
1403719501088 1395802358422 Which lymph node cluster drains the <b>dors
olateral foot</b> and <b>posterior calf</b>?<div><br />{{c1::Popliteal}}</d
iv>
1403719528605 1395802358422 The {{c1::riht lymphatic duct}} is a major
lymphatic vessel that drains the riht side of the body above the diaphram.
1403720044323 1395802358422 The {{c1::thoracic duct}} is a major lympha
tic vessel that drains 3/4 of the body into the junction of the left subclavian
and internal juular veins.
<br /><div><i>The Riht Lymphatic Duct is what d
rains the remainin 1/4 (riht side of the body above the diaphram).</i></div>
1403720136149 1395802358422 In which area of the spleen are T cells found?<d
iv><br />{{c1::Periarterial lymphatic sheath of the white pulp}}</div> <br /><d
1403724143119 1395802358422 In which area of the spleen are B cells found?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Follicles within the white pulp}}</div>
<br /><d
1403724163251 1395802358422 In which area of the spleen are <b>APCs</b>&nbsp
;and <b>specialized B cells </b>found?<div><br />{{c1::Marinal Zone (between th
e red and white pulp)}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is the area where APCs presen
t blood borne antiens.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-4088808866383.jp" /></
i></div>
1403724312462 1395802358422 How does splenic dysfunction, asplenia or splene
ctomy influence the susceptibility to infection by encapsulated oranisms?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Splenic dysfunction
= decreased IM = decreased complement activation = decreased C3b opsonization =
increased susceptibility to encapsulated oranisms</i><br /><div><im src="past
e-4393751544047.jp" /></div>
1403724935353 1395802358422 {{c1::Howell-Jolly Bodies}} are intracellular in
clusions of <b>nuclear remnants </b>seen in RBCs followin splenectomy.
1403724963660 1395802358422 How do Thrombocyte levels chane post-splenectom
y?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase; there is often Thrombocytosis}}</div>

1403724990252 1395802358422 Which lymphoid oran is the site of T cell matur
ation and differentiation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thymus}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i><b>T</b> cells = <b>T</b>hymus</i></div><div><i><b>B</b> cells =
<b>B</b>one marrow</i></div>
1403725033195 1395802358422 Which embryoloical pharyneal pouch ives rise
to the Thymus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Epithelium of the <u>3rd</u> phar
yneal pouch}}</div>
1403725083050 1395802358422 The {{c1::cortex}} is the area of the Thymu
s that is <b>dense</b> and full of <b>immature T cells.</b>
1403725113436 1395802358422 The {{c1::medulla}} is the area of the Thym
us that is <b>pale</b> and full of <b>mature T cells</b> and <b>Hassal
l corpuscles</b> containin epithelial reticular cells.
1403728974095 1395802358422 {{c1::Toll-like Receptors (TLRs)}} are pattern r
econition receptors involved in <b>innate immunity</b> that reconize <b>p
athoen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)</b>.
<br /><div><i>PAMPs incl
ude LPS, Flaellin, ssRNA, etc.</i></div>
1403729873078 1395802358422 {{c1::HLA-A}}, {{c2::HLA-B}} and {{c3:
:HLA-C}} are the HLA loci associated with MHC I.
1403730052424 1395802358422 {{c1::HLA-DR}}, {{c2::HLA-DP}} and {{c
3::HLA-DQ}} are the HLA loci that are associated with MHC II.
1403730083192 1395802358422 Which type of T cell does MHC I bind to?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::CD8+ T cells}}</div>
1403730116755 1395802358422 Which type of T cell does MHC II bind to?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::CD4+ T cells}}</div>
1403730128805 1395802358422 Which MHC receptor is <b>expressed on all nuclea
ted cells</b> except for RBCs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::MHC I}}</div>
1403730276225 1395802358422 Which MHC receptor is <b>only expressed on APCs<
/b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::MHC II}}</div>
1403730291961 1395802358422 Which MHC receptor presents <b>endoenously</b>&
nbsp;synthesized <b>antiens</b> (e.. viral)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::M
HC I}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Presented to CD8+ T cells</i></div>
1403730381281 1395802358422 Which MHC receptor presents <b>exoenously </b>s
ynthesized <b>proteins</b> (e.. bacterial proteins; viral capsid antiens)
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::MHC II}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Presents it to CD4
+ T cells.</i></div>
1403730425846 1395802358422 {{c1::TAP}} is a peptide transporter found in th
e RER that functions to deliver peptide antiens for loadin into MHC I before i
t is secreted.
1403731093160 1395802358422 {{c1::beta2-microlobulin}} is a protein that tr
ansports MHC I molecules to the cell surface. <br /><div><im src="paste-77567
10936791.jp" /></div>
1403731126065 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Hemochromat
osis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-A3}}</div>
1403735608138 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Psoriatic A
rthritis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div>
te-8138963026013.jp" /></div>
1403735640890 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Ankylosin
Spondylitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pas
te-8134668058717.jp" /></div>
1403735662015 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with the arthrit
is of Inflammatory Bowel Disease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div>
1403735685532 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Reactive Ar
thritis (Reiter Syndrome)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div> <br /><d
1403735706703 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with the serone
ative arthropathies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div> <br /><div><im
src="paste-8134668058717.jp" /></div>
1403736071374 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Celiac Dise
ase?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DQ2/DQ8}}</div>
1403736094921 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Multiple Sc
lerosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR2}}</div>
1403736117231 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with hay fever?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR2}}</div>
1403736126754 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with SLE?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR2; HLA-DR3}}</div>
1403736132132 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Goodpasture
Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR2}}</div>
1403736141703 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with T1DM?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR3; HLA-DR4}}</div>
1403736148376 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Graves Dise
ase?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HLS-DR3}}</div>
1403736170707 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Rheumatoid
Arthritis??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR4}}</div> <br /><div><i>There are
<b>4</b> walls in the <b>"rheum</b>".</i></div>
1403736233761 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Pernicious
Anaemia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR5}}</div>
Pernicious Anaemia can cause Vit B12 deficiency.</i></div>
1403736262399 1395802358422 Which HLA subtype is associated with Hashimoto T
hyroiditis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR5}}</div>
1403736277187 1395802358422 {{c1::Perforin}} and {{c2::Granzyme}} are e
nzymes used by Natural Killer cells to induce apoptosis in virally infected cell
s and tumour cells.
<br /><div><i>Perforin "perforates" the membrane.</i></d
iv><div><i>Granzyme enters and induces apoptosis.</i></div>
1403738680003 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is the only lymphocyte that fun
ctions in the innate immune system?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Natural Killer ce
lls}}</div>
1403738714689 1395802358422 How does IL-2 influence NK cell activity?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1403738736156 1395802358422 How does IL-12 influence NK cell activity?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1403738743555 1395802358422 How does IFN-beta influence NK cell activity?<di
1403738753600 1395802358422 How does IFN-alpha influence NK cell activity?<d
1403738764683 1395802358422 {{c1::Natural Killer cells}} are cells that func
tion in the innate immune system by killin cells when exposed to an<b> activati
on sinal</b> or an <b>absence of MHC I</b> on the taret cell.
1403738896410 1395802358422 {{c1::Antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxic
ity (ADCC)}} is an immunoloical killin method performed by NK cells that invol
ves the bindin of <b>CD16</b> to the <b>F<sub>c</sub> portion of boun
d immunolobulins</b>. <br /><div><i>This then activates the NK cell.</i></div>
1403739099878 1395802358422 Which type of T cell functions to help B cells m
ake antibodies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD4+ T cells}}</div>
1403739221373 1395802358422 Which type of T cells function to produce cytoki
nes that activate other cells of the immune system?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C
D4+ T cells}}</div>
1403739243025 1395802358422 Which type of T cells function to kill virus-inf
ected cells directly?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD8+ T cells}}</div>
1403739263853 1395802358422 Which type of lymphocyte is associated with Type
IV Hypersensitivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div>
1403739342247 1395802358422 Which type of lymphocyte is associated with acut
e and chronic oran rejection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div>
1403739360890 1395802358422 In which area of the Thymus does <b>positive sel
ection</b> of T cells occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cortex}}</div>
1403739873226 1395802358422 In which area of the Thymus does <b>neative sel
ection</b> of T cells occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Medulla}}</div>
1403739903771 1395802358422 {{c1::Positive selection}} is a type of selectio

n underone by T cells that involves the survival of T cells expressin TCRs tha
t are <b>capable</b> of bindin surface self MHC molecules.
<br /><d
1403740110832 1395802358422 {{c1::Neative selection}} is a type of selectio
n underone by T cells that involves the <b>apoptosis</b> of T cells expres
sin TCRs with hih affinity for self antiens. <br /><div><im src="paste-10767
483011767.jp" /></div>
1403740212080 1395802358422 Which cytokine induces the differentiation of He
lper T cells into Th1 cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IL-12}}</div> <br /><d
lper T cells into Th2 cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IL-4}}</div>
<br /><d
lper T cells into Th17 cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::TGF-beta + IL-6}}</div>
lper T cells into Reulatory T cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::TGF-beta}}</div
>
1403740351715 1395802358422 In the activation of T cells, what is the <b>pri
mary sinal </b>between the APC and T cell? <div><br /></div><div>{{c1::An
tien via MHC II on APC to TCR on CD4+ T cell; Antien via MHC I on APC to TCR o
n CD8+ T cell}}</div> <br /><div><i>MHC II <--&t; CD4+ T cell</i></div><di
v><i>MHC I <--&t; CD8+ T cell</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-1253271457014
9.jp" /></i></div><div><i><im src="paste-13735305412787.jp" /></i></div>
1403742157676 1395802358422 In the activation of T cells, what is the <b>sec
ondary/co-stimulatory</b> sinal between the APC and T cell?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::B7 on APC to CD28 on T cell}}</div>
te-12537009537445.jp" /></div><div><im src="paste-13739600380083.jp" /></div>
1403742217564 1395802358422 In B cell activation, what is the <b>primary </b
>sinal between the CD4+ T cell and B cell?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antien v
ia TCR on CD4+ T cell to MHC II on B cell}}</div>
te-13224204304801.jp" /></div><div><im src="paste-13653701034168.jp" /></div>
1403742535744 1395802358422 In B cell activation, what is the <b>secondary</
b> sinal between the CD4+ T cell and B cell?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD
40L on CD4+ T cell to CD40 on B cell}}</div>
909337505.jp" /></div><div><im src="paste-13657996001464.jp" /></div>
1403803116185 1395802358422 Which type of helper T cell secretes I<b>FN-amm
a</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Th1}}</div>
1403803358364 1395802358422 Which type of helper T cell secrets <b>IL-4, IL5, IL-6, IL-10</b> and <b>IL-13</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Th2}}</div>
1403803398290 1395802358422 Which type of helper T cells function to <b>acti
vate macrophaes and cytotoxic T cells</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Th1}}</di
v>
1403803451156 1395802358422 Which type of helper T cells function to <b>recr
uit eosinophils for parasite defense</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Th2}}</div>
1403804426864 1395802358422 Which type of helper T cells function to <b>prom
ote IE production by B cells</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Th2}}</div>
1403804476924 1395802358422 {{c2::IL-4}} and {{c1::IL-10}} are cytokines&nbs
p;<b>secreted by Th2</b> cells that <b>inhibits Th1 cell activity</b>.
1403804505594 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-amma}} is a cytokine <b>secreted by T
h1</b> cell that <b>inhibits Th2 cell action</b>.
1403804722120 1395802358422 Which cytokine from macrophaes functions to sti
mulate T cell differentiation into Th1 cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IL-12}}
</div> <br /><div><i>- Macrophaes release IL-12 --&t; T cells differentiate i
nto Th1 cells.</i></div><div><i>- Th1 cells secrete IFN-amma --&t; Activation
of macrophaes</i></div>
1403804814688 1395802358422 Which cytokine from Th1 cells functions to activ
ate macrophaes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-amma}}</div> <br /><div><div>
<i>- Macrophaes release IL-12 --&t; T cells differentiate into Th1 cells.</i><
/div><div><i>- Th1 cells secrete IFN-amma --&t; Activation of macrophaes</i><
/div></div>
1403805012727 1395802358422 {{c1::Perforin}} is an enzyme found in the cytot
oxic ranules of CD8+ T cells that functions to deliver the content of ranules
into taret cells.
1403805121291 1395802358422 {{c1::Granzyme B}} is a <b>serine protease</b>&n
bsp;found in the cytotoxic ranules of CD8+ T cells that functions to activate a
poptosis inside taret cells.
1403805171666 1395802358422 {{c1::Granulysin}} is an <b>antimicrobial</b>&nb
sp;protein found in the cytotoxic ranules of CD8+ T cells that functions to ind
uce apoptosis.
1403805210685 1395802358422 Which type of T cell functions to <b>maintain sp
ecific immune tolerance</b> by <b>suppression CD4 and CD8 T cell</b> e
ffector function?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Reulatory T cells}}</div>
1403805941842 1395802358422 Which type of T cell is identified by the expres
sion of cell surface markers <b>CD3, CD4 and CD25</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Reulatory T cells}}</div>
<br /><div><i>CD25 = alpha-chain of the IL-2 rec
eptor</i></div>
1403806196523 1395802358422 Which type of T cell is identified by the expres
sion of the <b>transcription factor FOXP3</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Reula
tory T cells}}</div>
1403806222535 1395802358422 Which anti-inflammatory cytokines are produced b
y reulatory T cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IL-10; TGF-beta}}</div>
1403806247938 1395802358422 Which frament in antibodies contains the <b>hea
vy chain only</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fc}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-3513283248542.jp" /></div>
1403806922331 1395802358422 Which frament in antibodies contains <b>both</b
> the heavy and liht chains?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fab}}</div>
1403806927526 1395802358422 Which frament in antibodies functions to <b>bin
d antien</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fab}}</div> <div><br /></div><im sr
c="paste-3508988281246.jp" />
1403806951120 1395802358422 Which frament in antibodies <b>determines the i
diotype</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fab}}</div>
<br /><div><i>There is a
unique antien-bindin pocket as </i><u style="font-style: italic; ">only 1 ant
ienic specificity is expressed per B cell</u>.</div><div><im src="paste-350898
8281246.jp" /></div>
1403807109173 1395802358422 Which frament in antibodies is involved with <b
>complement bindin</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fc}}</div> <br /><div><im
src="paste-3508988281246.jp" /><im src="paste-4509715660977.jp" /></div>
1403807142461 1395802358422 Which frament of antibodies determines the isot
ype (IM, ID, etc.)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fc}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-3508988281246.jp" /><im src="paste-4505420693681.jp" /></div>
1403807216749 1395802358422 {{c1::Opsonization}} is an immunoloical phenome
non performed by antibodies that involves the promotion of phaocytosis.
1403807983588 1395802358422 {{c1::Neutralization}} is an immunoloical pheno
menon performed by antibodies that involves the prevention of bacterial adherenc
e to taret cells/tissue.
<br /><div><im src="paste-4702989189522.jp" />
</div>
1403808019293 1395802358422 Which immunolobulin isotypes are expressed on t
he surface of mature, naive B cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IM; ID}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"We <b>B</b> <b>naive</b> <b>MD</b>'s"</i></div><div><i>
<br /></i></div><div><i>They may differentiate in erminal centers of lymph node
s by isotype switchin into plasma cells that secrete IA, IE and IG.</i></div
>
1403821717530 1395802358422 Which immunolobulin isotype is the main antibod
y involved in the <b>secondary/delayed</b> response to an antien?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::IG}}</div>
1403822705268 1395802358422 What is the most abundant immunolobulin isotype

in serum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IG}}</div>
1403823724749 1395802358422 Which immunolobulin isotype fixes compleme
nt <u style="font-weiht: bold; ">and</u> is able to cross the placenta?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::IG}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Crossin of the plcenta pr
ovides infants with passive immunity.</i></div>
1403823804312 1395802358422 Which immunolobulin isotype function to <b
>opsonize bacteria</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IG}}</div>
1403823814812 1395802358422 Which immunolobulin isotype functions to <
b>neutralize bacterial toxins and viruses</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IG}}<
/div>
1403823830486 1395802358422 Which immunolobulin isotype <b>prevents th
e attachment of bacteria and viruses to </b><u style="font-weiht: bold; ">mucou
s membranes</u>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IA}}</div>
1403823874672 1395802358422 {{c1::IA}} is an immunolobulin isotype th
at is found as a <b>monomer</b> in circulation but a <b>dimer</b> in s
ecretions.
1403823936207 1395802358422 Which immunolobulin isotype crosses epithe
lial cells by transcytosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IA}}</div>
1403823977131 1395802358422 Which immunolobulin isotype is the <b>most
produced antibody overall</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IA}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>It is released into secretions (tears, saliva, mucous) and early breast mi
lk (colostrum).</i></div><div><i>Before it is released from epithelial cells, it
picks up a secretory component (i.e. becomin Secretory-IA).</i></div>
1403825652154 1395802358422 Which immunolobulin isotype is produced in
the <b>primary/immediate</b> response to an antien?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::IM}}</div>
1403825751831 1395802358422 Which immunolobulin isotype functions to f
ix complement <b>but does not cross the placenta</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:IM}}</div>
1403825784725 1395802358422 Which immunolobulin isotype exists as a <b
>monomer</b> on B cells or a <b>pentamer</b> when secreted?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::IM}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The shape of the IM pentamer allo
ws it to efficiently trap free antiens out of tissue while the humoural respons
e evolves.</i></div>
1403826232035 1395802358422 Which immunolobulin isotype binds <b>mast
cells</b> and <b>basophils</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IE}}</div>
<br /><div><i>It cross-links when exposed to the alleren, thereby causin mast
cell deranulation.</i></div><div><i>Major part of <b>type I hypersensitivity</b
>.</i></div><div><i>Mediates immunity to worms by activatin eosinophils.</i></d
iv>
1403826487731 1395802358422 Which immunolobulin isotype has the lowest
concentration in serum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IE}}</div>
1403826499478 1395802358422 {{c1::Thymus-independent antiens}} are a type o
f antien that <b>lacks</b> a peptide component and hence cannot be present
ed by MHC to T cells. <br /><div><i>Weakly immunoenic or nonimmunoenic.</i><
/div><div><i>Vaccines often require boosters.</i></div>
1403827703983 1395802358422 {{c1::Thymus-dependent antiens}} are a type of
antien that <b>contain protein components</b>. <br /><div><i>Immunoloic memory
occurs as a result of direct contact of B cells with Th cells (via CD40 and CD4
0L interaction).</i></div>
1403883361607 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute-phase Reactants}} are proteins/facto
rs whose serum concentrations chane sinificantly in response to inflammation.
1403883505004 1395802358422 Where are acute-phase reactants made?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Liver}}</div> <br /><div><i>In both acute and chronic inflamma
tory states.</i></div>
1403883525128 1395802358422 {{c1::Serum Amyloid A}} is a positive acute phas
e reactant whose proloned elevation can lead to Amyloidosis.
1403883964474 1395802358422 {{c1::C-reactive protein}} is a <b>positive</b>&
nbsp;acute phase reactant that functions as an <b>opsonin</b> and <b>fixes
complement</b>. <br /><div><i>It is measured clinically as a sin of onoin inf

lammation.</i></div>
1403884008600 1395802358422 {{c1::Ferritin}} is a <b>positive</b> acute
phase reactant that binds to and sequesters iron to inhibit microbial iron scav
enin.
1403884040048 1395802358422 {{c1::Fibrinoen}} is a <b>positive</b> acu
te phase reactant that functions as a <b>coaulation factor</b> and <b>prom
otes endothelial repair</b>.
<br /><div><i>It correlates with ESR.</i></div>
1403884093041 1395802358422 {{c1::Hepcidin}} is a <b>positive</b> acute
phase reactant that prevents the release of iron bound by Ferritin.
1403884115768 1395802358422 {{c1::Hepcidin}} is a <b>positive</b> acute
phase reactant that can cause Anaemia of Chronic Disease when elevated for a pr
oloned period.
1403884151465 1395802358422 {{c1::Albumin}} is a <b>neative</b> acute
phase reactant whose production is reduced to conserve amino acids for the posit
ive reactants.
1403884176332 1395802358422 {{c1::Transferrin}} is a <b>neative</b> ac
ute phase reactant that is internalized by macrophaes to sequester iron.
1403884205201 1395802358422 Which immunolobulin isotypes mediate the <b>cla
ssical</b> complement pathway?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IG; IM}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"<b>GM</b> makes <b>classic</b> cars."</i></div><div><i>
<im src="paste-15431817495065.jp" /></i></div>
1403885182126 1395802358422 Which complement pathway is activated by IG or
IM?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Classical}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"<b>GM</b>
makes <b>classic</b> cars."</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-15427522
527769.jp" /></i></div>
1403885217365 1395802358422 Which complement pathway is activated by surface
molecules on microbes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alternative}}</div> <br /><d
1403885242304 1395802358422 Which complement pathway is activated by <b>mann
ose</b> or other suars on the microbe surface?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Lectin}}</div> <br /><div><im src="paste-15427522527769.jp" /></div>
1403885267752 1395802358422 What is the function of complement protein C3b?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Opsonization}}</div> <br /><div><i>C3b binds to bacte
ria.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-15427522527769.jp" /></i></div>
1403885304656 1395802358422 What is the function of the complement proteins
C3a, C4a and C5a?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anaphylaxis}}</div>
<br /><d
1403885327291 1395802358422 What is the function of the complement protein C
5a?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neutrophil chemotaxis}}</div>
1403885361880 1395802358422 What is the function of the complement proteins
C5b, C6, C7, C8 and C9?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Formation of the MAC and subs
equent cytolysis}}</div>
<br /><div><im src="paste-15427522527769.jp" /
></div>
1403885389569 1395802358422 Which complement proteins are involved in anaphy
laxis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C3a, C4a, C5a}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pas
te-15427522527769.jp" /></div>
1403885490258 1395802358422 Which complement proteins are involved in the fo
rmation of the MAC?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C5b, C6, C7, C8, C9}}</div>
1403885515265 1395802358422 Which complement protein is involved with neutro
phil chemotaxis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C5a}}</div>
1403885542841 1395802358422 Which complement protein is involved with opsoni
zation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C3b}}</div>
1403885554737 1395802358422 Which immunoloical isotype is one of the two pr
imary opsonins in bacterial defense?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IG}}</div>
1403885628026 1395802358422 Which complement protein is one of the two prima
ry opsonins in bacterial defense?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C3b}}</div>
<br /><div><i>C3b also helps to clear immune complexes.</i></div>
1403885651820 1395802358422 {{c1::Decay-acceleratin factor (DAF; CD55)}} an
d {{c2::C1 Esterase Inhibitor}} are 2 proteins that function to <b>prevent<

/b> complement activation on self cells (such as on RBCs).
1403904944918 1395802358422 Which complement protein disorder causes Heredit
ary Anioedema?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C1 Esterase Inhibitor Deficiency}}</d
iv>
1403906276037 1395802358422 {{c1::C1 Esterase Inhibitor Deficiency}} is a co
mplement disorder that causes Hereditary Anioedema.
<br /><div><i>ACE Inhibi
tors are contraindicated in C1 Esterase Inhibitor Deficiency.</i></div>
1403906380806 1395802358422 Which complement disorder increases the suscepti
bility to Type III hypersensitivity reactions?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C3 Def
iciency}}</div> <br /><div><i>C<b>3</b> deficiency = More Type <b>3</b
> reactions</i></div>
1403906633826 1395802358422 {{c1::C3 Deficiency}} is a complement disorder t
hat increases the susceptibility to Type III Hypersensitivity reactions.
<br /><div><i>C<b>3</b> deficiency = More Type <b>3</b> reactions</i><
/div>
1403906701579 1395802358422 {{c1::C3 Deficiency}} is a complement disorder t
hat presents with an increased risk of severem recurrent <b>pyoenic sinus and r
espiratory tract infections</b>.
1403907450352 1395802358422 {{c1::C5-C9 Deficiencies}} are a roup of comple
ment protein deficiencies that involve increased susceptibility to recurrent <i>
Neisseria</i> bacteremia.
1403907493918 1395802358422 {{c1::Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemolobinuria}} is a
hematoloical disorder that presents with <b>complement-mediated lysis</b>&nbsp
;of RBCs due to a <b>DAF</b> (CD55; GPI anchored enzyme) deficiency.
<br /><div><i>Remember, DAF functions to inhibit complement mediated cell lysis
on self-cells, especially RBCs.</i></div>
1403907629544 1395802358422 Which protein is deficient in Paroxysmal Nocturn
al Hemolobinuria?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::DAF (CD55)}}</div>
1403907916822 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from macrophaes functio
ns as an endoenous pyroen, causin fever and acute inflammation?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::IL-1}}</div>
></div>
1403908541187 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from macrophaes is also
called <b>osteoclast-activatin factor</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IL-1}}</
div>
ns to activate endothelium to express adhesion molecules?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::IL-1}}</div>
ns to induce chemokine secretion to recruit leukocytes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::IL-1}}</div>
1403908874318 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from macrophaes causes
fever <u style="font-weiht: bold; ">and</u> stimulates the production of a
cute-phase proteins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IL-6}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>Also secreted by Th2 cells.</i><br /><div><im src="paste-20439749361922.jp
" /></div>
1403908946411 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from Macrophaes is a ma
jor chemotactic factor for Neutrophils?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IL-8}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"Clean up on <b>aisle 8</b>."</i></div>
1403909369598 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from macrophaes induces
the differentiation of T cells to Th1 cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IL-12}}
</div> <br /><div><i>Also secreted by B cells.</i></div>
1403909387355 1395802358422 Which cytokine released by macrophaes activates
NK cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IL-12}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Also secre
ted by B cells.</i></div>
1403909456381 1395802358422 Which cytokine released by macrophaes mediates
septic shock?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::TNF-alpha}}</div>
<br /><div><i>It
also activates endothelium, causes leukocyte recruitment and vascular leakae.<
/i></div>
1403909692002 1395802358422 Which cytokine secreted by all T cells stimulate

s the rowth of all T cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IL-2}}</div>
<br /><d
1403909694074 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from all T cells functio
ns to support the rowth and differentiation of bone marrow stem cells (i.e. fun
ctions like GM-CSF)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IL-3}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-20439749361922.jp" /></div>
1403909721098 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from Th1 cells has antiv
iral and antitumour properties?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-amma}}</div>
1403909780321 1395802358422 Which cytokine released from Th1 cells functions
to increase MHC expression and antien presentation in all cells?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::IFN-amma}}</div>
to induce differentiation into Th2 cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IL-4}}</di
v>
to promote <b>B cell rowth</b> and <b>enhance class switchin to IE and
IG</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IL-4}}</div>
te-20439749361922.jp" /></div>
to promote B cell differentiation and <b>enhance class switchin to IA</b>?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::IL-5}}</div> <br /><div><im src="paste-2043974936192
2.jp" /></div>
to stimulate the rowth and differentiation of eosinophils?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::IL-5}}</div>
1403910545340 1395802358422 {{c1::IL-10}} is an anti-inflammatory cytokine r
eleased by Th2 cells that inhibits the actions of activated T cells and Th1 cell
s.
<br /><div><i>Also secreted by reulatory T cells.</i></div><div><i>Simi
lar to TGF-beta which is also anti-inflammatory.</i></div>
1403918806326 1395802358422 {{c1::Interferons}} are immunoloical lycoprote
ins synthesized by viral-infected cells that act locally on uninfected cells, th
ereby "primin them" for viral defense. <br /><div><i>When a virus infected a "p
rimed" cell, viral nucleic acid triers the followin enzymes and eventually ap
optosis, hence stoppin viral replication:</i></div><div><i>- RNA-ase L, which d
erades viral/host mRNA</i></div><div><i>- Protein Kinases that inhibit viral/ho
st protein synthesis</i></div>
1403919003754 1395802358422 {{c1::RNA-ase L}} is a ribonuclease enzyme that
functions to derade viral/host mRNA as a defense mechanism in virally infected
cells. <br /><div><br /></div><div><div><i>When a virus infected a "primed" cel
l, viral nucleic acid triers the followin enzymes and eventually apoptosis, h
ence stoppin viral replication:</i></div><div><i>- RNA-ase L, which derades vi
ral/host mRNA</i></div><div><i>- Protein Kinases that inhibit viral/host protein
synthesis</i></div></div>
1403919110154 1395802358422 Which cell type is the only cell that does not h
ave MHC I on its surface?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mature RBCs}}</div>
1403919956930 1395802358422 Which cell surface receptor on T cells binds to
the antien-MHC complex?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::TCR}}</div>
1403920002488 1395802358422 Which cell surface receptor on T cells is associ
ated with the TCR for sinal transduction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD3}}</div
>
1403920032758 1395802358422 Which cell surface receptor on T cells binds to
B7 on APCs durin the secondary sinal in T cell activation?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::CD28}}</div>
1403920064266 1395802358422 Which cell surface receptor on B cells is the re
ceptor for EBV?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD21}}</div> <br /><div><i>"You must
be <b>21</b> to drink at the <b>Epstein-Barr</b>."</i></div>
1403920166350 1395802358422 Which cell surface receptor on B cells binds to
CD40L on helper T cells durin B cell activation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD4
0}}</div>
1403920196810 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is characterized by CD19, CD20,

CD21 and CD40 cell surface proteins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::B cells}}</div>
1403920249024 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is characterized by CD3 and CD2
8 cell surface proteins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div>
1403920377502 1395802358422 {{c1::CD14}} and {{c2::CD40}} are the 2 CDcell surface proteins found on macrophaes.
1403920412901 1395802358422 Which cell surface protein on NK cells binds to
the Fc portion of IG?<div><br /></div><div>{{c2::CD16}}</div>
1403920430120 1395802358422 Which cell surface protein on NK cells is a uniq
ue marker for NK cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD56}}</div>
1403920455001 1395802358422 {{c1::Anery}} is an immunoloical phenomenon th
at involves T cells becomin nonreactive without a costimulatory molecule.
<br /><div><i>B cells also become aneric, but tolerance is less complete than i
n T cells.</i></div>
1403921380619 1395802358422 {{c1::Superantiens}} are bacterial toxins that
function to cross-link the <b>beta-reion of TCRs on all T cells to MHC II on AP
Cs</b>, thereby causin massive release of cytokines. <br /><div><i>Especially
released from Streptococcus pyoenes and Staphylococcus aureus.</i></div>
1403922093744 1395802358422 {{c1::Endotoxin/LPS}} is a bacterial toxin from
ram-neative bacteria that functions to <b>directly stimulate macrophaes by bi
ndin to the endotoxin receptor CD14</b>.
<br /><div><i>Th cells are not i
nvolved.</i></div>
1403922433630 1395802358422 Which cell surface protein on macrophaes is the
receptor for <b>endotoxin/LPS</b> from ram-neative bacteria?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::CD-14}}</div>
1403972465428 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Salmonella</i>}} is a ram-neative bac
teria that yiels antienic variation due to it havin 2 flaellar variants.
1403973380580 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Borrelia spp.</i>}} is a Spirochete tha
t yields antienic variation and hence causes Relapsin Fever.
1403973457267 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Neisseria onorrhoeae</i>}} is a specie
s of <i>Neisseria </i>that yield antienic variation due to its pilus protein.
1403973514544 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Trypanosoma</i>}} is a enus of parasit
e that yields antienic variation throuh prorammed rearranement of nucleic ac
id.
1403973818647 1395802358422 How is passive immunity acquired?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Receivin preformed antibodies}}</div>
1403974182943 1395802358422 What is the half-life of antibodies?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::3 weeks}}</div>
1403974216209 1395802358422 Which type of vaccine induces a stron and often
lifelon immunity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Live attenuated}}</div>
1403974569126 1395802358422 Which type of vaccine often induces a weaker imm
une response and hence requires booster shots?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inacti
vated/killed vaccine}}</div>
1403974602027 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity reaction causes a
naphylaxis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pas
te-35566624178432.jp" /><im src="paste-40510131536095.jp" /></div>
1403975571117 1395802358422 {{c1::Type I Hypersensitivity}} is a type of hyp
ersensitivity that involves free antiens cross-linkin IE on presensitized mas
t cells and basophils.<div><br /></div><div><im src="paste-35562329211136.jp"
/></div>
<br /><div><i>Thereby trierin immediate, widespread release o
f vasoactive amines that act as postcapillary venules (i.e. histamine).</i></div
><div><i>The reaction is <b>rapid</b> due to preformed antibodies.</i></div
>
1403975686169 1395802358422 {{c1::Type I Hypersensitivity}} is a type of hyp
ersensitivity that involves a delayed response due to production of Arachidonic
Acid metabolites (e.. leukotrienes).<div><br /></div><div><im src="paste-35562
329211136.jp" /></div>
1403975847006 1395802358422 Which hypersensitivity reactions are mediated by
antibodies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Types I, II, and III}}</div>
1403975961897 1395802358422 What is the dianostic test for Type I Hypersens
itivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Skin test for specific IE}}</div>

1403975975899 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity involves cytotoxi
city?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div><div><br /></div><div><im src="
paste-36206574305588.jp" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Type </i><b><i>2</i>
</b><i>is cy-<b>2</b>-toxic.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-40510131536095.jp
" /></i></div>
1403976358058 1395802358422 {{c1::Type II Hypersensitivity}} is a type of hy
persensitivity that involves IM or IG bindin to fixed antiens on "enemy" cel
ls, thereby leadin to cellular destruction.<div><br /></div><div><im src="past
e-36202279338292.jp" /></div> <br /><div><i>3 mechanisms exist:</i></div><div>
<i>- Opsonization leadin to phaocytosis or complement activation</i></div><div
><i>- Complement-mediated lysis</i></div><div><i>- Antibody-dependent cell-media
ted cytotoxicity, typically by NK cells or macrophaes</i></div>
1403976666920 1395802358422 What is the dianostic test for Type II Hypersen
sitivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Indirect and direct Coombs' test}}</div><di
v><br /></div><div><im src="paste-36202279338292.jp" /></div>
1403976724587 1395802358422 The {{c1::Direct Coomb's test}} is a type o
f Coomb's test that detects antibodies that <u style="font-weiht: bold; ">have
adhered</u> to the patient's RBCs. <br /><div><i>e.. testin an Rh-positiv
e infant of an Rh-neative mother</i></div>
1403976951442 1395802358422 The {{c1::Indirect Coomb's Test}} is a type
of Coomb's test that detects antibodies that <u style="font-weiht: bold; ">can
adhere</u> to other RBCs. <br /><div><i>e.. testin an Rh-neative mother
for Rh-positive antibodies</i></div>
1403977015655 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity reaction involves
immune complexes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type III Hypersensitivity}}</div><
div><br /></div><div><im src="paste-37946036060486.jp" /></div>
<im src
="paste-40510131536095.jp" /><br /><div><br /></div>
1403977055546 1395802358422 {{c1::Type III Hypersensitivity}} is a type of h
ypersensitivity that involves antien-antibody (IG) complexes which activate co
mplement, thereby attractin neutrophils.<div><br /></div><div><im src="paste-3
8100654883105.jp" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Neutrophils release lysosomal enzy
mes.</i></div>
1403977409517 1395802358422 Which immunolobulin isotype is involved in Type
I Hypersensitivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IE}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-38246683771141.jp" /></div>
II Hypersensitivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IM; IG}}</div>
<br /><d
III Hypersensitivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IG}}</div> <br /><div><im
src="paste-38375532790053.jp" /></div>
1403977660948 1395802358422 {{c1::Serum Sickness}} is a Type III Hypersensit
ivity disorder that involves antibodies produced rapidly to an antien (5 days)
formin immune complexes that deposit in membranes, thereby causin tissue dama
e throuh complement fixation. <br /><div><i>More common that the Arthus Reacti
on.</i></div>
1403977757423 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity reaction is invol
ved in Serum Sickness?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1403977799154 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity reaction is invol
ved in Arthus Reaction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
<br /><d
1403977813070 1395802358422 {{c1::Serum Sickness}} is a type III hypersensit
ivity disorder that presents with fever, urticaria, arthralia, proteinuria, lym
phadenopathy <b>5-10 days after antien exposure</b>.
1403978313337 1395802358422 {{c1::Arthus Reaction}} is a type III hypersensi
tivity disorder that results from intradermal injection of antiens.
tivity disorder that presents with antien-antibody complexes in the skin.
tivity that is characterized by edema, necrosis of the skin and complement activ
ation.
1403978700931 1395802358422 What dianostic test is used to dianose the Art
hus Reaction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Immunofluorescent stainin}}</div>
1403978726721 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity involves a delaye
d, T-cell mediated reaction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div> <br /><d
iv><im src="paste-39724152520981.jp" /><im src="paste-40514426503391.jp" /><
/div>
1403978968306 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity involves sensitiz
ed T-cells that encounter antien and then release lymphokines?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>The lymphokines lead to macr
ophae activation.</i><div><i>There are no antibodies involves.<br /></i><div><i
m src="paste-39719857553685.jp" /></div></div>
1403979101476 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity is not transferra
ble by serum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-40007620362499.jp" /></div>
1403979315540 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity is involved in tr
ansplant rejection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div> <br /><div><im
src="paste-40003325395203.jp" /></div>
1403979360773 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity is involved in TB
skin tests?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pas
te-40003325395203.jp" /></div>
1403979372604 1395802358422 Which type of hypersensitivity is involved in co
ntact dermatitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-40003325395203.jp" /></div>
1403979472100 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is associated with
anaphylaxis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
alleric and atopic disorders?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
Pernicious Anaemia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
Erythroblastosis Fetalis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
acute hemolytic transfusion reactions?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</di
v>
Rheumatic Fever?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
Goodpasture Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
Bullous Pemphioid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
Pemphius Vularis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
SLE?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
Polyarteritis Nodosa?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</di
v>
Serum Sickness?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
Arthus Reaction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
vasculitis and systemic manifestations?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</

div>
Multiple Sclerosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
Guillain-Barre Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
Graft-versus-host disease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
PPD test for TB?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
Contact Dermatitis (e.. poison ivy; nickel allery)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Type IV}}</div>
1403993435845 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is involved in feb
rile nonhemolytic transfusion reactions?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type II hype
rsensitivity}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Involves host antibodies aainst donor HLA
antiens and leukocytes.</i></div>
1403994370623 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is involved in acu
te hemolytic transfusion reactions?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Involves intravascular hemolysis (i.e. ABO blood roup incompatibi
lity) or extravascular hemolysis (i.e. host antibody reaction aainst forein an
tiens on donor RBCs).</i></div>
1403994583077 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Myasthenia
Gravis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-ACh Receptor}}</div>
1403995003159 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Goodpastur
e Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-basement membrane}}</div>
1403995012828 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with SLE?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-cardiolipin; Anti-dsDNA; Anti-Smith; ANA (nonspecific
)}}</div>
1403995075505 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Antiphosph
olipid Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-cardiolipin}}</div>
1403995126258 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with <b>limited
</b> Scleroderma (CREST Syndrome)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anticentromer
e}}</div>
1403995140505 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Pemphius
Vularis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-desmolein}}</div>
1403995155658 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with T1DM?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-lutamate decarboxylase}}</div>
1403995179411 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Bullous Pe
mphioid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-hemidesmosome}}</div>
1403995201458 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Dru-induc
ed SLE?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antihistone}}</div>
1403995574176 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Polyomyosi
tis and Dermatomyositis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-Jo-1; Anti-SRP; Anti-Mi
-2}}</div>
1403995610720 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Hashimoto
Thyroiditis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antimicrosomal; Antithyrolobulin}}</div
>
1403995637713 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Primary Bi
liary Cirrhosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antimitochondrial}}</div>
1403995653877 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with <b>Diffuse
</b>Scleroderma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-Scl-70 (Anti-DNA Topoisomerase
I)}}</div>
1403995681306 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Autoimmune
Hepatitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-smooth muscle}}</div>
1403995693784 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Sjoren Sy
ndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-SSA (Ro); Anti-SSB (La)}}</div>
1403996350172 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Graves Dis
ease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-TSH Receptor}}</div>
1403996368467 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Mixed Conn
ective Tissue Disease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-U1 RNP (Ribonucleoprotein

)}}</div>
1403996398329 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Weener Gr
anulomatosis (i.e. ranulomatosis with polyaniitis)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:c-ANCA (PR3-ANCA)}}</div>
1403996432198 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Celiac Dis
ease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IA anti-tissue translutaminase; IA antiendom
ysial}}</div>
1403996462590 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Microscopt
ic Polyaniitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::p-ANCA (MPO-ANCA)}}</div>
1403996478102 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Chur-Stra
uss Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::p-ANCA (MPO-ANCA)}}</div>
1403996490484 1395802358422 Which autoantibody is associated with Rheumatoid
Arthritis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rheumatoid factor (IM specific to the Fc
reion of IG); anti-CCP}}</div>
1403996531568 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Neisseria</i>}} is a enus of ram-nea
tive bacterial that commonly cause infection in <b>complement deficiency</b>&nbs
p;as there is no membrane attack complex.
1403996587310 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte deficiency tends to produce rec
urrent <b>bacterial </b>infections?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::B-cell deficiency
}}</div>
1403996626512 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte deficiency tends to produce mor
e recurrent <b>funal</b> and <b>viral</b> infections?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::T-cell deficiency}}</div>
1403996658354 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Giardia lamblia</i>}} is a GI protozoal
infection that is often seen in <b>B cell deficiency</b> due to a lack of
IA.
1403997709839 1395802358422 Which ene is defective in Bruton (X-linked) Aa
mmlobulinemia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>BTK</i> (Bruton's Tyrosine Ki
nase); results in a lack of B cell maturation}}</div>
1403999757012 1395802358422 {{c1::Bruton (X-linked) Aammalobulinemia}} is
an XLR immunodeficiency that involves a defect in <i>BTK</i> (Bruton Tyrosi
ne Kinase ene), thereby resultin in a lack of B-cell maturation.
1403999799341 1395802358422 What is the enetic inheritance of Bruton Aamma
lobulinemia??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div> <br /><div><i>Hence ther
e is an increased incidence in boys.</i></div>
1403999830500 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is affected in Bruton Aammalo
bulinemia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::B-cells}}</div>
an XLR immunodeficiency that presents with recurrent bacterial and enteroviral i
nfections <b>after 6 months</b> of birth (due to a decrease in maternal IG
in the child).
an XLR immunodeficiency that presents with an <b>absence of CD19+ B-cells</b>&nb
sp;and a decrease in <b>pro-B cells</b>.
1404000232064 1395802358422 How do immunolobulin levels chane in Bruton (X
-linked) Aammalobulinemia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased immunolobulin
s of all classes}}</div>
1404000257469 1395802358422 {{c1::Bruton (X-linked) Aammalobulinema}} is a
n XLR immunodeficiency that presents with <b>absent/scanty lymph nodes</b>
and <b>tonsils</b>.
1404007128360 1395802358422 What is the most common primary immunodeficiency
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Selective IA Deficiency}}</div>
1404007373971 1395802358422 What IA level is dianostic of Selective IA De
ficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::< 7 m/dL (with normal IG and IM level
s)}}</div>
1404007413143 1395802358422 {{c1::Common Variable Immunodeficiency}} is a pr
imary immunodeficiency with <b>many causes</b> that involves a defect in Bcell differentiation. <br /><div><i>Can be acquired in the 20s-30s.</i></div><
div><i>Increased risk of autoimmune disease, bronchiectasis, lymphoma, sinopulmo
nary infections.</i></div>
1404007637297 1395802358422 How do immunolobulin levels chane in Common Va
riable Immunodeficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>There is a defect in B-cell differentiation, hence there are fewer plasma
cells and fewer immunolobulins.</i></div>
1404007679611 1395802358422 What enetic defect is seen in DiGeore Syndrome
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::22q11}}</div>
1404007721770 1395802358422 Which lymphocyte is affected in Common Variable
Immunodeficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::B-cells}}</div>
<br /><div><i>He
nce there are fewer plasma cells and immunolobulins.</i></div>
1404007743187 1395802358422 Which pharyneal pouches fail to develop in DiGe
ore Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3rd and 4th}}</div> <br /><div><i>He
nce there is thymic and parathyroid aplasia.</i></div>
1404007981537 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetany}} is a muscular complication of DiG
eore Syndrome that occurs due to the <b>hypocalcemia</b> secondary to para
thyroid aplasia.
1404008010570 1395802358422 How do PTH levels chane in DiGeore Syndrome?<d
1404008073227 1395802358422 How do serum Ca levels chane in DiGeore Syndro
me?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404008085107 1395802358422 Which lymphocytes are affected in DiGeore Syndr
ome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div> <br /><div><i>Due to the thymic
aplasia.</i></div>
1404008108957 1395802358422 What is the enetic inheritance of IL-12 Recepto
r Deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1404008313963 1395802358422 {{c1::IL-12 Receptor Deficiency}} is a primary i
mmunodeficiency that involves a decreased Th1 response due to a lack of IL-12 ac
tion. <br /><div><i>Remember, IL-12 from macrophaes activates Th1 cells (whic
h then activate macrophaes via IFN-amma).</i></div>
1404008382813 1395802358422 How do IFN-amma levels chane in IL-12 Receptor
Deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><div><i>IL
-12 from macrophaes causes Th1 cell activation.</i></div><div><i>Activated Th1
cells release IFN-amma which activations macrophaes.</i></div><div><i><b>No IL
-12 action = no IFN-amma release from Th1 cells</b></i></div>
1404008442212 1395802358422 What is the enetic inheritance of Job Syndrome
(Hyper-IE Syndrome)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1404008490941 1395802358422 {{c1::Autosomal Dominant hyper-IE Syndrome (Job
Syndrome)}} is a primary immunodeficiency that presents with a <b>deficiency of
Th17 cells</b> due to a <i style="font-weiht: bold; ">STAT3</i> muta
tion. <br /><div><i>The mutation results in impaired recruitment of neutrophil
s to the site of infection.</i></div>
1404008550006 1395802358422 Which ene mutation is seen in Job Syndrome (Aut
osomal Dominant hyper-IE Syndrome)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>STAT3</i>; ca
uses a deficiency of Th17 cells which leads to impaired recruitment of neutrophi
ls to sites of infection}}</div>
1404008592546 1395802358422 How do IE levels chane in Job Syndrome (Autoso
mal Dominant hyper-IE Syndrome)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Elevated}}</div>
1404008632293 1395802358422 How do IFN-amma levels chane in Job Syndrome (
Autosomal Dominant hyper-IE Syndrome)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</
div>
1404008678484 1395802358422 What type of lymphocyte is affected in Job Syndr
ome (Autosomal Dominant hyper-IE Syndrome)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}
}</div>
1404009254845 1395802358422 What type of lymphocyte is affected in Chronic M
ucocutaneous Candidiasis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div>
1404009272434 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Mucocutaneous Candidiasis}} is a p
rimary T-cell immunodeficiency that involves noninvasive <i>Candida albicans</i>
infections of skin and mucous membranes.
1404010851270 1395802358422 What is the most common etioloy of Severe Combi
ned Immunodeficiency (SCID)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Defective IL-2R amma ch

ain}}</div>
<br /><div><i>X-linked</i></div>
1404011726248 1395802358422 What is the enetic inheritance of IL-2R Gamma C
hain deficiency [and the subsequent Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID)]?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked Recessive}}</div>
1404011780588 1395802358422 What is the enetic inheritance of Adenosine Dea
minase Deficiency [and the subsequent Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID)]?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1404011821953 1395802358422 What type of lymphocytes are affected in Severe
Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T and B cells}}</di
v>
1404011853786 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Severe Combined Immuno
deficiency (SCID)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bone marrow transplantation}}</div
>
<br /><div><i>There is no concern for rejection.</i></div>
1404011951361 1395802358422 {{c1::Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID}} i
s a primary immunodeficiency that presents with decreased T-cell receptor excisi
on circles (TRECs).
1404012084160 1395802358422 What enetic defect is seen in Ataxia Telaniect
asia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>ATM</i> ene; leads to DNA double stran
ded breaks and arrest of the cell cycle}}</div> <br /><div><i>This ultimately ca
uses a deficiency of lymphocytes. (T and B cells).</i></div>
1404012157533 1395802358422 {{c1::Ataxia Telaniectasia}} is a primary immun
odeficiency that involves a defect in the <i>ATM</i> ene, thereby leadin
to many double stranded DNA breaks and arrest of the cell cycle.
1404012196576 1395802358422 {{c1::Ataxia Telaniectasia}} is a primary immun
odeficiency that presents with a triad of <b>ataxia, spider aniomas</b> an
d <b>IA deficiency.</b>
<br /><div><i>Spider aniomas are a type of tela
niectasia.</i></div><div><i>There is also sinificant cerebellar atrophy.</i></
div>
1404012232234 1395802358422 Which immunolobulin isotype is deficient in Ata
xia Telaniectasia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IA}}</div>
<br /><div><i>I
G and IE are also decreased.</i></div>
1404012380967 1395802358422 How do AFP levels chane in Ataxia Telaniectasi
a?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404012403474 1395802358422 What enetic defect is seen in Hyper IM Syndrom
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD40L; especially at Th cells}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hence class switchin for B cells is defective.</i></div>
1404012453683 1395802358422 What is the enetic inheritance of Hyper IM Syn
drome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked recessive}}</div>
1404012481178 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyper IM Syndrome}} is an XLR primary imm
unodeficiency that involves a defect in CD40L on Th cells, thereby yieldin a de
fect in B-cell class switchin. <br /><div><i>CD40L is required as a co-stimulat
ory factor in class switchin. Since it is defective, B-cells are "stuck" secret
ed IM (which is a default isotype expressed by naive B-cells).</i></div>
1404012568560 1395802358422 Which cell surface protein is defective in Hyper
IM Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD40L on Th cells}}</div>
1404012581402 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyper IM Syndrome}} is a primary immunode
ficiency that involves severe pyoenic infections early in life.
<br /><d
iv><i>Opportunistic infections with Pneumocystis, Cryptosporidium and CMV are al
so likely.</i></div>
1404012904857 1395802358422 How do IG, IA and IE levels chane in Hyper I
<br /><div><i>Th
M Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
is stems from why there is hyper-IM.</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>R
emember, there is a defect in class switchin of B cells - they are stuck secret
in IM due to a CD40L defect on Th cells. As a result, no IG, IA or IE is ma
de as no B cells are switchin to those isotypes.</i></div>
1404012991885 1395802358422 What enetic defect is seen in Wiskott-Aldrich S
yndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>WAS</i> mutation; results in T cells
that are unable to reoranize their actin cytoskeleton}}</div>
1404013032550 1395802358422 {{c1::Wiskot-Aldrich Syndrome}} is a primary imm
unodeficiency that involves a mutation in <i>WAS</i> and hence presents wit

h T-cells that are unable to reoranize their actin cytoskeleton.
1404013066104 1395802358422 What is the enetic inheritance of Wiskott-Aldri
ch Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked recessive}}</div>
1404013081138 1395802358422 {{c1::Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome}} is a primary im
munodeficiency that presents with <b>thrombocytopenic purpura</b>, <b>eczema</b>
and <b>recurrent infections</b>. <br /><div><im src="paste-5441723564048
8.jp" /></div>
1404013407607 1395802358422 How do IG and IM levels chane in Wiskott-Aldr
ich Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease to normal}}</div>
1404013436862 1395802358422 How do IE and IA levels chane in Wiskott-Aldr
ich Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1404013453792 1395802358422 What enetic defect is seen in Leukocyte Adhesio
n Deficiency Type 1 (LAD1)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LFA-1 interin (CD18) on
phaocytes}}</div>
1404013755387 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency Type 1 (LAD1
)}} is a primary immunodeficiency that involves a defect in LFA-1 interin (CD18
) on phaocytes, thereby resultin in impaired phaocyte miration and chemotaxi
s.
1404013792319 1395802358422 What is the enetic inheritance of Leukocyte Adh
esion Deficiency Type 1 (LAD1)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}
</div>
)}} is a primary immunodeficiency that presents with <b>delayed separation of th
e umbilical cord</b> (&t; 30 days).
)}} is a primary immunodeficiency that presents with recurrent bacterial skin/mu
cosal infections, absent pus formation and impaired wound healin.
1404014982518 1395802358422 Which enetic defect is seen in Chediak-Hiashi
Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>LYST</i> (Lysosomal traffickin re
ulator ene)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Causes microtubule dysfunction in phaosom
e-lysosome fusion.</i></div>
1404015046147 1395802358422 {{c1::Chediak-Hiashi Syndrome}} is a primary im
munodeficiency disorder that involves a defect in <i>LYST</i> (Lysosomal tr
affickin reulator ene), thereby presentin with microtubule dysfunction in ph
aosome-lysosome fusion.
1404015100169 1395802358422 What is the enetic inheritance of Chediak-Hias
hi Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1404015115816 1395802358422 {{c1::Parital Albinism}} is a cutaneous disorder
seen in Chediak-Hiashi Syndrome that results from dysfunctional phaosome-lyso
some fusion.
1404015180318 1395802358422 Which ram-positive bacterial enuses often caus
e recurrent pyoenic infections in Chediak-Hiashi Syndrome?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::<i>Staphylococci; Streptococci</i>}}</div>
1404015216936 1395802358422 {{c1::Chediak-Hiashi Syndrome}} is a primary im
munodeficiency disorder that presents with <b>iant ranules in neutrophils and
platelets</b>. <br /><div><i>There is pancytopenia and mild coaulation defects
.</i></div>
1404015264002 1395802358422 What enetic defect is seen in Chronic Granuloma
tous Disease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NADPH Oxidase defect}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>XLR</i></div>
1404015286448 1395802358422 What is the enetic inheritance of Chronic Granu
lomatous Disease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1404015298694 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Granulomatous Disease}} is a prima
ry immunodeficiency that involves an NADPH Oxidase defect, thereby resultin in
deceased ROS and a subsequent lack of respiratory burst in neutrophils. <br /><d
iv><i>Remember, NADPH Oxidase makes superoxide.</i></div>
1404015355228 1395802358422 What Nitroblue Tetrazolium (NZT) dye reduction t
est result is associated with Chronic Granulomatous Disease?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Neative}}</div>
1404015422163 1395802358422 Which flow cytometry test is abnormal in Chronic

Granulomatous Disease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Abnormal Dihydrorhodamine Tes
t}}</div>
1404015447316 1395802358422 A(n) {{c1::autoraft}} is a type of raft that i
s received from oneself.
1404015985734 1395802358422 A(n) {{c1::Syneneic Graft}} is a type of
raft that is received from an identical twin or clone.
1404016011128 1395802358422 A(n) {{c1::alloraft}} is a type of raft t
hat is received from a nonidentical individual of the same species.
1404016039210 1395802358422 A(n) {{c1::xenoraft}} is a raft that is r
eceived from a different species.
1404016054779 1395802358422 What is the onset of Hyperacute transplant rejec
tion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Minutes}}</div>
1404016076261 1395802358422 What is the onset of Acute transplant rejection?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Weeks to months}}</div>
1404016088036 1395802358422 What is the onset of Chronic transplant rejectio
n?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Months to years}}</div>
1404016096921 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperacute Rejection}} is a type of transp
lant rejection that involves <b>pre-existin recipient antibodies reactin to do
nor antiens</b> via a Type II reaction.
1404016146807 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperacute Rejection}} is a type of transp
lant rejection that involves <b>widespread thrombosis of rafted vessels</b>, th
ereby leadin to ischemia and necrosis. <br /><div><i>The raft has to be remove
d.</i></div>
1404016180870 1395802358422 {{c1::Cellular Acute Rejection}} is a type of Ac
ute Transplant Rejection that involves <b>CTLs</b> that become <b>activated
aainst donor MHCs</b>.
1404016228306 1395802358422 {{c1::Humoral Acute Rejection}} is a type of Acu
te Transplant Rejection that presents similarly to Hyperacute rejection, but inv
olves antibodies that <b>develop after transplantation</b>.
1404016531454 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Rejection}} is a type of transplant
rejection that presents with <b>vasculitis of rafted vessels</b> with <b>d
ense interstitial lymphocytic infiltrate</b>. <br /><div><i>Prevented or rever
sed with immunosuppressants.</i></div>
1404016580569 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Rejection}} is a type of transplan
t rejection that involves <b>recipient T cells that perceive donor MHC as recipi
ent MHC</b> and subsequently <b>react aainst donor antiens that are prese
nted</b>.
<br /><div><i>Basically, recipient (host) T cells here think tha
t the donor MHC molecules are host MHC molecules. Hence any antiens presented b
y the donor MHCs trier both cell-mediated and humoral reactions (i.e. reaction
aainst donor antiens).</i></div>
1404016926300 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Rejection}} is a type of transplan
t rejection that presents with <b>irreversible T-cell</b> and <b>antibody m
ediated damae</b>.
1404016969952 1395802358422 How does Chronic transplant rejection present at
the heart?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Atherosclerosis}}</div>
the Luns?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bronchiolitis obliterans}}</div>
the liver?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vanishin bile ducts}}</div>
the kidney?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vascular fibrosis and lomerulopathy}}</
div>
1404017019087 1395802358422 {{c1::Graft-versus-host disease}} is a transplan
t rejection disorder that involves <b>rafted immunocompetent T cells that proli
ferate in the immunocompromised host</b> and eventually bein <b>rejectin
host cells </b>as if they were "forein."
<br><div><i>Essentially, the tra
nsplanted, functional T cells attack the immunocompromised host T cells.</i></di
v><div><i>Causes severe oran dysfunction.</i></div>
1404017950425 1395802358422 Which type of transplants are typically associat
ed with raft-versus-host disease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bone marrow and li

ver transplants (as they are rich in lymphocytes)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th
is is potentially beneficial in bone marrow transplants to treat leukemia (Graft
-versus-tumour effect).</i></div>
1404059399172 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Cyclosporine?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Calcineurin by bindin to Cyclophilin}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>Thereby blocks T-cell activation by <b>preventin IL-2 transcription
</b>.</i><br /><div><im src="paste-58523224375972.jp" /></div>
1404063112127 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyclosporine}} is an immunosuppressant tha
t inhibits Calcineurin by bindin to Cyclophilin, thereby inhibitin IL-2 transc
ription and T-cell activation.
1404063162191 1395802358422 Which interleukin's transcription is prevented b
y Cyclosporine and Tacrolimus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IL-2}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Cyclosporine binds to Cyclophilin and then inhibits Calcineurin.</i></div>
<div><i>Tacrolimus binds to FKBP and then inhibits Calcineurin.</i></div><div><i
>Sirolimus binds to FKBP and then inhibits mTOR, but <b>inhibits IL-2 sinal tra
nsduction.</b></i></div><div><i><im src="paste-58518929408676.jp" /></i></div>
1404063255668 1395802358422 What does Cyclosporine bind to before inhibitin
Calcineurin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclophilin}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-58518929408676.jp" /></div>
t is used to <b>psoriasis</b> and rheumatoid arthritis.
1404063620151 1395802358422 Which immunosuppressant is associated with <b>ne
phrotoxicity</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclosporine; Tacrolimus}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Both Calcineurin inhibitors are nephrotoxic.</i></div>
1404063651642 1395802358422 Which immunosuppressant is associated with <b>hi
rsutism</b> and <b>inival hyperplasia</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cyc
losporine}}</div>
t is associated with <b>hypertension, hyperlipidemia</b> and <b>hyperlycem
ia</b>.
1404064623432 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Tacrolimus?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of Calcineurin via FKBP (FK506 Bindin Protein)}}</div>
1404064653178 1395802358422 {{c1::Tacrolimus}} is an immunosuppressant that
inhibits Calcineurin by bindin to FKBP, thereby inhibitin IL-2 transcription.
1404064716929 1395802358422 Which protein does Tacrolimus bind to in order t
o inhibit Calcineurin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::FKBP}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i>The -limus drus bind to FKBP.</i><br /><div><im src="paste-58518929408676.
jp" /></div>
inhibits Calcineurin and yields an <b>increased risk of diabetes and neurotoxici
ty</b>.
inhibits Calcineurin but <b>does not cause hirsutism or inival hyperplasia</b>
.
1404064975838 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Sirolimus (Rapamycin)?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of mTOR via bindin to FKBP; thereby inhibits IL
-2 sinal transduction}}</div> <br /><div><im src="paste-58518929408676.jp" /
></div>
1404065097406 1395802358422 What protein does Sirolimus (Rapamycin) bind to
before inhibitin mTOR?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::FKBP}}</div> <br /><div><im
src="paste-58518929408676.jp" /></div>
1404065131727 1395802358422 {{c1::Sirolimus (Rapamycin)}} is an immunosuppre
ssant that inhibits mTOR via bindin to FKBP, thereby inhibitin IL-2 <b>sinal
transduction</b>.
1404065360707 1395802358422 Which oran transplant is associated with subseq
uent Sirolimus (Rapamycin) use?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Kidney transplant rej
ection prophylaxis}}</div>
1404065420288 1395802358422 Which immunosuppressant is associated with insul

in resistance and hyperlipidemia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sirolimus (Rapamyci
n)}}</div>
ssant that inhibits mTOR and is <b>non-nephrotoxic</b>.
ssant that works in synery with Cyclosporine. <br /><div><im src="paste-58518
929408676.jp" /></div>
1404065877680 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the immunosuppressant Basilix
imab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to and blocks the IL-2R}}</div> <br /><d
1404066012709 1395802358422 {{c1::Basiliximab}} is a monoclonal antibody tha
t blocks the <b>IL-2R</b>, thereby causin immunosuppression and actin as a kid
ney transplant rejection prophylactic. <br /><div><im src="paste-5851892940867
6.jp" /></div>
1404066056607 1395802358422 {{c1::Basiliximab}} is a monoclonal antibody tha
t blocks IL-2R and yields <b>edema, HTN</b> and <b>tremor</b>.
<br /><d
iv><br /></div>
1404066078559 1395802358422 {{c1::Azathioprine (AZT)}} is an immunosuppressa
nt that is the antimetabolite precursor of 6-MP.
te-58518929408676.jp" /></div>
1404066128501 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Azathioprine?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhibition of PRPP Amidotransferase; inhibits lymphocyte proliferati
on by blockin nucleotide synthesis}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Remember, AZ
T is the prodru form of 6-MP.</i><br /><div><im src="paste-58518929408676.jp"
/></div>
1404066180132 1395802358422 {{c1::Azathioprine}} is an immunosuppressant tha
t is used to treat <b>Crohn Disease</b>.
1404066579885 1395802358422 How does Allopurinol influence the toxicity of A
zathioprine (6MP)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><i>6MP is deraded by Xanthine Oxidase. Hence Allopurinol increases its toxicity.</i
></div>
t inhibits PRPP Amidotransferase and causes <b>leukopenia, anaemia</b> and
<b>thrombocytopenia</b>.
1404066691061 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Glucocorticoids as immunosupp
ressants?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of NF-kB; Thereby suppressin bo
th B and T cell function by decreasin the transcription of many cytokines}}</di
v>
1404066745491 1395802358422 {{c1::Glucocorticoids}} are a type of immunosupp
ressant that inhibits NF-kB, thereby decreasin the transcription of many cytoki
nes.
t is converted into <b>6-MP</b> and inhibits <b>PRPP Amidotransferase</b>.
ressant that is associated with <b>central obesity</b> and <b>hyperlycemia
</b>. <br /><div><im src="paste-58518929408676.jp" /></div>
ressant that are associated with <b>osteoporosis</b> and <b>muscle breakdow
n</b>.
ressant that are associated with <b>acne</b> and <b>cataracts</b>.
ressant that are associated with <b>peptic ulcers</b>.
ressant that are known to cause iatroenic Cushin Syndrome.
1404067580343 1395802358422 {{c1::Epoetin alfa}} is a recombinant cytokine t
hat functions as Erythropoietin and is used to treat <b>anaemia</b>, especially
in renal failure.
1404069394445 1395802358422 {{c1::Thrombopoietin}} and {{c2::Oprelvekin

}} are recombinant cytokines that are used to treat thrombocytopenia.
1404069436564 1395802358422 {{c1::Oprelvekin}} is a recombinant cytokine tha
t functions as <b>IL-11</b> and hence is used to treat Thrombocytopenia.
1404069482968 1395802358422 {{c1::Filrastim}} is a recombinant cytokine tha
t functions as a <b>ranulocyte colony-stimulatin factor (G-CSF)</b> to induce
bone marrow recovery.
1404069605164 1395802358422 {{c1::Sarramostim}} is a recombinant cytokine t
hat functions as a <b>ranulocyte-macrophae colony-stimulatin factor (GM-CSF)
</b>and is used to induce bone marrow recovery.
1404069687174 1395802358422 {{c1::Aldesleukin}} is a recombinant cytokine th
at function as <b>IL-2</b> and is used in renal cell carcinoma and metastat
ic melanoma.
1404069713578 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat chronic HBV an
d HCV?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-alpha}}</div>
1404069732893 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Kaposi Sarcoma
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-alpha}}</div>
1404069739996 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Hairy Cell Leu
kemia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-alpha}}</div>
1404069747185 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Condyloma Acum
inatum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-alpha}}</div>
1404069763176 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Renal Cell Car
cinoma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-alpha}}</div>
1404069770283 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Malinant Mela
noma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-alpha}}</div>
1404069778681 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Multiple Scler
osis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-beta}}</div>
1404069788097 1395802358422 Which interferon is used to treat Chronic Granul
omatous Disease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IFN-amma}}</div>
1404069797079 1395802358422 What is the taret of the monoclonal antibody Al
emtuzumab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD52 in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia}}</di
v>
1404070337638 1395802358422 What is the taret of the monoclonal antibody Be
vacizumab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::VEGF in colorectal cancer, renal cell carc
inoma}}</div>
1404070364535 1395802358422 What is the taret of the monoclonal antibody Ce
tuximab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Epidermal rowth factor receptor (EGFR) in s
tae IV colorectal cancer, head and neck cancer}}</div>
1404070414787 1395802358422 What is the taret of the monoclonal antibody Ri
tuximab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD20 in B-cell non-Hodkin lymphoma, Rheumao
id Arthritis and Idiopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura}}</div>
1404070486754 1395802358422 What is the taret of the monoclonal antibody Tr
astuzumab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HER2/neu in breast cancer and some astric
cancer}}</div> <br /><div><i>"Tras-<b>2</b>-zumab tarets HER<b>2</b>"</i></div
>
1404070524214 1395802358422 What is the taret of the monoclonal antibody In
fliximab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::TNF-alpha in IBD, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Ank
ylosin Spondylitis, Psoriasis}}</div>
1404070711881 1395802358422 What is the taret of the monoclonal antibody Ad
alimumab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::TNF-alpha in IBD, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Ank
ylosin Spondylitis, Psoriasis}}</div>
1404070868387 1395802358422 What is the taret of the monoclonal antibody Na
talizumab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::alpha4-interin in MS and Crohn Disease}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>Alpha4-interin is an interin protein involved with leuko
cyte adhesion.</i></div>
1404070920133 1395802358422 {{c1::Proressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy
(PML)}} is a possible neuroloical complication of Natalizumab use in patients
with JC virus infection.
1404070972875 1395802358422 What is the taret of the monoclonal antibody Ab
ciximab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GpIIb/IIIa in patients that need anti-platel
et action}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. for the prevention of ischemic compli
cations in patients underoin percutaneous coronary intervention</i></div>
1404071054879 1395802358422 What is the taret of the monoclonal antibody De
nosumab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::RANKL in osteoporosis; Blockin of RANKL inh
ibits osteoclast maturation}}</div>
1404071083682 1395802358422 What is the taret of the monoclonal antibody Di
oxin Immune Fab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dioxin; acts as an antidote for Di
oxin toxicity}}</div>
1404071121555 1395802358422 What is the taret of the monoclonal antibody Om
alizumab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IE; used to prevent alleric asthma and pr
events IE bindin to FcERI}}</div>
1404071160652 1395802358422 What is the taret of the monoclonal antibody Pa
vilizumab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::RSV F protein}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Re
member, F proteins on RSV allow is to make syncytia. Hence, Respiratory Syncytia
l Virus (RSV).</i></div>
1404071589190 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of the monoclonal antib
ody Alemtuzumab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) v
ia CD52}}</div>
ody Bevacizumab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Colorectal cancer; Renal cell carcin
oma; via VEGF}}</div>
ody Cetuximab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Stae IV colorectal cancer; Head and n
eck cancer; via EGFR}}</div>
ody Rituximab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::B-cell non-Hodkin lymphoma; Rheumatoi
d Arthritis; Idiopathic Thrombocytopenia Purpura; via CD20}}</div>
ody Trastuzumab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Breast cancer; Gastric cancer; via H
ER2/neu}}</div>
ody Infliximab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IBD; Rheumatoid Arthritis; Ankylosin
Spondylitis; Psoriasis; via TNF-alpha}}</div>
ody Adalimumab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IBD; Rheumatoid Arthritis; Ankylosin
Spondylitis; Psoriasis; via TNF-alpha}}</div>
ody Natalizumab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Multiple Sclerosis; Crohn Disease; v
ia alpha4-interin}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, alpha4-interin is invol
ved with leukocyte adhesion.</i></div>
ody Abciximab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Prevention of ischemic complications i
n patients underoin percutaneous coronary intervention}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>i.e. it's an antiplatelet, brah!</i></div>
ody Denosumab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Osteoporosis; inhibits osteoclast matu
ration via RANKL}}</div>
ody Dioxin Immune Fab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antidote for Diitoxin toxici
ty}}</div>
ody Omalizumab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alleric asthma; prevents IE bindin
to FcERI}}</div>
ody Palivizumab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Prophylaxis in RSV hih-risk infants
; via RSV F protein}}</div>
1404072154231 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used to treat C
hronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alemtuzumab (via C
D52)}}</div>
1404072803058 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used to treat I
diopathic Thrombocytopenic Purpura (ITP)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rituximab}}

</div>
1404073044364 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used to treat B
reast Cancer?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trastuzumab (via HER2/neu)}}</div>
1404073071781 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used to treat M
ultiple Sclerosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Natalizumab}}</div>
1404073420208 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used to treat C
rohn Disease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Natalizumab}}</div>
1404073432419 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used to treat A
nkylosin Spondylitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Infliximab; Adalimumab; both v
ia TNF-alpha}}</div>
1404074377437 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used to treat O
steoporosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Denosumab (via RANKL)}}</div>
1404074417513 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used to treat D
ioxin toxicity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dioxin Immune Fab}}</div>
1404074435170 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used to treat A
lleric Asthma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Omalizumab}}</div>
1404074449984 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody can be used as an RSVprophylaxis for hih-risk infants?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Palivizumab}}</div
>
1379539830538 1358629116480 Epinephrine is an adreneric with a receptor aff
inity of {{c1::b1=b2=b3 &t;&t; a1=a2}}
1379541123732 1358629116480 {{c1::Epinephrine}} is the adreneric of choice
to treat anaphylaxis and anioedema.
1379541217698 1358629116480 {{c1::Dobutamine}} and {{c2::Dopamine}} are the
adrenerics/sympathomimetics of choice to treat cardioenic shock.
1379541384454 1358629116480 {{c1::Norepinephrine}} and {{c2::phenylephr
ine}} are the adrenerics of choice to treat vasodilatory shock.
<br /><d
iv><i>Neuroenic, septic, etc shock</i></div>
1379541448677 1358629116480 {{c1::Epinephrine}} is the adreneric of choice
to treat anaphylactic shock.
1379541481648 1358629116480 {{c1::Epinephrine}} is the adreneric used durin
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR)
1379541500977 1358629116480 {{c1::Isoproterenol}} is the adreneric of choic
e to treat torsade de pointes.
1379541559411 1358629116480 {{c1::Clonidine}} and Methyldopa are the adrener
ics used to treat hypertension throuh the activation of central a2 receptors.
1379541591233 1358629116480 {{c1::Epinephrine}} and {{c1::norepinephrin
e}} are the adrenerics involved with local anaesthesia and the trierin of lo
cal vasoconstriction.
1379541644648 1358629116480 {{c1::Phenylephrine}} is the adreneric used to
treat nasal conestion and bleedin.
1379541757663 1358629116480 {{c1::Epinephrine}} and {{c1::selective b2}
} aonists are adrenerics used to treat asthma and COPD.
1379541803547 1358629116480 {{c1::Epinephrine}} and {{c2::Apraclonidine
}} are adrenerics used to treat open anle laucoma.
1379541831196 1358629116480 {{c1::Clonidine}} is an adreneric used to treat
tobacco, alcohol or opioid withdrawal.
1379541863787 1358629116480 Norepinephrine is an a-b aonist with a receptor
affinity of {{c1::a1 &t; a2 &t; b1}}.
1379542145050 1358629116480 Phenylephrine is a(n) {{c1::a1}} selective adren
eric aonist.
1379542198636 1358629116480 Clonidine is a(n) {{c1::a2}} selective adre
neric aonist. <br /><div><i>Remember, Clonidine activates a2 autoreceptors and
a2 central receptors to decrease central adreneric tone.</i></div>
1379542257520 1358629116480 Apraclonidine is a(n) {{c1::a2}} selective
adreneric aonist. It is administered ophthalmically.
1379542307767 1358629116480 Isoproterenol is a(n) {{c1::b1, b2, b3}} ad
reneric aonist.
1379542340464 1358629116480 Dobutamine is a(n) {{c1::b1}} selective adr
eneric aonist.
1379542355899 1358629116480 Albuterol is a(n) {{c1::b2}} selective adre
neric aonist.
1379542374732 1358629116480 Salmeterol is a(n) {{c2::b2}} selective adr
eneric aonist.
1379542429922 1358629116480 {{c1::Methyldopa}} is converted to methylnorepin
ephrine in adreneric neurons. It then activates central {{c2::a2}} receptors to
decrease central adreneric tone.
1379542523150 1358629116480 {{c1::Tyramine}} is converted to Octopamine in a
dreneric neurons. It is then stored in vesicles and released in place of NE.
1379542561813 1358629116480 {{c1::Cocaine}} is a mixed-actin adreneric tha
t blocks the reuptake of catecholamines in the CNS and PNS.
1379542597439 1358629116480 {{c1::Amphetamines}} is a mixed-actin adreneri
c that stimulates the release of monoamine NTs (NE, D, 5-HT) from their storae
vesicles. It also blocks catecholamine reuptake.
1379558429103 1358629116480 {{c2::Phenoxybenzamine}} is an irreversible nonselective alpha adreneric blocker with an affinity of a1 &t; a2.
1379558572762 1358629116480 Prazosin is a selective {{c1::a1}} adrener
ic blocker.
1379558601635 1358629116480 Doxazosin is a selective {{c1::a1}} adrener
ic blocker.
1379558615718 1358629116480 Tamsulosin is a selective {{c1::a1}} adrene
ric blocker.
1379558629853 1358629116480 Propanolol is a non-selective {{c1::beta}}
adreneric blocker. It has a local anaesthetic effect.
1379558648135 1358629116480 Pindolol is a nonselective {{c1::beta}} adr
eneric blocker. It has a local anaesthetic effect.
1379558695127 1358629116480 Timolol is a non-selective {{c1::beta}} adr
eneric blocker that is commonly used for open anle laucoma.
1379558728817 1358629116480 Sotalol is a nonselective {{c1::beta}} adre
neric blocker.
1379558754697 1358629116480 Atenolol is a selective {{c1::b1}} adrener
ic blocker.
1379558782272 1358629116480 Metoprolol is a selective {{c1::b1}} adrene
ric blocker.
1379558802870 1358629116480 Esmolol is a selective {{c1::b1}} adreneri
c blocker. It is only administered parenterally.
1379558852507 1358629116480 {{c1::Labetalol}} is an alpha-beta adreneric bl
ocker that has alpha-antaonist and partial beta-aonist function. It is also a
local anaesthetic.
1379558913105 1358629116480 Carvidilol is a(n) {{c1::a1-beta}} adrener
ic blocker.
1379558952458 1358629116480 {{c2::Metyrosine}} is an indirect actin antiadr
eneric that inhibits {{c1::Tyrosine Hydroxylase}}, the rate limitin enzym
e in catecholamine biosynthesis.
1379559008875 1358629116480 {{c1::Phenoxybenzamine}} is an alpha-adreneric
blocker primarily used to treat Pheochromocytoma as a pre-operative preparation
or when the tumour is metastatic/inoperable.
1379559702644 1358629116480 Selective a1-adreneric blockers are primarily u
sed to treat {{c1::HTN}} and {{c2::urinary incontinence in BPH.}}
<br /><div><i>Remember, selective a1-adreneric blockers end in -osin</i></div><
div><i>e.. Prazosin, trazosin, doxazosin, tamsulosin</i></div>
1379559801375 1358629116480 Phenoxybenzamine toxicity involves {{c1::or
thostatic hypotension}} and {{c2::reflex tachycardia}}.
1379559878331 1358629116480 Selective a1-blockers have a toxicity of {{
c1::1st dose orthostatic hypotension}}.
1379559903975 1358629116480 Timolol is a non-selective beta-blocker primaril
y used to treat {{c1::open anle laucoma}}.
1379559964204 1358629116480 {{c1::Metoprolol}} and {{c2::Esmolol}} are
selective b1-blockers used to treat Supraventricular Tachycardia (SVT).
1379627871132 1358629116480 {{c1::Bethanechol}} is a direct muscarinic aoni

st used to treat postoperative nonobstructive ileus, neuroenic ileus and urinar
y retention.
<br /><i>Bethanechol = bowels and bladder </i>
1379627972507 1358629116480 {{c1::Pilocarpine}} is a direct muscarinic aoni
st used to treat open anle laucoma and xerostomia as it stimulates sweatin, t
earin and salivation. <br><div><i style="font-weiht: bold; ">Pilo</i><i>carpi
ne lets you cry, drool and sweat onto your <b>pillo</b>w</i></div>
1379628145233 1358629116480 {{c1::Mycetism}} is poisonin due to mushrooms t
hat contain muscarine. Symptoms appear within 30 minutes: salivation, lacrimatio
n, bronchospasm, bradycardia, tremors, coma.
1379628340573 1358629116480 {{c1::Edrophonium}} is a cholinesterase inhibito
r clinically used to dianose myasthenia ravis.
1379628521535 1358629116480 {{c1::Neostimine}} is used to treat myasthenia
ravis, postoperative nonobstructive ileus, urinary retention and postoperative
NMJ blockade
1379628647497 1358629116480 {{c1::Neostimine}} and {{c2::Bethanechol}}
can be used to treat neuroenic bladder.
1379628861500 1358629116480 {{c1::Doneprezil}} is a cholinesterase inhibitor
that is selective for ChE's in the brain. As such, it is used to treat Alzheime
r's Disease.
1379628918981 1358629116480 {{c1::Oranophosphate}} are <b>irreversible</b>&
nbsp;cholinesterase inhibitors.
1379629129053 1358629116480 {{c2::Pralidoxime}} is a cholinesterase reactiva
tor used to treat oranophosphate poisonin.
1379638625360 1358629116480 Atropine is typically used in ophthalmoloy wher
e it causes {{c1::mydriasis}} and {{c2::cyclopleia}}.
1379638684720 1358629116480 {{c1::Scopolamine}} is a muscarinic blocker used
to treat motion sickness.
1379638770245 1358629116480 {{c1::Darifenacin}} is a muscarinic blocker used
to treat overactive bladder (ure incontinence).
1379638827171 1358629116480 {{c1::Benzotropine}} is a muscarinic blocker use
d to treat Parkinson's Disease. <br /><div><i>Park my <b>Benz.</b></i></div
>
1379981560930 1358629116480 The {{c1::M2}} receptor is the major muscar
inic receptor at the heart.
1379981594689 1358629116480 The {{c2::M2}} receptor <b>stronly</b> decrease
s conduction and refractoriness at the {{c1::AV node}}
1379981634633 1358629116480 The {{c1::M3}} muscarinic receptor causes v
asodilation.
1379981723221 1358629116480 The {{c1::M3}} muscarinic receptor causes s
tron bronchoconstriction and lun secretion.
tron erection indirectly via NO.
1379981794571 1358629116480 The {{c1::M3}} muscarinic receptor causes a
stron increase in GI motility, a decrease in sphincter tone and allbladder co
ntraction.
1379981913792 1358629116480 The {{c1::M3}} muscarinic receptor causes <
b>moderate</b> exocrine secretion from the pancreas.
1379981953963 1358629116480 The {{c1::M3}} muscarinic receptor causes a stro
n increase in detrusor muscle motility and tone.
tron contraction of the spincter pupillae and ciliary muscles.
stron increase in lacrimal land secretion.
stron increase in sweat land secretion.
1379982137526 1358629116480 The {{c1::b1}} adreneric receptor is the m
ain receptor at the heart.
1379982213560 1358629116480 The {{c1::a1}} adreneric receptor is respo
nsible for most vasocontriction and smooth muscle contraction.
1379988833840 1358629116480 The {{c1::b2}} adreneric receptor is respo

nsible for most vasodilation and bronchodilation.
1379988856732 1358629116480 Bronchial muscle relaxation is mediated throuh&
nbsp;{{c1::b2}} adreneric receptors.
1379988982816 1358629116480 Ejaculation in males is mediated throuh the&nbs
p;{{c1::a1}} adreneric receptor.
1379989022198 1358629116480 Relaxation of uterine muscle in both the prenan
t and non-prenant uteruses are mediated by the {{c1::b2}} adreneric recep
tor.
1379989068780 1358629116480 The {{c1::b2}} adreneric receptor is the m
ajor mediator of the increases in hepatic lycoenolysis and luconeoenesis.
1379989219218 1358629116480 The {{c1::a2}} adreneric receptor stronly decr
eases insulin secretion from the pancreas.
1379989262187 1358629116480 The {{c1::b2}} adreneric receptor weakly increa
ses insulin release from the pancreas.
1379989284393 1358629116480 The {{c1::b2}} adreneric receptor increase
s Ca<sup>2+</sup> sequestration, lycoenolysis and K<sup>+</sup> upta
ke at <b>skeletal</b> muscle.
1380063485106 1358629116480 Mast cell deranulation is inhibited throuh&nbs
p;{{c1::b2}} adreneric receptors.
1380063518711 1358629116480 Platelet areation is stimulated by {{c1:
:a2}} adreneric receptors.
1404332807900 1395802358422 What is the value of K<sub>m</sub> in a Mic
haelis-Menten kinetics system?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::[S] at 1/2 V<sub>max</
sub>}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Remember, K<sub>m</sub> is inversely re
lated to the affinity of the enzyme for the substrate. (i.e. K<sub>m</sub>
= 1/affinity)</i><div><i>Remember, V<sub>max</sub> is directly proportional
to the concentration of the enzyme.<br /></i><div><im src="paste-2808049618148
8.jp" /></div></div>
1404333476525 1395802358422 {{c1::Lineweaver-Burk plot}} is a reciprocal plo
t of Michaelis-Menten enzyme kinetic values.<div><br /></div><div><im src="past
e-28217935134949.jp" /></div> <br /><div><i>Remember, K<sub>m</sub> is th
e inverse of enzyme affinity (1/affinity).</i></div><div><i>Remember, V<sub>max<
/sub> is directly proportional to the concentration of the enzyme.</i></div
>
1404333594465 1395802358422 How do<b> reversible competitive inhibitors
</b> chane V<sub>max</sub>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No chane}}</div>
<div><br /></div><div><i>Reversible competitive inhibition = <b>increase</b
> K<sub>m</sub>; unchaned V<sub>max</sub>; <b>decreased</b> pote
ncy</i></div><im src="paste-28561532518663.jp" /><div><im src="paste-28574417
420736.jp" /></div>
1404334860857 1395802358422 How do <b>reversible competitive inhibitors</b>&
nbsp;chane K<sub>m</sub>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>Reversible competitive inhibition = <b>increase</b> K<sub>
m</sub>; unchaned V<sub>max</sub>; <b>decreased</b> potency</i><br />
<div><im src="paste-28561532518663.jp" /><div><im src="paste-28574417420736.j
p" /></div></div>
1404334889652 1395802358422 Which type of enzyme inhibition is able to be ov
ercome by an increase in substrate concentration?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rev
ersible competitive inhibition}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Reversible competiti
ve inhibition = <b>increase</b> K<sub>m</sub>; unchaned V<sub>max</su
b>; <b>decreased</b> potency</i><br /><div><im src="paste-28561532518
663.jp" /><div><im src="paste-28574417420736.jp" /></div></div>
1404334917949 1395802358422 Which type of enzyme inhibition causes a <b>decr
ease in potency</b> of the dru?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Reversible comp
etitive inhibition}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Reversible competitive inhib
ition = <b>increase</b> K<sub>m</sub>; unchaned V<sub>max</sub>; <b>decrea
sed</b> potency</i><br /><div><im src="paste-28561532518663.jp" /><div><i
m src="paste-28574417420736.jp" /></div></div>
1404334988908 1395802358422 How does <b>irreversible competitive inhibi
tion</b> chane V<sub>max</sub>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div

>
<div><br /></div><i>Irreversible competitive inhibition = <b>decrea
sed</b> V<sub>max</sub>; unchaned K<sub>m</sub>; <b>decreased</b>&nbs
p;efficacy</i><br /><div><im src="paste-28561532518663.jp" /><div><im src="pa
ste-28574417420736.jp" /></div></div>
1404335028881 1395802358422 How does <b>irreversible competitive inhibition<
/b> chane K<sub>m</sub>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No chane}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Irreversible competitive inhibition = <b>decreased</b>&
nbsp;V<sub>max</sub>; unchaned K<sub>m</sub>; <b>decreased</b> effica
cy</i><div><im src="paste-28561532518663.jp" /><div><im src="paste-2857441742
0736.jp" /></div></div>
1404335066834 1395802358422 Which type of enzyme inhibitor <b>does not</b>&n
bsp;resemble the substrate?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Noncompetitive inhibitor}
}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Noncompetitive inhibition = <b>decreased</b>&nb
sp;V<sub>max</sub>; unchaned K<sub>m</sub>; <b>decreased</b> efficacy
</i><div><i>e.. allosteric inhibition</i></div><div><im src="paste-28561532518
663.jp" /><div><im src="paste-28574417420736.jp" /></div></div>
1404335114549 1395802358422 Which type of enzyme inhibition <b>does not</b>&
nbsp;involve bindin at the active site?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Noncompetiti
ve inhibition}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Noncompetitive inhibition = <b>
decreased</b> V<sub>max</sub>; unchaned K<sub>m</sub>; <b>decreased</
b> efficacy</i><div><i>e.. allosteric inhibition</i></div><div><im src="p
aste-28561532518663.jp" /><div><im src="paste-28574417420736.jp" /></div></di
v>
1404335148270 1395802358422 How does <b>noncompetitive inhibition</b> c
hane V<sub>max</sub>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i>Noncompetitive inhibition = <b>decreased</b> V<sub>max</su
b>; unchaned K<sub>m</sub>; <b>decreased</b> efficacy</i><div><i>e..
allosteric inhibition</i></div><div><im src="paste-28561532518663.jp" /><div>
<im src="paste-28574417420736.jp" /></div></div>
1404335182462 1395802358422 How does <b>noncompetitive inhibition </b>chane
K<sub>m</sub>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No chane}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>Noncompetitive inhibition = <b>decreased</b> V<sub>max</sub>; unchaned
K<sub>m</sub>; <b>decreased</b> efficacy</i><div><i>e.. allosteric inhibi
tion<br /></i><div><im src="paste-28561532518663.jp" /><div><im src="paste-28
574417420736.jp" /></div></div></div>
1404335786517 1395802358422 {{c1::Pharmacokinetics}} is a pharmacoloical su
bfield that explores the <b>effects of the body on a dru</b>. <br /><div><i>AD
ME: Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion</i></div>
1404336407505 1395802358422 {{c1::Pharmacodynamics}} is a subfield of pharma
coloy that explores the <b>effects of a dru on the body</b>. <br /><div><i>i.
e. receptor bindin, efficacy, potency, toxicity, MOA, etc.</i></div>
1404336449213 1395802358422 What is the bioavailability (F) of a dru admini
stered intravenously?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::100%}}</div> <br /><div><i>F<
sub>oral</sub> < 100%; varies dependin on incomplete absorption and fir
st-pass metabolism</i></div>
1404338068244 1395802358422 {{c1::Bioavailability (F)}} is a pharmacokinetic
measure defined as the fraction of administered dru that reaches systemic circ
ulation unchaned.
1404338105442 1395802358422 {{c1::Volume of Distribution (V<sub>d</sub>)}} i
s a pharmacokinetic measure that is defined as the theoretical volume occupied b
y the total absorbed dru amount at the plasma concentration. <br /><div><i>He
nce, the V<sub>d</sub> of plasma protein-bound drus can be altered by live
r and kidney disease (liver/kidney disease = decreased protein bindin = decreas
ed V<sub>d</sub>)</i></div>
1404338469299 1395802358422 What is the equation for the Volume of Distribut
ion (V<sub>d</sub>) of a dru?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="paste-317784
63023194.jp" />}}</div>
1404338977373 1395802358422 Which type of dru is associated with <b>low</b>
volume of distribution?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lare/chared molecules
; plasma protein bound drus}}</div>

9.jp" /></div>
1404339014414 1395802358422 To which fluid compartment do drus with <b>low<
/b> volume of distribution spread?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blood (4-8 L)
}}</div>
1404339063295 1395802358422 To which fluid compartment do drus with <b>medi
um</b> volume of distribution spread?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ECF}}</div
>
1404339087780 1395802358422 To which fluid compartment do drus with <b>hih
</b> volume of distribution spread?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::All tissue,
includin fat}}</div> <br /><div><im src="paste-31920196944149.jp" /></div>
1404339111737 1395802358422 Which type of dru is associated with <b>medium<
/b> volume of distribution (V<sub>d</sub>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Smal
l, hydrophilic molecules}}</div>
9.jp" /></div>
1404339137890 1395802358422 Which type of dru is associated with <b>hih</b
> volume of distribution (V<sub>d</sub>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Small
lipophilic drus, especially those bound to tissue proteins}}</div>
<br /><d
1404339202515 1395802358422 {{c1::Half-life (t1/2)}} is a pharmacokinetic me
asure that is defined as the time required to reduce the amount of a dru in a b
ody <b>by half</b> via elimination.
<br /><div><i>Stems from first o
rder dru elimination.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-33204392165513.jp" /></
i></div>
1404339271694 1395802358422 How many half-lives does it take for a dru to r
each <b>steady state</b> if it is bein <b>infused at a constant rate</b>?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4-5}}</div> <br /><div><i>The overall time it takes
to reach the steady-state concentration is primarily dependent on t<sub>1/2</sub
> and is independent of dose and dosin frequency.</i></div>
1404339327959 1395802358422 How many half-lives does it take to reach <b>90%
of the steady-state level</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3.3}}</div>
1404339348778 1395802358422 What is the equation for the half-life of a dru
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="paste-32688996089953.jp" />}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Where V<sub>d</sub> = volume of distribution; CL = clearance<
/i></div>
1404340362563 1395802358422 {{c1::Clearance (CL)}} is a pharmacokinetic meas
ure that is defined as the <b>volume of plasma cleared of a dru per unit time</
b>.
1404340395277 1395802358422 What is the equation for the Clearance (CL) of a
dru?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="paste-33238751903844.jp" />}}</div>
1404340411909 1395802358422 What is the equation for the Loadin dose of a d
ru?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="paste-33264521707620.jp" />}}</div>
1404340445940 1395802358422 What is the equation for the maintenance dose of
a dru?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="paste-33290291511521.jp" />}}</di
v>
<br /><div><i>In renal/liver disease, the <b>maintenance dose decreases<
/b> but the loadin dose is unchaned.</i></div>
1404340544267 1395802358422 What is the equation for the bioavailability (F)
of a dru?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="paste-33809982554188.jp" />}}<
/div>
1404340626555 1395802358422 {{c1::Zero-Order Elimination}} is an order of dr
u elimination that involves a <b>constant rate of elimination</b> reardle
ss of C<sub>p</sub>.
<div><br /></div><i>Hence C<sub>p</sub> decreases l
inearly with time.</i><br /><div><im src="paste-34170759807431.jp" /></div>
1404343474527 1395802358422 {{c1::Zero-order elimination}} is an order of el
imination that involves elimination of a <b>constant amount of dru</b> per
unit time.
1404343510253 1395802358422 {{c1::Zero-order elimination}} is an order of dr
u elimination that is <b>capacity-limited</b>.
1404343541012 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenytoin}}, {{c2::Ethanol}} and&nbsp
;{{c3::Aspirin}} are three drus that are known to exhibit zero-order eliminatio
n.
1404343568539 1395802358422 {{c1::First-order elimination}} is an order of d
ru elimination that involves a rate of elimination that is <b>directly proporti
onal to the dru concentration</b>.
6.jp" /></div>
1404343622571 1395802358422 {{c1::First-order elimination}} is an order of e
limination that involves elimination of a <b>constant fraction of dru</b>
per unit time. <div style="font-style: italic; "><i><br /></i></div><i>Hence, C
<sub>p</sub> decreases exponentially with time.</i><div><i>Flow-dependent e
limination.<br /></i><div><im src="paste-34699040784860.jp" /></div></div>
1404344028791 1395802358422 {{c1::Bicarbonate}} is a treatment for <b>weak a
cid dru overdose</b> that functions by alkalinizin the urine, thereby tra
ppin the weakly acidic dru.<div><br /></div> <div><br /></div><i>For weak aci
d drus:</i><br /><div><im src="paste-35596688949347.jp" /></div>
1404344650089 1395802358422 {{c1::Ammonium chloride}} is a treatment for <b>
weak base dru overdose</b> and functions by <b>acidifyin</b> the uri
ne, thereby trappin the weakly basic dru.
<div><br /></div><i>For weakly b
asic drus:</i><br /><div><im src="paste-35759897706601.jp" /></div>
1404408265963 1395802358422 Which phase of dru metabolism yields <b>slihtl
y polar, water-soluble</b> and <b>active</b> metabolites?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Phase I}}</div> <div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>Involves r
eduction, oxidation and hydrolysis of drus with cytochrome P450 enzymes.</i></d
iv>
1404409257639 1395802358422 Which phase of dru metabolism is lost first in
eriatric patients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phase 1}}</div>
1404409501937 1395802358422 Which phase of dru metabolism involves conjuat
ion of drus into <b>very polar</b> and <b>inactive</b> metabolites?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phase II}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Glucuronidation, a
cetylation, sulfation.</i></div>
1404409546817 1395802358422 {{c1::Efficacy}} is a pharmacodynamic measure de
fined as the <b>maximal effect a dru can produce</b>. <br /><div><im src="pas
te-1434519077352.jp" /></div>
1404410077779 1395802358422 {{c1::Potency}} is a pharmacodynamic measure def
ined as the <b>amount of dru needed for a iven effect</b>.
<div><br /></div
><i>Increased potency = increased affinity for the receptor.</i><div><i>Potency
is an independent variable (vs. efficacy).<br /></i><div><im src="paste-1477468
750343.jp" /></div></div>
1404410132265 1395802358422 How does a competitive antaonist chane the pot
ency of a dru?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased; therefore, curve shifts to
the riht}}</div>
<br /><div><i>(i.e. more of that dru is now requried to
achieve the desired effect)</i></div><div><i>Overcome by increased substrate co
ncentration.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-1748051689981.jp" /></i></div>
1404411121856 1395802358422 How does a competitive antaonist chane efficac
y of a dru?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No chane}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th
e maximal effect of the dru is still the same, however more dru will be needed
to achieve it.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-1743756722685.jp" /></i></div>
1404412018289 1395802358422 How does a <b>noncompetitive antaonist</b>&nbsp
;chane the efficacy of a dru?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Shits the curve down.</i></div><div><i>This makes perfect sense, b
rah. The antaonist doesn't compete with the aonist in order to block the dru'
s effect. Hence, the maximal effect that dru can elicit is sinificantly reduce
d as an increase in dru concentration cannot overcome the noncompetitive inhibi
tor.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-1937030251009.jp" /></i></div>
1404412129590 1395802358422 How does an <b>irreversible competitive antaoni
st</b> chane the efficacy of a dru?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}
</div> <br /><div><i>i.e. the curve shifts downwards</i></div><div><i>This is t
he same idea as the noncompetitive antaonist. However here, despite the antaon
ist competin for the same bindin site, the bindin is <b>irreversible</b>. Hen
ce an increase in dru concentration cannot overcome the antaonist.</i></div><d
iv><i><im src="paste-1932735283713.jp" /></i></div>
1404412343147 1395802358422 How does a <b>partial aonist</b> chane th

e efficacy of a dru?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i>The partial aonist acts at the same site as the aonist, <b>but wit
h a lower maximal effect</b>. Hence the overall dru effect is reduced (i.e. dec
reased efficacy).</i><div><i>Remember, potency is an independent variable.<br />
</i><div><im src="paste-2332167242244.jp" /></div></div>
1404412714563 1395802358422 What is the equation for Therapeutic Index?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="paste-3191160701021.jp" />}}</div>
<br /><d
1404413444375 1395802358422 {{c1::Therapeutic window}} is a pharmacodynamic
measure of the <b>clinical dru's effectiveness</b> for a patient. <br /><d
1404419935022 1395802358422 Which type of cholineric receptors are found at
all autonomic anlia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nicotinic (N<sub>N</sub>)}}</
div>
1404421300214 1395802358422 {{c1::Sweat lands}} and the {{c2::adrenal
medulla}} are 2 parts of the sympathetic nervous system that are innervated by <
b>cholineric</b> neurons. <br /><div><im src="paste-4153233376020.jp" />
</div>
1404421343075 1395802358422 {{c1::Botulinum toxin}} is a toxin from <i>Clost
ridium botulinum</i> that prevents the release of neurotransmitters at all
cholineric terminals. <br /><div><im src="paste-12459700126480.jp" /></div>
1404421380756 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with alpha-1
adreneric receptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>q</sub>}}</div> <div><br
/></div><div><im src="paste-4745938862242.jp" /></div>
1404422968289 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with alpha-2
adreneric receptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>i</sub>}}</div> <br /><d
1404422978512 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with beta-1
adreneric receptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>s</sub>}}</div> <br /><d
1404423017554 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with beta-2
adreneric receptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>s</sub>}}</div> <br /><d
1404423097307 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with M<sub>2
</sub> cholineric receptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>i</sub>}}</d
iv>
1404423127644 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with D<sub>1
</sub> dopamine receptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>s</sub>}}</div>
1404423170898 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with D<sub>2
</sub> dopamine receptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>i</sub>}}</div>
1404423189928 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with H<sub>2
</sub> histamine receptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>s</sub>}}</div
>
1404423222711 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with V<sub>2
</sub> vasopressin receptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>s</sub>}}</d
iv>
</sub> cholineric receptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>q</sub>}}</d
iv>
</sub> cholineric receptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>q</sub>}}</d
iv>
1404423322161 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with H<sub>1
</sub> histamine receptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>q</sub>}}</div
>
1404423351175 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with V<sub>1
</sub> vasopressin receptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>q</sub>}}</d
iv>
1404423366684 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with the act
ivation of Phospholipase C?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>q</sub>}}</div>
1404423801075 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with activat
ion of Protein Kinase C followin Phospholipase C activation?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::G<sub>q</sub>}}</div> <br /><div><im src="paste-4745938862242.jp" />
</div>
ion of the IP<sub>3</sub>/DAG sinallin cascade?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<s
ub>q</sub>}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Remember, IP<sub>3</sub> increa
ses intracellular [Ca].</i><br /><div><im src="paste-4745938862242.jp" /></div
>
1404423963414 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with an incr
ease in intracellular [Ca<sup>2+</sup>] via IP<sub>3</sub> action?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>q</sub>}}</div>
38862242.jp" /></div>
ion of Adenylate Cyclase?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>s</sub>}}</div>
1404424085334 1395802358422 Which G-protein class is associated with increas
es in intracellular [cAMP]?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>s</sub>}}</div>
ion of Protein Kinase A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>s</sub>}}</div>
ion of the cAMP/Protein Kinase A sinallin cascade?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
G<sub>s</sub>}}</div> <br /><div><im src="paste-5527622910248.jp" /></div>
1404424185531 1395802358422 Which dopamine receptor functions to relax <b>re
nal vascular smooth muscle</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D<sub>1</sub>}}</div>
1404424536998 1395802358422 Which dopamine receptor functions to modulate ne
urotransmitter release, especially at the brain?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D<su
b>2</sub>}}</div>
1404424557578 1395802358422 Which histamine receptor mediates increases in
astric acid secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H<sub>2</sub>}}</div>
1404424584996 1395802358422 Which histamine receptor functions to increase v
ascular permeability?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H<sub>1</sub>}}</div>
1404424602013 1395802358422 Which histamine receptor functions to increase n
asal and bronchial mucus production?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H<sub>1</sub>}}<
/div>
1404424620431 1395802358422 Which histamine receptor mediates pruritis?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::H<sub>1</sub>}}</div>
1404424632964 1395802358422 Which histamine receptor mediates pain?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::H<sub>1</sub>}}</div>
1404424642043 1395802358422 Which histamine receptor mediates the contractio
n of bronchioles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H<sub>1</sub>}}</div>
1404424652948 1395802358422 Which vasopressin receptor mediates <b>vascular
smooth muscle contraction</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V<sub>1</sub>}}</div>
1404424674617 1395802358422 Which vasopressin receptor is found at the kidne
ys?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V<sub>2</sub>}}</div>
1404424689186 1395802358422 Which vasopressin receptor functions to increase
H<sub>2</sub>O permeability and reabsorption in the collectin tubules of the k
idney?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V<sub>2</sub>}}</div>
1404425011618 1395802358422 Which alpha-adreneric receptor functions to <b>
decrease</b> sympathetic outflow?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::alpha-2}}</div
>
1404425058735 1395802358422 Which alpha-adreneric receptor functions to <b>
increase platelet areation</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::alpha-2}}</div>
1404425071777 1395802358422 Which muscarinic receptor is mainly found at the
CNS and enteric nervous system?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::M<sub>1</sub>}}</div

>
1404435364439 1395802358422 {{c1::Bethanecol}} is a cholineric dru used to
treat <b>postoperative/neuroenic ileus</b> and <b>urinary retention</b>&n
bsp;by activatin bladder and bowel smooth muscle.
<br /><div><i>Resistant
to AChE.</i></div><div><i>"<b>Bethan</b>y, <b>chol</b> me to activate your
<b>bowel</b> and <b>bladder</b>."</i></div>
1404436011407 1395802358422 {{c1::Carbachol}} is a cholineric dru used to
treat laucoma and cause pupillary constriction.
1404436586043 1395802358422 {{c1::Carbachol}} is a cholineric dru used to
relieve intraocular pressure.
1404436604169 1395802358422 {{c1::Pilocarpine}} is a direct cholineric aon
ist used to stimulate <b>sweat, tears</b> and <b>saliva</b> secretion.
<br /><div><i>"You <b>cry, sweat</b> and <b>drool</b> onto your pillow
(-carpine) at niht."</i></div>
1404436762068 1395802358422 {{c1::Pilocarpine}} is a direct cholineric aon
ist used to treat <b>open-anle laucoma</b> by contractin the ciliary mus
cle.
1404436875472 1395802358422 {{c1::Pilocarpine}} is a dirct cholineric aoni
st used to treat <b>closed-anle laucoma</b> by contractin the pupillary
sphincter muscle.
1404436904135 1395802358422 {{c1::Bethanechol}} and {{c2::Pilocarpine}}
are direct cholineric aonists that are <b>resistant to AChE</b>.
1404436933398 1395802358422 Which direct cholineric aonist is used in the
challene test for the dianosis of asthma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Methachol
ine}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>It stimulates muscarinic receptors in the ai
rway when inhaled.</i><br /><div><i>Hence the "Methacholine challene."</i></div
>
1404437035135 1395802358422 {{c1::Methacholine}} is a direct cholineric ao
nist that is used in challene tests to dianose asthma as it stimulates muscari
nic receptors in the airway when inhaled.
1404437160260 1395802358422 {{c1::Neostimine}} is a cholinesterase inhibito
r that treats <b>postoperative/neuroenic ileus</b> and <b>urinary retentio
n</b>. <br /><div><i>Neostimine is the Bethanechol of cholinesterase inhibitor
s.</i></div>
1404437770394 1395802358422 {{c1::Neostimine}} and {{c2::Pyridostimin
e}} are cholinesterase inhibitors that are used to treat <b>myasthenia ravis</b
>.
1404437830108 1395802358422 {{c1::Neostimine}} is a cholinesterase inhibito
r that is used to reverse postoperative neuromuscular blockade.
1404437878256 1395802358422 {{c1::Neostimine}} and {{c2::Pyridostimin
e}} are cholinesterase inhibitors that <b>do not</b> penetrate the CNS.
1404437913573 1395802358422 {{c1::Physostimine}} is a cholinesterase inhibi
tor used to treat anticholineric toxicity as it crosses the BBB.
<br /><d
iv><i>"Physostimine '<b>phyxes</b>' atropine overdose."</i></div>
1404437962415 1395802358422 {{c1::Donepezil}}, {{c2::Rivastimine}} and
{{c3::Galantamine}} are 3 cholinesterase inhibitors that are used to treat
Alzheimer Disease.
1404438052162 1395802358422 {{c1::Edrophonium}} is a cholinesterase inhibito
r that can be used to <b>dianose</b> myasthenia ravis as it is extremely
short actin.
1404438094002 1395802358422 <div>Which cholinesterase inhibitor was historic
ally used to <b>dianose</b> myasthenia ravis?</div><div><br /></div>{{c1:
:Edrophonium}} <br /><div><i>Now, Anti-Acetylcholine Receptor Antibody (anti-AC
hR Ab) tests are used.</i></div>
1404438158182 1395802358422 {{c1::Oranophosphate}} are a type of <b>irrever
sible</b> AChE inhibitor that can cause cholinesterase inhibitor poisonin,
especially in farmers. <br /><div><i>Causes <b>DUMBBELSS</b>:</i></div><div><i>
- Diarrhea</i></div><div><i>- Urination</i></div><div><i>- Miosis</i></div><div>
<i>- Bronchospasm</i></div><div><i>- Bradycardia</i></div><div><i>- Excitation o
f skeletal muscle and CNS</i></div><div><i>- Lacrimation</i></div><div><i>- Swea

tin</i></div><div><i>- Salivation</i></div>
1404438737203 1395802358422 {{c1::Atropine}} is an anticholineric used to t
reat cholinesterase inhibitor poisonin alon with Pralidoxime.
1404438769859 1395802358422 {{c1::Pralidoxime}} is a dru used to treat chol
inesterase inhibitor poisonin with Atropine as it <b>reenerates AChE </b>if i
ven early.
1404438806729 1395802358422 {{c1::Atropine}}, {{c2::homatropine}} and&n
bsp;{{c3::tropicamide}} are 3 antimuscarinics that are used clinically to produc
e mydriasis and cyclopleia.
1404439480932 1395802358422 {{c1::Benztropine}} is an antimuscarinic that is
used to treat Parkinson Disease.
<br /><div><i>"<b>Park</b> my <b>be
nz</b>, brah."</i></div>
1404439512204 1395802358422 Which antimuscarinic dru is used to treat Parki
nsons Disease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Benztropine}}</div>
1404439526734 1395802358422 Which antimuscarinic dru is used to treat motio
n sickness?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Scopolamine}}</div>
1404439540732 1395802358422 {{c1::Scopolamine}} is an antimuscarinic dru us
ed to treat motion sickness.
1404439557479 1395802358422 {{c1::Ipratropium}} and {{c2::tiotropium}}
are 2 antimuscarinic drus used to treat COPD and asthma.
1404439590883 1395802358422 {{c1::Oxybutynin}}, {{c2::Darifenacin}} and
{{c3::Solifenacin}} are 3 antimuscarinic drus used to <b>reduce urency i
n mild cystitis</b> and <b>bladder spasms</b>.
<br /><div><i>Other aen
ts include tolterodine, fesoterodine and trospium.</i></div>
1404439772987 1395802358422 {{c1::Glycopyrrolate}} is an antimuscarinic dru
administered <b>parenterally</b> to <b>reduce airway secretions</b> i
n preparation for surery.
1404439925096 1395802358422 {{c1::Glycopyrrolate}} is an antimuscarinic that
is administered <b>orally</b> to treat <b>droolin</b> and <b>peptic
ulcers</b>.
1404440096980 1395802358422 Which antimuscarinic is used to treat bradycardi
a?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Atropine}}</div>
1404440758239 1395802358422 How does Atropine influence respiratory secretio
ns?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404440869995 1395802358422 How does Atropine influence GI secretions?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404440885269 1395802358422 How does atropine influence GI motility?<div><br
1404440892458 1395802358422 How does Atropine influence urinary urency in c
ystitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404442020564 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperthermia}} is a potential complication
of Atropine use due to the sinificant decrease in sweatin. <br /><div><im
src="paste-15960098472153.jp" /></div>
1404442090956 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute anle-closure laucoma}} is a potent
ial ocular complication of Atropine use in the elderly due to the mydriasis caus
ed.
1404442138994 1395802358422 {{c1::Urinary retention}} is a possible urinary
complication of Atropine use in men with BPH.
1404442169322 1395802358422 {{c1::Jimson weed (<i>Datura</i>)}} is a weed kn
own to cause <b>Gardeners pupil</b>, a condition characterized by <b>mydriasis</
b> due to alkaloids in the plant. <br /><div><i>For anyone that's played A
ssassin's Creed: think of the Datura powder bombs!</i></div>
1404447004821 1395802358422 {{c1::Isoproterenol}} is an adreneric aonist t
hat is used for electrophysioloic evaluation of tachyarrhythmias.
1404447147578 1395802358422 Which adreneric aonist is known to be able to
worsen ischemia when it is administered?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Isoprotereno
l}}</div>
1404447315851 1395802358422 To which adreneric receptor(s) does Epinephrine
bind?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::All (b1, b2, b3, a1, a2)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><b><i>Much hiher affinity for beta-receptors than alpha.</i></b></div><div><

i>Alpha-receptor effects however will predominate at hih doses.</i></div>
1404447502669 1395802358422 To which adreneric receptor(s) does Norepinephr
ine bind to, in order of descendin affinity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::a1 &t;
a2 &t; b1}}</div>
1404447534633 1395802358422 To which adreneric receptor(s) does Isoproteren
ol bind?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::b1, b2, b3}}</div>
1404447565727 1395802358422 To which adreneric receptor(s) does Dobutamine
bind?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::b1}}</div>
1404447590424 1395802358422 To which adreneric receptor(s) does Phenylephri
ne bind?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::a1}}</div>
1404447601774 1395802358422 To which adreneric receptor(s) does Albuterol b
ind?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::b2}}</div>
1404447655403 1395802358422 To which adreneric receptor(s) does Salmeterol
1404447661283 1395802358422 To which adreneric receptor(s) does Terbutaline
1404447976301 1395802358422 Which adreneric is the dru of choice to treat
Anaphylaxis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Epinephrine}}</div>
1404448016547 1395802358422 Which beta-2 adreneric aonist is used to treat
<b>acute</b> asthma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Albuterol}}</div>
1404448042887 1395802358422 Which beta-2 adreneric aonist is used to treat
<b>lon-term</b> asthma or COPD?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Salmeterol}}</
div>
1404448068894 1395802358422 Which beta-2 aonist is used to <b>reduce premat
ure uterine contractions</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Terbutaline}}</div>
1404448095264 1395802358422 Which alpha-1 adreneric aonist is used to trea
t <b>rhinitis</b> via vasocontriction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phenyleph
rine}}</div>
1404448125358 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenylephrine}} is an alpha-1 adreneric a
onist used in ocular procedures as it causes mydriasis.
1404448154946 1395802358422 {{c1::Norepinephrine}} is an adreneric aonist
used to treat hypotension, however it <b>decreases renal perfusion</b>.
1404448181452 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenylephrine}} is an alpha-1 aonist that
is used to treat hypotension via <b>vasocontriction.</b>
1404448217135 1395802358422 Which 2 sympathomimetics are used to treat cardi
oenic heart failure?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dobutamine; Dopamine}}</div>
1404448259722 1395802358422 {{c1::Dobutamine}} is a beta-1 adreneric aonis
t that treats heart failure and yields <b>reater inotropic effects than chronot
ropic</b>.
1404448330051 1395802358422 {{c1::Dobutamine}} is a beta-1 adreneric aonis
t that is used in cardiac stress testin.
1404448361307 1395802358422 Which adreneric aonist is used to treat open-a
nle laucoma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Epinephrine}}</div>
1404448390654 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Amphetamines?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Triers the release of catecholamines (E, NE, D); Blocks catecholam
ine reuptake}}</div>
1404448679815 1395802358422 {{c1::Amphetamines}} are a type of indirect symp
athomimetic that is used to treat narcolepsy.
1404448702486 1395802358422 {{c1::Amphetamines}} are a type of sympathomimet
ic that is used to treat ADHD.
1404448717272 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Ephedrine?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Triers the release of catecholamines (E, NE, D)}}</div>
1404448748725 1395802358422 {{c1::Ephedrine}} is an indirect sympathomimetic
that is used to treat nasal conestion.
1404448773560 1395802358422 {{c1::Ephedrine}} is an indirect sympathomimetic
used to treat <b>urinary incontinence</b> and <b>hypotension</b>.
1404448796261 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Cocaine?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Inhibition of catecholamine reuptake}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Never ive
a patient beta-blockers if cocaine intoxication is suspected as it can lead to
unopposed alpha-1 activation and extreme hypertension (remember, alpha-1 recepto

rs mediate vasoconstriction).</i></div>
1404448822662 1395802358422 {{c1::Cocaine}} is an indirect sympathomimetic t
hat causes <b>local vasoconstriction</b> and is used as a <b>local anaesthe
tic</b>.
1404491141012 1395802358422 Throuh which adreneric receptor does Norepinep
hrine cause an increase in systolic and diastolic pressure?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Alpha-1 (via vasoconstriction)}}</div>
1404492106574 1395802358422 How does Norepinephrine chane blood pressure?<d
<br /><div><i>This is throuh al
pha-1 mediated vasoconstriction and an increase in MAP.</i></div><div><i>Remembe
r, <b>norepinephrine does not bind to beta-2 receptors and hence does not cause
vasodilation.</b></i></div><div><i><im src="paste-1391569404477.jp" /></i></di
v>
1404492996927 1395802358422 How does Norepinephrine chane heart rate?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Bradycardia (via reflexive decrease)}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Norepinephrine: causes <b>alpha-1</b> mediated vasocontriction --&t;
<b>increased</b> BP --&t; <b>reflexive bradycardia</b></i></div><div><i><
im src="paste-2001454760514.jp" /></i></div>
1404493469940 1395802358422 How does Isoproterenol influence blood pressure?
<br /><div><i>Remember, Isoprote
renol is a <b>non-specific beta-aonist</b>. It causes <b>beta-2</b> mediat
es vasodilation and hence a decrease in MAP. It also activated <b>beta-1</b>&nbs
p;receptors at the heart, thereby causin tachycardia directly (as well as refle
xively).</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-1997159793218.jp" /></i></div>
1404493561582 1395802358422 How does Isoproterenol influence heart rate?<div
<br /><div><i>Remember, Isoprote
renol is a <b>non-specific beta-aonist</b>.</i></div><div><i>Hence it causes in
creased HR both directly and via reflexive action from the decrease in BP.</i></
div><div><i><im src="paste-1997159793218.jp" /></i></div>
1404494293433 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Clonidine?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Aonist at alpha2-<b>autoreceptors</b>, thereby decreasin adreneric t
one}}</div>
1404494300567 1395802358422 {{c1::Clonidine}} is an alpha-2 adreneric aoni
st that is used to treat <b>hypertensive urency</b> by bindin to <b>alpha
-2 autoreceptors</b>. <br /><div><i>It does not decrease renal blood flow.</i>
</div><div><i><im src="paste-1241245549337.jp" /></i></div>
1404494347894 1395802358422 Which alpha-2 aonist is used to treat ethanol a
nd opioid withdrawal?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clonidine}}</div>
1404494437723 1395802358422 What is the MOA of alpha-methyldopa?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Converted into Methylnorepinephrine which acts at <u>central alp
ha-2 receptors</u>, thereby decreasin adreneric tone}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i>It is a false neurotransmitter that is taken up by adreneric neurons.</i><b
r /><div><im src="paste-1241245549337.jp" /></div>
1404494580402 1395802358422 {{c1::alpha-Methyldopa}} is an indirect central
alpha-2 aonist that is used to treat <b>hypertension in prenancy</b>. <br /><d
iv><i>Hence, it is safe to use in prenancy.</i></div>
1404494676496 1395802358422 Which indirect central alpha-2 adreneric aonis
t is used to treat Hypertension in prenancy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::alpha-M
ethyldopa}}</div>
1404494712744 1395802358422 {{c1::Direct Coombs-positive hemolytic anaemia}}
is a hematoloical complication of alpha-Methyldopa use.
1404494750054 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Phenoxybenzamine?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::<u>Irreversible, non-selective</u> alpha adreneric blockad
e}}</div>
1404496071325 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Phentolamine?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::<u>Reversible, nonselective</u> alpha-adreneric blockade}}</di
v>
1404496562438 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Prazosin?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Alpha-1 adreneric antaonism}}</div>
1404496586995 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Terazosin?<div><br /></div><d

iv>{{c1::Alpha-1 adreneric antaonism}}</div>
1404496757275 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Doxazosin?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Alpha-1 adreneric blockade}}</div>
1404496768900 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Tamsulosin?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Alpha-1 adreneric blockade}}</div>
1404496782536 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Mirtazapine?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Alpha-2 adreneric blockade}}</div>
1404496804758 1395802358422 {{c1::Phenoxybenzamine}} is an alpha-adreneric
antaonist used <b>preoperatively</b> in Pheochromocytoma to prevent hypert
ensive crisis durin the surery.
<br /><div><i>Phenoxybenzamine is an <b>
irreversible, non-selective alpha-blocker</b>.</i></div>
1404497078864 1395802358422 {{c1::Orthostatic hypotension}} is a systemic co
mplication of Phenoxybenzamine and other alpha-adreneric blockers administratio
n that presents as a decrease in blood pressure upon a chane in posture.
<br /><div><i>Remember, Phenoxybenzamine irreversibly blocks alpha adreneric re
ceptors. </i></div><div><i>alpha-1 receptors mediate vasoconstriction.</i><
/div>
1404497186677 1395802358422 {{c1::Phentolamine}} is an alpha-blocker iven t
o patients on MAO inhibitors that have eaten tyramine-containin foods. <br /><d
iv><i>Remember, Phentolamine is a <b>reversible, non-selective alpha-blocker</b>
.</i></div>
1404497745626 1395802358422 {{c1::Prazosin}} is a selective alpha-1 blocker
that is used to treat PTSD.
1404497779415 1395802358422 Which alpha-adreneric blocker is used to treat
the urinary symptoms of BPH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Selective alpha-1 blocke
rs (Prazosin, Terazosin, Doxazosin, Tamsulosin)}}</div>
1404498380515 1395802358422 Which selective alpha-1 adreneric blocker is <b
>not</b> used to treat Hypertension?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tamsulosin}
}</div>
1404498431008 1395802358422 {{c1::Mirtazapine}} is a selective alpha-2 adren
eric blocker that is used to treat depression.
1404498478113 1395802358422 Which selective alpha-2 adreneric blocker is us
ed to treat depression?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mirtazapine}}</div>
1404498507879 1395802358422 How does Mirtazapine chane serum cholesterol le
vels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404498529176 1395802358422 How does blood pressure chane with Epinephrine
administration <b>before alpha-adreneric blockade</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Increase}}</div>
1404498942401 1395802358422 How does blood pressure chane with Epinephrine
administration <b>after alpha-adreneric blockade</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Decrease}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Remember, Epinephrine activates <b>a
ll</b> adreneric receptors.</i><br /><div><im src="paste-5390183957199.jp
" /></div>
1404499365915 1395802358422 How does blood pressure chane with Phenylephrin
e <b>before alpha-adreneric blockade</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}
</div> <br /><div><i>via alpha-1 adreneric activation.</i></div><div><i><im s
rc="paste-5390183957199.jp" /></i></div>
1404499400863 1395802358422 How does blood pressure chane with Phenylephrin
e <b>after alpha-adreneric blockade</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No chane;
Phenylephrine's action is suppressed by the alpha-blockade}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i>Remember, Phenylephrine is a pure alpha-1 aonist.</i><br /><div><im
src="paste-5390183957199.jp" /></div>
1404508536054 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Metoprolol?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Selective beta-1 antaonism}}</div> <br /><div><i>Beta-blockers that
start with a letter in the <b>first</b> half of the alphabet (<b>A</b
>-<b>M</b>) are selective for <b>beta-1</b> receptors.</i></div>
1404509922698 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Acebutolol?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Selective beta-1 antaonism}}</div> <br /><div><i>Beta-blockers that

1404509941469 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Betaxolol?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Selective beta-1 antaonism}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Beta-blockers that
1404510023532 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Carvedilol?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Nonselective alpha and beta adreneric antaonism}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Drus that end in <b>a suffix other than -olol</b> are <b>non-selecti
ve alpha </b>and <b>beta</b> antaonists.</i></div><div><i>e.. Carvedilol
and Labetalol</i></div>
1404510043999 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Esmolol?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Selective beta-1 adreneric antaonism}}</div> <br /><div><i>Beta-block
ers that start with a letter in the <b>first</b> half of the alphabet
(<b>A</b>-<b>M</b>) are selective for <b>beta-1</b> receptors.</i
></div>
1404510076438 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Atenolol?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Selective beta-1 adreneric antaonism}}</div> <br /><div><i>Beta-block
ers that start with a letter in the <b>first</b> half of the alphabet (<b>A
</b>-<b>M</b>) are selective for <b>beta-1</b> receptors.</i></div>
1404510226538 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Nadolol?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Nonselective beta adreneric antaonism}}</div> <br /><div><i>Beta-block
ers that start with a letter in the <b>2nd</b> half of the alphabet (<b>N</
b>-<b>Z</b>) are <b>non-selective beta adreneric blockers</b>.</i></div>
1404510611882 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Timolol?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Nonselective beta adreneric antaonism}}</div> <br /><div><i></i><i>Bet
a-blockers that start with a letter in the <b>2nd</b> half of the alph
abet (<b>N</b>-<b>Z</b>) are <b>non-selective beta adreneric blockers</b>.
</i></div>
1404510618675 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Pindolol?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Nonselective beta adreneric antaonism}}</div> <br /><div><i>Beta-block
ers that start with a letter in the <b>2nd</b> half of the alphabet (<
b>N</b>-<b>Z</b>) are <b>non-selective beta adreneric blockers</b>.</i></d
iv>
1404510643156 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Propanolol?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Nonselective beta adreneric antaonism}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Be
ta-blockers that start with a letter in the <b>2nd</b> half of the alp
habet (<b>N</b>-<b>Z</b>) are <b>non-selective beta adreneric blockers</b>
.</i></div>
1404510706957 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Labetalol?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Nonselective alpha and beta adreneric antaonism}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><div><i>Drus that end in <b>a suffix other than -olol</b> are&nbsp
;<b>non-selective alpha </b>and <b>beta</b> antaonists.</i></div
><div><i>e.. Carvedilol and Labetalol</i></div></div>
1404510709841 1395802358422 {{c1::Nebivolol}} is a combined beta-adreneric
aonist and antaonist that has combined <b>cardiac-selective</b> <b>beta-1
</b> <b>blockade </b>and <b>beta-3 activation</b>.
<br /><div><i>Be
ta-3 receptor activates Nitric Oxide Synthase in the vasculature.</i></div>
1404511277397 1395802358422 {{c1::Metoprolol}} and {{c2::Esmolol}} are
2 beta-1 selective antaonists that can treat <b>SVT</b> by decreasin AV n
ode conduction velocity.
1404512849545 1395802358422 Which 2 beta-blockers are commonly used as Class
II Antiarrhythmics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Metoprolol; Esmolol}}</div>
1404512880292 1395802358422 {{c1::Metoprolol}}, {{c2::Carvedilol}} and&
nbsp;{{c3::Bisoprolol}} are beta-blockers commonly used after myocardial infarct
ion that decrease patient mortality.
1404512932082 1395802358422 How do beta-blockers influence Renin secretion?<
<br /><div><i>Due to <b>beta-1 r
eceptor antaonism at JGA cells</b>.</i></div>
1404512969460 1395802358422 {{c1::Timolol}} is a beta-blocker used to treat
Glaucoma as it decreases the secretion of aqueous humour.
1404513265571 1395802358422 Which beta-blocker is associated with Dyslipidem

ia as a side effect?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Metoprolol}}</div>
1404513293883 1395802358422 Which CNS side effects are associated with betablockers?<div><br />{{c1::Seizures, sedation, sleep alteration}}</div>
1404576489526 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Acetaminophen toxicity
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::N-acetylcysteine}}</div> <br /><div><i>It functio
ns to replenish lutathione which is used up by NAPQI.</i></div>
1404576649468 1395802358422 What is the treatment for AChE Inhibitor toxicit
y?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Atropine + Pralidoxime}}</div>
1404576667814 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Oranophosphate poison
in?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Atropine + Pralidoxime}}</div>
1404576691367 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Amphetamines (basic dr
us)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ammonium chloride (NH<sub>4</sub>Cl)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Functions to acidify the urine, thereby keepin Amphetamines insid
e the kidney tubules to be excreted.</i></div>
1404576777850 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Antimuscarinic and Ant
icholineric toxicity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Physostimine salicylate}}</di
v>
<br /><div><i>The aim in therapy is to control the hyperthermia.</i></di
v>
1404576825849 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Benzodiazepine toxicit
y?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Flumanezil}}</div>
1404577610419 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Beta-Blocker induced h
ypolycemia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucaon}}</div>
1404577755163 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Carbon Monoxide poison
in?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::100% O<sub>2</sub>; Hyperbaric O<sub>2</sub>}}</
div>
1404577779154 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Copper toxicity?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillinamine}}</div>
1404577809039 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Arsenic toxicity?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillinamine; Dimercaprol; Succimer}}</div>
1404577819417 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Gold toxicity?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Penicillinamine; Dimercaprol; Succimer}}</div>
1404577827765 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Cyanide toxicity?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Nitrite + thiosulfate; Hydroxocobalamin}}</div>
1404577856934 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Diitalis toxicity?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-Dioxin FAb}}</div>
1404577877651 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Heparin toxicity?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Protamine sulfate}}</div>
1404577888142 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Iron toxicity?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Deferoxamine; Deferasirox}}</div>
1404577903340 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Lead toxicity?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::EDTA; Dimercaprol; Succimer; Penicillamine}}</div>
1404579030424 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Mercury toxicity?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Dimercaprol (BAL); Succimer}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Di
<b>MERC</b>aprol for <b>MERC</b>ury poisonin.</i></div>
1404579098763 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Methanol poisonin?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fomepizole &t; ethanol; Dialysis}}</div>
1404579125528 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Ethylene Glycol (antif
reeze) poisonin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fomepizole &t; ethanol; Dialysis}}
</div>
1404579165513 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Methemolobin poisonin
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Methylene blue; Vitamin C}}</div>
1404579184497 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Opioid toxicity?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Naloxone}}</div>
1404579192977 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Salicylate (acidic dru
) toxicity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NaHCO<sub>3</sub> to alkalinize the
urine; Dialysis}}</div>
1404579218092 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Tri-cyclic Antidepress
ants (acidic drus) toxicity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NaHCO<sub>3</sub>
to alkalinize the plasma}}</div>
1404579246209 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Tissue Plasminoen Act

ivator toxicity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aminocaproic Acid}}</div>
1404579291515 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Streptokinase and Urok
inase toxicity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aminocaproic Acid}}</div>
1404579306970 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Warfarin toxicity?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin K; Plasma if the patient is actively bleedin}}<
/div>
1404579329216 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Cocaine?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Coronary vasospasm}}</div>
1404579761422 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Sumatript
an?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Coronary vasospasm}}</div>
1404579811459 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Erot Alk
aloids?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Coronary vasospasm}}</div>
1404579820547 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Vancomyci
n?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cutaneous flushin}}</div>
1404579835331 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Adenosine
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cutaneous flushin}}</div>
1404579842234 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Niacin?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cutaneous flushin}}</div>
1404579847932 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Ca<sup>2+
</sup> channel blockers?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cutaneous flushin}}</d
iv>
1404579864658 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Daunorubi
cin and Doxorubicin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dilated cardiomyopathy}}</div>
1404579877391 1395802358422 Which class of antiarrhythmics are associated wi
th Torsade de Pointes as toxicity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class III and Clas
s IA}}</div>
1404580474782 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Macrolide
antibiotics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Torsade de pointes}}</div>
1404580493064 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Antipsych
otics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Torsade de pointes}}</div>
1404580503500 1395802358422 What is the cardiovascular toxicity of Tricyclic
Antidepressants?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Torsades the pointes}}</div>
1404580527641 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of T
omixifen?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hot flashes}}</div>
1404580601011 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of C
lomiphene?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hot flashes}}</div>
1404580608677 1395802358422 {{c1::Adrenocortical Insufficiency}} is an endoc
rine complication of HPA suppression secondary to lucocorticoid withdrawal.
1404580694617 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of T
acrolimus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperlycemia}}</div>
1404580712960 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of P
rotease Inhibitors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperlycemia}}</div>
1404580735098 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of N
iacin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperlycemia}}</div>
1404580744227 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of H
ydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperlycemia}}</div>
1404580773301 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of b
eta-blockers?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperlycemia}}</div>
1404580787753 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of c
orticosteroids?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperlycemia}}</div>
1404580796915 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of L
ithium?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hypothyroidism}}</div>
1404580838992 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of A
miodarone?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hypothyroidism}}</div>
1404580847466 1395802358422 What is the endocrine/reproductive toxicity of S
ulfonamides?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hypothyroidism}}</div>
1404580880918 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Erythromycin?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Acute cholestatic hepatitis; Jaundice; Diarrhea}}</div>
1404580925722 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Metformin?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Diarrhea}}</div>
1404580932250 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Colchicine?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Diarrhea}}</div>
1404580943658 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Orlistat?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Diarrhea}}</div>
1404580948708 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Acarbose?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Diarrhea}}</div>
1404580961889 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Halothane?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Focal to massive hepatic necrosis}}</div>
1404580989741 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of <i>Amanita phalloides
</i> (death cap mushrooms)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Focal to massive hep
atic necrosis}}</div>
1404581015482 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Valproic Acid?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Focal to massive hepatic necrosis; Pancreatitis}}</div>
1404581026490 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Acetaminophen?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Focal to massive hepatic necrosis}}</div>
1404581042941 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Isoniazid (INH)?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatitis}}</div>
1404581060839 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Didanosine?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Pancreatitis}}</div>
1404581070126 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Corticosteroids?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Pancreatitis}}</div>
1404581080822 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Alcohol?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Pancreatits}}</div>
1404581104981 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Azathioprine?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Pancreatitis}}</div>
1404581119050 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of diuretics?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Pancreatitis}}</div>
1404581189040 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Clindamycin?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Pseudomembranous colitis}}</div>
1404581199457 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Ampicillin?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Pseudomembranous colitis}}</div>
1404581209017 1395802358422 What is the GI toxicity of Cephalosporins?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Pseudomembranous colitis}}</div>
1404581225358 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Dapsone?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aranulocytosis; Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404581792804 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Clozapine?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aranulocytosis}}</div>
1404581801438 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Carbamazep
ine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aranulocytosis; Aplastic anaemia}}</div>
1404581820751 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Colchicine
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aranulocytosis;}}</div>
1404581836489 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Methimazol
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aranulocytosis; Aplastic Anaemia}}</div>
1404581854551 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Propylthio
uracil?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aranulocytosis; Aplastic anaemia}}</div>
1404581877224 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of NSAIDs?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aplastic anaemia}}</div>
1404581882729 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Benzene?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aplastic anaemia}}</div>
1404581896124 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Chloramphe
nicol?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aplastic anaemia; Gray Baby Syndrome}}</div>
1404581924240 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Methyldopa
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Direct Coombs-positive hemolytic anaemia}}</div>
1404582451730 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Penicillin
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Direct coombs-positive hemolytic anaemia}}</div>
1404582476711 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Isoniazid
(INH)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404582493485 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Sulfonamid
es?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404582513316 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Primaquine

?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G6PD Deficiency}}</div>
1404582520032 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Aspirin?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404582562837 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Ibuprofen?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404582585408 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Nitrofuran
toin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hemolysis in G6PD deficiency}}</div>
1404582625096 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Phenytoin?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mealoblastic anaemia}}</div>
1404582634334 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Methotrexa
te?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mealoblastic anaemia}}</div>
1404582641957 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Sulfa dru
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mealoblastic anaemia}}</div>
1404582648683 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Heparin?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thrombocytopenia}}</div>
1404582660811 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of Cimetidine
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thrombocytopenia}}</div>
1404582668081 1395802358422 What is the hematoloical toxicity of oral contr
aceptives?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thrombotic complications}}</div>
1404582774834 1395802358422 What is the connective tissue toxicity of Protea
se Inhibitors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fat redistribution}}</div>
1404584320403 1395802358422 What is the connective tissue toxicity of Glucoc
orticoids?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fat redistribution}}</div>
1404584343416 1395802358422 Which is the oral complication of Phenytoin?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ginival hyperplasia}}</div>
1404584386240 1395802358422 Which is the oral complication of Verapamil
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ginival hyperplasia}}</div>
1404584397310 1395802358422 Which is the oral complication of Cyclospor
ine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ginival hyperplasia}}</div>
1404584414970 1395802358422 Which is the oral complication of Nifedipine?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ginival hyperplasia}}</div>
1404591568576 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Pyrazina
mide?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperuricemia/Gout}}</div>
1404591639648 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Thiazide
s?<div><br />{{c1::Hyperuricemia/Gout}}</div>
1404591648055 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Furosemi
de?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperuricemia/Gout}}</div>
1404591671235 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Niacin?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperuricemia/Gout; Myopathy}}</div>
1404591681570 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Cyclospo
rine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperuricemia/Gout}}</div>
1404591691943 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of fibrates
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myopathy}}</div>
1404591866243 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of IFN-alph
a?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myopathy}}</div>
1404591902421 1395802358422 What is the musculoskeletal toxicity of Hydroxyc
hloroquine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myopathy}}</div>
1404591910919 1395802358422 What is the skeletal toxicity of Heparin?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteoporosis}}</div>
1404591967998 1395802358422 What is the cutaneous toxicity of Sulfonamides?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Photosensitivity}}</div>
1404592038228 1395802358422 What is the cutaneous toxicity of Amiodarone?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Photosensitivity}}</div>
1404592045713 1395802358422 What is the cutaneous toxicity of Tetracycline a
ntibiotics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Photosensitivity}}</div>
1404592057477 1395802358422 What is the cutaneous toxicity of 5-Fluorouracil
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Photosensitivity}}</div>
1404592068874 1395802358422 {{c1::Stevens-Johnson Syndrome}} is a cutaneous
complication associated with anti-epileptic drus.

complication associated with Allopurinol.
complication associated with Sulfa drus.
complication associated with Penicillin.
1404592337138 1395802358422 {{c1::SLE-like syndrome}} is an autoimmune-like
complication of sulfa dru use.
complication of Hydralazine use.
complication of Isoniazid (INH) use.
complication of Procainamide use.
complication of Phenytoin use.
complication of Etanercept use.
1404592388304 1395802358422 Which class of antibiotics is associated with te
eth discolouration?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tetracyclines}}</div>
1404592405978 1395802358422 Which class of antibiotics is associated with te
ndonitis, tendon rupture and/or cartilae damae?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Flu
oroquinolones}}</div>
1404592861924 1395802358422 {{c1::Cinchonism}} is a neuroloical complicatio
n associated with Quinidine and Quinine use that presents with tinnitus, blurred
vision, headache, vertio and confusion.
1404592966195 1395802358422 {{c1::Seizures}} are a neuroloical complication
of Isoniazid use due to the Vit B6 deficiency that the dru causes.
1404593140712 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Bupropion?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Seizures}}</div>
1404593166225 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Imipenem/Cilastatin?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Seizures}}</div>
1404593180324 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Tramadol?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Seizures}}</div>
1404593191535 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Enflurane?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Seizures}}</div>
1404593201171 1395802358422 What are the CNS toxicities of Metoclopramide?&n
bsp;<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Parkinson like syndrome & Tardive dyskinesia
}}</div>
1404593208496 1395802358422 What is the CNS toxicity of Antipsychotics?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Parkinson-like syndrome; Tardive Dyskinesia}}</div>
1404594097744 1395802358422 What is the renal toxicity of Lithium?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Diabetes Insipidus}}</div>
1404594249814 1395802358422 What is the renal toxicity of Demeclocycline?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Diabetes Insipidus}}</div>
1404594261218 1395802358422 What is the renal toxicity of Cyclophosphamide?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hemorrhaic cystitis; SIADH}}</div> <br /><div><i>He
morrhaic cystitis is prevented by Mesna co-administration.</i></div>
1404594435607 1395802358422 What is the renal toxicity of Ifosfamide?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Hemorrhaic cystitis}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Prevented
by Mesna coadministration.</i></div>
1404594466000 1395802358422 {{c1::Mesna}} is a dru that is coadministered w
ith Cyclophosphamide and Ifosfamide to prevent hemorrhaic cystitis.
1404594508159 1395802358422 What is the renal toxicity of Methicillin?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Interstitial nephritis}}</div>
1404594521981 1395802358422 What is the renal toxicity of NSAIDs?<div><br />
{{c1::Interstitial nephritis}}</div>
1404594531307 1395802358422 What is the renal toxicity of Furosemide?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Interstitial nephritis}}</div>
1404594544889 1395802358422 What is the renal toxicity of Carbamazepine?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::SIADH}}</div>
1404594557714 1395802358422 What is the renal toxicity of SSRIs?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::SIADH}}</div>
1404594581404 1395802358422 {{c1::Fanconi Syndrome}} is a renal complication
of expired tetracycline antibiotics that presents with lucose, amino acids, ur
ic acid, phosphate and bicarbonate in the urine instead of bein reabsorbed.
1404594765985 1395802358422 What is the respiratory toxicity of ACE inhibito
rs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dry couh}}</div>
1404594958498 1395802358422 What is the respiratory toxicity of Bleomycin?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary fibrosis}}</div>
1404594967410 1395802358422 What is the respiratory toxicity of Busulfan?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary fibrosis}}</div>
1404594972949 1395802358422 What is the respiratory toxicity of Methotrexate
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary fibrosis}}</div>
1404594979714 1395802358422 What is the respiratory toxicity of Amiodarone?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary fibrosis}}</div>
1404594986951 1395802358422 How does chronic alcohol influence cytochrome p4
50 activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-12421045420686.jp" /></div>
1404595915141 1395802358422 How does Modafinil influence cytochrome p450 act
ivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
te-12416750453390.jp" /></div>
1404595943972 1395802358422 How does St. John's Wort influence cytochrome p4
50 activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-12416750453390.jp" /></div>
1404595978077 1395802358422 How does Phenytoin influence cytochrome p450 act
ivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
te-12416750453390.jp" /></div>
1404595994582 1395802358422 How does Phenobarbitol influence cytochrome p450
activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pas
te-12416750453390.jp" /></div>
1404596007163 1395802358422 How does Nevirapine influence cytochrome p450 ac
tivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
te-12416750453390.jp" /></div>
1404596019805 1395802358422 How does Rifampin influence cytochrome p450 acti
vity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
te-12416750453390.jp" /></div>
1404596031061 1395802358422 How does Griseofulvin influence cytochrome p450
te-12416750453390.jp" /></div>
1404596043577 1395802358422 How does Carbamazepine influence cytochrome p450
te-12416750453390.jp" /></div>
1404596064040 1395802358422 How does <b>acute </b>alcohol abuse influence cy
tochrome p450 activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><d
1404596172193 1395802358422 How does Gemfibrozil influence cytochrome p450 a
ctivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
te-13069585482402.jp" /></div>
1404596186617 1395802358422 How does Ciprofloxacin influence cytochrome p450
activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pas
te-13069585482402.jp" /></div>
1404596207769 1395802358422 How does Isoniazid influence cytochrome p450 act
ivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
te-13069585482402.jp" /></div>
1404596220626 1395802358422 How does Grapefruit Juice influence cytochrome p
450 activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-13069585482402.jp" /></div>
1404596237681 1395802358422 How does Quinidine influence cytochrome p450 act
te-13069585482402.jp" /></div>
1404596251666 1395802358422 How does Amiodarone influence cytochrome p450 ac
tivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
te-13069585482402.jp" /></div>
1404596265426 1395802358422 How does Ketoconazole influence cytochrome p450
activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <br /><div><im src="pas
te-13069585482402.jp" /></div>
1404596287510 1395802358422 How do macrolide antibiotics influence cytochrom
e p450 activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-13069585482402.jp" /></div>
1404596301526 1395802358422 How do Sulfonamides influence the activity of cy
tochrome p450?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-13069585482402.jp" /></div>
1404596349181 1395802358422 How does Cimetidine influence cytochrome p450 ac
tivity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
te-13069585482402.jp" /></div>
1404596362060 1395802358422 How does Ritonavir influence cytochrome p450 act
te-13069585482402.jp" /></div>
1404596380541 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Erosterol synthes
is inhibitors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-azole}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.
. Ketoconazole</i></div>
1404597825004 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for antiparasitics/ant
ihelminthics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-bendazole}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.
. mebendazole</i></div>
1404597853147 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for bacterial peptido
lycan synthesis inhibitors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-cillin}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>e.. Penicillin</i></div>
1404597872830 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for bacterial protein
synthesis inhibitors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-cycline}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>e.. Tetracycline</i></div>
1404597891761 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for viral Neuraminidas
e inhibitors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-ivir}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.. Oselt
amivir</i></div>
1404597917651 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for viral protease inh
ibitors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-navir}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.. Riton
avir</i></div>
1404597937489 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for viral DNA polymera
se inhibitors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-ovir}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.. Acycl
ovir</i></div>
1404597951240 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Macrolide antibiot
ics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-thromycin}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.. Azith
romycin</i></div>
1404598042497 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for inhalational ener
al anaesthetics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-ane}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.
. Halothane</i></div>
1404598063652 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Typical antipsycho
tics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-azine}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.. Thioridazine<
/i></div>
1404598084208 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Barbiturates?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::-barbital}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.. Phenobarbital
</i></div>
1404598102309 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for local anaesthetics
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-caine}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.. Lidocaine</i>
</div>
1404598126975 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for SSRIs?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::-etine}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.. Fluoxetine</i></div>
1404598142755 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for TCAs?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::<i>-</i>ipramine; -triptyline}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.. Imipr
amine; Amitryptiline</i></div>
1404598157902 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for 5-HT<sub>1B/1D</su

b> aonists?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-triptan}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.
. Sumatriptan</i></div>
1404598206715 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Benzodiazepines?<d
iv><br />{{c1::-zepam; -zolam}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.. Diazepam; Midazolam</
i></div>
1404598244633 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Cholineric aonis
ts?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-chol}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.. bethanechol</
i></div>
1404598566025 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for <b>non-depolarizin
paralytics</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-curium; -curonium}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>e.. Atracurium</i></div>
1404598586944 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for beta-blockers?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::-olol}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.. Propanolol</i></div>
1404598597544 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for AChE Inhibitors?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::-stimine}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.. Neostimine</
i></div>
1404598612741 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for beta-2 adreneric
aonists?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-buterol}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.. Albut
erol</i></div>
1404598623140 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for alpha-1 adreneric
antaonists?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-zosin}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.. Prazo
sin</i></div>
1404598638443 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for PDE-5 Inhibitors?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-afil}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.. Sildenafil</i
></div>
1404598656974 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for dihydropyridine Ca
channel blockers?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-dipine}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.
. Amlodipine</i></div>
1404598705288 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for ACE inhibitors?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::-pril}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.. captopril</i></div>
1404598719660 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Aniotensin-II rec
eptor blockers?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-sartan}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.
. Losartan</i></div>
1404598747952 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for HMG-CoA reductase
inhibitors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-statin}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.. Atorv
astatin</i></div>
1404598808413 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Bisphosphonates?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::-dronate}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.. Pamidronate</
i></div>
1404598822221 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for PPAR-amma activat
ors (antidiabetics)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-litazone}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>e.. Rosilitazone</i></div>
1404598901157 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for proton pump inhibi
tors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-prazole}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.. Omepr
azole</i></div>
1404598926372 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Prostalandin anal
os?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-prost}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.. Latanoprost</
i></div>
1404598941851 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for H<sub>2</sub>&nbsp
;(histidine) receptor antaonists?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-tidine}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.. Cimetidine</i></div>
1404598968798 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for pituitary hormones
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-tropin}}</div>
1404598985363 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for Chimeric Monoclona
l antibodies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-ximab}}</div> <br /><div><i>e.. Basil
iximab</i></div>
1404599005623 1395802358422 What is the common suffix for humanized monoclon
al antibodies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::-zumab}}</div>
<br /><div><i>e.
. Daclizumab</i></div>
1405187801441 1395802358422 The {{c1::Sonic hedeho ene}} is an impor

tant ene of embryoenesis that is produced at the base of limbs in the zone of
polarizin activity.
1405187930710 1395802358422 {{c1::Sonic hedeho}} is a ene important in em
bryoenesis that is involved in <b>patternin alon the anterior-posterior axis<
/b> and in <b>CNS development</b>.
1405187968943 1395802358422 Which conenital defect is associated with Sonic
Hedeho mutations?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Holoprosencephaly}}</div>
1405187987735 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Wnt-7</i>}} is an important ene in emb
ryoenesis that is produced at the apical ectodermal ride; and is needed for <b
>dorsal-ventral axis oranization</b>. <br /><div><i>The apical ectodermal rid
e is a <b>ride of thickened ectoderm at the distal end of developin limbs</b>.
</i></div>
1405188074585 1395802358422 Which ene important for embryoenesis is involv
ed in <b>anterior-posterior axis patternin</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Soni
c Hedeho}}</div>
1405188098958 1395802358422 Which ene important for embryoenesis is needed
for <b>dorsal-ventral axis oranization</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Wnt7</i>}}</div>
1405188127165 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>FGF</i>}} is a ene important in embryo
enesis that is produced at the apical ectodermal ride and functions to <b>stim
ulate mitosis of underlyin mesoderm</b>, thereby causin lenthenin of limbs.
1405188170991 1395802358422 {{c1::Homeobox (<i>Hox</i>) enes}} are enes im
portant for embryoenesis that is involved in <b>semental oranization of the e
mbryo in the craniocaudal direction</b>.
1405188234322 1395802358422 A mutation in which ene important in embryoene
sis is associated with <b>appendaes bein found in the wron locations</b>?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Homeobox (<i>Hox</i>) enes}}</div>
1405188274504 1395802358422 On which day after fertilization is the zyote f
ormed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2}}</div>
022796163.jp" /></div>
1405189423019 1395802358422 On which day followin fertilization is the <b>m
orula</b> formed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-48876727828867.jp" /></div>
1405189436675 1395802358422 On which day followin fertilization is the <b>b
lastocyst</b> formed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::5}}</div> <br /><div><im
src="paste-48876727828867.jp" /></div>
1405189449032 1395802358422 On which day followin fertilization does <b>imp
lantation</b> occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::7-10}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i>hCG secretion beins around this time.</i><br /><div><im src="paste
-48876727828867.jp" /></div>
1405189480591 1395802358422 Durin which week of estation is the <b>bilamin
ar disc</b> (of epiblast and hypoblast) formed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Week 2}}</div> <br /><div><i><b>2</b> weeks = <b>2</b> layers</i
></div>
1405189572077 1395802358422 Durin which week of estation is the <b>trilami
nar</b> disc formed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div> <br /><div><i><b
>3</b> weeks = <b>3</b> layers</i></div>
1405189607684 1395802358422 Durin which week of estation does astrul
ation occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div>
te-49997714292844.jp" /></div>
1405189616150 1395802358422 Durin which week of estation does the pri
mitive streak appear?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Pr
imitive streak, notochord, mesoderm and its oranization and neural plate all be
in to form in week 3.</i></div>
1405189647980 1395802358422 Durin which week of estation does the neu
ral tube form and close?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div>
1405189673617 1395802358422 Durin which weeks of estation does orano
enesis occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3-8}}</div>
1405189692284 1395802358422 Durin which weeks of estation is the embryo ex
tremely susceptible to teratoens?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3-8}}</div>

1405189710397 1395802358422 Durin which week of estation does the heart be
in to beat?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div>
1405189724199 1395802358422 Durin which week of estation do the <b>upper a
nd lower limb buds</b> bein to form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b>4</b> weeks = <b>4</b> limbs</i></div>
1405189748896 1395802358422 Durin which week of estation is fetal cardiac
activity visible by transvainal ultrasound?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::6}}</div
>
1405189766131 1395802358422 Durin which week of estation does the fetal e
nitalia ain male/female characteristics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::10}}</div>
1405190441441 1395802358422 {{c1::Craniopharynioma}} is a benin tumour of
Rathke's Pouch that presents with <b>cholesterol crystals</b> and <b>calcif
ications</b>.
1405190495474 1395802358422 From which embryoloical tissue layer does the l
ens of the eye form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</div>
1405190598843 1395802358422 From which embryoloical tissue layer does senso
ry orans of the ear form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</div>
1405190612914 1395802358422 From which embryoloical tissue layer does olfac
tory epithelium form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</div>
1405190623972 1395802358422 From which embryoloical tissue layer does the e
pidermis form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</div>
1405190640750 1395802358422 From which embryoloical tissue layer do parotid
, sweat and mammary lands form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ectoderm}}</
div>
1405190654004 1395802358422 From which embryoloical tissue layer does the a
nal canal below the pectinate line form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Surface Ecto
derm}}</div>
1405190671066 1395802358422 From which embryoloical tissue layer does the e
pithelial linin of the oral cavity form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Surface ect
oderm}}</div>
1405190687783 1395802358422 From which embryoloical tissue layer does the C
NS form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405190701065 1395802358422 From which embryoloical tissue layer does retin
a form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405190708163 1395802358422 From which embryoloical tissue layer does the o
ptic nerve form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405190720066 1395802358422 From which embryoloical tissue layer does the s
pinal cord form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroectoderm}}</div>
1405190729933 1395802358422 From which embryoloical tissue layer does the P
NS form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}</div>
1405190740203 1395802358422 From which embryoloical tissue layer do melanoc
ytes form?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}</div>
1405190788282 1395802358422 Which embryoloical tissue population/layer ive
s rise to the Chromaffin Cells of the adrenal medulla?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Neural Crest}}</div>
s rise to the parafollicular cells of the thyroid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ne
ural Crest}}</div>
s rise to the bones of the skull?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}</div
>
s rise to Odontoblasts?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}</div>
s rise to the aorticopulmonary septum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neural Crest}}
</div>
s rise to muscle, bone, CT and serous linin of body cavities?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>

s rise to the spleen?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
s rise to the cardiovascular structures?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</
div>
s rise to the lymphatics and blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
s rise to the wall of the ut tubes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
s rise to the vaina, testes and ovaries?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}<
/div>
s rise to the kidneys and adrenal cortex?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}<
/div> <br /><div><im src="paste-52901112185109.jp" /></div>
s rise to the dermis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div>
s rise to the<b> epithelium</b> of the ut tube?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Endoderm}}</div>
s rise to most of the urethra?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Endoderm}}</div>
s rise to luminal epithelial derivatives?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Endoderm}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>e.. luns, liver, allblader, pancreas, thymus, parathyro
id, thyroid follicles, eustachian tube</i></div>
1405192693279 1395802358422 What is the only postnatal derivative of the not
ochord?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus Pulposus of the intervertebral disc}}
</div>
1405193713758 1395802358422 {{c1::Aenesis}} is an error in oran morphoene
sis that is defined as the <b>absence of an oran due to absent primordial tissu
e</b>.
1405193749960 1395802358422 {{c1::Aplasia}} is an error in oran morphoenes
is that is defined as the <b>absence of an oran</b> <u style="font-weiht:
bold; ">despite the presence of primordial tissue</u>. <br /><div><i>In aplasia
, <u>primordial tissue is present</u>.</i></div>
1405193786627 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypoplasia}} is a type of error in oran m
orphoenesis that is defined as <b>incomplete oran development</b> despite
primordial tissue bein present.
1405193949062 1395802358422 {{c1::Deformation}} is a type of error in oran
morphoenesis that is defined as <b>extrinsic disruption of oran morphoenesis<
/b>.
<br /><div><i>Occurs after the embryonic period.</i></div>
1405193994529 1395802358422 {{c1::Disruption}} is an error is oran morphoe
nesis that is defined as the <b>secondary breakdown of a previously normal tissu
e or structure</b>.
<br /><div><i>e.. amniotic band syndrome</i></div>
1405194044038 1395802358422 {{c1::Malformation}} is an error in oran morpho
enesis that is defined as <b>intrinsic disruption</b> of oran formation <
u><b>durin the embryonic period</b> (weeks 3-8).</u>
1405194087199 1395802358422 {{c1::Sequence}} is an error in oran morphoene
sis that is defined as a <b>series of abnormalities resultin from a sinle prim
ary embryoloical event</b>.
<br /><div><i>e.. oliohydramnios causes Potter
sequence.</i></div>
1405194129948 1395802358422 Durin which weeks of estation do teratoens ha
ve an "<b>all-or-none</b>" effect?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Before week 3}}</d
iv>
1405194547645 1395802358422 Which which weeks of estation do teratoens onl
y affect <b>rowth and function</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::&t; 8}}</div>
1405194569378 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of ACE Inhibitor
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Renal damae}}</div>
1405194633580 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of alkylatin a

ents?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Diit aplasia; many other abnormalities}}</div>
1405194651448 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of Aminolycosid
es?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN VIII toxicity}}</div>
1405194660571 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of Carbampazepin
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neural tube defect; Craniofacial defects; Finerna
il hypoplasia; IUGR}}</div>
1405194682748 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of Diethylstilbe
strol (DES)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vainal clear cell adenocarcinoma; Cone
nital Mullerian anomalies}}</div>
1405194714115 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of folate antao
nists?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neural tube defects}}</div>
1405194851042 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of Lithium?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Ebstein anomaly}}</div> <br /><div><i>Involves an atrial
ized riht ventricle.</i></div>
1405194872240 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of Methimazole?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aplasia cutis conenita}}</div>
1405194879556 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of Phenytoin?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fetal hydantoin syndrome}}</div>
<br /><div><i>In
volves <b>microcephaly, dysmorphic craniofacial features, hypoplastic nails, hyp
oplastic distal phalanes, cardiac defects, IUGR</b> and <b>intellectual di
sability</b>.</i></div>
1405194936602 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of Tetracyclines
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Discoloured teeth}}</div>
1405194941954 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of Thalidomide?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phocomelia; Micromelia}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.
e. limb defects</i></div>
1405194956886 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of Valproic Acid
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neural tube defects due to inhibition of maternal f
olate absorption}}</div>
1405194978814 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of Warfarin?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bone deformities; fetal hemorrhae; abortion; opthalmolo
ic abnormalities}}</div>
1405195005246 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of alcohol?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Fetal Alcohol Syndrome; Intellectual disability}}</div>
1405195076581 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of cocaine?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Placental abruption; abnormal fetal rowth; abortion}}</d
iv>
1405195090284 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of nicotine or C
O (via smokin)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Low birth weiht; premature labour;
IUGR; ADHD}}</div>
1405195113597 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of either a lack
or excess of Iodine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Conenital oiter; Cretinism}}<
/div>
1405195161309 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of Maternal Diab
etes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Caudal reression syndrome; Conenital heart de
fects; Neural tube defects}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Caudal Reression Syndrome
involves <b>anal atresia to sirenomelia</b>.</i></div>
1405195198881 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of excess Vitami
n A?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Spontaneous abortion; Cleft palate; Cardiac abno
rmalities}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Extremely hih risk for all 3</i></div>
1405195816470 1395802358422 Which is the teratoenic effect of X-rays?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Microcephaly; Intellectual Disability}}</div>
1405195831089 1395802358422 Which facial abnormalities are associated with F
etal Alcohol Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Smooth philtrum; Thin Upper Li
p; Small Palpebral Fissure; Hypertelorism}}</div>
1405195892553 1395802358422 {{c1::Dizyotic twins}} are a type of twins that
<b>arise from 2 es</b> that are <b>separately fertilized by 2 different
sperm</b>.
<div><br /></div><i>Hence they will have 2 zyotes, 2 amniotic s
acs and 2 separate placentas.</i><br /><div><im src="paste-55228984460061.jp"

1405199081659 1395802358422 Which type of twins is associated with <b>2 sepa
rate amniotic sacs</b> and <b>2 separate placentas</b>?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Dizyotic twins}}</div> <br /><div><div><im src="paste-55228984460061.j
p" /></div><div><im src="paste-55241869361706.jp" /></div></div>
1405199116169 1395802358422 {{c1::Monozyotic twins}} are a type of twins th
at arise from <b>1 fertilized e</b> and <b>1 sperm</b> that <b>split
s into 2 zyotes in early prenancy</b>.
<br /><div><i>The deree of sepa
ration between the monozyotic twins depends on when the e splits into 2 zyot
es.</i></div><div><i>The time of the split determines the number of chorions and
the number of amnions.</i></div><div><i><div><im src="paste-55228984460061.jp
" /></div><div><im src="paste-55241869361706.jp" /> </div></i></div>
1405199351228 1395802358422 {{c1::Dichorionic diamniotic monozyotic twins}}
are a type of monozyotic twinnin that occurs if the cleavae occurs between <
b>0-4 days</b> of fertilization.
<br /><div><div><im src="paste-55228984
460061.jp" /></div><div><im src="paste-55241869361706.jp" /></div></div>
1405199537731 1395802358422 {{c1::Monochorionic diamniotic monozyotic twins
}} is a type of monozyotic twinnin that occurs if the cleavae occurs <b>4-8 d
ays</b> after fertilization.
1405199570954 1395802358422 {{c1::Monochorionic monoamniotic monozyotic twi
ns}} is a type of monozyotic twinnin that occurs if the cleavae occurs <b>8-1
2 days</b> after fertilization.
1405199607258 1395802358422 {{c1::Monochorionic monoamniotic conjoined twins
}} are a type of monozyotic twinnin that occurs if the cleavae occurs <b>afte
r 13 days</b> followin fertilization.
<br /><div><div><im src="paste55228984460061.jp" /></div><div><im src="paste-55241869361706.jp" /></div></d
iv>
1405199866006 1395802358422 {{c1::Decidua Basalis}} is the <b>maternal compo
nent</b> of the placenta that is derived from the <b>endometrium</b>.
<br /><div><i>Hence it is maternal blood that fills the lacunae.</i></div><div><
i><im src="paste-56672093471228.jp" /></i></div>
1405199987066 1395802358422 Which fetal tissue roup contributes to the <b>i
nner</b> later of chorionic villi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytotrophobla
st}}</div>
1405200119895 1395802358422 Which fetal tissue roup contributes to the <b>o
uter</b> layer of the chorionic villi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Syncytiot
rophoblast}}</div>
1405200144824 1395802358422 {{c1::hCG}} is a hormone secreted by the syncyti
otrophoblast that stimulated the corpus luteum to secrete proesterone durin th
e first trimester.
<br /><div><i>It is structurally similar to LH.</i></div
><div><i><im src="paste-56667798503932.jp" /></i></div>
1405200192138 1395802358422 {{c1::Umbilical arteries}} are the blood vessels
that <b>return deoxyenated blood from the fetal internal iliac arteries to the
placenta</b>. <br /><div><im src="paste-57320633532807.jp" /></div>
1405201815263 1395802358422 {{c1::Umbilical Vein}} is the blood vesse that <
b>supplies oxyenated blood from the placenta to the fetus</b>. <br /><div><i>It
drains into the IVC via the liver or via the ductus venosus.</i></div><div><i><
1405201858770 1395802358422 The {{c1::urachus}} is a fetal structure th
at develops from the allantois that acts as a <b>duct between the fetal bl
adder and yolk sac</b>.
1405201929545 1395802358422 {{c1::Patent Urachus}} is a conenital anomaly t
hat occurs due to a failure of the urachus to obliterate and presents with <b>ur
ine dischare from the umbilicus</b>.
1405201990258 1395802358422 {{c1::Urachal Cyst}} is a conenital anomaly tha
t results from <b>partial failure</b> of the urachus to obliterate and pres
ents as a <b>fluid-filled davity lined with uroepithelium</b> between the u
mbilicus and bladder. <br /><div><i>Can lead to infection and adenocarcinoma.<
/i></div>
1405202052062 1395802358422 {{c1::Vesicourachal Diverticulum}} is a conenit
al anomaly that results from failure of the urachus to obliterate and presents a
s an <b>outpouchin of the bladder</b>.
1405202140734 1395802358422 In which week of estation does the vitelline du
ct obliterate?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::7th}}</div>
1405202321049 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitelline fistula}} is a conenital anomal
y that occurs due to failure of the vitelline duct to close and presents with <b
>meconium dischare from the umbilicus</b>.
1405202349818 1395802358422 {{c1::Meckel Diverticulum}} is a conenital anom
aly that occurs due to <b>partial</b> failure of the vitelline duct to obli
terate and presents with a patent vitelline duct portion attached to the ileum.
<br /><div><i>May have ectopic astric mucosa or pancreatic tissue and hence can
yield <b>melena, periumbilical pain</b> or <b>ulcers</b>.</i></div>
1405203472835 1395802358422 What does the 1st aortic arch develop into?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Part of the Maxillary Artery}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-58660663329382.jp" /></div>
1405203494100 1395802358422 What does the 2nd aortic arch develop into?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Stapedial Artery; Hyoid Artery}}</div> <br /><div><im
src="paste-58656368362086.jp" /></div>
1405203509487 1395802358422 What does the 3rd aortic arch develop into?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Common Carotid Artery; proximal portion of the Internal C
arotid Artery}}</div> <br /><div><im src="paste-58656368362086.jp" /></div>
1405203539751 1395802358422 What does the 4th aortic arch develop into <b>on
the left</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic Arch}}</div> <br /><div><im
src="paste-58656368362086.jp" /></div>
1405203562875 1395802358422 What does the 4th aortic arch develop into <b>on
the riht</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Proximal part of the Riht subclavian
artery}}</div> <br /><div><im src="paste-58656368362086.jp" /></div>
1405203586945 1395802358422 What does the 5th aortic arch develop into?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::There is no 5th arch}}</div>
1405203602648 1395802358422 What does the 6th aortic arch develop into?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Proximal portion of the pulmonary arteries and ductus art
eriosus}}</div> <br /><div><im src="paste-58656368362086.jp" /></div>
1405203629465 1395802358422 Which embryoloical tissue layer ives rise to t
he branchial clefts?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ectoderm}}</div><div><br /></div
><div><im src="paste-59292023521689.jp" /></div>
<br /><div><i>aka Branch
ial rooves</i></div>
he branchial <b>arches</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm; neural crest}}<
/div><div><br /></div><div><im src="paste-59287728554393.jp" /></div>
he branchial <b>pouches</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Endoderm}}</div><div><br
1405203691537 1395802358422 Which branchial cleft develops into the <b>exter
nal auditory meatus</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405203778779 1395802358422 Which branchial cleft develops into temporary ce
rvical sinuses?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2-4}}</div> <br /><div><i>They are o
bliterated by proliferation of the 2nd arch's mesenchyme.</i></div><div><i>Persi
stence of the cervical sinuses results in a <b>branchial cleft cyst within the l
ateral neck</b>.</i></div>
1405203836849 1395802358422 Which branchial arch ives rise to Meckel's Cart
ilae (mandible, malleus, incus, spheno-mandibular liament)?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204285795 1395802358422 Which branchial arch ives rise to the muscles o
f mastication?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div> <br /><div><i>Masseter;
medial and lateral pteryoids; temporalis.</i></div>
1405204314256 1395802358422 Which branchial arch ives rise to the <b>Tensor
Tympani</b> muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204335779 1395802358422 Which branchial arch ives rise to the <b>Tensor
Veli Palatini</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>

1405204374307 1395802358422 Which branchial arch ives rise to mylohyoid mus
cle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204386539 1395802358422 Which branchial arch ives rise to anterior bell
y of the diastric?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204404042 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the 1st b
ranchial arch?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN V<sub>2</sub> (sensory); CN V<
sub>3</sub> (motor)}}</div>
1405204428625 1395802358422 {{c1::Treacher Collins Syndrome}} is a conenita
l anomaly of the 1st branchial arch that is due to <b>failure of neural crest ce
lls to mirate</b> and presents with <b>madibular hypoplasia</b> and <
b>facial abnormalities</b>.
1405204465012 1395802358422 Which branchial arch is associated with Treacher
Collins Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405204483489 1395802358422 Which branchial arch is associated with a Conen
ital Pharynocutaneous Fistula?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204499419 1395802358422 Which branchial arch ives rise to Reichert Cart
ilae (stapes; styloid process; lesser horn of the hyoid; stylohyoid liament)?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204539760 1395802358422 Which branchial arch ives rise to the muscles o
f facial expression?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204549067 1395802358422 Which branchial arch ives rise to Stapedius mus
cle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204554793 1395802358422 Which branchial arch ives rise to the Stylohoid
muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204565018 1395802358422 Which branchial arch ives rise to Platysma musc
le?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204573676 1395802358422 Which branchial arch ives rise to the belly of
the diastric muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405204592492 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the 2nd b
ranchial arch?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN VII (facial nerve)}}</div>
1405204621241 1395802358422 {{c1::Conenital Pharynocutaneous Fistula}} is
a conenital anomaly of the 2nd branchial arch that presents with <b>persistence
of the cleft and pouch</b> and <b>subsequent fistula between the tonsillar
area and lateral neck</b>.
1405204662404 1395802358422 Which branchial arch ives rise to the reater h
orn of the hyoid bone?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1405204672373 1395802358422 Which branchial arch ives rise to Stylopharyne
us muscle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1405204686606 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the 3rd b
ranchial arch?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN IX}}</div>
1405204710274 1395802358422 Which branchial arch ives rise to the thyroid,
cricoid, arytenoid, corniculate and cuneiform cartilaes?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::4-6}}</div>
1405205011179 1395802358422 Which branchial arch ives rise to <b>pharyneal
constrictors</b> and the <b>cricothyroid</b> muscle?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::4th}}</div>
1405205040180 1395802358422 Which branchial arch ives rise to the <b>levato
r veli palatini</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4th}}</div>
1405205050057 1395802358422 Which branchial arch ives rise to <b>all intrin
sic muscles of the larynx except the cricothyroid</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::6th}}</div>
1405205070605 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the <b>4t
h</b> branchial arch?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Superior laryneal branch
of CN X}}</div>
1405205100282 1395802358422 Which cranial nerve is associated with the <b>6t
h</b> branchial arch?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Recurrent laryneal branch
of CN X}}</div>
1405205142260 1395802358422 Which branchial pouch ives rise to the middle e
ar cavity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
te-62500364091734.jp" /></div>
1405205773911 1395802358422 Which branchial pouch ives rise to the eustachi
an tube?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div> <br /><div><im src="paste-62504
659059030.jp" /></div>
1405205783192 1395802358422 Which branchial pouch ives rise to mastoid air
cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div> <br /><div><br /></div>
1405205792549 1395802358422 Which branchial pouch ives rise to the epitheli
al linin of the palatine tonsils?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1405205810725 1395802358422 Which branchial pouch ives rise to the <b>infer
ior parathyroids</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3rd (dorsal win)}}</div>
1405205835929 1395802358422 Which branchial pouch ives rise to the <b>thymu
s</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3rd (ventral win)}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-62500364091734.jp" /></div>
1405205853619 1395802358422 Which branchial pouch ives rise to the <b>super
ior parathyroids</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4th (dorsal wins)}}</div>
1405205868504 1395802358422 Which branchial pouch contributes to the endoder
m-lined structures of the ear?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1405205950212 1395802358422 {{c1::DiGeore syndrome}} is a 22q11 deletion sy
ndrome that involves <b>aberrant development of the 3rd and 4th branchial pouche
s</b>. <br /><div><i>Therefore there is thymic and parathyroid aplasia.</i></di
v>
1405206012036 1395802358422 {{c1::Cleft lip}} is a conenital anomaly that i
s described as <b>failure of the fusion of the maxillary and medial nasal proces
ses</b>.<div><br /></div><div><im src="paste-62947040690438.jp" /></div>
1405206096479 1395802358422 {{c1::Cleft Palate}} is a conenital anomaly tha
t involves the failure of fusion of the <b>two lateral palatine processes</b>&nb
sp;<u>or</u> failure of fusion of the <b>lateral palatine processes with th
e nasal septum or medial palatine process</b>.<div><br /></div><div><im src="pa
ste-63097364545849.jp" /></div>
1405206287882 1395802358422 Which embryoloical structure develops into the
female internal enitalia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Paramesonephric (Mullerian
) Duct}}</div> <br /><div><i>Develops into the fallopian tubes, uterus, upper p
ortion of the vaina.</i></div><div><i>Defects can present as <b>primary amenorr
hea</b> despite fully developed secondary characteristics (i.e. functional
ovaries).</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-63823214019232.jp" /></i></div>
1405206493278 1395802358422 Which embryoloical structure develops into the
male internal enitalia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesonephric (Wolffian) Duct}
}</div> <br /><div><i>Develops into <b>SEED. </b>Does not ive rise to the prost
ate.</i></div><div><i>- Seminal vesicles</i></div><div><i>- Epididymis</i></div>
<div><i>- Ejaculatory duct</i></div><div><i>- Ductus deferens</i></div><div><i><
1405206556049 1395802358422 Which ene on the Y-chromosome produces <b>testi
s-determinin factor</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>SRY</i>}}</div> <br /><d
1405206625264 1395802358422 {{c1::Mullerian Inhibitory Factor (MIF)}} is a p
rotein secreted by Sertoli cells that functions to suppress the development of t
he paramesonephric (Mullerian) duct.
<br /><div><i>Lack of MIF results in the
<b>development of both male and female internal enitalia</b> and <b>male
external enitalia</b>.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-64583423230579.jp" /><
/i></div>
1405206658945 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes secrete Mullerian Inhi
bitor Factor (MIF)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sertoli cells}}</div>
1405206675137 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes secrete androens that
stimulate the development of the mesonephric (Wolffian) ducts?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Leydi Cells}}</div>
1405206710482 1395802358422 {{c1::Bicornuate uterus}} is a conenital enita
l anomaly that results from <b>incomplete fusion of the paramesonephric ducts</b
>.
<br /><div><i>Complete failure of fusions results in <b>double uterus an
d vaina</b>.</i></div>
1405206775532 1395802358422 {{c1::5-alpha-reductase deficiency}} is an enzym
e deficiency that results in the <b>inability to convert testosterone into DHT</
b>, thereby yieldin male internal enitalia but <b>ambiuous external enitalia
until puberty</b>.
<div><br /></div><i>The increase in testosterone at pube
rty results in masculization.</i><br /><div><im src="paste-64583423230579.jp"
/></div>
1405208347086 1395802358422 What is the male equivalent to the clitoris?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Penis}}</div> <br /><div><im src="paste-6538658211494
5.jp" /></div>
1405208369079 1395802358422 What is the male equivalent to the vestibular bu
lbs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Corpus cavernosum and sponiosum}}</div>
1405208385752 1395802358422 What is the male equivalent to the Greater Vesti
bular Glands (Bartholin Glands)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bulbourethral (Cowpe
r) lands}}</div>
1405208410695 1395802358422 What is the male holomo to the urethral and par
aurethral lands (lands of Skene)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Prostate land}}<
1405208437361 1395802358422 What is the male homolo to the labia minora?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ventral shaft of the penis}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-65382287147649.jp" /></div>
1405208457256 1395802358422 What is the male homolo to the labia majora?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Scrotum}}</div>
287147649.jp" /></div>
1405208474780 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypospadias}} is a conenital penile anoma
ly that is described as an <b>inferiorly displaced openin of the urethra</b>&nb
sp;on the ventral side of the penis due to <b>failure of the urethral folds to c
lose</b>.<div><br /></div><div><im src="paste-65695819759730.jp" /></div>
<br /><div><i>More common that epispadias.</i></div><div><i>Must be fixed to pre
vent UTIs.</i></div>
1405208544910 1395802358422 {{c1::Epispadias}} is a conenital penile anomal
y that is described as a <b>superiorly displaced openin of the penile urethra</
b> on the dorsal surface of the penis due to <b>faulty positionin of the
enital tubercle</b>.<div><br /></div><div><im src="paste-65781719105666.jp" />
</div> <br /><div><i>Associated with <b>exstrophy of the bladder</b>.</i></div>
1405208631191 1395802358422 {{c1::Gubernaculum}} is an embryoloical structu
re described as a band of fibrous tissue that anchors the testes to the floor of
the scrotum.
1405208704099 1395802358422 What is the female remnant of the ubernaculum?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ovarian liament; Round liament of the uterus}}</div
>
1405208727771 1395802358422 What is the male remnant of the processus vaina
lis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tunica vainalis}}</div>
1405208745519 1395802358422 What is the female remnant of the processus vai
nalis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::None; it is obliterated}}</div>
1405281810652 1395802358422 What is the venous drainae of the <b>left</b>&n
bsp;ovary and testis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Left onadal vein --&t; Left r
enal vein --&t; IVC}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"The <b>left</b> onadal vein
takes the <b>l</b>onest way."</i></div><div><i>The left spermatic vein enters
the left renal vein at a 90 deree anle, hence flow is less continuous on the l
eft than on the riht.</i></div>
1405292830484 1395802358422 What is the venous drainae of the <b>riht</b>&
nbsp;ovary and testis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Riht onadal vein --&t; IVC}
}</div>
1405292857923 1395802358422 Which side of the body is more commonly affected
by varicocele?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Left testis}}</div>
1405292989858 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the ovaries?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1405293461001 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the testes?<div><br /></

div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic}}</div>
1405293465481 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the distal vaina and vu
lva?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Superficial inuinal nodes}}</div>
1405293479897 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the scrotum?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Superficial inuinal nodes}}</div>
1405293496834 1395802358422 Which lymph nodes drain the proximal vaina and
uterus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Obturator; External Iliac; Hypoastric}}</div
>
1405293578834 1395802358422 Which liament connects the ovaries to the later
al pelvic wall?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Infundibulopelvic liament}}</div>
1405294160891 1395802358422 Which blood vessels are contained in the Infundi
bulopelvic liament?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ovarian vessels}}</div> <div><br
/></div><i>Vessels must be liated durin oopherectomy to avoid bleedin.</i><d
iv><i>Ureter courses retriperitoneally, close to the vessels. There is sinifica
nt risk of injury when liatin the vessels.<br /></i><div><im src="paste-69011
534512717.jp" /></div></div>
1405294268946 1395802358422 Which liament connects the cervix to the side w
all of the pelvis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cardinal liament}}</div> <br /><d
1405294404407 1395802358422 Which blood vessels are contained in the cardina
l liament?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Uterine vessels}}</div> <br /><div><i>Th
e ureter is at risk of injury durin liation of these vessels in hysterectomy.<
/i></div><div><i><im src="paste-69011534512717.jp" /></i></div>
1405294429111 1395802358422 Which liament connects the fundus of the uterus
to the labia majora?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Round liament of the uterus}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>Travels throuh the round inuinal canal above the artery
of Sampson.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-69011534512717.jp" /></i></div>
1405294536096 1395802358422 Which embryoloical structure ives rise to the
Roun Liament of the Uterus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gubernaculum}}</div>
1405294558776 1395802358422 Which liament connects the uterus, fallopian tu
bes and ovaries to the side wall of the pelvis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Broad
liament}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Composed of the <b>mesosalpinx, meso
metrium</b> and <b>mesovarium</b>.</i><br /><div><im src="paste-6901153451
2717.jp" /></div>
1405294595265 1395802358422 Which liament connects the medial pole of the o
vary to the lateral aspect of the uterus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ovarian Li
ament}}</div> <br /><div><im src="paste-69011534512717.jp" /></div>
1405296290287 1395802358422 Which embryoloical structure ives rise to the
Ovarian Liament?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gubernaculum}}</div>
1405296304736 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the vaina?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Non-keratinized</u> stratified squamous epith
elium}}</div>
1405296485791 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the <b>ecto<
/b>cervix?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Non-keratinized</u> stratified squ
amous epithelium}}</div>
1405296538021 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the <b>endo<
/b>cervix?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Simple columnar epithelium}}</div>
1405296571886 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the transfor
mation zone of the cervix?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Squamocolumnar junction}}<
/div>
1405296614121 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the uterus?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Simple columnar epithelium with lon tubular lands}}
</div>
1405296637205 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the fallopia
n tubes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Ciliated</u> simple columnar epithel
ium with <u style="font-weiht: bold; ">pe</u> cells}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Pe cells are secretory cells of the fallopian tube epithelium.</i></div>
1405296693483 1395802358422 What type of epithelium is found at the outer su

rface of the ovary?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Simple cuboidal epithelium (ermi
nal epithelium coverin surface of the ovary)}}</div>
1405296731800 1395802358422 What is the pathway of sperm durin ejaculation?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>StEVE</i>: Seminiferous tubules, epididymis, vas
deferens, ejaculatory ducts}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i><b>StEVE</b>: Semini
ferous tubules, epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory ducts</i><br /><div><im s
rc="paste-71554155151887.jp" /></div>
1405297977162 1395802358422 Which branch of the ANS yields male <b>erec
tion</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Parasympathetic}}</div>
<br /><div><i>vi
a the <b>Pelvic Nerve</b></i></div><div><i><b><im src="paste-72344429134007.jp
" /></b></i></div>
1405298093455 1395802358422 Which branch of the ANS causes male <b>emission<
/b> (followin erection)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sympathetic}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>via the <b>Hypoastric Nerve</b></i><br /><div><im src="pas
te-72348724101303.jp" /></div>
1405298122265 1395802358422 Which nerve causes male ejaculation?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Pudendal nerve}}</div>
1405298331021 1395802358422 {{c1::Sildenafil}} and {{c2::Vardenafil}} a
re drus that inhibits cGMP breakdown and hence are used as treatment for erecti
le dysfunction.
1405298370115 1395802358422 Which cellular sinallin pathway is associated
with male erection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<im src="paste-72344429134007.jp
" />}}</div>
1405302611405 1395802358422 Which hormone secreted by Sertoli cells function
s to <b>inhibit FSH</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibin}}</div>
1405302798883 1395802358422 {{c1::Androen-bindin protein}} is a protein se
creted by Sertoli cells that functions to maintain local levels of testosterone.
1405303192760 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes form the blood-testis
barrier?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Formed by tiht junctions between adjacent S
ertoli cells}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Functions to <b>isolate ametes from autoi
mmune attaack</b>.</i></div>
1405303258484 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes function to support an
d nourish developin spermatozoa?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sertoli cells}}</di
v>
1405303281590 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes function to reulate s
permatoenesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sertoli cells}}</div>
1405303309026 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes secrete Mullerian Inhi
bitin Factor (MIF)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sertoli cells}}</div>
1405303335104 1395802358422 How does an <b>increase</b> in temperature
affect sperm production and inhibin secretion via Sertoli cells?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Temperature increase is seen in va
ricocele and cryptorchidism.</i></div>
1405303386801 1395802358422 Which enzyme in Sertoli cells functions to conve
rt <b>testosterone</b> and <b>androstenedione</b> into <b>estroen</b>
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aromatase}}</div>
1405303837728 1395802358422 Which cells of the testes secrete testosterone?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Leydi cells}}</div>
1405303869121 1395802358422 How does an <b>increase</b> in temperature
affect testosterone production by Leydi cells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No ch
ane}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Temperature does not affect testosterone productio
n.</i></div>
1405303891116 1395802358422 Which form of estroen is made by the ovaries?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::17-beta-estradiol}}</div>
1405304208565 1395802358422 Which form of estroen is made by the placenta?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Estriol}}</div>
1405304217159 1395802358422 Which form of estroen is made by adipose tissue
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Estrone via aromatization}}</div>
1405304232174 1395802358422 What is the most potent form of Estroen?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Estradiol &t; estrone &t; estriol}}</div>
1405304250875 1395802358422 What is the weakest form of Estroen?<div><br />

</div><div>{{c1::Estriol}}</div>
1405304258214 1395802358422 How does estroen chane myometrial excitability
1405304279556 1395802358422 How does Estroen influence prolactin secretion?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405304311443 1395802358422 How does Estroen influence the production of st
eroid hormone-bindin lobulin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405304340167 1395802358422 How does estroen influence HDL levels?<div><br
1405304349989 1395802358422 How does estroen influence LDL levels?<div><br
1405304361684 1395802358422 {{c1::Estriol}} is a form of estroen that is us
ed as an indicator of fetal well-bein as it sees a 1000x fold increase in pren
ancy.
1405304418222 1395802358422 Which cells of the follicle/ovary secrete estro
en?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Granulosa cells}}</div> <br /><div><i>Estro<b>G<
/b>en = <b>G</b>ranulosa cells</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-74702366179656.j
p" /></i></div>
1405304460981 1395802358422 Which enzyme in Granulosa cells converts Androst
enedione into estroens?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aromatase}}</div>
1405304488996 1395802358422 Which enzyme in Theca cells converts Cholesterol
into Androstenedione?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Desmolase}}</div>
1405304513023 1395802358422 How does Proesterone influence myometrial excit
ability?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405306532541 1395802358422 {{c1::Proesterone}} is a hormone secreted by th
e corpus luteum and placenta that triers the production of thick cervical mucu
s which prevents sperm from enterin the uterus.
1405306573294 1395802358422 How does Proesterone influence body temperature
1405306585065 1395802358422 How does Proesterone influence onadotropin act
ivity (LH; FSH)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
1405306611080 1395802358422 How does proesterone influence uterine smooth m
uscle contraction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
1405306635834 1395802358422 How does proesterone influence endometrial hype
rplasia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
1405306662206 1395802358422 {{c1::Proesterone}} is a hormone secreted by th
e corpus luteum and placenta that functions to <b>maintain</b> prenancy.
<br /><div><i><b>Proest</b>erone is <b>pro-est</b>ation.</i></div>
1405306942418 1395802358422 Which Tanner stae of sexual development is asso
ciated with prepubescence?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I}}</div>
ciated with pubarche (appearance of pubic hair)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::II}}
</div>
ciated with thelarche (formation of the breast buds)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:II}}</div>
ciated with darkenin and curlin of the pubic hair?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
III}}</div>
ciated with increase in penis size and lenth?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::III}}<
/div>
ciated with breast enlarement?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::III}}</div>
ciated with thickenin of the penis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IV}}</div>
ciated with darkenin of the scrotal skin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IV}}</div>
ciated with development of the lans of the penis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IV

}}</div>
ciated with raised areolae?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IV}}</div>
ciated with flattenin of the areolae?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V}}</div>
ciated with adulthood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V}}</div>
1405307489694 1395802358422 How lon is the luteal (secretory) phase of mens
truation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::14 days}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Typically
stays constant.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-76038101009164.jp" /></i></div
>
1405307610329 1395802358422 How lon is the follicular (proliferative) phase
of the menstrual cycle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Variable}}</div>
<br /><d
1405307625608 1395802358422 Which sex hormone functions to <b>stimulate</b>&
nbsp;endometrial production?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Estroen}}</div>
1405307721201 1395802358422 Which sex hormone functions to <b>maintain </b>t
he endometrium and <b>support</b> implantation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Proesterone}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b>Proest</b>erone is <b>pro-est</b>atio
n.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-76033806041868.jp" /></i></div>
1405307755215 1395802358422 How does a <b>decrease</b> in proesterone
level influence fertility?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405307772807 1395802358422 {{c1::Oliomenorrhea}} is a disorder of the mens
trual cycle that is defined as a cycle <b>&t; 35 days</b>.
1405307805771 1395802358422 {{c1::Polymenorrhea}} is a disorder of the menst
rual cycle that is defined as a cycle <b>< 21 days</b>.
1405307830941 1395802358422 How many days in the menstrual cycle is dianost
ic of <b>oliomenorrhea</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::&t; 35 days}}</div>
1405307848047 1395802358422 How many days in the menstrual cycle is dianost
ic of <b>polymenorrhea</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::< 21 days}}</div>
1405307876268 1395802358422 {{c1::Metrorrhaia}} is a disorder of the menstr
ual cycle described as <b>intermenstrual bleedin</b> with <b>frequent</b>&
nbsp;but <b>irreular</b> menstruation.
1405308107900 1395802358422 {{c1::Menorrhaia}} is a disorder of the menstru
al cycle that is described as <b>heavy menstrual bleedin</b> of <b>&t; 80
mL</b> of blood loss or <b>&t; 7 days</b> of menses.
1405308155518 1395802358422 {{c1::Menometrorrhaia}} is a disorder of the me
nstrual cycle that is described as <b>heavy, irreular menstruation</b> at
<b>irreular</b> intervals.
1405308183516 1395802358422 A sure of which onadotropin is associated with
the trierin of ovulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LH}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><im src="paste-77008763617647.jp" /><br /><div><im src="paste-760338
06041868.jp" /></div>
1405308232216 1395802358422 In which phase of the cell cycle is meiosis I in
the primary oocyte arrested from fetal life to ovulation in puberty?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Prophase I}}</div>
1.jp" /></div>
1405308466267 1395802358422 In which phase of the cell cycle is meiosis II o
f the secondary oocyte arrested from ovulation to fertilization?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Metaphase II}}</div>
5.jp" /></div>
1405308504898 1395802358422 How does estroen influence the expression of Gn
RH receptors at the anterior pituitary?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><i>This enstroen sure then stimulates an LH sure, thereby
causin ovulation.</i></div>
1405308971628 1395802358422 {{c1::Mittelschmerz}} is a disorder of ovulation
that refers to the <b>transient mid-cycle ovulatory pain</b> that is class
ically associated with peritoneal irritation. <br /><div><i>Can mimic appendic
itis.</i></div>
1405309016332 1395802358422 What is the most common site of <b>fertilization
</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ampulla of the fallopian tube}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Typically within 1 day of ovulation.</i></div>
1405309250934 1395802358422 How many days after fertilization does implantat
ion occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::6 days}}</div>
1405309268791 1395802358422 Which fat soluble vitamin is required in infants
that are exclusively fed breastmilk?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin D}}</di
v>
1405309690517 1395802358422 How does breastfeedin influence the risk of mat
ernal breast and ovarian cancer?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405309721680 1395802358422 How does prolactin influence reproductive functi
on?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition}}</div>
1405309848672 1395802358422 {{c1::hCG}} is a hormone secreted by the placent
a/corpus that functions to maintain the corpus luteum <b>in the 1st trimester</b
> by actin like LH.
<br /><div><i>Otherwise there is a lack of lutea
l cell stimulation and abortion results.</i></div><div><i>In the 2nd and 3rd tri
mesters, the placenta synthesizes its own estriol and proesterone, resultin in
corpus luteum deeneration.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-78773995176237.jp
" /></i></div>
1405310008420 1395802358422 Which hormone is used to detect prenancy as it
appears early in the urine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::hCG}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i>hCG is detectable in the blood 1 week after conception and after 2 w
eeks in the urine.</i><br /><div><im src="paste-78769700208941.jp" /></div>
1405310145915 1395802358422 Which subunit of hCG is structurally identical t
o LH, FSH and TSH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::alpha}}</div>
1405310228997 1395802358422 Which subunit of hCG is unique and detected by p
renancy tests?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::beta}}</div>
1405310248554 1395802358422 What is the averae ae of onset of menopause?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::51}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Earlier in smokers.</i></d
iv>
1405310483913 1395802358422 {{c1::Menopause}} is a hormonal disorder seen in
women that is described as a <b>decline in estroen production due to ae-linke
d decline in the number of ovarian follicles</b>.
te-79925046411392.jp" /></div>
1405310520081 1395802358422 Which form of estroen is the predominant form i
n menopause?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Estrone}}</div> <br /><div><i>Formed by
peripheral conversion of androens.</i></div><div><i>Increased androens = hirsu
tism.</i></div>
1405310597503 1395802358422 How do FSH levels chane in menopause?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Sinificant increase}}</div> <br /><div><i>In fact, this incr
ease is specific for menopause as there is a <b>loss of neative feedback on FSH
due to a decrease in estroen</b>.</i></div>
1405310639116 1395802358422 How do LH levels chane in menopause?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405310656174 1395802358422 How do GnRH levels chane in menopause?<div><br
1405310702001 1395802358422 Before which ae does the onset of menopause lik
ely indicate Premature Ovarian Failure?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::40}}</div>
1405310903925 1395802358422 How lon does spermatoenesis take?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::2 months}}</div>
1405311234921 1395802358422 {{c1::Spermatozoa}} are <b>mature</b> sperm
that are able to fertilize an e.
<br /><div><i>Spermato<b>zoon</b> <
b>zoom</b> to es.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-80118319940200.jp" />
</i></div>
1405311299206 1395802358422 {{c1::Spermatoonia}} are sperm that have yet to
develop/mature.
<br /><div><i>Spermato<b>onia</b> are <b>oin</b>
to become mature.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-80114024972904.jp" /><
/i></div>
1405311332467 1395802358422 {{c1::Sper<u>mio</u>enesis}} is the process thr
ouh which spermatids lose their cytoplasmic contents, ain an acrosomal cap and
form mature spermatozoon.
></div>
1405311492528 1395802358422 {{c1::Androstenedione}} is an androen made prim
arily at the adrenals.
1405311773256 1395802358422 What is the most potent androen?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::DHT &t; testosterone &t; androstenedione}}</div>
1405311790316 1395802358422 What is the least potent androen?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Androstenedione}}</div>
1405311805452 1395802358422 Which androen is associated with the differenti
ation of the epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles and enitalia (except th
e prostate)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone}}</div>
1405311914276 1395802358422 Which androen is associated with the rowth spu
rt in the penis, sperm, muscle and RBCs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone
}}</div>
1405311936185 1395802358422 Which androen is associated with deepenin of t
he voice?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone}}</div>
1405311945912 1395802358422 Which androen is associated with closin of the
epiphyseal plates?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone (via estroen after
conversion)}}</div>
1405311972283 1395802358422 Which androen is associated with libido?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Testosterone}}</div>
1405311984727 1395802358422 Which androen is associated with <b>differentia
tion</b> of the penis, scrotum and prostate?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::DHT
}}</div>
1405312007606 1395802358422 Which androen is associated with prostate rowt
h?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::DHT}}</div>
1405312014465 1395802358422 Which androen is associated with baldin?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::DHT}}</div>
1405312018679 1395802358422 Which androen is associated with sebaceous lan
d activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::DHT}}</div>
1405312029602 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts testosterone to DHT?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::5-alpha-reductase}}</div>
1405312045717 1395802358422 {{c1::Finasteride}} is an anti-hormone aent tha
t inhibits 5-alpha-reductase.
1405312065213 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Finasteride?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhibition of 5-alpha-reductase}}</div>
1405312074789 1395802358422 Which enzyme functions to convert androens into
estroens in males?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aromatase}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Primarily in adipose tissue and the testes.</i></div>
1405312142668 1395802358422 How do exoenous testosterones influence the siz
e of testicles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Ex
oenous testosterone inhibits the hypothalamic-pituitary-onadal axis, thereby d
ecreased intratesticular testosterone and ultimately causin a reduction in both
testicular size and spermatoenesis.</i></div>
1397499844689 1395802358422 What structure arises from the embryonic cardiov
ascular structure called the Truncus Arteriosus (TA)?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Ascendin aorta; Pulmonary Trunk}}</div>
ascular structure called Bulbus Cordis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<b>Smooth par
ts</b> of the left and riht ventricle outflow tract}}</div>
ascular structure called the Primitive Atria?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tr
abeculated part of the left and riht atria}}</div>
ascular structure called the Primitive Ventricle?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Trabeculated part of the left and riht ventricles}}</div>
ascular structure called the Primitive Pulmonary Vein?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Smooth part of the left atrium}}</div>

ascular structure called the Left Horn of the Sinus Venosus (SV)?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Coronary Sinus}}</div>
ascular structure called the Riht Horn of the Sinus Venosus (SV)?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Smooth part of the riht atrium}}</div>
ascular structure called the Riht Common Cardinal Vein and Riht Anterior
Cardinal Vein?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Superior Vena Cava}}</div>
1397500214001 1395802358422 Which embryonic structures develop into the Supe
rior Vena Cava?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Riht Common Cardinal Vein; Riht Ant
erior Cardinal Vein}}</div>
1397500257288 1395802358422 Which embryonic structure develop into the
Ascendin Aorta and Pulmonary Trunk?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Truncus Arterios
us (TA)}}</div> <br /><div><i>The Truncus Arteriosus rotates as it forms.</i></d
iv><div><i>Neural crest and endocardial cells mirate to form the truncal and bu
lbar rides that then spiral and fuse to form the aorticopulmonary septum, there
by separatin the Truncus Arteriosus into the ascendin aorta and pulmonary trun
k.</i></div>
1397500280855 1395802358422 Which embryonic structure develop into the smoot
h parts of the left and riht ventricle outflow tract?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Bulbus Cordis}}</div>
1397500334274 1395802358422 Which embryonic structure develop into the trabe
culated part of the left and riht atria?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Primitive A
tria}}</div>
1397500349726 1395802358422 Which embryonic structure develop into the trabe
culated part of the left and riht ventricles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Primit
ive ventricles}}</div>
h part of the left atrium?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Primitive pulmonary vein}}
</div>
1397500376033 1395802358422 Which embryonic structure develop into the coron
ary sinus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Left Horn of the Sinus Venosus}}</div>
h part of the riht atrium?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Riht Horn of the sinus v
enosus}}</div>
1397500404921 1395802358422 What is the first functional oran to form in ve
rtebrate embryos?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The Heart <3}}</div>
1397500452777 1395802358422 Durin which week of development does the embryo
nic heart start beatin spontaneously?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Week 4}}</div>
1397500484902 1395802358422 Durin which week of development does heart morp
hoenesis bein?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Week 4}}</div>
1397500871839 1395802358422 {{c1::Dextrocardia}} is a conenital cardiac dis
order that is seen in Kartaener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia) due to a
defect in left-to-riht dynein movement.
<br /><div><i>Left-to-riht dyne
in movement is <b>vital</b> in establishin normal L/R asymmetry.</i></div>
1397500977132 1395802358422 {{c1::Kartaener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyski
nesia)}} is a enetic disorder that involves a defect in left-to-riht dynein mo
vement and can cause dextrocardia as normal L/R asymmetry cannot be achieved.
1397501128234 1395802358422 Which ciliary motor protein is defective in Kart
aener Syndrome (Primary Ciliary Dyskinesia)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dynein}
}</div>
1397501202614 1395802358422 {{c1::Cardiac Loopin}} is the first stae in he
art morphoenesis and involves the formation of primary heart tube loops that es
tablish left-riht polarity.
1397501307768 1395802358422 Which septum is the first septum to row in embr
yonic septation of the cardiac atria?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Septum Primum}}
</div> <br /><div><im src="paste-49237505081673.jp" /></div>
1397502055278 1395802358422 Which foramen develops first in embryonic septat
ion of the cardiac atria?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Foramen secundum}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Foramen primum <b>is already present before the septation beins</
b>.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-49233210114377.jp" /></i></div>
1397502201151 1395802358422 What is the direction of the blood shunt throuh
the Foramen Ovale <b>in utero</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Riht to Left}}</
div>
1397502250660 1395802358422 Which septum involved in embryonic septation of
the cardiac atria becomes the valve of the Foramen Ovale?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Septum Primum}}</div>
></div>
1397502342778 1395802358422 Which 2 embryonic septums fuse to form the (card
iac) Atrial Septum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Septum Primum and Septum Secundum
}}</div>
1397502380304 1395802358422 What normally triers the closure of the Forame
n Ovale soon after birth?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase in Left Atrial pre
ssure}}</div> <br /><div><i>Increase in LA pressure forces the Septum Primum u
p aainst the Foramen Ovale and Septum Secundum, drivin their fusion and closur
e of the Foramen Ovale.</i></div>
1397502442123 1395802358422 {{c1::Patent Foramen Ovale}} is a conenital hea
rt defect that is caused by the failure of the Septum Primum and Septum Secundum
to fuse after birth. <br /><div><i>Most are left untreated</i></div>
1397502662893 1395802358422 {{c1::Paradoxical Emboli}} are a possible compli
cation of a Patent Foramen Ovale and involve venous thromboemboli that enter the
systemic arterial circulation. <br /><div><i>Similar to those seen in Atrial Se
ptal Defects, but not as common.</i></div><div><i>The emboli are paradoxical as
it involves <b>venous</b> thrombi that enter <b>arterial</b> circulati
on. (i.e. an embolus from the riht enters the left side, as opposed to stayin
riht and causin a PE)</i></div>
1397502824683 1395802358422 Which septum forms first in embryonic septation
of the cardiac ventricles?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Muscular Ventricular Septu
m}}</div>
1397503023035 1395802358422 {{c1::Aorticopulmonary Septum}} is an embryonic
cardiac septum that rotates and fuses with the muscular ventricular septum, ther
eby formin the membranous interventricular septum.
te-51243254808873.jp" /></div>
1397503094534 1395802358422 {{c1::Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD)}} is a con
enital heart defect that commonly presents in the membranous ventricular septum
.
1397503265804 1395802358422 What type of shunt is seen throuh a Ventricular
Septal Defect (VSD)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Left to Riht}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Therefore the baby will be <b>acyanotic</b>.</i></div>
1397503290971 1395802358422 What embryonic structures are the Aortic and Pul
monary Valves derived from?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Endocardial cushions of t
he outflow tract}}</div>
1397503574165 1395802358422 What embryonic structures are the Mitral and Tri
cuspid valves derived from?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fused endocardial cushion
s of the Atrioventricular Canal}}</div>
1397503616937 1395802358422 {{c1::Ebstein Anomaly}} is a conenital heart de
fect that involves displacement of a tricuspid valve leaflet towards the apex of
the riht ventricle.
1397503695897 1395802358422 Where does fetal erythropoiesis occur in weeks 3
-8 of development?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Yolk Sac}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i><b>"Y</b>oun <b>L</b>iver <b>S</b>ynthesizes <b>B</b>lood" = <b>Y</b>olk Sa
c, <b>L</b>iver, <b>S</b>pleen, <b>B</b>one Marrow<br /></i><div><im src="paste
-52776558133426.jp" /></div>
1397503773883 1395802358422 When does the liver perform fetal erythropoiesis
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Week 6 of development to birth}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i><b>"Y</b>oun <b>L</b>iver <b>S</b>ynthesizes <b>B</b
>lood" = <b>Y</b>olk Sac, <b>L</b>iver, <b>S</b>pleen, <b>B<
/b>one Marrow</i><br /><div><im src="paste-52780853100722.jp" /></div>
1397503895621 1395802358422 When does the Yolk Sac perform fetal erythropoie
sis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Weeks 3-8 of development}}</div>

<div><br
1397503935722 1395802358422 When does the Spleen perform fetal erythropoiesi
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Weeks 10-28 of development}}</div>
<div><br
1397503973137 1395802358422 When does the Bone Marrow perform fetal erythrop
oiesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Week 18 of development to birth (and eventual
ly until death, lol)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i><b>"Y</b>oun <b>L</b>i
ver <b>S</b>ynthesizes <b>B</b>lood" = <b>Y</b>olk Sac, <b>L
</b>iver, <b>S</b>pleen, <b>B</b>one Marrow</i><br /><div><im src="pa
ste-52776558133426.jp" /></div>
1397504092472 1395802358422 What is the first oran/structure to perform fet
al erythropoiesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Yolk Sac}}</div> <br /><div><b><i
><im src="paste-54339926229171.jp" /></i></b></div>
1397504493761 1395802358422 Which lobin chains comprise Fetal Hemolobin (H
bF)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<sub>2</sub><sub>2</sub>}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-55568286876265.jp" /></div>
1397504679307 1395802358422 Which form of hemolobin involves <sub>2</su
b><sub>2</sub> lobin chains?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fetal Hemolobin}}<
1397504698984 1395802358422 Which lobin chains comprise Adult Hemolobin (H
bA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<sub>2</sub><su>2</su>}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-55563991908969.jpg" /></div>
1397504734677 1395802358422 Which type of hemogloin conists of&nsp;<sub>2</
sub><su>2</su>&nsp;gloin chains?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adult Hemogloin
(HA)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-55563991908969.jpg" /></div>
1397504751558 1395802358422 Which major form of hemogloin has higher affini
ty for oxygen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HF}}</div>
1397504783005 1395802358422 {{c1::Fetal Hemogloin (HF)}} is a major form o
f hemogloin that has a higher affinity for oxygen than Adult Hemogloin (HA) d
ue to less avid inding of 2,3-BPG.
<r /><div><i>As a result, HF can extra
ct oxygen at the placenta from the mother's adult hemogloin (HA).</i></div>
1397504931088 1395802358422 Which type of hemogloin is predominant at irth
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HF (alpha<su>2</su>-gamma<su>2</su>)}}</div>
1397505196717 1395802358422 How long after irth does the expression of&nsp
;-gloin exceed the expression of -lobin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::~6 months}}&
nbsp;</div>
<div><br /></div><i>This is why -Thalassemia is asymptomatic for
the first 6 months of life (and why HF is protective during that time).</i><r
/><div><img src="paste-55563991908969.jpg" /></div>
1397505242615 1395802358422 What is the O2 saturation of lood in the<>&ns
p;umilical arteries</>&nsp;of a fetus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, the Umilical Arteries carry lood away from the fetal h
eart <>to the placenta</>.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-57067230462728.jpg
" /></i></div>
1397507242543 1395802358422 What is the O2 saturation of lood in the <>um
ilical vein</>&nsp;of the fetus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::80%; it holds oxyg
enated lood coming in from the mother}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-57062
935495432.jpg" /></div>
1397507294913 1395802358422 {{c1::Ductus Venosus}} is a fetal shunt that all
ows for incoming lood in the Umilical Vein to ypass hepatic circulation and e
nter the IVC. <r /><div><img src="paste-57062935495432.jpg" /></div>
1397507387002 1395802358422 Which fetal shunt ypasses hepatic circulation t
o ensure that incoming oxygenated lood from the Umilical Vein is not depleted?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ductus Venosus}}</div>
te-57062935495432.jpg" /></div>
1397507424331 1395802358422 {{c1::Foramen Ovale}} is a fetal shunt that allo

ws for the highly oxygenated lood entering the Right Atrium (via the IVC) to en
ter the aorta and arterial circulation. <r /><div><img src="paste-5706293549543
2.jpg" /></div>
1397507512244 1395802358422 Which fetal shunt allows for highly oxygenated
lood in the Right Atrium to enter the aorta and arterial system?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Foramen Ovale}}</div>
2.jpg" /></div>
1397507565547 1395802358422 {{c1::Ductus Arteriosus}} is a fetal shunt that
allows deoxygenated lood in the Pulmonary Artery to ypass Pulmonary circulatio
n and enter the descending aorta.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, in a fetus, oxyg
enation of lood occurs at the placenta, not lungs. We do not want to flood the
lungs with lood and hinder its development either. Further, in utero the pulmon
ary circuit has high resistance, ensuring that the shunt through the DA is right
to left.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-57062935495432.jpg" /></i></div>
1397507753833 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in Prostaglandin
levels affect the Ductus Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased prost
aglandins causes closure of the Ductus Arteriosus}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
is occurs after irth once the placenta and ay have separated.</i></div>
1397507840172 1395802358422 {{c1::Fossa Ovalis}} is the structural remnant o
f the Foramen Ovale after it has closed and fused.
<r /><div><i>Rememer,
when the left side of the heart ecomes the high pressure circuit after irth (d
ue to respiration), the foramen ovale shuts as left atrial pressure greatly exce
eds right atrial pressure.</i></div>
1397508049964 1395802358422 Which NSAID is commonly used to help close a Pat
ent Ductus Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Indomethacin}}</div>
1397508179427 1395802358422 {{c1::Ligamentum Arteriosum}} is the structural
remnant of the Ductus Arteriosus after it has closed.
1397508211612 1395802358422 Which Prostaglandins keep a Patent Ductus Arteri
osus (PDA) open?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prostaglandin E<su>1</su>&nsp;and
E<su>2</su>}}</div>
1397508249548 1395802358422 {{c1::Prostaglandin E<su>1</su>/E<su>2</su>}
} is a type of Prostaglandin that keeps a Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA) open.
1397508282018 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Umilic
al Vein?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ligamentum teres hepatis; contained in the f
alciform ligament}}</div>
1397508662312 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Umilic
al Arteries?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medial Umilical ligaments}}</div>
1397508678162 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Ductus
Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ligamentum arteriosum}}</div>
1397508688319 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Ductus
Venosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ligamentum venosum}}</div>
1397508699885 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Foramen
Ovale?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fossa Ovalis}}</div>
1397508707283 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Allanto
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Urachus-median Umilical ligament}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The urachus is the part of the allantoic duct etween the ladder
and umilicus.</i></div>
1397508719639 1395802358422 What is the post-natal derivative of the Notocho
rd?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nucleus Pulposus of interverteral discs}}</div>
1397508829703 1395802358422 What is the post-natal remnant of the Urachus?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Median umilical ligament}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
e urachus is the part of the allantoic duct etween the ladder and umilicus</i
></div>
1397519579080 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the Sinoatrial (S
A) and Atrioventricular (AV) nodes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Coronary Ar
tery (RCA)}}</div>
1397519659874 1395802358422 Infarct of which coronary artery may result in <
>nodal dysfunction</>&nsp;(involving radycardia or heart lock)?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Right Coronary Artery}}</div> <img src="paste-61095909786218.j
pg" />
1397519761060 1395802358422 Which coronary artery does the Posterior Descend
ing/Interventricular Artery (PDA) arise from in a <>right-dominant circulation<
/>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Coronary Artery (RCA)}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Right-dominant circulation is found in 85% of people</i></div><div><img sr
c="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
ing/Interventricular Artery (PDA) arise from in a <>left-dominant circulation</
>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Circumflex Coronary Artery (LCX)}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Left dominant circulation is seen in 8% of people.</i><r />
ing/Interventricular Artery (PDA) arise from in <>codominant circulation</>?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Both the Left Cirumflex Coronary Artery (LCX) and Righ
t Coronary Artery (RCA)}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>Codominant circulation is se
en in 7% of people</i><r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397519987382 1395802358422 Which coronary artery is most commonly occluded?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Anterior Descending artery (LAD) or LCX}}</div>
1397520015196 1395802358422 In which phase of the cardiac cycle does coronar
y lood flow peak?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diastole}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520037353 1395802358422 What is the <>most posterior</>&nsp;chamer o
f the heart?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Atrium}}</div>
<r /><div><i>He
nce enlargment can cause dysphagia or hoarsness.</i></div><div><i><img src="past
e-61095909786218.jpg" /></i></div>
1397520083401 1395802358422 Enlargement of which chamer of the heart can ca
use dysphagia due to esophageal compression?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Atr
ium}}</div>
1397520120274 1395802358422 Enlargement of which chamer of the heart can ca
use <>hoarseness</>&nsp;due to compression of the <>left recurrent laryngeal
nerve</>&nsp;(a ranch of CN X)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Atrium}}</di
v>
1397520158888 1395802358422 Which nerve can the Left Atrium compress to caus
e <>hoarseness</>&nsp;if it is enlarged?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u style=
"font-weight: old; ">Left</u>&nsp;Recurrent Laryngeal Nerve (a ranch of CN X,
Vagus)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520211991 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the <>lateral an
d posterior walls</>&nsp;of the left ventricle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lef
t Circumflex Coronary Artery (LCX)}}</div>
909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520243527 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the <>anterior 2
/3 of the interventricular septum, anterior papillary muscle</>&nsp;and <>ant
erior surface of the left ventricle</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Anterio
r Descending Artery (LAD)}}</div>
8.jpg" /></div>
1397520285808 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the <>Right Vent
ricle</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Marginal Artery (a ranch of the Rig
ht Coronary Artery)}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /
></div>
1397520336211 1395802358422 Which coronary artery supplies the <>posterior
1/3 of the interventricular septum</>&nsp;and <>posterior walls of the ventri
cles</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Posterior Descending/Interventricular Arter
y (PDA)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-61095909786218.jpg" /></div>
1397520398738 1395802358422 What is the equation for Cardiac Output?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::CO = SV x HR}}</div>
1397521626811 1395802358422 What is the equation for Fick Principle of cardi
ac output?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CO = (rate of O<su>2</su>&nsp;consumpti
on)/(arterial O<su>2</su>&nsp;content - venous O<su>2</su>&nsp;content)}}<
/div>
1397521697545 1395802358422 What is the equation for Mean Arterial Pressure

(MAP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MAP = CO * TPR = 2/3 diastolic pressure + 1/3
systolic pressure}}</div>
1397521744639 1395802358422 What is the equation for Pulse Pressure?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Pulse Pressure = Systolic Pressure - Diastolic Pressure}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Pulse pressure is proportional to SV and inversely proport
ional to arterial compliance.</i></div>
1397521791515 1395802358422 What is the equation for Stroke Volume?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::SV = EDV - ESV}}</div>
1397522500630 1395802358422 Which parameters maintain Cardiac Output in the
<>early stages of exercise</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increases in oth HR
and SV}}</div>
1397522533980 1395802358422 Which parameters maintain Cardiac Output during
the <>late stages of exercise</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased HR only
; SV plateaus}}</div>
1397522567562 1395802358422 How does an increase in HR affect the length of
diastole?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Shortens it}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
erefore there is less filling time and decreased CO</i></div>
1397522606361 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in cardiac cont
ractility affect stroke volume (SV)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397523068921 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in cardiac prel
oad affect stroke volume (SV)?<div><r />{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397523091157 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in cardiac after
load affect stroke volume (SV)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397523108371 1395802358422 How do catecholamines affect cardiac contractili
ty?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase (via increased activity of Ca pump in th
e sarcoplasmic reticulum)}}</div>
1397523160188 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change when there
is an increase in intracellular Ca?<div><r />{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1397523332369 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change when there
is a increase in intracellular Na?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to decreased activity of the Na/Ca exchanger and hence increas
ed intracellular Ca</i></div>
1397523400092 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change in Digital
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><i>Digitalis involves
a <>lockade of the Na/K pump</>, therey causing <>increased intracellular
Na</>, <>decreased Na/Ca exchanger activity</>&nsp;and a susequent <>incre
ase in intracellular Ca</>.</i></div>
1397523466069 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change with&nsp;1
-lockade?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease; due to decreased cAMP}}</div>
1397523505614 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change&nsp;in Ac
idosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397523516983 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change&nsp;in Hy
poxia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397523529853 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change&nsp;in Hy
percapnea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><i>Hypercapne
a can cause acidosis that then can exacerate this decrease in cardiac output.</
i></div>
1397523555710 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change&nsp;with
the administration of <>non-dihydropyridine Ca channel lockers</>?<div><r />
1397523579652 1395802358422 Which aorticopulmonary valve normally closes fir
st?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic Valve}}</div>
1397524398388 1395802358422 Which cardiac disorder is associated with <>fix
ed splitting</>&nsp;of the S2 heart sound?<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-67761699029099.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atrial Septal Defect (
ASD)}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>There is a <>left to right shunt through
the ASD</>&nsp;which results in <>increased RA and RV volumes</>. As a resul
t, there is <>increased flow through the pulmonic valve</>&nsp;such that, reg
ardless of reath, the pulmonic valve closes later every time.</i></div>
1404876620972 1395802358422 {{c1::Preload}} is a cardiac output variale tha

t is approximated y ventricular EDV. <r /><div><i>Hence it is dependent on v
enous tone and circulating lood volume.</i></div>
1404877598633 1395802358422 How does the left ventricle compensate for an in
crease in afterload?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertrophy (increased wall thic
kness)}}</div>
1404877643246 1395802358422 How do vasodilators influence afterload?<div><r
<r /><div><i>This is ecause afterload
is approximated y MAP.</i></div>
1404877668690 1395802358422 What is the equation for cardiac Ejection Fracti
on?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-20186346291290.jpg" />}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Left ventricular EF is an index of ventricular contractility.</i><
/div><div><i>Normal EF is 55%.</i></div>
1404878227500 1395802358422 How does cardiac Ejection Fraction change in <>
systolic</>&nsp;heart failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404878250994 1395802358422 How does cardiac Ejection Fraction change in <>
diastolic</>&nsp;heart failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal; no change}}
</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-20182051323994.jpg" /></div>
1404925219925 1395802358422 How does the force of cardiac contraction change
with an increase in preload (ventricular EDV)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Incre
ase (when healthy)}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>This is referred to as Starl
ing's Law. With a higher EDV, the ventricle will contract more forcefully.</i><d
iv><i>This is attriuted to the nature of cardiac muscle fiers. With increased
EDV (i.e. more ventricular filling), the muscle fiers <>stretch into a more id
eal length for contraction</>. Essentially, as these fiers stretch, more actin
-myosin cross ridges are formed and the contraction is more forceful.<r /></i>
<div><img src="paste-472446403119.jpg" /></div></div>
1404925428299 1395802358422 How do catecholamines change cardiac contractili
ty?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404925493970 1395802358422 How does Digoxin change cardiac contractility?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1404925528061 1395802358422 How do eta-lockers change cardiac contractilit
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404925547535 1395802358422 How do Ca<sup>2+</sup>&nsp;channel lockers cha
nge cardiac contractility?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404925562427 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change in dilated
cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1404925576327 1395802358422 What is the equation for the Resistance of a ves
sel?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-880468295807.jpg" />}}</div>
1404925615581 1395802358422 What is the equation for the <>total resistance
</>&nsp;of vessels in <>series</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="past
e-914828034097.jpg" />}}</div>
1404925654230 1395802358422 What is the equation for the <>total resistance
</>&nsp;of vessels in <>parallel</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="pa
ste-957777707095.jpg" />}}</div>
1404925694380 1395802358422 How does lood viscosity change in Polycythemia?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Viscosity is depen
dent on hematocrit.</i></div>
1404926284709 1395802358422 How does lood viscosity change in anaemia?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><i>Viscosity is dependent on
anaemia.</i></div>
1404926304475 1395802358422 Which type of lood vessels account for most of
the TPR?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arterioles}}</div> <div><i><r /></i></div>
1404926345136 1395802358422 If cardiac output (CO) is 5 L/min, what is venou
s return?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5 L/min}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Don't fall
for this shiet on the step, ruv. Venous return = cardiac ouput (in healthy ind
ividuals).</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>"What goes in must come out!
" - Dr. Hashim Shams</i></div>
1404941821485 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in TPR affect v
enous return (and hence EDV/preload)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div

>
<div><r /></div><i>It also oviously increases afterload.</i><r /><div
1404941951950 1395802358422 How does a <>decrease</>&nsp;in TPR affect ve
nous return (and hence EDV/preload)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Afterload also clearly decreases.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste
-2413771620839.jpg" /></i></div>
1404942103315 1395802358422 {{c1::Isovolumetric contraction}} is a phase of
the cardiac cycle descried as the <>period etween the mitral valve closing an
d aortic valve opening</>.
</div>
1404943128013 1395802358422 Which cardiac cycle is the period of highest O<s
u>2</su>&nsp;consumption?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Isovolumetric contractio
n}}</div>
1404943608282 1395802358422 {{c1::Systolic Ejection}} is a phase of the card
iac cycle that is descried as the <>period etween aortic valve opening and cl
osing</>.
1404943716880 1395802358422 {{c1::Isovolumetric relaxation}} is a phase of t
he cardiac cycle that is descried as the <>period etween aortic valve closing
and mitral valve opening</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" />
</div>
1404943758272 1395802358422 {{c1::Rapid Ventricular Filling}} is a phase of
the cardiac cycle that is descried as the <>period just after mitral valve ope
ning</>.
1404943806531 1395802358422 {{c1::Reduced Ventricular Filling}} is a phase o
f the cardiac cycle descried as the <>period just efore mitral valve closing<
/>.
1404943835577 1395802358422 At which valve area is the S1 heart sound the lo
udest?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral}}</div>
1404944455858 1395802358422 Which heart sound is indicative of <>mitral</>
&nsp;and <>tricuspid</>&nsp;valve closure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S1}}</
div>
1404944493780 1395802358422 Which valves are associated with the S1 heart so
und?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral; Tricuspid}}</div>
1404944526361 1395802358422 Which anatomical location is the S2 heart sound
the loudest?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left sternal order}}</div>
1404944553569 1395802358422 Which heart sound is associated with closure of
the <>aortic</>&nsp;and <>pulmonary</>&nsp;valves?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::S2}}</div>
1404944618320 1395802358422 Which valves are associated with the S2 heart so
und?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic; Pulmonary}}</div>
1404944664489 1395802358422 Which pathological heart sound is associated wit
h an <>increase in filling pressure</>&nsp;or with <>dilated ventricles</>?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S3}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275
.jpg" /></div>
1404948067025 1395802358422 {{c1::S3}} is an <>extra</>&nsp;heart sound t
hat occurs in <>early diastole</>&nsp;due to an increase in ventricular filli
ng pressure or dilated ventricles.
<div><r /></div><i>S3 is normal in chil
dren and pregnant women.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></di
v>
h <>ventricular hypertrophy</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S4}}</div> <r /><d
h <>high atrial pressure</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S4}}</div>
<div><r
/></div><i>The left atrium must push against the stiff LV wall.</i><r /><div><
1404948983033 1395802358422 Which pathological heart sound occurs in <>late
</>diastole as an "atrial kick"?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S4}}</div>
1404949007050 1395802358422 Which pathological heart sound can occur due to

an increase in cardiac afterload?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S4}}</div> <r /><d
1404949021613 1395802358422 Which wave in the Jugular Venous Pulse (JVP) sig
nifies atrial contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::a wave}}</div><div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div> <div><r /></div>
1404949477569 1395802358422 Which wave in the JVP signifies right ventricula
r contraction against a closed tricuspid valve that ulges into the right atrium
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::c wave}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i><>c</>&nsp;wave = <>c</>ontra
ction</i></div>
1404949504592 1395802358422 Which portion of the JVP signifies <>atrial rel
axation</>&nsp;and <>downward displacement of the closed tricuspid valve</>&
nsp;during ventricular contraction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::x descent}}</div
><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i><>x</>&nsp;descent = rela<>x</>ation</i></div>
1404949599846 1395802358422 {{c1::Tricuspid regurgitation}} is valvular diso
rder that presents with an <>asent x-descent</>&nsp;in the patient's JVP.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404949637846 1395802358422 Which wave in the JVP is indicative of <>increa
sed right atrial pressure due to filling against a closed tricuspid valve</>?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::v wave}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-27
05829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404949688280 1395802358422 Which portion of the JVP signifies the movement
of lood from the RA to the RV?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::y descent}}</div><div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2705829397275.jpg" /></div>
1404949717044 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop do
es the mitral valve close?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div><div><r /></div>
te-7301444403914.jpg" /></div>
es the aortic valve open?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2}}</div><div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-6446745911736.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img src="paste-72971
49436618.jpg" /></div>
es the aortic valve close?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div><div><r /></div>
te-7297149436618.jpg" /></div>
es the mitral valve open?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div><div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-6446745911736.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img src="paste-72971
49436618.jpg" /></div>
1404950423846 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop is
ESV achieved?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3 (i.e. where the aortic valve closes)
}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6446745911736.jpg" /></div>
1404950489830 1395802358422 At which point along the pressure-volume loop is
EDV achieved?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1 (i.e. where the mitral valve closes)
}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6446745911736.jpg" /></div>
1404963378952 1395802358422 When is <>normal, physiological splitting</>&n
sp;of S2 heart sound seen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inspiration}}</div><div><
<r /><div><i>In
spiration = <>decreased</>&nsp;intrathoracic pressure = <>increased</>&nsp
;venous return to the RV = <>increased</>&nsp;RV stroke volume = <>increased
</>&nsp;RV ejection time = <>delayed closure of the pulmonic valve</>.</i></
div><div><i>Inspiration also causes a <>decrease in pulmonary impedance</>&ns
p;(i.e. <>increased capacity</>&nsp;of the pulmonary circulation), therey co
ntriuting to delayed closure of the pulmonic valve.</i></div>
1404964470241 1395802358422 Which cardiac conditions yield <>wide splitting
</>&nsp;of the S2 heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Any condition that <

>delays RV emptying</>&nsp;(e.g. pulmonic stenosis; right undle ranch lock
)}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9281424326799.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>The delay in RV emptying causes a delayed pulmonic sound <>regard
less of reath</>.</i></div><div><i><>Pathological S2 splitting is <u>always</
u>&nsp;seen, whereas physiological splitting is only seen upon inspiration.</>
</i></div>
1404964745013 1395802358422 Which cardiac disorder is associated with <>fix
ed splitting</>&nsp;of the S2 heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atrial S
eptal Defect}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9496172691600.jpg" /><
/div> <r /><div><i>ASD = left to right shunt = <>increased </>RA and RV vol
ume = <>increased</>&nsp;flow through the pulmonic valve such that there is a
<>fixed, great delay</>&nsp;in pulmonic valve closure regardless of reath.<
/i></div>
1404965202146 1395802358422 Which cardiac conditions cause <>paradoxical sp
litting </>of the S2 heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Conditions that de
lay LV emptying (i.e. aortic stenosis; left undle ranch lock)}}</div><div><r
<r /><div><i>No
rmally, <>the pulmonic valve closes after the aortic valve</>. However, <>wit
h delayed LV emptying, the pulmonic valve closes efore the aortic</>, therey
causing a paradoxical splitting of S2.</i></div>
1405006121635 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Aortic Stenosis est h
eard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-11347
303596676.jpg" /></div>
1405006199987 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Aortic Valve Sclerosis
est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006219375 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Pulmonic Stenosis est
heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonic}}</div>
te-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006241889 1395802358422 At which valvulvar area are <>pansystolic murmu
rs</>&nsp;(Tricuspid regurgitation; VSD) est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Tricuspid}}</div>
1405006294392 1395802358422 At which valvulvar area is Tricuspid Stenosis e
st heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tricuspid}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006313189 1395802358422 At which valvular area is an Atrial Septal Defec
t murmur est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tricuspid}}</div>
<r /><d
1405006459503 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Mitral Stenosis est h
eard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-11343
008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006497814 1395802358422 At which valvular area is Mitral Regurgitation
est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral}}</div>
te-11343008629380.jpg" /></div>
1405006504614 1395802358422 How does standing influence venous return?<div><
1405006551093 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>increase</>&nsp;
the intensity of right heart sounds?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inspiration}}</d
iv>
1405006610436 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>decrease</>&nsp;
the intensity of Aortic Stenosis and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy murmurs?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Hand Grip (as it increases systemic vascular resistance)}}<
/div>
the intensity of Mitral Regurgitation, Aortic Regurgitation and VSD murmurs?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hand grip (as it increases systemic vascular resistance)
}}</div>
1405006807344 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver <>decreases</>&nsp;the
intensity of most murmurs, including aortic stenosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Valsalva; Standing (decreased venous return)}}</div>

the intensity of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy murmurs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Valsalva; standing (due to decreased venous return)}}</div>
the intensity of Aortic Stenosis murmurs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rapid squat
ting}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rapid squatting increases venous return, increases
preload, and increases afterload with prolonged squatting.</i></div>
1405006988446 1395802358422 Which edside maneuver can <>decrease</>&nsp;
the murmur intensity in MVP and yield an earlier onset of the click/murmur?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Valsalva; Standing}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hand grip
and rapid squatting acheive the <>opposite </>when it comes to MVP.</i></div>
1405008293251 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral regurgitation}} and&nsp;{{c2::tric
uspid regurgitation}} are 2 <>systolic</>&nsp;murmurs that present as&nsp;<
>holosystolic, high-pitched "lowing" murmurs.</><div><><r /></></div><div><
><img src="paste-13520557047940.jpg" /></></div>
te-13666585936107.jpg" /></div>
1405008858520 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortic Stenosis}} is a <>systolic </>mur
mur that presents as a <>crescendo-decrescendo systolic ejection murmur</>.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13700945674382.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-13756780249289.jpg" /></div>
1405008917858 1395802358422 Which systolic ejection murmur radiates to the c
arotids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic Stenosis}}</div>
1405008939207 1395802358422 {{c1::Ventricular Septal Defect murmur}} is a <
>systolic</>&nsp;murmur that presents as a <>holosystolic, harsh-sounding mur
mur</>&nsp;that is loudest at the tricuspid area.<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-13812614824055.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Accentuated with the hand
grip maneuver due to an increase in afterload.</i></div>
1405009003166 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral Valve Prolapse (MVP)}} is a <>syst
olic</>&nsp;murmur that presents as a <>late systolic crescendo murmur with a
midsystolic click</>&nsp;due to sudden tensing of the chordae tendinae.<div><
<r /><div><img
/></div>
1405009318912 1395802358422 What is the most frequent valvular lesion?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral valve prolapse (FA14), AR (RR path), MR (UpToDate)}
1405009329101 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral valve prolapse}} is a valvular diso
rder with a systolic murmur that can predispose to infective endocarditis.
<div><r /></div><img src="paste-14620068675784.jpg" />
1405009641940 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortic regurgitation}} is a <>diastolic</
>&nsp;murmur that presents as a <>high-pitched "lowing" early diastolic decr
escendo murmur</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15161234555008.jpg" /><
1405017557412 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortic regurgitation}} is a <>diastolic</
>&nsp;murmur that can present with <>ounding pulses</>&nsp;and a <>head
o</>, especially when it is chronic. <r /><div><img src="paste-1526431377015
5.jpg" /></div>
1405017604985 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral stenosis}} is a <>diastolic</>&n
sp;murmur that presents as a <>delayed late diastolic rumle</>&nsp;following
an <>opening snap</>&nsp;due to an&nsp;<u>arupt halt in leaflet motion in
diastole after rapid opening due to fusion at the leaflet tips</u>.
<r /><d
1405017703276 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral stenosis}} is a diastolic murmur th
at often occurs secondary to Rheumatic Fever. <r /><div><img src="paste-15470
472200396.jpg" /></div>
1405017730194 1395802358422 Which cardiac disorder is associated with a <>c
ontinuous, machine-like murmur</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Patent Ductus Art
eriosus (PDA)}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15534896709802.jpg" /
></div> <r /><div><img src="paste-15590731284581.jpg" /></div>
1405017798322 1395802358422 Where on the ody is the continuous machine-like

murmur of PDA est heard?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left infraclavicular area}
1405017828588 1395802358422 In the ventricular action potential, which ion's
movement is responsile for the initial <>depolarization</>&nsp;of the memr
ane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Na<sup>+ </sup>influx&nsp;via voltage-gated Na<
sup>+</sup>&nsp;channels}}</div>
6.jpg" /></div>
1405018123521 1395802358422 In the ventricular action potential, which ion i
s responsile for the <>plateau phase</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ca<sup>2+
</sup>&nsp;influx via voltage-gated Ca<sup>2+</sup>&nsp;channels}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This Ca<sup>2+</sup>&nsp;influx <>alances the K<sup>+</sup>&ns
p;efflux that is happening at the same time</>.</i></div><div><i>This Ca<sup>2+
</sup>&nsp;influx also <>triggers the release of Ca<sup>2+</sup>&nsp;from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum</>&nsp;and hence induces myocyte contraction.</i></div
><div><i><img src="paste-15741055140520.jpg" /></i></div>
1405018432012 1395802358422 In the ventricular action potential, which ion i
s responsile for the <>rapid repolarization</>&nsp;of the memrane?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::K<sup>+</sup>&nsp;efflux via <u style="font-weight: old; ">
slow</u>&nsp;voltage-gated K<sup>+</sup>&nsp;channels}}</div> <r /><div><i>Cl
osure of the Ca<sup>2+</sup>&nsp;"plateau" channels also allows for this to occ
ur.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-15741055140520.jpg" /></i></div>
1405018532728 1395802358422 In the pacemaker action potential, which ion is
responsile for the <>upstroke/depolarization</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C
a<sup>2+</sup>&nsp;influx via voltage-gated Ca<sup>2+</sup>&nsp;channels}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, <>ecause of the less negative resting potentia
l of pacemaker cells, fast voltage-gated Na<sup>+</sup>&nsp;channels are perman
ently inactivated</>. Hence, there is a slow conduction velocity used y the AV
node to prolong transmission from the atria to the ventricles.</i></div><div><i
1405019193147 1395802358422 In the pacemaker potential, which ion is reponsi
le for the <>repolarization</>&nsp;of the memrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::K<sup>+</sup>&nsp;efflux}}</div>
7.jpg" /></div>
1405020341344 1395802358422 In the pacemaker potential, which ions are respo
nsile for the <>slow diastolic depolarization to threshold</>?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Slow Na<sup>+</sup>&nsp;movement via the <>I<su>f</su>&nsp;ach
annels </>(funny current)}}</div>
7.jpg" /></div>
1405021287387 1395802358422 The {{c1::funny current (I<su>f</su>)}} is an
ion current in pacemaker cells that causes <>spontaneous depolarization</>&ns
p;of the memrane potential as Na<sup>+</sup>&nsp;conductance slowly increases.
<div><r /></div><i>This is what accounts for the automaticity of SA and AV node
s.</i><div><i>The slope of this current (phase 4) determines the HR.<r /></i><d
iv><img src="paste-16548508991867.jpg" /></div></div>
1405021385149 1395802358422 How does ACh change the rate of diastolic depola
rization via the I<su>f</su>&nsp;current in pacemaker cells?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Decreases}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16548508991867
.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Hence it slows HR.</i></div>
1405021430594 1395802358422 How does Adenosine change the rate of diastolic
depolarization via the I<su>f</su>&nsp;current in pacemaker cells?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Decreases}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16548508
991867.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Hence it decreases HR.</i></div>
1405021441541 1395802358422 How docatecholamines change the rate of diastoli
c depolarization via the I<su>f</su>&nsp;current in pacemaker cells?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1654850
8991867.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Hence they increase HR.</i></div>
1405021523239 1395802358422 Which cardiac conduction fiers have the fastest
speed of conduction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Purkinje > atria > ventri
cles > AV node}}</div>
></div>
1405022185863 1395802358422 How long is the normal atrioventricular delay at
the AV node?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::100 msec}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Al
lows for ventricular filling.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-18382460027666.jp
g" /></i></div>
1405022245303 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the P-wave o
n an ECG signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atrial depolarization}}</div><div><
<r /><div><i>At
rial repolarization is masked y the QRS complex (ventricular depolarization).</
i></div>
1405022749048 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the PR inter
val signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AV conduction delay}}</div><div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Normally &
lt; 200 msec</i></div>
1405022784549 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the QRS comp
lex signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular depolarization}}</div><div><
<r /><div><i>No
rmally < 120 msec</i></div>
1405022810889 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the QT inter
val signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular contraction}}</div><div><r
1405022834435 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the T-wave s
ignify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular repolarization}}</div><div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>T-wave inv
ersion may e indicative of MI.</i></div>
1405022890358 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the ST segme
nt signify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Isoelectricity; ventricles are entirely d
epolarized}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></
div>
1405022928593 1395802358422 Which electrical cardiac event does the U wave s
ignify?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Indicated <u>hypokalemia</u>&nsp;or <u>rady
cardia</u>}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18537078850200.jpg" /></
div>
1405022998783 1395802358422 {{c1::Torsades de Pointes}} is an electro-cardio
vascular disorder characterized y <>polymorphic ventricular tachycardia</>&n
sp;and a <>shifting sinusoidal waveform on ECG</>.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-20044612370575.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Can progress to V-fi.</i>
</div><div><i>Caused y drugs, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia and other anormaliti
es.</i></div>
1405023694011 1395802358422 Prolongation of which ECG interval can predispos
e to Torsades de Pointes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::QT}}</div>
1405023715839 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Torsades de Pointes?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Magnesium Sulfate}}</div>
1405024012834 1395802358422 Which class of antiiotics can prolong the QT in
terval?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Macrolides}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-20817706484036.jpg" /></div>
1405024179018 1395802358422 Which type of antiviral drugs are known to prolo
ng the QT interval?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Protease inhiitors (-navir)}}</d
iv>
1405024200357 1395802358422 Which type of diuretics are known to prolong the
QT interval?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thiazides}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-20813411516740.jpg" /></div>
1405024222702 1395802358422 Which antipsychotic is known to prolong the QT i
nterval?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Risperidone}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-20813411516740.jpg" /></div>
1405024239952 1395802358422 {{c1::Congenital Long QT syndrome}} is an inheri
ted electrical cardiac disorder that presents with <>defective myocardial repol
arization</>&nsp;and <>prolonged QT syndrome</>&nsp;due to ion channel defe
cts.
<r /><div><i>Increased risk of sudden cardiac death due to Torsades de
pointes.</i></div>
1405024336557 1395802358422 {{c1::Romano-Ward Syndrome}} is a type of congen

ital long QT syndrome that is <>autosomal dominant</>&nsp;and involves a <>p
urely cardiac phenotype</>.
<r /><div><i>i.e. no other systems are affected
</i></div>
1405024375011 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Romano-Ward S
yndrome (congenital long QT syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal domi
nant}}</div>
1405024396425 1395802358422 {{c1::Jervell and Lange-Nielsen Syndrome}} is a
type of congenital long QT syndrome that is <>autosomal recessive</>&nsp;and
presents with <>sensorineural deafness</>&nsp;in addition to cardiac defects.
<r /><div><i>Versus Romano-Ward syndrome which is autosomal dominant and purely
cardiac.</i></div>
1405024453349 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Jervell and L
ange-Nielsen Syndrome (congenital long QT syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Autosomal recessive}}</div>
1405024673609 1395802358422 What is the most common type of ventricular preexcitation syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome}}
</div> <r /><div><i>This straight up sounds like the name of a law firm.</i></
div>
1405024722375 1395802358422 {{c1::Wolff-Parksinson-White Syndrome}} is a ven
tricular pre-excitation syndrome that involves <>anormally fast accessory cond
uction </><u style="font-weight: old; ">from the atria to the ventricles</u>&n
sp;via an accessory pathway called the <>Bundle of Kent</>. <r /><div><i>Th
e Bundle of Kent ypasses the AV node and allows the ventricles to depolarize so
oner.</i></div>
1405024797460 1395802358422 {{c1::Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome}} is a vent
ricular pre-excitation syndrome that involves the presence of the <>Bundle of K
ent</>&nsp;which ypasses the rate-slowing AV node, therey yielding a charact
eristic <>delta wave</>&nsp;and <>shortened PR interval</>&nsp;on ECG.<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22033182228924.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Ca
n also involves a re-entry circuit and hence <>supraventricular tachycardia</>
.</i></div>
1405025544274 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrial Firillation}} is a pathological EC
G tracing that involves a <>chaotic</>&nsp;and <>erratic assline</>&nsp;w
ith <>no discrete P waves </>etween <>irregularly spaced QRS complexes</>.<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22269405429968.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Involves irregularly irregular rhythm.</i></div><div><i>Can result in atri
al stasis and lead to thromoemolic stroke.</i></div><div><i>Treatment includes
rate control, anticoagulation and possile pharmacological/electrical cardiover
sion.</i></div>
1405025652000 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrial flutter}} is a pathological ECG tra
ce that involves a <>rapid succession of identical, ack-to-ack atrial depolar
ization waves</>&nsp;that appear as <>"sawtooth"</>&nsp;waves.<div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-22501333663916.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Pharmacolo
gical conversion to sinus rhythm via <>Class IA, IC or III antiarrhythmics</>.
</i></div><div><i>Rate control via <>eta-lockade, Ca-channel lockade.</></i
></div><div><i>Definitive treatment via <>catheter alation</>.</i></div>
1405025801262 1395802358422 What is the <>definitive</>&nsp;treatment for
Atrial Flutter?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Catheter alation}}</div><div><r />
1405025823766 1395802358422 {{c1::Ventricular firillation}} is a pathologic
al ECG tracing that presents with a <>completely erratic rhythm with no identif
iale waves</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22776211570866.jpg" /></di
v>
<r /><div><i>Often results in fatal arrhythmia without immediate CPR an
d defirillation.</i></div>
1405026911131 1395802358422 {{c1::1st Degree AV lock}} is a type of AV loc
k that presents with a <>PR interval > 200 msec</>&nsp;ut is otherwise e
nign and asymptomatic.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22819161243897.jpg"
/></div>
<r /><div><i>No treatment is required.</i></div>
1405026985814 1395802358422 {{c1::Moitz Type I (Wenckeach) AV lock}} is a
type of 2nd degree AV lock that involves <>progressive lengthening of the PR

interval until a dropped hearteat</>&nsp;(i.e. until a P wave is not followed
y a QRS complex).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23033909608673.jpg" /><
/div> <r /><div><i>Usually asymptomatic.</i></div>
1405027063668 1395802358422 {{c1::Moitz Type II AV Block}} is a type of 2nd
degree AV lock that presents with <>dropped hearteats that are not preceded
y a change in PR interval length</>.<div><><img src="CV
.png" /></></div>
<r /><div><i>This is different that Moitz Type I (Wenc
keach) which involves <>progressive elongation of the PR interval</>.</i></di
v><div><i>Often found as a 2:1 lock (2 p-waves to 1 QRS complex).</i></div><div
><i>May progress to 3rd-degree lock.</i></div><div><i>Often treated with pacema
ker.</i></div>
1405027197277 1395802358422 {{c1::3rd degree AV Block}} is a type of AV loc
k that involves the <>atria and ventricles eating <u>independently</u>&nsp;of
each other</>&nsp;(i.e. oth P-waves and QRS complexes appear at their oth s
eparate rhythms).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23368917057839.jpg" /></d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Atrial rate is faster.</i></div><div><i>Treated with pacem
aker.</i></div>
1405027723945 1395802358422 Which infectious disease is known to e associat
ed with 3rd-degree AV lock?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lyme Disease}}</div>
1405027746160 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)}} is a ho
rmone released from <>atrial myocytes</>&nsp;in response to increased lood v
olume and atrial pressure.
1405027804261 1395802358422 What is the function of Atrial Natriuretic Pepti
de (ANP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vasodilation; Decreased Na<sup>+</sup>&nsp
;reasorption at the collecting duct; Constriction of <u>efferent</u>&nsp;renal
arterioles and dilation of <u>afferent</u>&nsp;arterioles via cGMP, therey pr
omoting diuresis}}</div>
1405028963553 1395802358422 {{c1::B-type (Brain) Natriuretic Peptide}} is a
hormone released y <>ventricular myocytes</>&nsp;in response to <>increased
tension</>&nsp;that acts similarly to ANP.
1405029000553 1395802358422 Where is B-type (Brain) Natriuretic Peptide (BNP
) released from?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular myocytes}}</div>
1405029025994 1395802358422 {{c1::Nesiritide}} is a recominant form of <>B
-type (rain) Natriuretic Peptide (BNP)</>&nsp;that can e used to treat heart
failure.
1405029064629 1395802358422 Through which cranial nerve do aortic arch aror
eceptors/chemoreceptors transmit their signals to the solitary nucleus of the me
dulla?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN X (Vagus)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-23940147708618.jpg" /></div>
1405029530782 1395802358422 Which nucleus in the medulla receives signals fr
om aortic arch aro-/chemoreceptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Solitary nucleus
}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Responds <>only to increases in BP</>.</i></div>
<div><i><img src="paste-23935852741322.jpg" /></i></div>
1405029587074 1395802358422 Through which cranial nerve does the Carotid Sin
us transmit its signals to the solitary nucleus of the medulla?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::CN IX (Glossopharyngeal)}}</div>
852741322.jpg" /></div>
1405029629147 1395802358422 How does <>increased</> lood vessel stretchin
g influence cardiovascular aroreceptor afferent firing?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Increased stretch = <u>increased afferent firing</u>&nsp;and eventually a d
ecreased HR}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23935852741322.jpg" /><
/div> <img src="paste-24245090386362.jpg" />
1405030537046 1395802358422 How does a carotid massage influence HR?<div><r
6.jpg" /></div>
1405030557352 1395802358422 {{c1::Cushing reaction}} is a cardiovascular phe
nomenon due to <>increased intracranial pressure</>&nsp;that presents with a
triad of <>hypertension, radycardia,</>&nsp;and <>respiratory depression</
>.
1405030654784 1395802358422 Where are peripheral cardiovascular chemorecepto
rs found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic arch; Carotid ody}}</div> <r /><d
1405030983328 1395802358422 Which level of oxygen stimulates peripheral card
iovascular chemoreceptors?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Decreased</>&nsp;P<su
>O2</su>&nsp;< 60 mmHg}}</div>
1405031031193 1395802358422 How does a decrease in pH influence peripheral c
ardiovascular chemoreceptor activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</d
iv>
1405031052317 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in P<su>CO2</s
u>&nsp;influence peripheral cardiovascular chemoreceptor activity?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Activation}}</div>
1405031080882 1395802358422 Which type of cardiovascular chemoreceptors <>d
o not</>&nsp;respond to P<su>O2</su>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Central}}</
div>
<r /><div><i>They respond to changes in pH and P<su>CO2</su>&nsp;in
the rain interstitial fluid which are in turn affected y arterial CO<su>2</su
>.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-24704651886855.jpg" /></i></div>
1405031168384 1395802358422 Which organ has the largest lood flow?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Lungs}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Receives 100% of cardiac o
utput.</i></div>
1405031201104 1395802358422 What is the normal Right Atrial pressure?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::< 5 mmHg}}</div>
256265557.jpg" /></div>
1405031233845 1395802358422 What is the normal Right Ventricular pressure?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::25/5 mmHg}}</div>
551232853.jpg" /></div>
1405031267127 1395802358422 What is the normal pressure in the pulmonary tru
nk?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::25/10 mmHg}}</div>
te-24786256265557.jpg" /></div>
1405031294209 1395802358422 What is the normal Left Atrial pressure (PCWP)?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::< 12 mmHg}}</div> <div><r /></div><i>In mitral st
enosis, PCWP (i.e. LAP) > LV diastolic pressure.<r /></i><div><img src="past
e-24786256265557.jpg" /></div>
1405031308858 1395802358422 What is the normal Left Ventricular pressure?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::130/10 mmHg}}</div>
256265557.jpg" /></div>
1405031322755 1395802358422 What is the normal aortic arch pressure?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::130/90 mmHg}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2478625626555
7.jpg" /></div>
1405031345701 1395802358422 {{c1::Pulmonary Capillary Wedge Pressure (PCWP)}
} is a wedge pressure measured with a <>pulmonary artery catheter</>&nsp;(Swa
n-Ganz catheter)&nsp;that is used as an approximation of left atrial pressure.
<r /><div><i>Normal PCWP < 12 mmHg.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-2478625
6265557.jpg" /></i></div>
1405031516368 1395802358422 How does hypoxia affect pulmonary vasculature?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Causes <>vasoconstriction</>}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>This is something unique to the lungs where <>hypoxia causes vasoconstrio
n</>&nsp;such that only well-ventilated areas are perfused. <>In all other ti
ssues, hypoxia causes vasodilation</>.</i></div>
1405031739737 1395802358422 Which Starling forces work to move<> fluid out
of the capillary</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::P<su>c</su>&nsp;(capillary h
ydrostatic pressure); <sub>i</sub>&nbs;(interstitial colloid osmotic ressure)}}
</div> <br /><div><i><sub>i</sub>&nbs;normally equals 0.</i></div><div><i><img
src="aste-27157078212835.jg" /></i></div>
1405031835817 1395802358422 Which Starling forces work to move <b>fluid into
the caillary</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::P<sub>i</sub>&nbs;(interstitial
hydrostatic ressure); <sub>c </sub>(caillary colloid osmotic ressure)}}</div>
1405031909875 1395802358422 What is the equation for <b>Net</b>&nbs;Filtrat
ion Pressure at a caillary bed?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::P<sub>net</sub>&nbs

;= [(P<sub>c</sub>&nbs;- P<sub>i</sub>) - (<sub>c</sub>&nbs;- <sub>i</sub>)]}}</
div>
1405031981615 1395802358422 What is the equation for the <b>Net </b>Fluid Fl
ow in caillary fluid filtration?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::J<sub>v</sub>&nbs;
= K<sub>f</sub>&nbs;* P<sub>net</sub>}}</div>
1405033591552 1395802358422 Which Starling force changes in heart failure to
cause edema?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increased P<sub>c</sub>}}</div>
1405033619467 1395802358422 Which Starling force changes in nehrotic syndro
me to cause edema?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased <sub>c</sub>}}</div>
1405033640958 1395802358422 Which Starling force changes in liver failure to
cause edema?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased <sub>c</sub>}}</div>
1405033663937 1395802358422 Which Starling force changes in lymhatic blocka
ge to cause edema?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increased <sub>i</sub>}}</div>
1423727697176 1369615657128 Which cerebral blood vessels are commonly affect
ed by thrombotic stroke?<br />{{c1::Carotic bifurcation, the origin of the middl
e cerebral artery, and at either end of the basilar artery}}
"Source: Robbins
basic athology 9th ed. 816
GI tract <b>from the harynx to the duodenum</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::For
egut}}</div>
GI tract <b>from the duodenum to the roximal 2/3 of the transverse colon</b>?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Midgut}}</div>
GI tract <b>from the distal 1/3 of the colon to the anal canal <u>above the ect
inate line</u>?</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div>{{c1::Hindgut}}</div>
1405566320891 1395802358422 Which abdominal wall fold is associated with <b>
sternal defects</b>&nbs;if it fails to close?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rostra
l fold}}</div>
omhalocele</b>&nbs;and <b>gastroschisis</b>&nbs;if it fails to close?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Lateral fold}}</div>
bladder exstrohy</b>&nbs;if it fails to close?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Caud
al fold}}</div>
1405566528943 1395802358422 Which chromosomal trisomy is associated with duo
denal atresia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Trisomy 21}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Oc
curs due to a failure of the duodenum to recanalize.</i></div>
1405566586051 1395802358422 During which week of gestation does the midgut h
erniate through the umbilical ring?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::6th week}}</div>
1405566635415 1395802358422 During which week of gestation does the midgut <
b>return</b>&nbs;into the abdominal cavity<b>&nbs;</b>and <b>rotate</b>&nbs;a
round the suerior mesenteric artery (SMA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::10th week
}}</div>
1405566669366 1395802358422 {{c1::Gastroschisis}} is a congenital GI disorde
r that involves <b>extrusion of the abdominal contents through the lateral abdom
inal folds</b>. <br /><div><i>The contents <b>are not covered by eritoneum</b>.
</i></div>
1405566805616 1395802358422 {{c1::Omhalocele}} is a congenital GI disorder
that involves the <b>ersistence of herniation of abdominal contents into the um
bilical cord.</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b><img src="aste-27492085662009.
jg" /></b></div>
<br /><div><i>The contents are <b>sealed by eritoneum</
b>.</i></div>
1405566984163 1395802358422 What is the most common tracheoesohageal anomal
y?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Esohageal atresia with distal tracheoesohageal f
istula}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Presents with <b>drooling, choking and vomit
ing with the first feeding</b>.</i><div><i>Presence of a TEF will allow for <b>a
ir to enter the stomach</b>, which is noticeable on chest x-ray.<br /></i><div><
img src="aste-27504970564040.jg" /></div></div>
1405567161887 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyanosis}} is a feature of congenital tran
cheoesohageal anomalies that occurs <b>secondary to laryngosasm</b>&nbs;which
occurs to avoid reflux-related asiration.
1405567207195 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyloric Stenosis}} is a congenital GI diso
rder that involves <b>hyertrohy of the ylorus</b>, thereby causing obstructio
n and a <b>alable "olive" mass</b>&nbs;in the <b>eigastric region</b>.
1405567259392 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyloric Stenosis}} is a congenital GI diso
rder due to hyertrohy of the ylorus that resents with <b><u>nonbilious</u>&n
bs;rojectile vomit</b>&nbs;at ~2-6 weeks old.
<br /><div><i>Occurs in
1/600 live births.</i></div>
1405567307738 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected by Congenita
l Pyloric Stenosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Males}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Se
en in 1/600 live births.</i></div>
1405567329764 1395802358422 Which embryological structure gives rise to the
ancreas?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Foregut}}</div>
1405567368628 1395802358422 Which embryological ancreatic buds contribute t
o the <b>head of the ancreas</b>&nbs;and the <b>main ancreatic duct</b>?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Ventral ancreatic buds}}</div> <br /><div><img src="as
te-28140625723863.jg" /></div>
1405567410884 1395802358422 Which embryological ancreatic buds contribute t
o the <b>uncinate rocess</b>&nbs;of the ancreas?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V
entral bud}}</div>
1405567431621 1395802358422 Which embryological ancreatic bud contributes t
o the <b>body, tail and isthmus of the ancreas</b>&nbs;and <b>accessory ancre
atic ducts</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dorsal bud}}</div>
1405567474558 1395802358422 {{c1::Annular Pancreas}} is a congenital GI diso
rder that involves a <b>ring of ancreatic tissue around the duodenum</b>&nbs;d
ue to abnormal develoment of the <b>ventral ancreatic bud</b>.
<div><br
/></div><div><i>This can cause <b>duodenal narrowing</b>.</i></div><i>Normally,
the ventral ancreatic bud goes entirely one way around the duodenum to form th
e head of the ancreas. Sometimes it can slit, forming a <b>ring</b>.</i><br />
<div><img src="aste-28136330756567.jg" /></div>
1405567570204 1395802358422 {{c1::Pancreas divisum}} is a congenital GI diso
rder that involves <b>failure of the ventral and dorsal ancreatic buds to fuse
at 8 weeks</b>.
1405567605170 1395802358422 Which embryological tissue layer gives rise to t
he sleen?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mesoderm}}</div> <br /><div><i>The sleen
arises in the mesentary of the stomach but <b>it is sulied by the foregut</b>
&nbs;(i.e. the <b>celiac artery</b>).</i></div>
1405568459179 1395802358422 Which arts of the duodenum are <b>retroeritone
al</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd-4th}}</div>
te-28647431864744.jg" /></div><div><img src="aste-28660316766626.jg" /></div>
1405568732703 1395802358422 Which arts of the ancreas are <b>retroeritone
al</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::All arts excet the tail}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><div><img src="aste-28647431864744.jg" /></div><div><img src="aste-2866031
6766626.jg" /></div></div>
1405568756078 1395802358422 Which arts of the colon are <b>retroeritoneal<
/b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ascending and descending}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><div><img src="aste-28647431864744.jg" /></div><div><img src="aste-2866031
6766626.jg" /></div></div>
1405568775293 1395802358422 Which ortion of the esohagus is retroeritonea
l?<div><br />{{c1::Lower 2/3}}</div>
<br /><div><div><img src="aste-28647431
864744.jg" /></div><div><img src="aste-28660316766626.jg" /></div></div>
1405568828366 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::falciform ligament}} is a GI liga
ment that connects the <b>liver to the anterior abdominal wall.</b>
<br /><d
1405569029658 1395802358422 What structure is contained within the Falciform
ligament?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ligamentum teres heatis}}</div> <br /><d

iv><i>Which develos from the fetal umbilical vein.</i></div>
1405569069698 1395802358422 The {{c1::heatoduodenal ligament}} is a GI liga
ment that connects the <b>liver to the duodenum</b>.
te-28866475197079.jg" /></div>
1405569095842 1395802358422 What structure is contained within the Heatoduo
denal Ligament?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Portal Triad}}</div> <br /><div><i>Po
rtal vein; Proer heatic artery; Common bile duct.</i></div><div><i><img src="
aste-28866475197079.jg" /></i></div>
1405569142852 1395802358422 What structures make u the ortal triad?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Proer heatic artery; Portal vein; Common bile duct}}</div
>
1405569161801 1395802358422 {{c1::Pringle maneuver}} is a surgical maneuver
that involves <b>comression of the heatoduodenal ligament between the thumb an
d index finger to control bleeding</b>. <br /><div><img src="aste-2886647519707
9.jg" /></div>
1405569229890 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::gastroheatic ligament}} is a GI
ligament that connects the <b>liver to the lesser curvature of the stomach</b>.
1405569258433 1395802358422 What structure is contained in the Gastroheatic
Ligament?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gastric arteries}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="aste-28866475197079.jg" /></div>
1405569284058 1395802358422 Which GI ligament searates the greater and less
er abdominal sacs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gastroheatic ligament}}</div>
<br /><div><i>It may be cut during surgery to access the lesser sac.</i></div><d
iv><i><img src="aste-28866475197079.jg" /></i></div>
1405569323370 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::Gastrocolic ligament}} is a GI li
gament that connects the <b>greater curvature of the stomach to the transverse c
olon</b>.
1405569351262 1395802358422 What structure is contained in the Gastrocolic L
igament?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gastroeiloic arteries}}</div>
1405569368989 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::gastroslenic ligament}} is a GI
ligament that connects the <b>greater curvature of the stomach to the sleen</b>
.
1405569398462 1395802358422 What structures are found in the Gastroslenic l
igament?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Short Gastric vessels; Left Gastroeiloic v
essels}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-28866475197079.jg" /></div>
1405569430873 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::Slenorenal ligament}} is a GI li
gament that connects the <b>sleen to the anterior surface of the left kidney</b
>, extending to the osterior abdominal wall. <br /><div><img src="aste-28866
475197079.jg" /></div>
1405569468351 1395802358422 What structures are found in the Slenorenal lig
ament?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Slenic artery; Slenic vein; Tail of the anc
reas}}</div>
1405569494312 1395802358422 In which layer of the GI wall is the <b>Meissner
<br /><d
lexus</b>&nbs;found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Submucosa}}</div>
iv><i>i.e. Submucosal lexus</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-29978871726822.jg
" /></i></div>
1405569901022 1395802358422 In which layer of the GI wall is the <b>Myenteri
c/Auerbach lexus</b>&nbs;found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Muscularis externa}
1405569926798 1395802358422 Which layer of the GI wall contains the <b>eith
elium, lamina roria</b>&nbs;and <b>muscularis mucosa</b>?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Mucosa}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-29978871726822.jg" /></div>
1405569993692 1395802358422 Which layer of the GI wall is affected by <b>ero
sions</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mucosa only}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-29978871726822.jg" /></div>
1405570020993 1395802358422 What is the frequency of basal electric rhythm a
t the stomach?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3 waves/min}}</div>
t the duodenum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::12 waves/min}}</div>

t the ileum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::8-9 waves/min}}</div>
1405570058908 1395802358422 What histological tye of eithelium is seen at
the esohagus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nonkeratinized stratified squamous ei
thelium}}</div>
1405570101393 1395802358422 Which section of the small intestine is associat
ed with <b>Brunner glands</b>&nbs;(in the submucosa)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Duodenum}}</div>
ed with <b>Cryts of Lieberkuhn</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::All of them (duo
denum, jejunum, ileum)}}</div> <br /><div>:)</div>
ed with <b>licae circulares</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Jejunum; Ileum}}</d
iv>
ed with <b>Peyer's atches</b>&nbs;(in the lamina roria and submucosa)?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Ileum}}</div>
1405570229712 1395802358422 Which section of the small intestine has the lar
gest number of goblet cells in the small intestine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::I
leum}}</div>
1405570258538 1395802358422 In which anatomical direction do <b>arteries tha
t suly the GI tract</b>&nbs;branch off the abdominal aorta?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Anteriorly}}</div>
></div>
1405570411394 1395802358422 In which anatomical direction to arteries that <
b>suly non-GI tract structures</b>&nbs;branch off the abdominal aorta?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Laterally}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-3133178642505
9.jg" /></div>
1405570432601 1395802358422 {{c1::Suerior Mesenteric Arter (SMA) Syndrome}}
is a cardiovascular syndrome that occurs when the <b>transverse/third ortion o
f the duodenum is entraed between the SMA and aorta</b>, thereby causing intes
tinal obstruction.
1405570487968 1395802358422 What is the main artery that sulies derivative
s of the foregut?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac artery}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><i>Includes the <b>harynx and lower esohagus to the roximal duodenum
</b>.</i><br /><div><img src="aste-31331786425059.jg" /></div>
s of the midgut?<div><br />{{c1::SMA}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>Includes <b>
distal duodenum to the roximal 2/3 of the transverse colon.</b></i><br /><div><
img src="aste-31331786425059.jg" /></div>
s of the hindgut?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IMA}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>Includes <b>distal 1/3 of the transverse colon to the uer ortion of the r
ectum</b>.</i><div><i>Slenic flexure is watershed region.<br /></i><div><img sr
c="aste-31331786425059.jg" /></div></div>
1405570539700 1395802358422 What is the arasymathetic innervation of deriv
atives of the foregut?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN X (vagus)}}</div>
atives of the midgut?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CN X (vagus)}}</div>
atives of the hindgut?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pelvic Nerve}}</div>
1405570596358 1395802358422 What is the vertebral level of the celiac trunk?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T12}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-3133178642505
9.jg" /></div>
1405570629599 1395802358422 What is the vertebral level of the Suerior Mese
nteric Artery (SMA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L1}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-31331786425059.jg" /></div>
1405570646561 1395802358422 What is the vertebral level of the left renal ar
tery?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L1}}</div>
786425059.jg" /></div>
1405570657129 1395802358422 What is the vertebral level of the Inferior Mese
nteric Artery (IMA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L3}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-31331786425059.jg" /></div>
1405570671218 1395802358422 What is the vertebral level of the bifurcation o
f the abdominal aorta?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L4}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Bi
-<b>four</b>-cation of the abdominal aorta.</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-313
31786425059.jg" /></i></div>
1405570701879 1395802358422 What are the 3 main branches of the celiac trunk
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Common heatic artery; Slenic artery; Left gastric
artery}}</div> <div><br /></div><i>Notice the strong anastamoses between the le
ft and right gastric/gastroeiloic arteries.</i><br /><div><img src="aste-3246
9952758485.jg" /></div>
1405572858389 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::Common Heatic Artery}},&nbs;{{c
2::Slenic Artery}} and&nbs;{{c3::Left Gastric artery}} are the 3 main branches
of the celiac trunk. <br /><div><img src="aste-32465657791189.jg" /></div>
1405572931616 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::suerior eigastric artery}} anas
tamoses with the&nbs;{{c2::inferior eigastric artery}}.
1405573100149 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::suerior ancreaticoduodenal arte
ry}} anastamoses with the&nbs;{{c2::inferior ancreaticoduodenal artery}}.
1405573123796 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::middle colic artery}} anastamoses
with the&nbs;{{c2::left colic artery}}.
1405573134859 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::suerior rectal artery}} anastamo
ses with the&nbs;{{c2::middle and inferior arteries}}.
1405620938992 1395802358422 {{c1::Esohageal varices}} is a clinical manifes
tation of ortal HTN at the esohagus due to ortosystemic anastomoses between t
he <b>left gastric vein</b>&nbs;and the <b>esohageal veins</b>.
<br /><d
1405621064989 1395802358422 {{c1::Caut medusae}} are a feature of ortal HT
N that resents at the umbilicus due to the ortosystemic anastamoses between th
e <b>araumbilical vein</b>&nbs;and the <b>small eigastric veins of the anteri
or abdominal wall</b>. <br /><div><img src="aste-957777707792.jg" /></div>
1405621314812 1395802358422 {{c1::Anorectal varices}} are a feature of orta
l HTN that resents at the rectum due to ortosystemic anastomoses between the <
b>suerior rectal vein</b>&nbs;and the <b>middle/inferior rectal veins</b>.
1405621474819 1395802358422 {{c1::Transjugular Intraheatic Portosystemic Sh
unt (TIPS)}} is a surgically laces shunt that is used to treat ortal HTN as it
shunts blood flow <b>from the ortal vein to the heatic vein</b>.
<br /><d
iv><i>i.e. it directly shunts the ortal system into systemic circulation</i></d
iv><div><i><img src="aste-957777707792.jg" /></i></div>
1405621568341 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::ectinate/dentate line}} is an an
atomical landmark at the rectum that forms <b>where the endoderm</b>&nbs;(i.e.
hidgut) <b>meets the invaginating ectoderm</b>. <br /><div><img src="aste-14688
78815729.jg" /></div>
1405621629761 1395802358422 {{c1::Internal hemorrhoids}} are a tye of hemor
rhoids found <b>above the ectinate line</b>&nbs;that are <b>not ainful</b>&nb
s;as they receive visceral innervation.
83848433.jg" /></div>
1405621886357 1395802358422 Which tye of hemorrhoids are found <b>above the
ectinate line</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Internal hemorrhoids}}</div>
1405621903659 1395802358422 Which tye of hemorrhoids are <b>not ainful</b>
&nbs;as they receive visceral innervation from <b>above the ectinate line</b>?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Internal hemorrhoids}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-1464583848433.jg" /></div>
1405621937279 1395802358422 Which artery sulies the rectum <b>above the e
ctinate line</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Suerior Rectal artery (from the IM
A)}}</div>
1405621977089 1395802358422 What is the venous drainage of the rectum <b>abo
ve the ectinate line</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Suerior rectal vein to In

ferior Mesenteric Vein to Portal System}}</div>
1405622011279 1395802358422 What is the lymhatic drainage of the rectum <b>
above the ectinate line</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Internal iliac nodes}}<
/div>
1405622029720 1395802358422 {{c1::External hemorrhoids}} are a tye of hemor
rhoids that are found <b>below the ectinate line</b>&nbs;and are <b>ainful</b
>&nbs;as they receive <b>somatic innervation</b>&nbs;from the inferior rectal
branch of the udendal nerve. <br /><div><img src="aste-1464583848433.jg" />
</div>
1405622078487 1395802358422 Which tye of hemorrhoids are found <b>below the
ectinate line</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::External hemorrhoids}}</div>
1405622105412 1395802358422 Which tye of hemorroids are <b>ainful</b>&nbs
;as they receive <b>somatic innervation</b>&nbs;from the <b>inferior rectal bra
nch of the udendal nerve</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::External hemorrhoids}}
</div>
1405622133488 1395802358422 What artery sulies the rectum <b>below the ec
tinate line</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inferior Rectal Artery from the Inte
rnal Pudendal Artery}}</div>
1405622165494 1395802358422 What is the venous drainage of the rectum <b>bel
ow the ectinate line</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inferior rectal vein to In
ternal udendal vein to Internal iliac vein to the IVC}}</div>
1405622205409 1395802358422 Which somatic nerve innervates the <b>external h
emorrhoids</b>&nbs;found <b>below the ectinate line</b>?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Inferior Rectal Branch of the Pudendal Nerve}}</div>
1405622243987 1395802358422 What is the lymhatic drainage of the rectum <b>
below the ectinate line</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Suerficial Inguinal No
des}}</div>
1405622264490 1395802358422 {{c1::Anal Fissure}} is a GI disorder described
as a <b>tear in the anal mucosa below the ectinate line</b>. <div><br /></div
><i>Presents with <b>ain while ooing, blood on the toilet aer</b>.</i><div>
<i>Tyically located <b>osteriorly</b>&nbs;due to <b>oor erfusion</b>&nbs;i
n that area.<br /></i><div><img src="aste-1464583848433.jg" /></div></div>
1405622325895 1395802358422 Which surface of heatocytes faces the bile cana
liculi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aical surface}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-2680059593271.jg" /></div>
1405623565819 1395802358422 Which zone of the liver is affected 1st by viral
heatitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 1/Periortal Zone}}</div> <br /><d
1405623604926 1395802358422 Which zone of the liver is affected first by ing
ested toxins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 1/Periortal Zone}}</div> <br /><d
1405623624360 1395802358422 Which zone of the liver is affected first by <b>
ischemia</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 3/Centrilobular Zone}}</div>
1405623678152 1395802358422 Which zone of the liver contains the cytochrome
P450 system?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 3/Centrilobular Zone}}</div>
1405623698320 1395802358422 Which zone of the liver is most sensitive to met
abolic toxins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 3/Centrilobular Zone}}</div>
1405623735692 1395802358422 Which zone of the liver is the site of alcoholic
heatitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Zone 3/Centrilobular Zone}}</div>
1405623762956 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::Amulla of Vater}} is the common
oening of the common bile duct and main ancreatic duct into the duodenum.
<br /><div><i>Obstruction here can block both ancreatic and biliary function.</
i></div><div><i><img src="aste-3148211028581.jg" /></i></div>
1405624047603 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::Shincter of Oddi}} is the shinc
ter that surrounds the common bile duct.
16061285.jg" /></div>
1405624096295 1395802358422 What are the contents of the <b>Femoral Triangle
</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Femoral nerve, artery and vein (from lateral th
e medial)}}</div>
<div><br /></div><img src="aste-3470333575239.jg" /><b
r /><div><img src="aste-3371549327974.jg" /></div>
1405624556600 1395802358422 What are the contents of the <b>femoral sheath</
b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Femoral artery; Femoral vein; Dee Inguinal Lymh
Nodes}}</div> <br /><div><i>Note, it <b>does not</b>&nbs;include the femoral
nerve.</i></div><div><i><div><img src="aste-3371549327974.jg" /></div></i></di
v>
1405624610504 1395802358422 The&nbs;{{c1::femoral sheath}} is a fascial tub
e found 3-4 cm below the inguinal ligament that contains the femoral vein, arter
y and dee inguinal lymh nodes.
<br /><div><br /></div><div><img src="a
ste-3470333575239.jg" /><br /><div><img src="aste-3371549327974.jg" /></div><
/div>
1405624653846 1395802358422 What are the contents of the Sermatic Cord?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::External sermatic fascia; Cremasteric muscle and fascia
; Internal sermatic fascia}}</div>
.jg" /></div>
1405624731408 1395802358422 Which abdominal muscle gives rise to the externa
l sermatic fascia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::External oblique}}</div> <br /><d
1405624746962 1395802358422 Which abdominal muscle gives rise to the cremast
eric muscle and fascia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Internal oblique}}</div>
1405624764206 1395802358422 Which abdominal fascia gives rise to the interna
l sermatic fascia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Transversalis fascia}}</div>
1405624789382 1395802358422 What is the site of rotrustion in an <b>Indirec
t Inguinal Hernia</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Internal Inguinal Ring}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b><u>I</u></b>ndirect = <b><u>I</u></b>nternal</i></div><div><i><
img src="aste-3680786973315.jg" /></i></div>
1405624864376 1395802358422 What is the site of rotrusion in a <b>Direct In
guinal Hernia</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Abdominal Wall}}</div>
<br /><d
1405626669368 1395802358422 An {{c1::diahragmatic hernia}} is a tye of her
nia that involves rotrusion of <b>abdominal structures into the thorax</b>&nbs
;through the diahragm. <br /><div><i>Occurs in infants as a result of defective
develoment of the leuroeritoneal membrane.</i></div>
1405627288168 1395802358422 What is the most common tye of diahragmatic he
rnia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hiatal Hernia}}</div>
1405627307900 1395802358422 {{c1::Hiatal Hernia}} is a tye of diahragmatic
hernia where the <b>stomach herniates uward through the esohageal hiatus</b>&
nbs;of the diahragm.
1405627355552 1395802358422 What is the most common tye of Hiatal Hernia?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sliding Hiatal hernia}}</div>
1405627788927 1395802358422 {{c1::Sliding Hiatal Hernia}} is a tye of Hiata
l hernia that involves <b>suerior dislacement of the gastroesohageal junction
</b>, thereby yielding an "<b>hourglass stomach</b>."
1405627835481 1395802358422 {{c1::Paraesohageal Hernia}} is a tye of diah
ragmatic hernia that involves <b>rotrustion of the fundus of the stomach into t
he thorax</b>&nbs;with <u>reservation of the gastroesohageal junction</u>.
1405627885148 1395802358422 Which tye of inguinal hernia involves rotrusio
n of the bowel <b>through the internal inguinal ring, external inguinal ring and
into the scrotum</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Indirect Inguinal hernia}}</di
v>
1405628101362 1395802358422 {{c1::Indirect Inguinal hernia}} is a tye of in
guinal hernia that involves rotrustion of tissue <b>through the internal inguin
al ring, external inguinal ring and into the scrotum</b>.
<br /><div><img
src="aste-4969277161873.jg" /></div>
1405628138791 1395802358422 Which tye of inguinal hernia herniates <b>later

al</b>&nbs;to the inferior eigastric artery?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Indire
ct}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="aste-4964982194577.jg" /></div><div><img
src="aste-6627134537923.jg" /></div>
1405628330292 1395802358422 Which tye of inguinal hernia herniates <b>media
l</b>&nbs;to the Inferior Eigastric Artery?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Direct
inguinal hernia}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-4964982194577.jg" /></div><d
1405628356042 1395802358422 Which tye of inguinal hernia is associated with
<b>failure of the rocessus vaginalis to close</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Indirect inguinal hernia}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Can also result in hydroce
le.</i></div><div><i>The ath of an indirect inguinal hernia follows the ath of
descent of testes and it is covered by all 3 layers of the sermatic fascia.</i
></div>
1405628647449 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected by <b>Indire
ct </b>Inguinal Hernia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Males}}</div>
1405628673305 1395802358422 Which tye of inguinal hernia rotrudes through
the <b>inguinal (Hasselbach's) triangle?</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div>{{c1::D
irect inguinal hernia}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-4964982194577.jg" />
</div>
1405629207039 1395802358422 Which tye of inguinal hernia involves herniatio
n through the <b>external (suerficial) inguinal ring only</b>?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Direct inguinal hernia}}</div>
82194577.jg" /></div>
1405629272514 1395802358422 Which tye of inguinal hernia is tyically seen
in older men?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Direct}}</div> <br /><div><img src="as
te-4964982194577.jg" /></div>
1405629287694 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected by Femoral H
ernias?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Females}}</div>
te-4964982194577.jg" /></div>
1405629882717 1395802358422 {{c1::Femoral hernia}} is a tye of gastrointest
inal hernia that rotrudes <b>below the inguinal ligament through the femoral ca
nal</b>&nbs;and <b>below/lateral to the ubic tubercle</b>.
<br /><div><img
src="aste-4964982194577.jg" /></div>
1405629925596 1395802358422 What is the leading cause of bowel incarceration
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Femoral hernia}}</div>
te-4964982194577.jg" /></div>
1405629935597 1395802358422 What are the contents of the <b>inguinal (Hassel
bach's) triangle</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inferior eigastric vessels; La
teral border of the rectus abdominus; Inguinal Ligament}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="aste-4964982194577.jg" /></div>
1405632598871 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete CCK?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::I cells}}</div>
.jg" /></div>
1405632721675 1395802358422 Where in the small intestine are I-cells found?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Duodenum; Jejunum}}</div>
te-7606387081990.jg" /></div>
1405632745651 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Gastrin?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::G cells}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-7606387081990
.jg" /></div>
1405632756689 1395802358422 Where in the stomach are G cells found?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Antrum}}</div>
.jg" /></div>
1405632770077 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Glucose-dee
ndent Insulinotroic Petide (GIP)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::K cells}}</div>
1405632797797 1395802358422 Where in the small intestine are K cells found?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Duodenum; Jejunum}}</div>
te-7606387081990.jg" /></div>
1405632814187 1395802358422 What section of the GI tract secretes Motilin?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Small intestine}}</div>

te-7606387081990.jg" /></div>
1405633167210 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Secretin?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::S cells}}</div>
87081990.jg" /></div>
1405633181366 1395802358422 Where in the small intestine are S cells located
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Duodenum}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-76063
87081990.jg" /></div>
1405633190521 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Somatostatin
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cells}}</div>
87081990.jg" /></div>
1405633210167 1395802358422 Which areas of the GI tract secrete Vasoactive I
ntestinal Polyetide (VIP)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Parasymathetic ganglia
in GI shincters, gallbladder and SI}}</div>
87081990.jg" /></div>
1405633324647 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Intrinsic Fa
ctor?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Parietal cells of the stomach}}</div> <br /><d
1405633350505 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Gastric Acid
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Parietal cells of the stomach}}</div>
<br /><d
1405633366497 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete Pesin?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Chief cells of the stomach}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-7606387081990.jg" /></div>
1405633380083 1395802358422 Which cells of the GI tract secrete HCO<sub>3</s
ub>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mucosal cells of the stomach, duodenum, salivary
glands and ancreas}}</div>
1405633416483 1395802358422 Which submucosal glands of the duodenum secrete
HCO<sub>3</sub>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Brunner glands}}</div>
1405633433902 1395802358422 How does CCK influence ancreatic secretion?<div
<br /><div><i>This is done indir
ectly.</i></div><div><i><b>CCK acts on neural muscarinic athways to trigger an
creatic secretion</b>.</i></div>
1405633926244 1395802358422 How does CCK influence&nbs;gallbladder contract
1405633932561 1395802358422 How does CCK influence&nbs;gastric emtying?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405633942954 1395802358422 How does CCK influence&nbs;shincter of Oddi to
ne?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember, CCK trig
gers gallbladder contraction, so the shincter of Oddi must be relaxed at the sa
me time.</i></div>
1405633983503 1395802358422 How does an <b>increase</b>&nbs;in fatty acids
and amino acids influence CCK release?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</di
v>
1405634006773 1395802358422 How does Gastrin influence gastric acid secretio
n?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634062475 1395802358422 How does Gastrin influence growth of the gastric
mucosa?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634072789 1395802358422 How does Gastrin influence gastric motility?<div
1405634082007 1395802358422 How does a <b>decrease</b>&nbs;in stomach H in
fluence Gastrin release?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405634103047 1395802358422 How does an <b>increase</b>&nbs;in stomach H i
nfluence Gastrin secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634132338 1395802358422 How does stomach distention influence Gastrin re
lease?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634143178 1395802358422 How do Gastrin levels change in Zollinger-Ellisi
on Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405634174789 1395802358422 How do Gastrin levels change in chronic PPI use?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>PPI's work to decr
ease stomach acid (i.e. increase stomach H).</i></div><div><i>This in turn trig

gers Gastrin release.</i></div>
1405634201844 1395802358422 How does Phenylalanine influence Gastrin release
1405634213294 1395802358422 How does Trytohan influence Gastrin release?<d
1405634226096 1395802358422 Which GI hormone is also known as Gastric Inhibi
tory Petide (GIP)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose-deendent Insulinotroic
Petide (GIP)}}</div>
1405634288960 1395802358422 How does&nbs;Glucose-deendent Insulinotroic P
etide (GIP) influence gastric acid secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrea
se}}</div>
1405634311394 1395802358422 How does&nbs;Glucose-deendent Insulinotroic P
etide (GIP) influence insulin release?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</d
iv>
1405634316693 1395802358422 How does an <b>increase</b>&nbs;in fatty acids,
amino acids and oral glucose influence&nbs;Glucose-deendent Insulinotroic Pe
<br /><d
tide (GIP) release?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
iv><i>Oral glucose loads are used more raidly by the body versus equivalent IV
doses due to the GIP secretion it stimulates.</i></div>
1405634390780 1395802358422 {{c1::Motilin}} is a GI hormone secreted by the
small intestine that <b>functions to roduce migratory motor comlexes (MMCs)</b
>.
<br /><div><i>Hence, <b>motilin recetor agonists are used to stimulate
intestinal eristalsis</b>.</i></div>
1405634449679 1395802358422 How do Motilin levels change in the <b>fasting</
b>&nbs;state?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th
is is why we tell atients to <b>not feed their children</b>&nbs;if they haen
to swallow something like a coin or marble.</i></div><div><i>Fasting state = in
creased motilin = increased frequency of MMCs = whatever was ingested will be o
oed out sooner.</i></div>
1405634509864 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythromycin}} is a macrolide antibiotic t
hat also acts as a Motilin agonist, thereby stimulating intestinal eristalsis.
1405635139648 1395802358422 How does Secretin influence ancreatic HCO<sub>3
</sub>&nbs;secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<i><div>
</div></i><i><br /></i>This is integral for duodenal digestion.<div><i>The HCO<s
ub>3</sub>&nbs;secretion into the duodenum neutralizes the incoming acidic bile
and allows ancreatic enzymes to function.</i></div>
1405635161215 1395802358422 How does Secretin influence bile secretion?<div>
1405635168567 1395802358422 How does Secretin influence gastric acid secreti
on?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405635183257 1395802358422 How does a decrease in duodenal H influence Sec
retin levels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Re
member, Secretin induces ancreatic HCO<sub>3</sub>&nbs;secretion.</i></div>
1405635631032 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence gastric acid and
esinogen secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405635656154 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence ancreatic secre
tion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405635665033 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence small intestine
secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405635673104 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence gallbladder cont
raction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405635683572 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence insulin and gluc
agon release?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405635803442 1395802358422 How does a <b>decrease</b>&nbs;in gastric H in
fluence Somatostatin release?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, Somatostatin decreases gastric acid secretion.</i></div>
1405635837426 1395802358422 How does vagal stimulation influence Somatostati
n release?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <br /><div><i>Remember,
the PSNS generally <b>increases</b>&nbs;GI secretion. Somatostatin however work
s to generally <b>decrease</b>&nbs;GI secretion. Hence, the PSNS <b>inhibits so

matostatin release</b>.</i></div>
1405635895477 1395802358422 How does Nitric Oxide influence Lower Esohageal
Shincter (LES) tone?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>NO retty much causes smooth muscle relaxation everywhere. LES included.</
i></div>
1405636029560 1395802358422 {{c1::Achalasia}} is a GI disorder that involves
an <b>increase in lower esohageal shincter (LES) resting tone</b>&nbs;due to
<b>loss of NO secretion</b>.
1405636065728 1395802358422 How does Vasoactive Intestinal Polyetide (VIP)
influence intestinal water and electrolyte secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Increase}}</div>
1405636107010 1395802358422 How does Vasoactive Intestinal Polyetide (VIP)
influence relaxation of intestinal smooth muscle and shincters?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405636145891 1395802358422 {{c1::VIPoma}} is a <b>non-alha, non-beta </b>i
slet cell ancreatic tumour&nbs;that <b>secretes VIP</b>, thereby causing coio
us <b>watery diarrhea, hyokalemia and achlorhydria.</b>
<br /><div><b><i
>WDHA Syndrome:</i></b></div><div><i>- <b>W</b>atery <b>D</b>iarrhea</i></div><d
iv><i>- <b>H</b>yokalemia</i></div><div><i>- <b>A</b>chlorhydria</i></div>
1405636267369 1395802358422 {{c1::Intrinsic Factor}} is a rotein secreted b
y arietal cells of the stomach that <b>binds to vitamin B12</b>&nbs;in order f
or it to be absorbed in the terminal ileum.
1405636307521 1395802358422 Where in the GI tract is vitamin B12 absorbed?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Terminal ileum}}</div>
1405636340567 1395802358422 How does Histamine influence gastric acid secret
te-11918534246988.jg" /></div>
1405636375184 1395802358422 How does ACh influence gastric acid secretion?<d
239279692.jg" /></div>
1405636390786 1395802358422 How does Gastrin influence gastric acid secretio
n??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-11914
239279692.jg" /></div>
1405636402999 1395802358422 How does GIP influence gastric acid secretion?<d
1405636438775 1395802358422 How does Somatostatin influence gastric acid sec
retion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405636451474 1395802358422 How do rostaglandins influence gastric acid sec
retion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This is wh
y chronic NSAID use can result in gastric ulcers due to increased gastric acid s
ecretion.</i></div>
1405636488649 1395802358422 How does Secretin influence gastric acid secreti
on??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405636518630 1395802358422 {{c1::Gastrinoma}} is a gastrin-secreting tumour
that yields high levels of acid secretion and ulcers refractory to medical ther
ay.
1405636569029 1395802358422 How does a <b>decrease</b>&nbs;in H influence
<br /><div><i>Pe
esin activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
sin is activated by gastric acid via conversion from esinogen.</i></div>
1405636616266 1395802358422 {{c1::Gastrin-releasing etide (GRP)}} is a ar
asymathetic transmitter that triggers release of Gastrin from G cells. <br /><d
iv><i>It is <b>unaffected by Atroine which blocks ACh action.</b></i></div><div
><i><b><img src="aste-11914239279692.jg" /></b></i></div>
1405636695260 1395802358422 {{c1::Gastrin}} is a GI hormone secreted from G
cells that triggers Histamine release from Enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cells in
order to increase gastric acid secretion.
<div><br /></div><i>Hence, <b>Ga
strin has both direct and indirect effects on arietal cells to govern gastric a
cid release</b>.</i><br /><div><img src="aste-11914239279692.jg" /></div>
1405636927071 1395802358422 Which recetor does ACh bind to at arietal cell
s to trigger gastric acid secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::M<sub>3</sub>}}<

1405637625859 1395802358422 Which recetor does Gastrin bind to at arietal
cells to trigger gastric acid secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CCK<sub>B</s
ub>}}</div>
1405637645685 1395802358422 Which recetor does Histamine bind to on arieta
l cells in order to trigger gastric acid secretion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H
<sub>2</sub>}}</div>
1405637666661 1395802358422 Which intracellular signalling cascade is associ
ated with ACh (M<sub>3</sub>) and Gastrin (CCK<sub>B</sub>) action at arietal c
ells?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G<sub>q</sub>&nbs;--> IP<sub>3</sub>/DAG -> increased Ca}}</div>
></div>
1405637751823 1395802358422 Which intracellular signalling cascade is associ
ated with Histamine (H<sub>2</sub>) action at arietal cells?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::G<sub>s</sub>&nbs;--> cAMP --> gastric acid secretion}}</div>
1405638636482 1395802358422 Which ancreatic enzyme functions in starch dige
stion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::alha-amylase}}</div> <br /><div><i>Secreted i
n its active form.</i></div>
1405638719216 1395802358422 {{c1::Liase}},&nbs;{{c2::hosholiase A}} and
&nbs;{{c3::coliase}} are ancreatic enzymes that function in fat digestion.
1405638745450 1395802358422 {{c1::Trysin}},&nbs;{{c2::chymotrysin}},&nbs
;{{c3::elastase}} and&nbs;{{c4::carboxyetidase}} are 4 ancreatic enzymes tha
t function in <b>rotein digestion</b>&nbs;and are secreted as roenzymes in zy
mogen form.
1405638803329 1395802358422 {{c1::Trysinogen}} is a ancreatic enzyme that
functions to convert <b>roenzyme/zymogens from the ancreas</b>&nbs;in its act
ive form.
<br /><div><i>Trysin is its active form.</i></div>
1405638862605 1395802358422 {{c1::Enterkinase/Enteroetidase}} is a brush-b
order enzyme on the duodenal and jejunal mucosa that functions to convert Trysi
nogen into Trysin.
1405638891173 1395802358422 Which enzyme on the brush border of the duodenum
and jejunum functions to convert trysinogen into trysin?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Enterokinase/Enteroetidase}}</div>
1405639641453 1395802358422 Which monosaccharide transorter utakes fructos
e at the enterocyte brush border via facilitated diffusion?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::GLUT-5}}</div>
1405639695188 1395802358422 Where in the GI tract is iron absorbed?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Duodenum as Fe<su>2+</su>}}</div>
1405639737857 1395802358422 Where in the GI tract is folate absorbed?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Jejunum; Ileum}}</div>
1405639751146 1395802358422 Where in the GI tract is Vitamin B12 absorbed?<d
<br /><div><i>Requires i
ntrinsic factor.</i></div>
1405639772272 1395802358422 Where in the GI tract are bile acids absorbed?<d
1405639783509 1395802358422 {{c1::Peyer's atches}} are <b>unencasulated</b
>&nbs;lymhoid tissue found in the lamina roria and submucosa of the<div>ileu
m.</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="aste-14396730376506.jg" /></div>
1405639892498 1395802358422 {{c1::M cells}} are a secialized cell found in
eyer atches that <b>samle</b>&nbs;and <b>resent antigens</b>&nbs;to immune
cells.
1405639929817 1395802358422 Which immunoglobulin isotye is transorted acro
ss the eithelium into the gut from Peyer atches in the lamina roria to deal
with <b>intraluminal antigens?</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div>{{c1::IgA}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. secretory IgA</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-15045270438102
.jg" /></i></div>
1405640417990 1395802358422 Which enzyme catalyzes the rate-limiting ste of
bile synthesis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::7-alha hydroxylase}}</div>
1405640538740 1395802358422 To which comound is bilirubin conjugated?<div><

br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucuronate}}</div>
169784371.jg" /></div>
1405640617654 1395802358422 Which tye of bilirubin is <b>conjugated with gl
ucuronate</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Direct}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-15126874817075.jg" /></div>
1405640641932 1395802358422 Which tye of bilirubin is <b>water soluble</b>?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Direct bilirubin}}</div>
te-15126874817075.jg" /></div>
1405640654605 1395802358422 Which tye of bilirubin is <b>unconjugated</b>?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Indirect}}</div>
874817075.jg" /></div>
1405640665134 1395802358422 Which tye of bilirubin is <b>not water soluble<
/b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Indirect}}</div>
te-15126874817075.jg" /></div>
1405640678977 1395802358422 To which lasma rotein does <b>unconjugated/ind
irect</b>&nbs;bilirubin bind?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Albumin}}</div>
1405640704703 1395802358422 Which heatic enzyme functions to conjugate bili
rubin with glucuronate?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::UDP-glucuronyl transferase}}<
1405640731401 1395802358422 Which metabolite of Urobilinogen gives feces its
brown colour?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Stercobilin}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="aste-15126874817075.jg" /></div>
1405640767115 1395802358422 Which metabolite of Urobilinogen gives urine its
yellow colour?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Urobilin}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="aste-15126874817075.jg" /></div>
1405640782457 1395802358422 Where is Urobilinogen made?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::In the gut by normal flora}}</div>
874817075.jg" /></div>
1380141710384 1358629116480 {{c1::Beta-lactams}} are antibiotics that target
the bacterial cell wall by inhibiting Transetidase
1380153291966 1358629116480 {{c1::Vancomycin}} is an antibiotic that targets
the bacterial cell wall by inhibiting Transglycosylase.
1380153319172 1358629116480 {{c1::Fosfomycin}} is an antibiotic that targets
the bacterial cell wall by inhibiting Enolyruvate Transferase.
1380153343257 1358629116480 {{c1::Aminoglycosides}} are antibiotics that tar
get the 30S ribosomal subunit and cause blockade of the initiation comlex <b>an
d </b>blockade of translocation.
1380153402177 1358629116480 {{c1::Macrolides}} and&nbs;{{c2::Quinuristin}}
are antibiotics that target the 50S ribosomal subunit and block the translocati
on reaction.
1380153451156 1358629116480 {{c1::Chloramhenicol}} are antibiotics that tar
get the 50S ribosomal subunit and block the transetidation reaction.
1380153487518 1358629116480 {{c1::Tetracyclines}} are antibiotics that targe
t the 30S ribosomal subunit and block aminoacyl-tRNA binding.
1380153528918 1358629116480 {{c1::Dalforistin}} is an antibiotic that targe
ts the 50S ribosomal subunit and induces a change in the 50S ribosomal subunit.
1380153573440 1358629116480 {{c1::Linezolid}} is an antibiotic that targets
the 50S ribosomal subunit and blocks the initiation comlex.
1380153604604 1358629116480 {{c1::Sulfonamides}} are antibiotics that inhibi
t cytolasmic bacterial Didhydroteroate Synthetase.
1380153635485 1358629116480 {{c1::Trimethorim}} is an antibiotic that inhib
its cytolasmic bacterial Dihydrofolate Reductase.
1380153666101 1358629116480 {{c1::Quinolones}} are antibiotics that inhibit
cytolasmic bacterial Tooisomerase.
1380288050995 1358629116480 {{c1::Penicillin G}} is a <b>narrow sectrum</b>
beta-lactam that is used against most G+ bacteria. It can also cause hyersensi
tivity reactions.
1380288344795 1358629116480 {{c1::Amicillin}} is a <b>broad sectrum</b>&nb
s;beta-lactam that is used rimarily for G+ bacteria. It is esecially effectiv

e against Enterococci. <br /><div><i>Amicillin "HELPSS kill Enterococci"</i></
div><div><i>H. influenzae, E. coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Proteus mirabilis, S
almonella, Shigella</i></div>
1380288476819 1358629116480 {{c1::Cehalexin}} is a 1st generation cehalos
orin beta-lactam used against <i>Proteus, E. coli</i>&nbs;and <i>Klebsiella</i>
.
<br /><div><i>"PEcK"</i></div>
1380288674423 1358629116480 {{c1::Ceftriaxone}} is a 3rd generation cehalos
orin beta-lactam that is effective against enicillin resistant neumococci.
1380288880876 1358629116480 {{c1::Ceftriaxone}} is the antibiotic of choice
to treat gonorrhea and acute otitis media.
1380288901941 1358629116480 {{c1::Cefeime}} is a 4th generation cehalosor
in beta-lactam that is rimarily used to treat <i>Pseudomonas s.</i>&nbs;infe
ction.
1380288940570 1358629116480 {{c1::Aztreonam}} is a monobactam beta-lactam th
at is used to treat G- rods.
1380289013137 1358629116480 {{c1::Clavulanate}} is a beta-lactamase inhibito
r that is given in conjunction with beta-lactams to facilitate their action.
1380289048813 1358629116480 {{c1::Vancomycin}} is a bactericidal antibiotic
that inhibits the bacterial enzyme&nbs;{{c2::Transglycolase}} by binding to nas
cent PG entaetides.
1380289113906 1358629116480 {{c1::Vancomycin}} is the antibiotic used to tre
at drug resistant G+ bacteria (MRSA), beta-lactam resistant bacteria and <i>C. d
ifficile</i>&nbs;infection.
1380289190950 1358629116480 All beta-lactam antibiotics inhibit the bacteria
l enzyme&nbs;{{c1::Transetidase}} and activate bacterial {{c2::Autolysins}}.
1380510795646 1358629116480 {{c1::Nafcillin}} is the drug of choice for very
severe <i>S. aureus</i>&nbs;infections such as endocarditis, cellulitis and se
sis.
1380514575514 1358629116480 Two severe adverse effects of Chloramhenicol ar
e&nbs;{{c1::alastic anaemia}} and&nbs;{{c2::Gray Baby Syndrome}}.
1380514618211 1358629116480 {{c1::Gray Baby Syndrome}} is a severe adverse e
ffect of Chloramhenicol where neonates are unable to conjugate the abx in the l
iver or are unable to excrete it at the kidneys. Therefore, there are high level
s of the drug in the blood causing shock, abdominal distention and cyanosis.
1381803041173 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Amoebiasis (<i>Entamoe
ba histolytica</i>)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Metronidazole}}.</div>
1381803170131 1358629116480 What is the eriodicity of fevers yielded by <i>
Plasmodium vivax</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Every 48 hours; Tertian Malaria
}}.</div>
1381803230074 1358629116480 What is the eriodicity of fevers elicited by <i
>Plasmodium ovale</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Every 48 hours; Tertian Malari
a}}.</div>
>Plasmodium malariae</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Every 72 hours; Quartan Mal
aria}}.</div>
>Plasmodium falciarum</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Every 36-48 hours; Irregu
lar/Continuous fevers}}.</div>
1381803323028 1358629116480 How do <i>Plasmodium s</i>. cause anaemia?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::RBC Hemolysis}}.</div>
1381803365277 1358629116480 {{c1::Chloroquine}} is an anti-lasmodial common
ly used for rohylaxis against Chloroquine-sensitive <i>Plasmodium</i>&nbs;<i>
s.</i>
1381803589390 1358629116480 {{c1::Mefloquine}} or&nbs;{{c2::Doxycycline}} a
re anti-lasmodials used for rohylaxis against Chloroquine-resistant <i>Plasmo
dium s.</i>
1381803624756 1358629116480 {{c1::Chloroquine}} is the drug of choice to tre
at acute malaria caused by <b>non-falciarum</b>&nbs;<i>Plasmodium</i>.
1381803662505 1358629116480 {{c1::Primaquine}} is the drug of choice to trea
t for dormant malaria caused by <i>Plasmodium vivax</i>&nbs;and <i>Plasmodium o

vale.</i>
<br /><div><i>Remember, these secies yield the dormant hynozoi
tes.</i></div>
1381803715049 1358629116480 {{c1::Chloroquine}} is the drug of choice to tre
at for Chloroquine-sensitive <i>Plasmodium falciarum</i>&nbs;malaria.
1381803748528 1358629116480 {{c1::Quinine}} or&nbs;{{c2::Quinidine}} can be
used to treat Chloroquine-resistant <i>Plasmodium falciarum</i>&nbs;malaria.
<br /><div><i>It is administered via IM.</i></div>
1381803816924 1358629116480 Aside from Quinine/Quinidine,&nbs;{{c1::Pyrimet
hamine}} and&nbs;{{c2::Sulfadoxine}} can be used to treat Chloroquine-resistant
<i>Plasmodium falciarum</i>&nbs;malaria.
1381803866887 1358629116480 Which 3 anti-lasmodial drugs are contraindicate
d in a atient with a G6PD Deficiency?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Chloroquine, Pri
maquine, Quinine}}.</div>
CPQ
1381803952821 1358629116480 What is the clinical use of Proguanil?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Prohylaxis of chloroquine-resistant malaria}}.</div>
1381807444670 1358629116480 {{c1::Proguanil}} is an anti-lasmodial that sel
ectively inhibits rotozoan Dihydrofolate Reductase.
1381807493083 1358629116480 {{c1::Cinchonism}} is an adverse effect yielded
by the anti-lasmodial drug Quinine. It includes GI distress, tinnitus, dyshori
a, blurred vision and ostural hyotension.
1381807860744 1358629116480 {{c1::Sodium Stibogluconate}} is an anti-rotozo
al drug used to treat all forms of Leishmaniasis.
1381807953191 1358629116480 {{c1::Nifurtimox}} is the anti-rotozoal drug of
choice to treat Chagas' Disease.
1381808324521 1358629116480 {{c1::Tinidazole}} is the anti-rotozoal used to
treat Giardiasis.
<br><i>or any -azole</i>
1382492253441 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Nucleoside/Nucleotide RT Inhi
bitors (NRTIs)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cometitive inhibition of RT causing
DNA chain termination}}</div>
1382492376412 1358629116480 What tye of antiretroviral is Abacavir (ABC)?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
1382492464093 1358629116480 What tye of antiretroviral &nbs;is Didanosine
(DDI)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
1382492480833 1358629116480 What tye of antiretroviral is Emtricitabine (FT
C)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
1382492504221 1358629116480 What tye of antiretroviral is Lamivudine (3TC)?
<div><br />{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
1382492521201 1358629116480 What tye of antiretroviral is Stavudine (D4T)?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
1382492542681 1358629116480 What tye of antiretroviral is Tenofovir?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
1382492553916 1358629116480 What tye of antiretroviral is Zidovudine (ZDV)
(Azidothymidine; AZT)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NRTI}}</div>
1382492584435 1358629116480 {{c1::Lamivudine}} is an NRTI antiretroviral tha
t is also used in the treatment of HBV infection.
1382492625141 1358629116480 {{c1::Zidovudine (or Azidothymidine)}} is the r
ototye NRTI antiretroviral that not only treats HIV1/HIV2 but also HTLV1/HTLV2.
1382492757198 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Non-Nucleoside RT Inhibitors
(NNRTIs)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Direct binding to RT causing allosteric, no
ncometitive inhibition}}</div>
1382493093150 1358629116480 {{c1::Efavirenz}} is a NNRTI antiretroviral that
causes insomnia and dyshoric dreams as side effects.
1382493154766 1358629116480 {{c1::Efavirenz}} is a NNRTI antiretroviral that
is comletely contraindicated in regnant women and strongly discouraged in wom
en of childbearing age. <br /><div><i>Women of childbearing age have to use 2+ m
ethods of contracetion if on Efavirenz.</i></div>
1382493210194 1358629116480 {{c1::Neviraine}} is a NNRTI antiretroviral tha
t also acts as a strong CYP450 inducer.
1382493237734 1358629116480 What tye of antiretroviral is Delaviridine?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::NNRTI}}</div>
1382493758834 1358629116480 What tye of antiretroviral is Efavirenz?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::NNRTI}}</div>
1382493771890 1358629116480 What tye of antiretroviral is Neviraine?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::NNRTI}}</div>
1382494026137 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Protease Inhibitor antiretrov
irals?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cometitive inhibition of Asartyl Protease, t
hereby reventing roteolytic cleavage of <i>gag</i>&nbs;and <i>ol</i>&nbs;r
ecursor roteins}}</div>
1382494081458 1358629116480 All Protease Inhibitor antiretrovirals have been
known to cause central obesity and insulin resistance excet for&nbs;{{c1::Ata
zanavir}}.
1382494135869 1358629116480 {{c1::Ritonavir}} is a rotease inhibitor antire
troviral that also acts as a otent inhibitor of CYP3A4. Hence it is given in co
mbination with&nbs;{{c2::Loanavir}}
1382494345275 1358629116480 What tye of antiretroviral is Enfuvirtide?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Entry inhibitor}}</div>
1382494391855 1358629116480 What tye of antiretroviral is Maraviroc?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Entry inhibitor}}</div>
1382494404391 1358629116480 What is the MOA of the Entry Inhibitor retrovira
l Enfuvirtide?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::g41 binding and steric hindrance, the
reby reventing conformational change and viral fusion}}</div>
1382495915601 1358629116480 What is the MOA of the Entry Inhibitor antiretro
viral Maraviroc?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CCR5 antagonism; blocking infection
by CCR5 troic HIV}}</div>
1382495973730 1358629116480 What tye of antiretroviral is Raltegravir?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Integrase inhibitor}}</div>
1382495996725 1358629116480 What is the MOA of the Integrase Inhibitor antir
etroviral Raltegravir?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inihibition of viral dsDNA int
egration into the host genome}}</div>
1384723978649 1358629116480 What tye of antibiotic is used to treat enicil
lin-sensitive endocarditis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-lactam; enicillins}
}</div>
1384724794145 1358629116480 What antibiotic combination is used to treat <i>
Enterococcus</i>&nbs;endocarditis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-lactam + &nb
s;Aminoglycoside}}</div>
1384724845860 1358629116480 What kind of antibiotic is Nafcillin?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::beta-lactam}}</div>
1384724858702 1358629116480 What kind of antibiotic is Amicillin?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Beta-lactam}}</div>
1384724870288 1358629116480 What kind of antibiotic is Gentamycin?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycoside}}</div>
1384724889140 1358629116480 What kind of antibiotic is Stretomycin?<div><br
1384724898677 1358629116480 {{c1::Nafcillin}} is a beta-lactam that is resis
tant to beta-lactamase.
1384724994073 1358629116480 What is the antibiotic used in enicillin-resist
ant endocarditis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vancomycin}}</div>
1384725030933 1358629116480 What antibiotic combination is used to treat <i>
Stahylococcus aureus</i>&nbs;endocarditis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-lac
tam + Gentamycin}}</div>
1384725100405 1358629116480 What antibiotic combination is used to treat Vir
idans <i>Stretococcus</i>&nbs;endocarditis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Penicil
lin + Gentamycin}}</div>
1384725145213 1358629116480 What antibiotic combination is used to treat MRS
A endocarditis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vancomycin + Gentamycin}}</div>
1384725184700 1358629116480 Red man/neck syndrome is an adverse effect of th
e antibiotic&nbs;{{c1::Vancomycin}}
1384725217359 1358629116480 {{c1::Gentamycin}} is an aminoglycoside with mor
e severe and common nehrotoxicity.
1384725241246 1358629116480 {{c1::Stretomycin}} is an aminoglycoside with m

ore severe and common ototoxicity.
1385325547441 1358629116480 Acyclovir is hoshorylated into Acyclovir Mono
hoshate by the viral enzyme&nbs;{{c1::Thymidine Kinase}}.
1385326336240 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Acyclovir?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of DNA Polymerase, causing DNA chain termination}}</div>
1385326403680 1358629116480 What is the drug of choice for Genital Heres?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acyclovir}}</div>
1385326418339 1358629116480 What is the drug of choice for Heres Encehalit
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acyclovir}}</div>
1385326433875 1358629116480 What is the drug of choice for Neonatal HSV infe
ctions?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acyclovir}}</div>
1385326448450 1358629116480 What is the clinical use of Acyclovir?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::HSV and VZV infections}}</div>
1385326471712 1358629116480 {{c1::Valacyclovir}} is the rodrug form of Acyc
lovir.
1385326523565 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Famiclovir?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Cometitive inhibition of viral DNA Polymerase}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Lower affinity than Acyclovir</i></div>
1385326563320 1358629116480 What is the clinical use of Famiclovir?<div><br
/>{{c1::Heres Zoster infection}}</div>
1385326610792 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Penciclovir?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Cometitive inhibition of viral DNA Polymerase; does not cause chain
termination}}</div>
1385326662242 1358629116480 What is the clinical use of Penciclovir?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Recurrent Heres Labialis}}</div>
1385326677913 1358629116480 What is the ROA of Penciclovir?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Toical}}</div>
1385326691336 1358629116480 What is the ROA of Trifluridine?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Ohthalmic}}</div>
1385326701742 1358629116480 What is the MOA of the <b>monohoshate</b>&nbs
;form of Trifluridine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Irreversible inhibition of Thy
midylate Synthase}}</div>
1385326741729 1358629116480 What is the MOA of the&nbs;<b>trihoshate</b>&
nbs;of Trifluridine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cometitive inhibition of DNA
olymerase with Thymidine Trihoshate}}</div>
1385326827100 1358629116480 What is the clinical use of Trifluridine?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::HSV keratitis and conjunctivitis}}</div>
1385326868196 1358629116480 Trifluridine can cause&nbs;{{c1::ocular burning
/stinging}} as a side effect due to its ohthalmic ROA.
1385327182266 1358629116480 What is the ROA of Docosanol?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Toical}}</div>
1385327197272 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Docosanol?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of the fusion of the viral enveloe with host cell membranes
}}</div>
1385327216611 1358629116480 What is the clinical use of Docosanol?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Recurrent Heres Labialis}}</div>
1385327231209 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Ganciclovir?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhibition of DNA Polymerase and DNA chain termination}}</div>
1385327262591 1358629116480 What is the clinical use of Ganciclovir?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Al
so, long term revention of Kaosi's Sarcoma in AIDS atients</i></div>
1385327301349 1358629116480 Ganciclovir is initially hoshorylated by&nbs;
{{c1::UL-97}} in <b>CMV infected cells</b>.
1385327336187 1358629116480 Ganciclovir is initially hoshorylated by&nbs;
{{c1::Thymidine Kinase}} in HSV infected cells.
1385327365748 1358629116480 What is the major adverse effect of Ganciclovir?
<div><br />{{c1::Dose-limiting hematotoxicity}}</div>
1385327404329 1358629116480 {{c1::Valganciclovir}} is the rodrug form of Ga
nciclovir.
1385327470923 1358629116480 {{c2::Cidofovir}} must be administered with&nbs

;{{c1::Probenecid}} which inhibits active tubular secretion of Cidofovir, thereb
y decreasing its nehrotoxicity.
1385327608549 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Cidofovir?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Potent inhibition and alternative substrate for viral DNA Polymerase}}<
/div>
1385327637033 1358629116480 {{c1::Cidovofir}} is an anti-CMV agent that does
not require hoshorylation to be activated.
1385327665139 1358629116480 What is the clinical use of Cidovofir?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::CMV retinitis in immunocomromised atients}}</div>
1385327686759 1358629116480 {{c1::Foscarnet}} is an anti-CMV drug that is an
alternative to Ganciclovir and is not a nucleoside analog.
1385327734275 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Foscarnet?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Direct inhibition of viral DNA Polymerase, viral RNA Polyermase and HIV
Reverse Transcritase}}</div>
1385328046227 1358629116480 What is the clinical use of Foscarnet?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::CMV, HSV and VZV infections where Ganciclovir or Acyclovir fai
ls}}</div>
1385328088350 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Amantadine in Influenza Tx?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibits the Influenza M2 channel rotein, thereby blo
cking viral uncoating and enetration}}</div> <br /><div><i>A-man-to-dine unco
ats.</i></div>
1385328135768 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Amantadine in Parkinson's Tx?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Triggers release of Doamine from intact nerve termi
nals}}</div>
1385328174001 1358629116480 What is the main clinical use of Amantadine?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tx of <b>Inlfuenza A only</b>}}</div>
1385328232954 1358629116480 {{c1::Rimantadine}} is an anti-influenza agent t
hat is 4-10x more active than Amantidine in treating Influenza A infections.
1385328273244 1358629116480 {{c1::Rimantadine}} is an anti-Influenza agent w
ith the same MOA as Amantadine but with fewer CNS effects.
1385328306803 1358629116480 What is the drug of choice for treating Influenz
a A in the eldery?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rimantadine; due to the decreased
CNS effects}}</div>
1385328331400 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Oseltamivir?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhibition of Influenza Neuraminidase; Destruction of Influenza Hemag
glutinin recetors}}</div>
1385328399030 1358629116480 What is the clinical use of Oseltamivir?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Influenza A, Influenza B, H1N1 and H5N1 infection}}</div>
1385328440314 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Zanamivir?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of Influenza Neuraminidase; Destruction of Influenza Hemaggl
utinin recetors}}</div>
1385328448573 1358629116480 {{c1::Zanamivir}} and&nbs;{{c2::Oseltamivir}} a
re anti-influenza agents that can revent and treat Influenza A, Influenza B, H1
N1 and H5N1 infections.
1385328487724 1358629116480 {{c1::Zanamivir}} is an anti-influenza agent tha
t should not be given to atients with COPD or asthma.
1385328513054 1358629116480 {{c1::Palivizumab}} is a humanized monoclonal Ab
against the A-antigen viral rotein on the fusion (F) surface rotein of RSV.
1385328559811 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Palivizumab?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Neutralization and revention of RSV fusion by binding to A-antigen v
iral rotein on the fusion (F) surface of RSV}}</div>
1385328644580 1358629116480 What is the clinical use of Palivizumab?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Prohylaxis and treatment of RSV infection in high-risk neon
ates and children}}</div>
1385328680808 1358629116480 What is the ROA of Imiquimod?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Toical}}</div>
1385328690263 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Imiquimod?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::TLR7 agonism, thereby stimulating mononuclear cells to release IFN-a an
d roinflammatory cytokines}}</div>
1385328731339 1358629116480 What is the clinical use of Imiquimod?<div><br /

></div><div>{{c1::Genital and erianal warts}}</div>
1386368121214 1358629116480 {{c1::Macrolides}} are a tye of antibiotic that
<b>inhibits</b>&nbs;CYP450 Enzymes. <br /><div><i>Rifamin is a strong induc
er.</i></div>
1395102894507 1358629116480 90-95% of <i>Stahylococcus</i>&nbs;strains are
resistant to the antibiotic {{c1::Penicillin G}} due to beta-lactamase exressi
on.
1395103996108 1358629116480 What is the ROA of Penicillin G?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Parenteral only}}</div>
1395111939358 1358629116480 {{c1::Probenecid}} is a drug that is co-administ
ered with enicillin to increase [enicillin]<sub>lasma</sub>&nbs;through inhi
bition of tubular enicillin secretion.
1395112002533 1358629116480 Which antibiotic is the drug of choice to treat
Syhilis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillin G}}</div>
1395112238500 1358629116480 What is the ROA of Phenoxymethyl Penicillin V?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oral (as it is acid resistant)}}</div>
1395112266375 1358629116480 {{c1::Benzathine Penicillin G}} is a tye of Pen
icillin G that is used as a rohylaxis against Rheumatic Fever and Rheumatic He
art Disease.
1395112304427 1358629116480 {{c1::Methicillin}} is a beta-lactamase resistan
t enicillin that is used for suscetibility testing, esecially in the identifi
cation of MRSA.
1395112333713 1358629116480 What is the significant adverse effect associate
d with Methicillin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nehrotoxicity (Acute Interstitia
l Nehritis)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>For this reason it is no longer used thera
eutically.</i></div>
1395112369331 1358629116480 Which roteins are mutated in Methicillin-resist
ant <i>Stahylococcus aureus</i>&nbs;(MRSA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Penicil
lin binding roteins (PBPs)}}</div>
1395112639515 1358629116480 What significant adverse effect is associated wi
th Nafcillin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neutroenia}}</div>
1395112662778 1358629116480 What is the ROA of Nafcillin and Oxacillin?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Parenteral}}</div>
1395112701976 1358629116480 What is the ROA of Dicloxacillin?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Oral}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"That hoe loves utting clox in he
r mouth"</i></div>
1395112728643 1358629116480 What kind of antibiotic is Methicillin?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Beta-lactamase resistance enicillin}}</div>
1395112787977 1358629116480 What kind of antibiotic is Nafcillin?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Beta-lactamase resistance enicillin}}</div>
1395112794945 1358629116480 What kind of antibiotic is Oxacillin?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Beta-lactamase resistance enicillin}}</div>
1395112801138 1358629116480 What kind of antibiotic is Dicloxacillin?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-lactamase resistance enicillin}}</div>
1395112809248 1358629116480 What kind of antibiotic is Amicillin?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Aminoenicillin}}</div>
1395112830306 1358629116480 What kind of antibiotic is Amoxicillin?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Aminoenicillin}}</div>
1395112840847 1358629116480 What is the DOC for <i>Listeria monocytogenes</i
>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Amicillin/Amoxicillin (Aminoenicillins)}}</div>
1395112889413 1358629116480 {{c1::Amicillin}} and&nbs;{{c2::Amoxicillin}}
are 2 Aminoenicillins that are the DOC for <i>Listeria monocytogenes</i>.
1395112914173 1358629116480 {{c1::Amicillin}} is an aminoenicillin whose a
bsortion is imaired by food intake.
1395112943366 1358629116480 {{c1::Amicillin}} and&nbs;{{c1::Amoxicillin}}
are aminoenicillins that are suscetible to beta-lactamases.
1395112968050 1358629116480 What is a significant adverse effect associated
with Amicillin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pseudomembranous Colitis}}</div>
1395113524841 1358629116480 What tye of antibiotic is Pieracillin?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Antiseudomonal Penicillin}}</div>
1395113568027 1358629116480 {{c1::Pieracillin}} is an antiseudomonal enic
illin that is suscetible to beta-lactamase.
1395113755794 1358629116480 {{c1::Pieracillin}} is an anti-seudomonal eni
cillin that is highly effective against <i>Pseudomonas</i>&nbs;<i>aeruginosa</i
>&nbs;and other gram-negative bacilli.
1395113801402 1358629116480 What is the significant adverse effect associate
d with Pieracillin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hemorrhaging (due to interaction
with latelet function)}}</div>
1395113828622 1358629116480 What generation Cehalosorin is Cefazolin?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>
1395114078373 1358629116480 What generation Cehalosorin is Cehalexin?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>
1395114085529 1358629116480 What generation Cehalosorin is Cefuroxime?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::2}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"FUR, FOX, TEA"</i></div>
1395114108615 1358629116480 What generation Cehalosorin is Cefotetan?<div>
<br />{{c1::2nd}}</div> <br /><div><i>"FUR, FOX, TEA"</i></div>
1395114130625 1358629116480 What generation Cehalosorin is Cefoxitin?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
<br /><div><i>"FUR, FOX, TEA"</i></div>
1395114144121 1358629116480 What generation Cehalosorin is Ceftriaxone?<di
1395114157997 1358629116480 What generation Cehalosorin is Cefotaxime?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1395114165915 1358629116480 What generation Cehalosorin is Ceftiazidime?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1395114173689 1358629116480 What generation Cehalosorin is Cefeime?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::4th}}</div>
1395114183689 1358629116480 What is the ROA of Cefazolin?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Parenteral}}</div>
1395114373865 1358629116480 What is the ROA of Cehalexin?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Oral}}</div>
1395114380164 1358629116480 Which generation of Cehalosorin has the greate
st effectivity against Gram-negatives?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
<i><br /></i><div><i>With each successive generation of Cehalosorin, there is
INCREASED activity against G- and DECREASED activity against G+</i></div>
1395114434979 1358629116480 Which generation of Cehalosorins have the grea
test effectivity against gram-ositives?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
<div><br /></div><div><san style="font-style: italic">With each successive gene
ration of Cehalosorin, there is INCREASED activity against G- and DECREASED ac
tivity against G+</san></div>
1395114492056 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Proteus mirabilis</i>}},&nbs;{{c2::<i>
E. coli</i>}} and&nbs;{{c3::<i>Klebsiella s.</i>}} are the gram-negative bacte
ria suscetible to 1st generation Cehalosorins.
1395114542393 1358629116480 {{c1::Cefazolin}} is a 1st generation cehaloso
rin used in surgical rohylaxis.
1395114772299 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Listeria</i>}}, Atyical Bacteria,&nbs
;{{c2::MRSA}} and&nbs;{{c3::Enterococci}} are bacteria that are not affected by
Cehalosorins.
<br /><div><i>"LAME"</i></div>
1395114817601 1358629116480 What is the ROA for all 2nd generation Cehalos
orins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Parenteral}}</div>
1395114835508 1358629116480 {{c1::Cefotetan}} and&nbs;{{c2::Cefoxitin}} are
2nd generation Cehalosorins used in mixed anaerobic infections such as Perito
nitis and Pelvic Inflammatory Disease.
1395114878467 1358629116480 {{c1::Cefotetan}} and&nbs;{{c2::Cefoxitin}} are
2nd generation Cehalosorins that are used to treat <i>Bacteroides fragilis.</i
>
1395114911610 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Haemohilus influenzae</i>}} and&nbs;{
{c2::<i>Neisseria meningitidis</i>}} are 2 gram-negative bacteria affected by 2n
d generation Cehalosorins <u>in addition to</u>&nbs;<i>Proteus mirabilis, Esc
herichia coli</i>&nbs;and <i>Klebsiella s.</i>
<br /><div><i>2nd gens a
re HNPEK</i></div>
1395115029737 1358629116480 {{c1::Cefotetan}} is a 2nd generation Cehaloso
rin that is associated with Disulfiram-like reactions and Hemorrhaging.
1395115087275 1358629116480 What is the ROA for all 3rd generation Cehalos
orins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Parenteral}}</div>
orin that is avoided in neonates as it cometes for bilirubin binding sites on
Albumin, thereby causing jaundice or exacerbating hysiological jaundice.
1395115160755 1358629116480 {{c1::Ceftiazedime}} is a 3rd generation Cehalo
sorin that is associated with Neutroenia.
1395115371473 1358629116480 {{c1::Cefeime}} is a 4th generation Cehalosor
in that is useful in <i>Stahylococcus</i>&nbs;and <i>Pseudomonas</i>&nbs;infe
ction.s
1395115401273 1358629116480 Which antibiotic has the broadest activity?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Imienem}}</div>
1395115424379 1358629116480 What tye of antibiotic is Imienem?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Carbaanem enicillin}}</div>
1395115465491 1358629116480 What tye of antibiotic is Meroenem?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Carbaanem enicillin}}</div>
1395115478131 1358629116480 What tye of antibiotic is Aztreonam?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Monobactam}}</div>
1395115492323 1358629116480 What tye of antibiotic is Vancomycin?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Glycoetide}}</div>
1395115934227 1358629116480 {{c1::Dehydroetidase-1 (DHP-1)}} is a bacteria
l enzyme that hydrolyzes the antibiotic&nbs;{{c2::Imienem}}.
1395115966901 1358629116480 Which bacterial enzyme hydrolyzes the antibiotic
Imienem?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dehydroetidase-1 (DHP-1)}}</div>
1395115989882 1358629116480 {{c1::Cilastatin}} is a drug that is co-administ
ered with Imienem as it inhibits Dehydroetidase-1 (DHP-1), a bacterial enzyme
that hydrolyzes Imienem.
1395116035357 1358629116480 Which antibiotic is the drug of choice for Enter
obacter infections?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Imienem}}</div>
1395116054820 1358629116480 {{c1::Imienem}} is a Carbaanem antibiotic that
is effective against many bacteria and is used to knock out infections that are
tough to treat.
1395116102561 1358629116480 {{c1::Meroenem}} is a carbaanem antibiotic tha
t does not need to be coadministered with Cilastatin.
1395116289138 1358629116480 Which Carbaanem antibiotic has less CNS toxicit
y?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Meroenem}}</div>
1395116309456 1358629116480 {{c1::Aztreonam}} is a monobactam antibiotic tha
t <b>only affects gram-negative</b>&nbs;bacteria.
t is used against hosital acquired gram-negative infections (es. <i>Haemohilu
s influenzae</i>&nbs;and <i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>).
t can be used in atients with enicillin allergies as it only involves 1 beta-l
actam ring and hence binds differently.
t is considered the silver-bullet against gram negatives.
1395116482320 1358629116480 {{c1::Vancomycin}} is a glycoetide antibiotic
that is considered the silver bullet against gram-ositive bactera.
1395116503169 1358629116480 {{c1::Vancomycin}} is a glycoetide antibiotic
that inhibits Transglycolase in <b>gram-ositive bacteria only</b>.
1395116527633 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Vancomycin?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of Transglycolase in gram-ositives}}</div>
1395116550160 1358629116480 What is the DOC for MRSA?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Vancomycin}}</div>
1395116564049 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Clostridium difficile</i>}} is a gram-
ositive, sore forming bacteria that can be treated with Vancomycin due to its
oor oral bioavailability and tendency to stay in the GI lumen.
1395116619994 1358629116480 {{c1::Red Man/Neck Syndrome}} is an adverse effe

ct of Vancomycin that involves flushing of the torso and itching of the skin.
1395116644610 1358629116480 {{c1::Histamine}} is a vaso-active hormone that
is released <u>nonimmunologically</u>&nbs;in Red Man/Neck Syndrome following Va
ncomycin administration, thereby causing flushing and ruritis.
1395116689690 1358629116480 {{c1::Clavulanate}} and&nbs;{{c2::Sulbactam}} a
re beta-lactamase inhibitors that are used in combination with beta-lactam antib
iotics.
1395116723404 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Clavulanate and Sulbactam?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Beta-Lactamase}}</div>
1395116744888 1358629116480 Which beta-lactamase inhibitor has a wider sect
rum of activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Clavulanate}}</div>
1395116870255 1358629116480 {{c1::Ceftazidime}} is a 3rd generation Cehalos
orin used in <i>Pseudomonas</i>&nbs;infections.
1395116901158 1358629116480 {{c1::Cefeime}} is a 4th generation Cehalosor
in that is used in <i>Pseudomonas </i>infections.
1395116919391 1358629116480 Which antibiotic is the drug of choice for Gonor
rhea?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Ceftriaxone}}</div>
1395117036799 1358629116480 {{c1::Ceftriaxone}} and&nbs;{{c2::Cefotaxime}}
are 3rd generation cehalosorins that treat meningitis caused by <i>Haemohilus
influenzae</i>, Pneumococcus and Meningococcus.
<br /><div><i>Mainly due
to good BBB enetration.</i></div>
orin that treats Tyhoid Fever caused by <i>Salmonella tyhi</i>.
orin that is used to treat Acute Otitis Media caused by Pneumococcus and <i>H.
influenzae</i>.
1395117150532 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Stretococcus neumoniae</i>}} is a gra
m-ositive cocci that is very suscetible to Cehalosorin antibiotics.
1395286600892 1358629116480 What is the antibiotic that is the DOC for Legio
nella?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Azithromycin}}</div>
1395362762493 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Aminoglycosides?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of the 30S ribosomal subunit}}</div>
1395362812452 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Tetracyclines?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Inhibition of the 30S ribosomal subunit}}</div>
1395362829802 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Tigecycline?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhibition of the 30S ribosomal subunit}}</div>
1395362847015 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Chloramhenicol?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of the 50S ribosomal subunit}}</div>
1395362869971 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Macrolides (Erythromycin and
Azithromycin)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of the 50S subunit}}</div>
1395362894547 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Clindamycin?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhibition of the 50S subunit}}</div>
1395362907060 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Linezolid?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of the 50S subunit}}</div>
1395362919520 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Quinuristin-Dalforistin?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of the 50S subunit}}</div>
1395362937536 1358629116480 Which grou of bacteria are Aminoglycosides main
ly active against?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<b>Aerobic</b>&nbs;<b>G-</b>&nbs
;bacteria}}</div>
1395362988953 1358629116480 {{c1::Aminoglycosides}} are a tye antibiotic th
at inhibit the 30S ribosomal subunit and are commonly used with enicillins/beta
-lactams.
1395363034887 1358629116480 {{c1::Gentamycin}} is an Aminoglycoside that is
used as a <b>Single Daily Dose</b>&nbs;due to its concentraion deendent killin
g and long ost-antibiotic effect.
1395363076700 1358629116480 What is the ROA of Aminoglycosides?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Parenteral}}</div>
1395363090766 1358629116480 {{c1::Tobramycin}} is an aminoglycoside that is
suerior against <i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>.
1395363137393 1358629116480 {{c1::Amikacin}} is an aminoglycoside that is re

sistant to aminoglycoside-inactivating enzymes.
1395363165144 1358629116480 What is the most commonly used Aminoglycoside?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gentamycin}}</div>
1395363178479 1358629116480 {{c1::Neomycin}} is an aminoglycoside that is hi
ghly <b>nehrotoxic</b>&nbs;and is hence only used toically or orally for GI i
nfections due to oor F<sub>ORAL</sub>
1395363254179 1358629116480 What adverse effect is linked to the aminoglycos
ide Neomycin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nehrotoxicity}}</div>
1395363271224 1358629116480 {{c1::Stretomycin}} is an aminoglycoside that i
s used against <i>Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Yersinia estis</i>&nbs;and <i>Fr
ancisella tularemia</i>.
1395363300453 1358629116480 {{c1::Aminoglycosides}} are a tye of antibiotic
that are commonly used in s<b>evere gram-negative bacilli</b>&nbs;infections w
ith disseminated seticemia.
1395363335692 1358629116480 {{c1::Neomycin}} is an aminoglycoside that is us
ed as an adjunct theray in Heatic Encehaloathy, tyically with Lactulose.
1395363999865 1358629116480 {{c1::Tobramycin}} is an Aminoglycoside that can
be given in nebulised form to treat <i>Pseudomonas </i>infections in cystic fib
rosis atients.
1395364029093 1358629116480 {{c1::Stretomycin}} and&nbs;{{c2::Amikacin}} a
re aminoglycosides used to treat TB.
1395364051076 1358629116480 {{c1::Gentamycin}} is an aminoglycoside used to
treat Brucellosis with Doxycycline.
1395364064845 1358629116480 {{c1::Stretomycin}} and&nbs;{{c2::Gentamycin}}
are aminoglycosides used to treat <i>Yersinia estis</i>.
1395364083381 1358629116480 {{c1::Stretomycin}} and&nbs;{{c2::Gentamycin}}
are aminoglycosides used to treat Tularemia (<i>Francisella tularemia</i>).
1395364108280 1358629116480 Tetracyclines are not effective against&nbs;{{c
1::<i>Proteus</i>}} and&nbs;{{c2::<i>Pseudomonas</i>}} <br /><div><i>No PP when
you lay tetris.</i></div>
1395364907706 1358629116480 Which gruo of antibiotics is Chlamydial suscet
ible to?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tetracyclines and Macrolides}}</div>
Secifically, drug of choice is Azithromycin single dose (Macrolide). &nbs;Doxy
cycline (Tetracycline) 2x daily for 7 days if Azithromycin is unavailable.
1395364948976 1358629116480 {{c1::Tetracyclines}} are a tye of antibiotic t
hat are used with Gentamycin to treat Brucellosis.
1395364989812 1358629116480 {{c1::Doxycycline}} is a Tetracycline that is us
ed for ost-exosure rohylaxis to <i>Yersenia estis</i>&nbs;and Tularemia.
1395365034963 1358629116480 {{c1::Tetracyclines}} are a tye of antibiotic t
hat are contraindicated in regnancy and re-ubertal children (< 8 y/o) due
to the bone malformations that can occur.
1395365097422 1358629116480 {{c1::Doxycycline}} is a Tetracycline antibiotic
that can be administered in renal disease as it is excreted in the bile.
1395365116637 1358629116480 {{c1::Efflux ums}} are a mechanism of resistan
t to Tetracyclines. An examle is the <i>tetK</i>&nbs;rotein in <i>Stahylococ
cus</i>.
1395365151796 1358629116480 Tigecycline is an antibiotic that is not effecti
ve against&nbs;{{c1::<i>Proteus</i>}}<i>&nbs;</i>and&nbs;{{c2::<i>Pseudomonas
</i>}} <br /><div><i>Do not PP on the Tiger.</i></div>
1395365197728 1358629116480 {{c1::Myelosuression}} is a serious adverse ef
fect of Chloramhenicol and involves ancytoenia.
1395365229281 1358629116480 {{c1::Gray-Baby Syndrome}} is a serious adverse
effect of Chloramhenical that is commonly seen in babies.
1395365245901 1358629116480 What tye of bacteria are commonly affected by C
lindamycin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anaerobes}}</div>
1395365264216 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Bacteroides fragilis</i>}} is an anaero
bic bacteria that is rimarily killed by Clindamycin.
1395365298389 1358629116480 What is a serious adverse effect of Clindamycin?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pseudomembranous colitis}}</div>
1395365321967 1358629116480 {{c1::Linezolid}} is a reserve antibiotic that i

nhibits the 50S ribosomal subunit in resistant bacteria such as MRSA, VRSA, and
VRE.
1395365359203 1358629116480 How does Linezolid affect Lactic Acid levels?<di
<br /><div><i>Causes lactic acid
osis.</i></div>
1395365382318 1358629116480 {{c1::Monoamine Oxidase}} is a metabolic enzyme
that is inhibited by Linezolid through drug interaction and is involved in the b
reakdown of monoamines.
1395365424484 1358629116480 Which CYP enzyme is inhibited by Quinuristin-Da
lforistin?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::CYP3A4}}</div>
1395365454247 1358629116480 {{c1::Cotrimoxazole}} is a combination antibioti
c that involves Sulfamethoxazole and Trimethorim (TMP-SMZ).
1395366405913 1358629116480 Sulfonamide antibiotics are contraindicated in&n
bs;{{c1::G6PD Deficiency}} due to the hemolytic anaemia that occurs.
1395366649456 1358629116480 {{c1::Trimethorim}} is a diaminoyrimidine anti
biotic that can cause Asetic Meningitis.
1395366705327 1358629116480 Which antibiotic is the DOC for <i>Pneumocystis
jiroveci</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cotrimoxazole (TMP-SMZ)}}</div>
1395366745438 1358629116480 {{c1::Cotrimoxazole (TMP-SMZ)}} is a combination
antibiotic that is used as an alternative in&nbs;<i>Listeria monocytogenes</i>
&nbs;and <i>Legionellosis</i>.
1395366790410 1358629116480 What grou of bacteria are affected by Metronida
zole?<div><br /></div><div>{{c2::Anaerobes}}</div>
1395366885195 1358629116480 What is the severe adverse effect associated wit
h Metronidazole?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Disulfiram-like reactions}}</div>
1395366917039 1358629116480 What is the DOC for <i>Trichomonas vaginalis</i>
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Metronidazole}}</div>
1395366943737 1358629116480 What is the DOC for <i>Entamoeba histolytica</i>
&nbs;and <i>Giardia lambli</i>a<i>?</i><div><i><br /></i></div><div>{{c1::Metro
nidazole}}</div>
1395366972948 1358629116480 What is the drug of choice for Dracunculiasis?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Metronidazole}}</div>
1395366996701 1358629116480 {{c1::Methenamine}} is a urinary antisetic that
decomoses in an acidic H into formaldehyde, thereby killing bacteria.
1395367037611 1358629116480 {{c1::Methenamine}} is a urinary antisetic that
is ineffective against UTIs caused by <i>Proteus</i>&nbs;as it makes the urine
alkaline.
1395367145015 1358629116480 {{c1::Nitrofurantoin}} is a urinary antisetic t
hat converts into a highly reactive intermediate that damages bacterial DNA in t
he renal tubules/urinary tract.
1395367185218 1358629116480 {{c1::Nitrofurantoin}} is a urinary antisetic t
hat is contraindicated in G6PD deficiency due to the hemolytic anaemia caused.
1395410121386 1358629116480 {{c1::Sulfonamides}} are a <u>grou</u>&nbs;of
antibiotics that are avoided in neonates and infants due to their ability to tak
e u bilirubin binding sites on Albumin, thereby exacerbating or facilitating an
y jaundice.
1395410185451 1358629116480 {{c1::Linezolid}} is an antibiotic that can caus
e hyoglycemia if the atient is taking anti-diabetics or insulin.
1395410390048 1358629116480 Which generation of Cehalosorins are the best
at crossing the BBB?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
<br /><div><i>He
nce, they are great for bacterial meningitis.</i></div>
1395448351218 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Amhotericin B?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Binds to Ergosterol and forms ores in the cell membrane, thereby
creating a leaky membrane}}</div>
1395449370911 1358629116480 {{c1::Amhotericin B}} is an antifungal that has
a low theraeutic index due to it's non-selective binding to cholesterol (ergos
terol and human cholesterol).
1395449421384 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Nystatin?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Binds to Ergosterol, thereby forming olyene associated ores through fu
ngal cell membranes, thereby creating a leaky membrane}}</div>

1395449475781 1358629116480 {{c1::Flucocytosine}} is an antifungal that ente
rs fungi via a ermease and inhibits fungal RNA synthesis.
<br /><div><i>On
ly used in combination theray with other antifungals.</i></div>
1395450249483 1358629116480 {{c1::Flucocytosine}} is an antifungal that can
cause CNS toxicity, myelosuression, nehrotoxicity and heatotoxicity. Hence o
rgan function and blood needs to be monitored.
1395450299274 1358629116480 {{c1::Azoles}} are a <b>class</b>&nbs;of antifu
ngal that inhibits Ergosterol biosynthesis by inhibiting fungal Ianosterol 14-de
methylase, a CYP450 deendent enzyme.
1395450454696 1358629116480 What is the DOC in Esohageal Candidiasis?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Fluconazole}}</div>
1395450473819 1358629116480 What is the DOC in Blastomycosis?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Itraconazole (excet in CNS)}}</div>
1395450496296 1358629116480 What is the DOC in Sorotrichosis?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Itraconazole (excet in CNS)}}</div>
1395450514269 1358629116480 What is the DOC for Invasive Asergillosis?<div>
<br />{{c1::Voriconazole}}</div>
1395450547150 1358629116480 {{c1::Echinocandins}} are a <b>class</b>&nbs;of
antifungals that are non-cometitive inhibitors of the fungal enzyme comlex be
ta(1-3)-D-Glucan Synthase, thereby disruting fungal cell wall growth. <br /><d
iv><i>All are IV and all end in <b>-fungin</b>&nbs;(Anidulafungin, Casofungin,
Micafungin).</i></div>
1395450671808 1358629116480 {{c1::Anidulafungin}} is an Echinocandin antifun
gal that is given to atients with Candidemia. <br /><div><i>All Echinocandins
can be given</i>.</div>
1395450733275 1358629116480 {{c1::Griseofulvin}} is an antifungal that inhib
its fungal mitosis via disrution of the mitotic sindle by interaction with ol
ymerized microtubules.
1395450826926 1358629116480 {{c1::Griseofulvin}} is an antifungal that is us
ed to treat dermatohyte infections of the skin, hair, beard and nails.
1395450853403 1358629116480 Which CYP enzyme is induced by Griseofulvin?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::CYP3A4}}</div>
1395450886126 1358629116480 {{c1::Terbinafine}} and {{c2::Cicloirox}} are a
ntifungals that inhibit Ergosterol biosynthesis through inhibition of the fungal
enzyme Squalene Eoxidase.
<br /><div><i>The accumulation of Squalene is to
xic to fungi and disruts the cell membrane.</i></div>
1395450983451 1358629116480 {{c1::Terbinafine}} and&nbs;{{c2::Cicloirox}}
are antifungals used to treat Onychomycosis and have high cure rates.
1395451014993 1358629116480 Which CYP enzyme is inhibited by the antifungal
Terbinafine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CYP2D6}}</div>
1395451039480 1358629116480 {{c1::Tolfanate}} is an antifungal that has unkn
own MOA but is thought to inhibits Squalene Eoxidase like Terbinafine and Ciclo
irox.
1395505461245 1358629116480 Which fungal enzyme is inhibited by Azoles?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Ianosterol 14-demethylase, a CYP450 deendent enzyme}}</d
iv>
1405547743319 1395802358422 Where along the nehron does Acetazolamide act?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Proximal tubules}}</div>
te-20096151978782.jg" /></div>
1405549359779 1395802358422 Where along the nehron do loo diuretics act?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Loo of Henle}}</div> <br /><div><i>lol</i></div><div>
1405549511121 1395802358422 Where along the nehron do Thiazide diuretics ac
t?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Distal tubule}}</div>
te-20091857011486.jg" /></div>
1405549529226 1395802358422 Where along the nehron do Potassium-saring Diu
retics act?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Collecting duct}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="aste-20091857011486.jg" /></div>
1405549547918 1395802358422 {{c1::Mannitol}} is an osmotic diuretic that fun
ctions by <b>increasing renal tubuluar fluid osmolarity</b>, thereby <b>increasi

ng urine flow.</b>
1405549705913 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Mannitol?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Tx of ICP/IOP; Drug overdose}}</div>
1405549734485 1395802358422 {{c1::Mannitol}} is an osmotic diuretic that is
contraindicated in anuria or CHF.
1405549755924 1395802358422 {{c1::Pulmonary edema}} is a ossible ulmonary
comlication of Mannitol administration.
<br /><div><i>Dehydration as wel
l, due to the increase in urinary flow.</i></div>
1405549779535 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Acetazolamide?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Carbonic Anhydrase}}</div> <br /><div><i>Thereby ca
uses <b>self-limited NaHCO<sub>3</sub>&nbs;diuresis</b>&nbs;and a <b>decrease
in total body HCO<sub>3</sub>&nbs;stores</b>.</i></div>
1405549993166 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetazolamide}} is a diuretic used to <b>a
lkalinize the urine</b>&nbs;or <b>treat metabolic alkalosis</b>&nbs;as it&nbs
;<b>inhibits Carbonic Anhydrase</b>.
1405550053604 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetazolamide}} is a diuretic that inhibit
s carbonic anhydrase and is used to <b>treat altitude sickness</b>&nbs;and <b>
seudotumour cerebri</b>.
1405550083243 1395802358422 What tye of acid-base imbalance does Acetazolam
ide cause?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyerchloremic Metabolic Acidosis}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, Acetazolamide causes <b>NaHCO<sub>3</sub>&nbs;diuresis<
/b>&nbs;and lowers <b>HCO<sub>3</sub>&nbs;levels</b>.</i></div>
1405550123826 1395802358422 Which diuretic is associated with <b>NH<sub>3</s
ub>&nbs;toxicity</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acetazolamide}}</div>
1405550162841 1395802358422 What tye of diuretic is Furosemide?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Loo diuretic}}</div>
1405550538839 1395802358422 What tye of diuretic is Ethacrynic Acid?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Loo diuretic}}</div>
1405550552541 1395802358422 What is the rimary MOA of Furosemide?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of the the Na/K/2Cl cotransorter at the thick asce
nding limb of the loo of Henle}}</div> <br /><div><i>In doing so, it <b>abolish
es the hyertonicity of the medulla</b>&nbs;and <b>inhibits concentration of th
e urine</b>&nbs;as it ascends out of the loo of Henle.</i></div><div><i>It als
o stimulates release of PGE (which has vasodilatory effects on the afferent arte
riole).</i></div>
1405550671296 1395802358422 How do NSAIDs influence Furosemide action?<div><
1405550682732 1395802358422 {{c1::Furosemide}} is a sulfonamide loo diureti
c that functions by <b>inhibiting the Na/K/2Cl cotransorter</b>&nbs;at the thi
ck ascending limb of loo of Henle.
<br /><div><i>In doing so, it <b>abolish
es the hyertonicity of the medulla</b>&nbs;and <b>revents concentration of th
e urine</b>&nbs;as it ascends out of the loo of Henle.</i></div>
1405550753024 1395802358422 How does Furosemide influence Ca excretion?<div>
1405550761741 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Furosemide?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Edematous states; Hyercalcemia; HTN}}</div> <br /><div><i>Ed
ematous states include: CHF, cirrhosis, nehrotic syndrome, ulmonary edema</i><
/div>
1405550840721 1395802358422 {{c1::Ototoxicity}} is a CNS comlication of loo
<img src="aste-21466246545469.jg" />
diuretics.
1405550879762 1395802358422 How do loo diuretics change K levels?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Hyokalemia}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-2146195157817
3.jg" /></div>
1405550890766 1395802358422 Which loo diuretic is known to cause sulfa-drug
allergy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Furosemide}}</div>
1405550914300 1395802358422 Which loo diuretic is used for diuresis <b>in
atients allergic to sulfa drugs</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ethacrynic Acid}
}</div>
1405551006584 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Ethacrynic Acid?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of the Na/K/2Cl cotransorter in the thick ascending l

imb of the loo of Henle}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.e. same as Furosemide (l
oo diuretic)</i></div><div><i><div></div></i><i>In doing so, it&nbs;<b>abolish
es the hyertonicity of the medulla</b>&nbs;and&nbs;<b>inhibits concentration
of the urine</b>&nbs;as it ascends out of the loo of Henle.</i></div>
1405551018326 1395802358422 Which loo diuretic is <b>never</b>&nbs;used to
treat Gout?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ethacrynic Acid}}</div>
1405551088986 1395802358422 What is the MOA of thiazide diuretics?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of NaCl reabsortion at the early distal tubule}}</
div>
1405551293918 1395802358422 How do thiazide diuretics influence Ca levels?<d
<br /><div><i>They <b>decrease C
a excretion.</b></i></div>
1405551327249 1395802358422 Which thiazide diuretic is used to treat Nehrog
enic Diabetes Insiidus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hydrochlorothiazide}}</div>
1405551348698 1395802358422 Which thiazide diuretic is used to treat Osteoo
rosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hydrochlorothiazide}}</div>
1405551364276 1395802358422 What acid-base imbalance is seen following Hydro
chlorothiazide use?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyokalemic metabolic alkalosis}}
</div>
1405551403709 1395802358422 How does Hydrochlorothiazide change Na levels?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyonatremia}}</div>
1405551421622 1395802358422 How does Hydrochlorothiazide change glucose leve
ls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyerglycemia}}</div>
1405551430974 1395802358422 How does Hydrochlorothiazide change liid levels
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyerliidemia}}</div>
1405551439343 1395802358422 How does Hydrochlorothiazide change uric acid le
vels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyeruricemia}}</div>
1405551445167 1395802358422 How does Hydrochlorothiazide change Ca levels?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyercalcemia}}</div>
1405551453656 1395802358422 What tye of diuretic is Sironolactone?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::K-saring}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-2290076562233
5.jg" /></div>
1405551467819 1395802358422 What tye of diuretic is Elerenone?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::K-saring}}</div>
9.jg" /></div>
1405551474260 1395802358422 What tye of diuretic is Amiloride?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::K-saring}}</div>
9.jg" /></div>
1405551480953 1395802358422 What tye of diuretic is Triamterene?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::K-saring}}</div>
9.jg" /></div>
1405551489541 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Sironolactone and Elerenone
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cometitive antagonism at Aldosterone recetors in
the collecting duct}}</div>
1405551563667 1395802358422 {{c1::Sironolactone}} and&nbs;{{c2::Elerenone
}} are 2 K-saring diuretics that act as <b>aldosterone recetor antagonists</b>
&nbs;at the collecting duct.
1405551593091 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Triamterene and Amiloride?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blockade of Na channels in the collecting duct}}</div>
1405551620085 1395802358422 {{c1::Triamterene}} and&nbs;{{c2::Amiloride}} a
re 2 K-saring diuretics that act by <b>blocking Na channels in the collecting d
uct</b>.
1405551647285 1395802358422 What diuretic is used to treat <b>hyeraldostero
nism</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::K-saring diuretics}}</div>
<br /><d
1405551683451 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyerkalemia}} is a serum electrolyte imba
lance that results following K-saring diuretic use which can lead to arrhythmia
.
1405551731169 1395802358422 Which K-saring diuretic is associated with <b>e
ndocrine effects</b>&nbs;such as <b>gynecomastia</b>&nbs;and <b>antiandrogen</

b>&nbs;effects?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sironolactone}}</div>
1405551758720 1395802358422 What is the <b>only</b>&nbs;diuretic that <b>do
es not increase urinary NaCl</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acetazolamide}}</di
v>
1405552398547 1395802358422 How do loo diuretics change <b>urinary K levels
</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hyokalemi
a can result.</i></div>
1405552424192 1395802358422 How do thiazide diuretics change <b>urinary K</b
>&nbs;levels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hy
okalemia may result.</i></div>
1405552442152 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetazolamide}} is a carbonic anhydrase in
hibiting diuretic that causes acidosis as it causes <b>decreased HCO<sub>3 </sub
>reabsortion</b>.
1405552690350 1395802358422 {{c1::K-saring diuretics}} are a tye of diuret
ic that causes <b>acidosis</b>&nbs;due to <b>antagonism of aldosterone</b>&nbs
;which revents K and H secretion.
<br /><div><i>The resultant hyerkalemia
drives H/K exchange, resulting in H movement <b>out of</b>&nbs;the cell.</i></
div>
1405552754735 1395802358422 {{c1::Loo diuretics}} and&nbs;{{c2::thiazide d
iuretics}} are 2 tyes of diuretics that cause <b>alkalosis</b>&nbs;due to <b>v
olume contraction</b>&nbs;as a result of increased Angiotensin II levels.
<br /><div><i>ATII increases Na/H exchange in the PCT thereby leading to <b>incr
eased HCO<sub>3</sub>&nbs;reabsortion.</b></i></div>
1405552828433 1395802358422 {{c1::Loo diuretics}} and&nbs;{{c2::thiazide d
iuretics}} are 2 tyes of diuretics that cause&nbs;<b>alkalosis</b>&nbs;due to
<b>K excretion causing K movement <u>into</u>&nbs;cells in exchange for H.</b>
<i><div></div></i><i><br /></i>Also, in low K states, H is exchanged for Na in t
he collecting duct instead of K.
1405552904368 1395802358422 Which 2 tyes of diuretics cause <b>alkalosis</b
>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Loo; Thiazide}}</div>
1405552917748 1395802358422 Which 2 tyes of diuretics cause <b>acidosis</b>
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Carbonic Anhydrase inhibitors; K-saring diuretics}
}</div>
1405552937563 1395802358422 How do loo diuretics change <b>urinary Ca</b>&n
bs;levels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><i>Loos diur
etics <b>decrease aracellular Ca reabsortion</b>&nbs;thereby causing <b>hyoc
alcemia</b>.</i></div>
1405553197834 1395802358422 How do thiazide diuretics change <b>urinary Ca</
b>&nbs;levels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th
iazides <b>enhance aracellular Ca reabsortion in the distal tubule</b>.</i></d
iv>
1405553233604 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Catoril?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::ACE inhibition}}</div>
1405555071261 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Enalaril?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::ACE inhibition}}</div>
1405555078795 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Lisinoril?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::ACE Inhibition}}</div>
1405555085862 1395802358422 {{c1::Catoril}},&nbs;{{c2::Enalaril}} and&nb
s;{{c3::Lisinoril}} are ACE inhibitors that <b>decrease angiotensin II levels<
/b>&nbs;and subsequently <b>decrease GFR</b>&nbs;by reventing the constrictio
n of efferent arterioles.
1405555136363 1395802358422 How do ACE Inhibitors change renin levels?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <br /><div><i>Due to a loss of negative
feedback from Angiotensin II.</i></div>
1405555163704 1395802358422 How do bradykinin levels change following ACE In
hibitor administration?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Remember, Angiotensin II also breaks down bradykinin.</i></div><div><i>Thi
s is why atients on ACE Inhibitors will cough a alot (i.e. ACE Inhibitor Cough)
.</i></div>
1405555215949 1395802358422 How do Angiotensin II antagonists change bradyki

nin levels?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::There is no increase}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Hence there is no risk of cough or angioedema.</i></div><div><i>Angiotensi
n II antagonists at -sartans.</i></div>
1405555266501 1395802358422 {{c1::Fetal Renal Malformations}} are a teratoge
nic comlication of ACE inhibitors.
9.jg" /></div>
1405555334518 1395802358422 How do ACE Inhibitors change creatinine levels?<
<br /><div><i>ACE Inhibitors dec
rease GFR hence increase creatinine levels.</i></div><div><i><img src="aste-247
17536788673.jg" /></i></div>
1405555356990 1395802358422 How do ACE Inhibitors change K levels?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Hyerkalemia}}</div> <br /><div><img src="aste-2471753678867
3.jg" /></div>
1380309060829 1358629116480 Fine or ultra-fine articulate matter&nbs;{{c1:
:< 10 um}} in diameter are the most harmful to health.
<br /><div><i>Ca
using eye/throat/lung irritation, asthma attacks and romotion of MIs</i></div>
1380312076365 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute}} CO oisoning is characterized by a
generalized cherry-red colour of the skin and mucous membranes.
<br /><d
iv><i>Due to a sudden increase in [CO]</i></div>
1380314855302 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic}} CO oisoning is characterized by
slowly develoing hyoxia, esecially CNS ischemia at the globus allidus (basa
l ganglia).
<br /><div><i>Necrosis at the globus allidus results in Parkins
onism.</i></div>
1380314938216 1358629116480 {{c1::Radon}} is a radioactive gas derived from
uranium that can cause lung cancer.
1380315284967 1358629116480 {{c1::Sick building}} syndrome is due to exosur
e to one or more indoor ollutants or oor ventilation.
1380315379584 1358629116480 The effect of lead oisoning in children on the
CNS is&nbs;{{c1::encehaloathy}} as children have significantly higher BBB er
meabilities.
1380315955972 1358629116480 In adults,&nbs;{{c1::eriheral neuroathy}} is
the tyical PNS symtom seen with lead oisoning.
1380315993441 1358629116480 "Lead lines" at the metahyses of long bones on
an x-ray are characteristic of&nbs;{{c1::lead oisoning}}.
1380316277213 1358629116480 Lead inhibits&nbs;{{c1::ALA dehydratase}} and&n
bs;{{c2::Ferrochelatase}}, 2 enzymes involved in heme synthesis.
1380316426726 1358629116480 Lead oisoning decreases heme synthesis, hence t
here will be&nbs;{{c1::microcytic, hyochromic, sideroblastic}} anaemia.
1380316464649 1358629116480 {{c1::Ferrochelatase}} is an enzyme involved in
heme synthesis that catalyzes the incororation of iron into rotoorhyrin, the
reby forming heme.
1380316639651 1358629116480 Basohilic stiling in erythrocytes is characte
ristic of&nbs;{{c1::lead}} oisoning.
1380316707332 1358629116480 During lead oisoning, there will be scattered&n
bs;{{c1::ringed sideroblasts}} at the bone marrow.&nbs;
1380316827663 1358629116480 {{c1::Sideroblasts}} are red cell recursors wit
h iron-laden mitochondria. They are detected via Prussian blue staining.
1380316854707 1358629116480 In lead oisoning, adults tyically develo eri
heral demyelinating neuroathy. Symtoms include&nbs;{{c1::wrist-dro}} and&nb
s;{{c2::foot-dro}}. <br /><div><i>Foot dro is followed by aralysis of ero
neal muscles.</i></div>
1380316960522 1358629116480 In lead oisoning, adults can develo GI symtom
s including severe {{c1::abdominal colic}}.
1380317486453 1358629116480 All heavy metals cause&nbs;{{c1::acute tubular
necrosis}} at the kidneys.
1380319052743 1358629116480 Chronic arsenic oisoning increases the risk of
develoing&nbs;{{c1::angiosarcoma}} of the liver.
1380319869189 1358629116480 Chronic arsenic oisoning increases the risk of
develoing&nbs;{{c1::squamous cell carcinoma}} and {{c2::hyerigmentation/hye
rkeratosis}}&nbs;at the skin.

1380319929572 1358629116480 Chronic {{c2::arsenic}} oisoning causes white t
ransverse lines on the finger nails called&nbs;{{c1::Mees' lines}}.
1380319958336 1358629116480 Severe Cadmium oisoning is often characterized
by a skeletal abnormality called&nbs;{{c1::Itai-Itai}} that involves osteooros
is, osteomalacia and renal disease.
1380320213795 1358629116480 Cadmium oisoning can cause&nbs;{{c1::obstructi
ve}} lung disease due to the necrosis of alveolar macrohages.
1380320258322 1358629116480 Workers who have chronically increased exosure
to Cadmium often have increased risks of develoing&nbs;{{c1::lung}} cancer.
1380320296921 1358629116480 Benzene oisoning is characterized by dose-deen
dent&nbs;{{c1::alastic anaemia}} as its toxic metabolites disrut the differen
tiation of hematooietic cells.
1380320822950 1358629116480 The&nbs;{{c1::amhibole}} form of asbestos is t
he less revalent and more athogenic form.
1380332476507 1358629116480 The&nbs;{{c1::serentine}} form of asbestos is
the more flexible, curled form with lower carcinogenic otential.
1380332506771 1358629116480 Vinyl chlorides can cause&nbs;{{c1::angiosarcom
a}} of the liver.
1380334538766 1358629116480 Radon, asbestos and arsenic all increase the ris
k of&nbs;{{c1::Lung}} cancer.
1380334586388 1358629116480 Silica and asbestos are tyically associated wit
h&nbs;{{c1::ulmonary}} fibrosis.
1380334874968 1358629116480 Nahthylamines and rubber roducts can cause&nbs
;{{c1::bladder}} cancer.
1380335032607 1358629116480 Benzene can cause&nbs;{{c1::alastic}} anaemia
and leukemia.
1380335047550 1358629116480 Polychlorinated bihenyls can cause&nbs;{{c1::f
olliculitis}} and&nbs;{{c2::acneiform dermatosis}}.
1380335105569 1358629116480 The 3 strongest carcinogens in tobacco smoke are
&nbs;{{c1::olycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons}},&nbs;{{c2::benzoyrenes}} and&nb
s;{{c3::nitrosamine}}.
1380336401301 1358629116480 {{c1::Nicotine}} is the addictive constituent of
tobacco smoke. It stimulates and deresses autonomic ganglia.
1380336441146 1358629116480 The ersistent DNA adducts formed by metabolizat
ion of carcinogens in tobacco facilitate mutations in the oncogene&nbs;{{c1::KRas}} and the tumour suressor&nbs;{{c2::53}}.
1380336750445 1358629116480 Smoking is associated with lung cancer. Secific
ally&nbs;{{c1::small cell}} carcinoma and&nbs;{{c2::squamous cell}} carcinoma.
1380337560991 1358629116480 Smoking can cause&nbs;{{c1::squamous cell}} car
cinoma of the larynx.
1380337583162 1358629116480 {{c1::Mallory-Weiss}} syndrome is seen in acute
alcohol abuse and is characterized by <b>tearing</b> of the distal esohagus due
to retching.
1380338932173 1358629116480 {{c1::Beorhave's syndrome}} is seen in acute alc
ohol abuse and is characterized by <b>ruture</b>&nbs;of the distal esohagus d
ue to retching.
1380386699959 1358629116480 The endocarditis seen in IV drug users is often
due to infection of the heart valves by the bacteria&nbs;{{c1::<i>Stahylococcu
s aureus</i>}}.
1380386758429 1358629116480 When exosed to 1-2 Sv of radiation, the main si
te of injury is at&nbs;{{c1::lymhocytes}} after 1 day-1 week, thereby resultin
g in moderate granulocytoenia and lymhoenia.
1380390729651 1358629116480 When exosed to 2-10 Sv of radiation, the main s
ite of injury is at the&nbs;{{c1::bone marrrow}} after <b>2-6 weeks</b>, thereb
y resulting in hemorrhaging, leukoenia, hair loss and vomiting.
1380390790237 1358629116480 When exosed to 10-20 Sv of radiation, the site
of injury is the&nbs;{{c1::small intestine}} <b>5-14 days later</b>, thereby re
sulting in diarrhea, fever, electrolyte imbalance and vomiting. <br /><div><i>Th
is is 100% lethal.</i></div>
1380390856464 1358629116480 When exosed to >50 Sv of radiation, the main

site of injury is the&nbs;{{c1::brain}} <b>1-4 hours later</b>, thereby result
ing in ataxia, coma, convulsions and vomiting. <br /><div><i>This is 100% letha
l.</i></div>
1381339287744 1358629116480 What does the term "3rd sacing" refer to?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Edema; someone who is edematous}}</div>
1381341067453 1358629116480 {{c1::Edema}} is an abnormal increase and/or acc
umulation in intersitial fluid within tissues.
1381341649229 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydrothorax}} is the collection of edemato
us fluid in the thorax.
1381342252451 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydroericardium}} is the collection of ed
ematous fluid in the ericardium. It is tyically seen in ericarditis.
1381342369134 1358629116480 {{c1::Anasarca}} is a severe and generalized ede
ma with widesread subcutaneous tissue swelling.
1381342544810 1358629116480 {{c1::Transudate}} is a clear, rotein-oor edem
atous fluid tyically seen with heart, renal or heatic failure.
1381342721598 1358629116480 {{c1::Exudate}} is a yellow, turbid, rotein-ric
h edematous fluid tyically seen with inflammation.
1381342750821 1358629116480 {{c1::Exudate}} is an edematous fluid with a ro
tein content > 3 g/dL.
1381342813019 1358629116480 {{c1::Transudate}} is an edematous fluid with a
rotein content < 3 g/dL.
1381342847181 1358629116480 Jugular venous distention and deendent, itting
edema are tell tale signs of&nbs;{{c1::Right-sided}} congestive heart failure.
<div><br /></div><div>Jugular Venous Distention (left)</div><img src="220x-Elev
ated_JVP.JPG" /><img src="itted_edema.jg" />
1381343271905 1358629116480 Orthonea is a tell tale sign of&nbs;{{c1::left
-sided}} congestive heart failure.
<i>Orthonea is a shortness of breath th
at occurs when lying flat</i>
1381343310296 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of right-sided con
gestive heart failure?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Left-sided congestive heart fa
ilure}}</div>
1381343343858 1358629116480 Which aolioroteins are commonly elevated in n
ehrotic syndrome?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::AoB, AoC-II and AoE}}</div>
<br><div><i>"BCE"</i></div><div><i><br></i></div><div><i>This is what causes the
hyerliidemia.</i></div>
1381346120157 1358629116480 What is the most common clinical roblem suggest
ed by ulmonary edema?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Left ventricular failure}}</div>
1381346238118 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyeremia}} is an active increase in blood
volume due to an increase in blood flow at tissue due to arteriolar dilation.
1381346650060 1358629116480 {{c1::Congestion}} is a assive increase in loca
l blood volume due to reduced outflow of blood from tissue.
1381346706062 1358629116480 What does a nutmeg liver indicate?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Chronic Heatic Congestion}}.</div>
<div><i>Pictured: Nutmeg
(left) and Nutmeg liver (right)</i></div><img src="nutmeg3.jg" />
1381347636131 1358629116480 {{c1::Nonthrombocytoenic Pururas}} are bleedin
g disorders that do not involve latelet defects. They are tyically due to defe
cts in vessel walls.
1381351999252 1358629116480 How does a Nonthrombocytoenic Purura affect BT
, PT and PTT?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::They are all normal.}}</div>
1381352602413 1358629116480 How does Thrombocytoenic Purura affect Bleedin
g Time (BT)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::BT is rolonged/increased}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, <b>BT measures latelet function, not clotting factor fu
nction.</b></i></div>
1381366318127 1358629116480 What causes Idioathic/Immune Thrombocytoenic P
urura (ITP)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-GIIb/IIIa antibodies; antibodies
against latelet antigens}}</div>
1381366402875 1358629116480 What are the bone marrow biosy findings in Idio
athic Thrombocytoenic Purura (ITP)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increased mega
karyocytes at the bone marrow}}</div> <br /><div><i>Because you have Anti-GPII
b/IIIa antibodies, you have slenic macrohage consumtion of the latelet-antib

ody comlex</i></div>
1381366745650 1358629116480 What are the eriheral blood smear findings in
Idioathic Thrombocytoenic Purura?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Presence of mega
thrombocytes (large immature latelets)}}</div>
1381366802778 1358629116480 What causes Hearin Induced Thrombocytoenia?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antibodies against latelet factor IV}}</div>
1381368808262 1358629116480 To which 2 recetors does HIV bind to infect meg
akaryocytes in HIV-Associated Thrombocytoenia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD4 a
nd CXCR4}}</div>
1381369811665 1358629116480 What causes Thrombotic Thrombocytoenia Purura
(TTP)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Deficiency of ADAMTS 13}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>ADAMTS 13 is aka von Willebrand Factor Protease</i></div>
1381370904694 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome}} is a thromboti
c microangioathy that is sometimes caused by the O157:H7 strain of <i>E. coli</
i>&nbs;due to a Shiga-like toxin that causes endothelial damage.
1381371550388 1358629116480 What is the cause of Hemohilia A?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Factor VIII deficiency}}</div>
1381373147084 1358629116480 What is the cause of Hemohilia B?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Factor IX deficiency}}</div>
1381373159763 1358629116480 What is the cause of von Willebrand's Disease?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant vWF deficiency}}</div>
1381428030477 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Iron Deficiency
Anaemia (IDA) in men < 50 y/o?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Petic Ulcer Disea
se}}</div>
Anaemia in re-menoausal women?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Uterine fibroids/ca
ncer}}</div>
Anaemia in ost-menoausal women or in men > 50 y/o?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::Colon cancer}}</div>
1381428159222 1358629116480 {{c1::Waterhouse-Frederichsen}} Syndrome is char
acterized by {{c2::adrenal gland}} failure and {{c2::necrosis}} due to hemorrhag
ing into the adrenal glands and DIC.
1381429686994 1358629116480 {{c1::Thrombosis}} is the athological formation
of an intravascular blood clot.
1381439390638 1358629116480 What is the most common location of thrombosis f
ormation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::A DVT in the dee veins of the lower leg}}<
/div>
1381439425306 1358629116480 What are the Lines of Zahn? Where are they found
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alternating layers of latelets/fibrin and RBCs in
a Thrombus}}</div>
1381439557785 1358629116480 What is the function of Antithrombin III (ATIII)
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inactivation of thrombin and clotting factors}}</di
v>
1381440180574 1358629116480 What enzyme deficiency can lead to elevated leve
ls of homocysteine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cystathionine beta synthase (CBS)
}}</div>
1381440676537 1358629116480 What nutritional deficiencies can lead to elevat
ed levels of homocysteine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vit B12 and Folate}}</div>
1381440710054 1358629116480 {{c1::Protein C}} and&nbs;{{c1::Protein S}} ina
ctivate {{c2::Factor V and Factor VIII.}}
1381441272135 1358629116480 What is Factor V Leiden?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::A mutant form of Factor V that is resistant to degradation by Protein C or S
}}</div>
1381441614125 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Hearin?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Activation of Antithrombin III}}</div>
1381441722746 1358629116480 An&nbs;{{c1::embolus}} is an intravascular mass
that travels and occlude downstream vessels.
1381441890722 1358629116480 An&nbs;{{c1::atherosclerotic}} embolus is due t
o atherosclerotic laque that dislodges.

1381443365230 1358629116480 A&nbs;{{c1::fat}} embolus is tyically associat
ed with the fracture of long bones and associated soft tissue trauma.
1381443440738 1358629116480 {{c1::Caisson}} disease is the chronic form of d
ecomression sickness characterized by<b> multifocal ischemic necrosis of bone</
b>.
1381443692132 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Pulmonary Embol
ism?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thromboembolus from a DVT at the femoral/iliac/
oliteal vein.}}</div>
1381444255096 1358629116480 PT, PTT and INR are only measured with the forma
tion of a&nbs;{{c1::secondary}} fibrin lug.
1381457929034 1358629116480 Amniotic fluid contains&nbs;{{c1::tissue thromb
olastin}}, a rotein that is able to trigger clotting if it enters maternal cir
culation.
1381968607433 1358629116480 What MCV is indicative of Microcytic Anaemia?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::< 80 um<su>3</su>}}</div>
1381969025839 1358629116480 What MCV is indicative of Macrocytic Anaemia?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::> 100 um<su>3</su>}}</div>
1381969044015 1358629116480 What is the normal MCV range?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::80 - 100 um<su>3</su>}}</div>
1381969056216 1358629116480 What enzyme transorts iron across the cell memb
rane from enterocytes to the blood?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ferroortin}}.</d
iv>
1381969532834 1358629116480 What rotein binds to iron in the blood and tran
sorts it to the liver and bone marrow macrohages for storage?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Transferrin}}.</div>
1381969553115 1358629116480 What rotein binds to iron intracellularly to ke
e it stable and revent the Fenton reaction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ferriti
n}}.</div>
1381969574550 1358629116480 On an iron anel, what does Serum Iron indicate?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Total Iron in the blood}}</div>
1381969611930 1358629116480 On an iron anel, what does the Total Iron Bindi
ng Caacity (TIBC) indicate?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The number of transferri
n mocs in the blood; <u>bound and unbound</u>}}</div>
1381969657200 1358629116480 On an iron anel, what does % Saturation indicat
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The % of Transferrin mocs bound to iron}}</div>
1381969690675 1358629116480 What is the normal % Saturation on an iron anel
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::33%}}</div>
<i>This is asking for the normal
TIBC</i>
1381969702170 1358629116480 On an iron anel, what does Serum Ferritin give
insight to?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The amount of iron stored in macrohages
and the liver}}</div>
1381969768136 1358629116480 What is the treatment for iron deficiency anaemi
a?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ferrous Sulfate}}</div>
1381970720713 1358629116480 Microcytic anaemia is tyically due to a decreas
ed roduction of&nbs;{{c1::hemoglobin}}.
1381970980342 1358629116480 What globin chains are found in fetal Hb (HbF)?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::22}}</div>
1381974612681 1358629116480 What lobin chains are found in adult Hb (HbA)?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::22}}</div>
1381974632559 1358629116480 What gloin chains are found in adult H 2 (HA<
su>2</su>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::22}}</iv>
1381974663671 1358629116480 What are target cells on a Peripheral Bloo Smea
r (PBS) <b>most commonly </b>inicative of?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1:
:Beta-thalassemia major}}.</iv>
<br /><iv><i>In Beta-thalassemia major,
you have ecrease Hemoglobin (ue to lack of Beta chains), an ecrease Hb in
the cytoplasm of Rb cells allows for the target to form in the area of central
pallor.</i></iv>
1381974688561 1358629116480 What is megaloblastic anaemia typically cause b
y?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Folate or Vit B12 eficiency}}</iv>
<br /><
iv><i>Remember this is ue to the fact that Folate an Vit B12 are cofactors in
the synthesis of DNA precursors, so if you are eficient in them, DNA synthesis
won't occur. Each ivision requires replication, so without the precursors, ther
e will be less ivision --> cell remains larger</i></iv>
1381975173270 1358629116480 Where is B12 absorbe into the boy?<iv><br /><
/iv><iv>{{c1::Ileum}}</iv>
1381975701077 1358629116480 Megaloblastic anaemia ue to {{c1::Vitamin
B12}} eficiency will present with neurological symptoms an methylmalonic aciu
ria.
1381976035071 1358629116480 {{c1::Pernicious}} anaemia is characterize by t
he autoimmune estruction of parietal cells causing a {{c2::Vit B12 eficiency}}
ue to the lack of Intrinsic Factor.
1381976173074 1358629116480 What oes a Correcte RC > 3% inicate?<iv><
br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Goo marrow response; <u>Peripheral Destruction anaemia</u
>}}</iv>
1381978424809 1358629116480 What oes a Correcte RC < 3% inicate?<iv><
br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Poor marrow response; <u>Unerprouction anaemia</u>}}</i
v>
1381978449981 1358629116480 {{c1::Howell-Jolly}} boies are fragments of nuc
lear remnants within RBCs typically seen following a splenectomy.
1381984682081 1358629116480 {{c1::Hereitary Spherocytosis}} is an extravasc
ular hemolytic anaemia ue to an inherite efect in RBC cytoskeleton-membrane t
ethering proteins.
1382031427086 1358629116480 What are Heinz boies a common sign of?<iv><br
/></iv><iv>{{c1::G6PD Deficiency}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>Oxiative Stress p
recipitates Hb as Heinz boies</i></iv><iv><i><br /></i></iv><iv><i><img src
="paste-10277856739406.jpg" /> They can lea to the formation of bite cells
ue to phagocytic amage to the RBC membrane</i></iv>
1382031463484 1358629116480 What 3 cytoskeleton proteins are efective in He
reitary Spherocytosis?<iv><br></iv><iv>{{c1::Ankryin, spectrin or ban 3}}</
iv>
1382033803835 1358629116480 The {{c1::IgG}} form of Immune Hemolytic An
aemia is the form active at warmer temperatures (37<sup>o</sup> C).
<br>"boil an egg (IgG)"
1382035196311 1358629116480 The {{c1::IgM}} form of Immune Hemolytic An
aemia is the form active at cooler temperatures.
1382035216298 1358629116480 The {{c1::IgM}} form of Immune Hemolytic An
aemia is the form that involves the fixation of complement.
1382035232710 1358629116480 How shoul 1 unit of packe RBCs raise the Hb?<
iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::1 g/L}}</iv>
1382036627714 1358629116480 How shoul 1 unit of packe RBCs raise Hct?<iv>
<br /></iv><iv>{{c1::3%}}</iv>
1382140075074 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute}} leukemia is efine as an accumula
tion of > 20% immature blasts at the bone marrow.
1382140600356 1358629116480 What cells exhibit positive nuclear staining for
TT, a DNA polymerase?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Lymphoblasts}}</iv>
1382140867981 1358629116480 Which lymphoblast expresses CD10, CD19 an CD20?
<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::B-cell}}</iv>
1382142733006 1358629116480 Besies TT, what 3 other surface receptors o B
-cell lymphoblasts express?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::CD10, CD19, CD20}}</iv>
<i>TT is absent in myeloi blasts an mature lymphocytes</i><iv><i><br /></i><
/iv><iv><i>Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia = B-ALL an T-ALL</i></iv><iv><i>In
B-ALL --> characterize by lymphoblasts (TT+) that have CD10, CD19, CD20</i>
</iv><iv><i>In T-ALL --> characterize by lymphoblasts (TT+) that have CD2
through CD8</i></iv>
1382142769690 1358629116480 What type of lymphoblast expresses CD2 to CD8 re
ceptors?<iv><br />{{c1::T-cells}}</iv>
1382142789241 1358629116480 Besies TT, what surface receptors o T-cell Ly
mphoblasts express?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::CD2 to CD8}}</iv>
<br /><
iv><i>An <b>not</b> CD10.</i></iv>
1382143544725 1358629116480 What type of immature bloo cells exhibit positi

ve cytoplasmic staining for Myeloperoxiase (MPO)?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::My
eloblasts}}</iv>
1382144205344 1358629116480 What are Auer ros?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::C
rystal aggregates of MPO}}</iv>
<i>MPO = Myeloperoxiase</i>
1382144235377 1358629116480 What chromosomal translocation is involve with
Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia (AML)?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::t(15;17) involvin
g RAR}}</iv>
1382144503486 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Acute Promyelocytic Le
ukemia (APL)?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::All-Trans Retinoic Aci (ATRA)}}</iv>
1382144526201 1358629116480 What 2 surface receptors/markers o Myeloblasts
express?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::CD13, CD33}}</iv>
1382145591580 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Promyelocytic}} Leukemia involves an
increase risk or high incience of DIC.
<br /><iv><i>Remember that Acut
e Promyelocytic Leukemia involves (15, 17) translocation of Retinoic Aci Recept
or (RAR is on 17)</i></iv><iv><i>---Disruption of RAR blocks maturation -->
Promyelocytes accumulate</i></iv><iv><i>---These promyelocytes contain primar
y granules that increase the risk for DIC</i></iv>
1382146319197 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic}} leukemia is efine as a neoplas
tic proliferation of mature circulating lymphocytes.
1382156647362 1358629116480 What cells are proliferating in Chronic Lymphocy
tic Leukemia (CLL)?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Naive B cells }}</iv> <i>They
express CD5 an CD20</i>
1382156672981 1358629116480 What surface receptors/markers are expresse by
naive B cells in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::
CD5 an CD20}}</iv>
1382156703843 1358629116480 What cells are proliferating in Hairy Cell Leuke
mia?<iv><br />{{c1::<b>Mature</b> B cells}}</iv> <br /><iv>Remember, the
Hairy cells are positive for <b>TRAP</b> (Tartrate Resistant Aci Phosphat
ase), an so they are TRAPPED in the spleen, an on't go to mature in the lymph
noe</iv><iv><br /></iv>
1382156732402 1358629116480 What histochemical stain serves as a positive Dx
for Hairy Cell Leukemia?<iv><br></iv><iv>{{c1::Tartrate-resistant Aci Phosp
hatase (TRAP)}}</iv> <br><i>TRAP the hairy beast</i>
1382156771156 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Hairy Cell Leukemia?<
iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::2-CDA (Claribine)}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>It is an a
enosine eaminase inhibitor</i></iv>
1382156794109 1358629116480 What cell is proliferating in Ault T-Cell Leuke
mia/Lymphoma (ATLL)?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Mature CD4+ T cells}}</iv>
1382156820301 1358629116480 What virus is commonly associate with Ault T-C
ell Leukemia/Lymphoma (ATLL)?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::HTLV-1}}</iv>
1382156839999 1358629116480 What cells are commonly proliferating in Chronic
Myeloi Leukemia?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Granulocytes; typically Basophils}
}</iv> <br /><iv><i>CML is a 9,22 translocation which generates bcr-abl fusion
--> Tyrosine Kinase activity increases. Tyrosine Kinase is an oncogene, an
thus proliferation of mature myeloi cells occurs. </i></iv>
1382157065077 1358629116480 What chromosomal translocation causes Chronic My
eloi Leukemia?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::t(9;22); Philaelphia chromosome}}</
iv>
1382157098306 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Chronic Myeloi Leukem
ia?<iv><br />{{c1::Imatinib}}</iv>
1382157130157 1358629116480 What cells are commonly proliferating in Polycyt
hemia Vera (PV)?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::RBCs}}</iv>
1382157161274 1358629116480 What gene mutation is involve in Polycythemia V
era?<iv><br></iv><iv>{{c1::JAK2 Kinase mutation}}</iv>
1382157184325 1358629116480 What cells are commonly proliferating in Essenti
al Thrombocytemia (ET)?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Platelets}}</iv>
1382157217520 1358629116480 What gene mutation is involve with Essential Th
rombocythemia?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::JAK2 Kinase mutation}}</iv>
1382157235675 1358629116480 All Myeloproliferative Disorers have increase
risk of hyperuricemia an gout except for {{c1::Essential Thrombocythemia}}

.
1382157273138 1358629116480 What cells are commonly proliferating in Myelofi
brosis?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Megakaryocytes}}</iv>
1382158220200 1358629116480 What gene mutation in involve in Myelofibrosis?
<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::JAK2 Kinase mutation}}</iv>
<i><br /></i><i
v><i><br /></i></iv><iv><i>Myelofibrosis is neoplastic proliferation of mature
myeloi cells, especially megakaryocytes</i></iv>
1382158895217 1358629116480 What is a low Leukocyte Alkaline Phosphatase (LA
P) score associate with?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Chronic Myeloi Leukemia}}<
/iv>
1382159131601 1358629116480 What is a high Leukocyte Alkaline Phosphatase sc
ore associate with?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Leukemoi reactions}}</iv>
1382159151080 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Polycythemia Vera?<iv
><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Phlebotomy}}</iv>
1382219428043 1358629116480 What platelet receptors bin to vWF?<iv><br /><
/iv><iv>{{c1::GpIb}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>An GpIa/IIa to an extent</i></iv
>
1382219462308 1358629116480 What is foun in Weibel-Palae boies in enothe
lium?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::vWF an P-selectin}}</iv>
1382219492535 1358629116480 In Bernar-Soulier synrome, there is a genetic
eficiency of {{c1::GpIb}}, causing efective platelet <b>ahesion</b>.
1382219744552 1358629116480 In Glanzmann's Thrombasthenia, there is a geneti
c eficiency of {{c1::GpIIb/IIIa}}, thereby causing efective platelet <b>a
ggregation</b>.
1382219797629 1358629116480 What coagulation pathway(s) oes the Prothrombin
Time (PT) measure?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Extrinsic an common pathways}}</
iv>
1382220623938 1358629116480 What coagulation pathway(s) oes the Partial Thr
omboplastic Time (PTT) measure?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Intrinsic an common
pathways}}</iv>
1382220655113 1358629116480 What is Christmas Disease?<iv><br /></iv><iv>
{{c1::Factor IX eficiency}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>aka Hemophilia B</i></iv>
1382387672797 1358629116480 What tissue releases vWF?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{
{c1::Enothelium; from Weibel-Palae boies}}</iv>
1382388481747 1358629116480 Col Hemolytic Anaemia involving {{c2::IgM}
} is the form that fixes complement.
1382388526704 1358629116480 What oes an elevation in D-Dimer commonly inic
ate?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::DIC or Disseminate Intravascular Coagulation}}<
/iv>
1382388553624 1358629116480 An elevation in {{c1::D-Dimer}} is a very c
ommon inication of DIC.
1382388573627 1358629116480 What molecule gets broken own to release D-Dime
r?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Fibrin (cross-linke)}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>No
t Fibrinogen</i></iv>
1382468021684 1358629116480 What is the only subtype of Hogkin's Lymphoma t
hat is non-classical?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Lymphocyte-preominant HL}}</i
v>
1382496126915 1358629116480 What is painful lymphaenopathy commonly associa
te with?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Acute infection}}</iv>
1382496271544 1358629116480 What type of lymphocyte is involve in Follicula
r or Cortical Hyperplasia of a lymph noe?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::B cells}}<
/iv>
1382496701969 1358629116480 What type of lymphocyte is involve in Paracorte
x Hyperplasia of a lymph noe?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::T cells}}</iv>
1382496721124 1358629116480 What are the malignant cells involve in Hogkin
's Lymphoma?<iv> <img src="paste-9216999817318.jpg" /></iv><iv><br /></iv><iv
>{{c1::Ree-Sternberg (RS) cells}}</iv>
1382496969140 1358629116480 {{c1::Non-Hogkin's}} Lymphoma involves iffuse
sprea an is often extranoal.
1382497030801 1358629116480 {{c1::Hogkin's}} Lymphoma involves contiguous s

prea an is rarely extranoal.
1382497048957 1358629116480 What translocation is involve in Follicular Lym
phoma?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::t(14;18)}}</iv>
1382497090810 1358629116480 What gene is translocate in t(14;18) in Follicu
lar Lymphoma?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::<i>Bcl2</i>; to the immunoglobulin heav
y chain gene}}</iv>
1382497133995 1358629116480 {{c1::Mantle Cell}} Lymphoma is a neoplastic pro
liferation of B cells in the mantle zone of the lymph noe just ajacent to the
follicle.
1382497408865 1358629116480 What surface marker are expresse by B cells in
Lymphoma?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::CD20+}}</iv>
1382497430236 1358629116480 What translocation is involve in Mantle Cell Ly
mphoma?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::t(11;14)}}</iv>
1382497451498 1358629116480 What gene is translocate in the t(11;14) in Man
tle Cell Lymphoma?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Cyclin D1}}</iv>
1382497484815 1358629116480 Overexpression of {{c2::Cyclin D1}} in Mant
le Cell Lymphoma promotes G<sub>1</sub> to S transitioning in the cell cycl
e.
1382497550160 1358629116480 {{c1::Marginal Zone}} Lymphoma involves neoplast
ic proliferation of the marginal zone of the lymph noe.
1382497849573 1358629116480 What gene is involve in t(8;14) in Burkitt's Ly
mphoma?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::<i>C-Myc</i>}}</iv>
1382498306374 1358629116480 What translocation is involve in Burkitt's Lymp
homa?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::t(8;14)}}</iv>
1382498319343 1358629116480 What form of Burkitt's Lymphoma involves the jaw
?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::African}}</iv>
1382498349056 1358629116480 What form of Burkitt's Lymphoma involves the ab
omen?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Sporaic, American}}</iv>
1382498363878 1358629116480 {{c1::Diffuse Large B Cell}} Lymphoma is a neopl
astic proliferation where B cells grow iffusely in sheets.
1382498414178 1358629116480 What cell markers are present in Classical Hogk
in's Lymphoma?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::CD15 an CD30}}</iv>
1382498456753 1358629116480 What surface markers are present in Non-Classica
l Hogkin's Lymphoma?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::CD20}}</iv> <br /><iv><i>Al
so, this form is CD15 an CD30 negative</i></iv>
1382498492529 1358629116480 What type of Ree-Sternberg Cells are foun in N
oular Sclerosis Hogkin's Lymphoma?<iv><br>{{c1::Lacunar RS Cells}}</iv>
1382498742055 1358629116480 What is the most common type of Hogkin's Lympho
ma?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Noular Sclerosis}}</iv>
1382498794504 1358629116480 Which form of Hogkin's Lymphoma has the best pr
ognosis?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Lymphocyte-rich HL}}</iv>
1382498829426 1358629116480 What cytokine o Ree-Sternberg Cells secrete in
<b>Mixe Cellularity Hogkin's Lymphoma</b>?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::IL-5}}<
/iv> <br /><iv><i>Causing eosinophilia</i></iv>
1382498871896 1358629116480 What is the most aggressive type of Hogkin's Ly
mphoma?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Lymphocyte-eplete HL}}</iv>
<br /><
iv><i>Also the worst Px</i></iv>
1382498931740 1358629116480 Stage {{c2::III}} lymphoma is the first sta
ge where there is lymph noe involvement on both sies of the iaphragm.
1382498991207 1358629116480 What type of cells are proliferating in Multiple
Myeloma?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Plasma cells}}</iv>
1382499558993 1358629116480 What cytokine is elevate in Multiple Myeloma?<
iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::IL-6; which stimulates plasma cell growth}}</iv>
1382499714299 1358629116480 Neoplastic cells in Multiple Myeloma secrete&nbs
p;{{c1::RANKL}} which activates receptors on osteoclasts, thereby activating the
m.
<br /><iv><i>Causing <b>hypercalcemia, bone pain an punche out lytic
bone lesions</b></i></iv><iv><i><b><br /></b></i></iv><iv><i>The receptors a
re RANKL receptors</i></iv>
1382499776181 1358629116480 An M-Spike on an SPEP is commonly inicative of&
nbsp;{{c1::Multiple Myeloma}} <i>SPEP = Serum Protein Electrophoresis</i>

1382499899696 1358629116480 Which 2 monoclonal antiboies are commonly invol
ve in the M Spike in Multiple Myeloma?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::IgG an IgA}}
</iv>
1382499928832 1358629116480 {{c1::Rouleaux}} formation of RBCs in Multiple M
yeloma involves the stacking of RBCs like poker chips ue to a ecrease in the c
harges between them.
1382500085651 1358629116480 {{c1::Bence Jones}} Proteinuria in Multiple Myel
oma is ue to free amyloi light chains in circulation that en up in the urine.
<br /><iv><i>These light chains can also cause renal failure; i.e. Myeloma Kin
ey</i></iv>
1382500148494 1358629116480 {{c1::Monoclonal Gammopathy of Unetermine Sign
ificance (MGUS)}} is a Plasma Cell Dyscrasia characterize by an M-Spike, but a
lack of other symptoms or isease.
1382500469911 1358629116480 {{c1::Walenstrom Macroglobulinema}} is a Plasma
Cell Dyscrasia characterize by monoclonal IgM prouction.
1382500733575 1358629116480 The serum hyperviscosity seen in Walenstrom Mac
roglobulinemia cause by elevate levels of {{c1::IgM}}.
<br /><iv><i>Re
member, <b>IgM circulates in pentameric form</b>.</i></iv>
1382500823352 1358629116480 What are Birbeck Granules inicative of?<iv><br
/></iv><iv>{{c1::Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis}}</iv>
1382500930694 1358629116480 Which 2 immunohistochemical markers are inicati
ve of Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::CD1a an S100}}<
/iv>
1382501004499 1358629116480 {{c1::Eosinophilic Granuloma}} is a benign form
of Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis.
1382501038185 1358629116480 {{c1::Letterer-Siwe}} Disease is a form of Lange
rhans Cell Histiocytosis that effects infants < 3 y/o.
1382501079192 1358629116480 {{c1::Han-Schuller-Christian}} Disease is a for
m of Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis that affects chilren > 3 y/o.
1382574927603 1358629116480 <iv>Which pathologies are associate with basop
hilic stippling of RBCs?</iv><iv><br /></iv><img src="paste-919123001421.jpg"
/><iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Thalassemia, Anaemia of Chronic Disease an Lea
Poisoning}}</iv>
1382575024062 1358629116480 Which pathology is associate with Bite Cells?<
iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-987842478189.jpg" /></iv><iv><br /></iv><
iv>{{c1::G6PD Deficiency}}</iv>
1382575065352 1358629116480 Which pathology is associate with Elliptocytes?
<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-1099511627901.jpg" /></iv><iv><br /></i
v><iv>{{c1::Hereitary Elliptocytosis}}</iv>
1382575102103 1358629116480 Which pathology is associate with Macro-Ovalocy
tes?<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-1206885810305.jpg" /></iv><iv><br />
</iv><iv>{{c1::Megaloblastic anaemia or bone marrow failure}}</iv>
1382575140972 1358629116480 What pathology is associate with Ringe Sierob
lasts?<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-1451698946169.jpg" /><br /><iv><br
/></iv><iv>{{c1::Sieroblastic anaemia}}</iv></iv> <br /><iv><i>Cause by
an excess of Iron in mitochonria.</i></iv>
1382575200853 1358629116480 What pathologies are associate with Schistocyte
s (Helmet Cells)?<iv><br></iv><iv><img src="paste-1511828488302.jpg" /></iv>
<iv><br></iv><iv>{{c1::DIC; TTP/HUS; Traumatic Hemolysis}}</iv>
1382575259033 1358629116480 What pathology is associate with Sickle Cells?<
iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-1657857376334.jpg" /></iv><iv><br /></iv
><iv>{{c1::Sickle Cell Anaemia}}</iv>
1382575284613 1358629116480 What pathology is associate with Spherocytes?<
iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-1683627180151.jpg" /></iv><iv><br /></iv>
<iv>{{c1::Hereitary Spherocytosis or Autoimmune Hemolysis}}</iv>
1382575317169 1358629116480 What pathologies are associate with Tearrop Ce
lls?<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-1902670512244.jpg" /></iv><iv><br />
</iv><iv>{{c1::Bone Marrow Infiltration}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>e.g. Myelo
fibrosis</i></iv>
1382575374703 1358629116480 What pathologies are associate with Target Cell

s?<iv><br></iv><iv><img src="paste-2027224563827.jpg" /></iv><iv><br></iv>
<iv>{{c1::HbC Disease; Asplenia; Liver Failure; Thalassemia}}</iv>
<br><i>H
ALT</i>
1382575433648 1358629116480 What pathologies are associate with Heinz Boie
s?<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-2233382994045.jpg" /></iv><iv><br /></
iv><iv>{{c1::G6PD Deficiency; sometimes in alpha-Thalassemia}}</iv>
1382575481024 1358629116480 What pathologies are associate with Howell-Joll
y Boies?<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-2366526980211.jpg" /></iv><iv><
br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Functional Hyposplenia; Asplenia; Naphthalene ingestion}}<
/iv> <i><br /></i><iv><i>Hyposplenia (reuce function of spleen) an Asplen
ia (missing spleen) lea to <b>reuce splenic macrophages</b>, which normally r
emove the Howell-Jolly boies, which are Basophilic nuclear remnants foun in RB
Cs.</i></iv><iv><i><br /></i></iv><iv><i>Exposure to large amounts of naphth
alene can cause <b>amage to or estroy RBCs</b>, presumbly the amage is formin
g the Howell-Jolly boies</i></iv>
1382587135379 1358629116480 What pathology is associate with Hypersegmente
Neutrophils?<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-4737348927679.jpg" /></iv><
iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Megaloblastic anaemia}}</iv>
1382622175147 1358629116480 What are smuge cells commonly iagnostic of?<i
v><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-1005022347419.jpg" /></iv><iv><br /></iv><
iv>{{c1::Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia or Small Lymphocytic Leukemia}}</iv><iv
><br /></iv>
1386633522376 1358629116480 Which platelet isorer is associate with eleva
te serum LDH?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Thrombotic Thrombocytopenic Purpura (T
TP)}}</iv>
1386633564455 1358629116480 Which clotting factors oes von Willebran's Fac
tor (vWF) carry?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Factor VIII}}</iv>
1396891210725 1395802358422 Which malabsorptive isorer is associate with
Acanthocytes (Spur Cells)?<iv><br /></iv><iv><br /></iv><iv><br /></iv><i
v>{{c1::Abetalipoproteinemia}}</iv>
<img src="paste-8967891714120.jpg" /><br
/><iv><i>In Abetalipoproteinemia, a eficiency of lipis an Vitamin cause the
isruptions in the lipi membrane leaing to the spikes seen in Spur Cells.</i>
</iv>
1396891266888 1395802358422 Which anaemia is associate with basophillic sti
ppling?<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-9045201125449.jpg" /></iv><iv><br
/></iv><iv>{{c1::Anaemia of Chronic Disease an Thalassemias}}</iv>
1396891366866 1395802358422 Which type of heavy metal poisoning is associate
with basophilic stippling?<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-9040906158153.
jpg" /></iv><iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Lea Poisoning}}</iv>
1396891434452 1395802358422 Which rug of abuse is associate with basophili
c stippling?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Alcohol Abuse}}</iv>
1396891455441 1395802358422 Which metabolic isorer is associate with Bite
Cells?<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-9247064588360.jpg" /></iv><iv><br
/></iv><iv>{{c1::G6PD Deficiency}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>Due to splenic mac
rophages removing Heinz boies via phagocytosis or ue to amage to the RBC memb
rane</i></iv>
1396891515880 1395802358422 Which RBC isorer is associate with Elliptocyt
es?<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-9324373999690.jpg" /></iv><iv><br /><
/iv><iv>{{c1::Hereitary Elliptocytosis}}</iv>
1396891538694 1395802358422 Which anaemia is associate with Macro-ovalocyte
s?<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-9358733738058.jpg" /></iv><iv><br /></
<br /><iv><i>Also occurs in bon
iv><iv>{{c1::Megaloblastic Anaemia}}</iv>
e marrow failure</i></iv>
1396891617633 1395802358422 Which anaemia is associate with the cells epic
te?<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-9844065042508.jpg" /></iv><iv><br />
</iv><iv>{{c1::Sieroblastic Anaemia}}</iv> <i>The cells epicte are R
inge Sieroblasts</i><iv><i><br /></i><iv><i>Due to excess iron in the mitoch
onria of RBCs.</i></iv></iv>
1396891676614 1395802358422 Which platelet isorer is associate with Schis
tocytes (Helmet Cells)?<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-9878424780871.jpg"

/></iv><iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::TTP; HUS; DIC}}</iv>
<i>Thrombotic Th
rombocytopenic Purpura</i><iv><i>Hemolytic Uremic Synrome</i></iv><iv><i>Dis
seminate Intravascular Coagulation</i></iv><iv><i><br /></i></iv>
1396891820018 1395802358422 Which anaemia is associate with Sickle Cells?<
iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-9964324126796.jpg" /><br /><iv><br /></iv>
<iv>{{c1::Sickle Cell Anaemia}}</iv></iv>
1396891856532 1395802358422 What RBC isorer is associate with Spherocytes
?<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-9998683865164.jpg" /></iv><iv><br /></
iv><iv>{{c1::Hereitary spherocytosis; Autoimmune hemolysis}}</iv>
1396891894265 1395802358422 What are Tearrop Cells inicative of?<iv><br /
></iv><iv><img src="paste-10033043603529.jpg" /></iv><iv><br /></iv><iv>{{
c1::Bone Marrow Infiltration}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>RBCs are physically force
out of the marrow an assume a tearrop shape as they are squeeze out.</i></i
v>
1396891954752 1395802358422 What isorers are Target Cells associate with?
<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-10230612099147.jpg" /></iv><iv><br /></
iv><iv>{{c1::<b>H</b>bC Disease; <b>A</b>splenia; <b>L</b>iver Disease; <b>T</b
>halassemia}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>"<b>HALT</b>," sai the hunter to its <b>t
arget</b>.</i></iv>
1396892252709 1395802358422 What RBC isorers are associate with Heinz Bo
ies?<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-10282151706702.jpg" /></iv><iv><br /
></iv><iv>{{c1::G6PD eficiency; alpha-Thalassemia}}</iv>
1396892338343 1395802358422 Which special stain is neee to visualize Heinz
Boies?<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-10277856739406.jpg" /></iv><iv><
br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Crystal Violet}}</iv>
1396892434939 1395802358422 {{c1::Heinz Boies}} are intracellular inclusion
s seen in RBCs that arise ue to oxiation of hemoglobin sulfhyryl groups an t
he resultant enaturation an precipitation of hemoglobin.<iv><br /></iv><iv>
<img src="paste-10277856739406.jpg" /></iv>
1396892520013 1395802358422 {{c1::Howell-Jolly Boies}} are intracellular in
clusions seen in RBCs an are escribe as <b>basophilic nuclear remnants</b> th
at have not been remove by splenic macrophages.
<br /><iv><i>Heinz boi
es are mae of <b>oxiize hemoglobin</b>.</i></iv>
1396892570290 1395802358422 What o Howell-Jolly Boies inicate?<iv><br />
</iv><iv><img src="paste-11132555231309.jpg" /></iv><iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c
1::Functional Hyposplenia or Asplenia}}</iv>
1396892619745 1395802358422 How are Howell-Jolly Boies normally remove fro
m RBCs?<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-11128260264013.jpg" /></iv><iv><b
r /></iv><iv>{{c1::Via phagocytosis by Splenic Macrophages}}</iv>
1396892650839 1395802358422 What MCV is inicative of Microcytic Anaemia?<i
v><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::< 80 fL}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>1 femtoliter (fL)
= 10<sup>-15</sup> L</i></iv>
1396895739660 1395802358422 What MCV is inicative of Macrocytic Anaemia?<i
v><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::> 100 fL}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>1 femtoliter (fL)
= 10<sup>-15</sup> L</i></iv>
1396895742227 1395802358422 What is the normal MCV range of RBCs?<iv><br />
</iv><iv>{{c1::80-100 fL}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>1 femtoliter (fL) = 10<sup
>-15</sup> L</i></iv>
1396896040778 1395802358422 What class of anaemia is <b>late</b> Iron Defici
ency Anaemia?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Microcytic}}</iv>
<iv><br /></iv
><i>ACD an IDA typically begin as normocytic anaemia an then progress to micro
cytic anaemia.</i><br /><iv><i><img src="paste-12013023527510.jpg" /></i></iv>
1396896052395 1395802358422 What class of anaemia are the Thalassemias?<iv>
<br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Microcytic}}</iv>
<br /><iv><img src="paste-12008
728560214.jpg" /></iv>
1396896082810 1395802358422 What class of anaemia oes Lea Poisoning cause?
<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Microcytic}}</iv> <br /><iv><img src="paste-12008
728560214.jpg" /></iv>
1396896109519 1395802358422 What class of anaemia is Sieroblastic Anaemia?<
iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Microcytic}}</iv> <br /><iv><img src="paste-12008

728560214.jpg" /></iv>
1396896133445 1395802358422 What class of anaemia is <b>early</b> Iron
Deficiency Anaemia?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Normocytic}}</iv>
<iv><br
/></iv><i>ACD an IDA typically begin as normocytic anaemia an then progress
to microcytic anaemia.</i><br /><iv><img src="paste-12803297509981.jpg" /></iv
>
1396910149495 1395802358422 What class of anaemia is <b>late</b> Anaemi
a of Chronic Disease?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Microcytic}}</iv>
<iv><br
>
1396910178297 1395802358422 What class of anaemia is <b>early</b> Anaem
ia of Chronic Disease?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Normocytic}}</iv>
<iv><br
>
1396910191363 1395802358422 What class of anaemia are <b>all</b> Hemoly
tic Anaemias?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Normocytic}}</iv>
<br /><iv><img
src="paste-12799002542685.jpg" /></iv>
1396910245111 1395802358422 How o Reticulocyte levels change in Hemolytic A
naemia?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Increase}}</iv>
<br /><iv><img src="pas
te-12799002542685.jpg" /></iv>
1396910281570 1395802358422 How oes Reticulocyte count change in Nonhemolyt
ic Normocytic anaemias?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Normal or Decrease}}</iv>
<img src="paste-12799002542685.jpg" />
1396910324813 1395802358422 What class of anaemias are all Megaloblastic ana
emias?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Macrocytic}}</iv>
1396910872256 1395802358422 {{c1::Iron Deficiency Anaemia}} is a microcytic
anaemia that results from a loss, eficiency or inaequate supply of iron an in
volves <u>microcytosis</u> an <u>hypochromia</u>.<iv><br /></iv><iv><im
g src="paste-14108967567661.jpg" /></iv>
1396911584796 1395802358422 {{c1::Plummer-Vinson Synrome}} is a possible ma
nifestation of Iron Deficiency Anaemia (IDA) that involves a tria of <b>IDA, es
ophageal webs</b>, an <b>atrophic glossitis</b>.
1396911663405 1395802358422 {{c1::Iron Deficiency Anaemia}} is a microcytic
anaemia that commonly presents with fatigue an <u>conjunctival pallour</u>.<iv
><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-14259291423020.jpg" /></iv>
1396913150025 1395802358422 What is the etiology of alpha-Thalassemia?<iv><
br /></iv><iv>{{c1::<b>Deletions</b> of the alpha-globin gene, thereby ca
using ecrease alpha-globin chain synthesis}}</iv>
1396913263890 1395802358422 Which type of alpha-globin gene eletion (alphaThalassemia) is most prevalent in Asian populations?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::
<i>cis</i> eletions}}</iv>
1396913318761 1395802358422 Which type of alpha-globin gene eletion (alphaThalassemia) is most prevalent in African populations?<iv><br /></iv><iv
>{{c1::<i>trans</i> eletions}}</iv>
1396913328746 1395802358422 Which emographic most commonly exhibits <i>cis
</i>eletions in alpha-Thalassemia?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Asian populations
}}</iv>
1396913363564 1395802358422 Which emographic commonly exhibits <i>trans</i>
eletions in alpha-Thalassemia?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::African populat
ions}}</iv>
1396913407984 1395802358422 How many allele eletions must be present in or
er for there to be clinically significant alpha-Thalassemia (with anaemia)?<iv>
<br /></iv><iv>{{c1::3+}}</iv>
1396913568568 1395802358422 {{c1::HbH Disease}} is a form of alpha-Thalassem
ia that presents when there is 3 allele eletions.
1396913670136 1395802358422 {{c1::HbH Disease}} is a form of alpha-Thalassem
ia that involves the formation of <su>4</su>&nsp;due to&nsp;excess -gloin lev
els and very little&nsp;alpha-gloin.&nsp;

<r /><div><i><su>4&nsp;</su>i
s also known as HH</i></div>
1396913946002 1395802358422 {{c1::Hydrops Fetalis}} is a complication of alp
ha-Thalassemia when there is 4 allele deletions and is incompatile with life.
<i><r /></i><div><i>Hydrops fetalis (fetal hydrops) is a serious fetal conditio
n defined as anormal accumulation of fluid in 2 or more fetal compartments, inc
luding ascites, pleural effusion, pericardial effusion, and skin edema</i></div>
1396913987395 1395802358422 {{c1::H Barts}} is a form of hemogloin that ma
nifests in alpha-Thalassemia as a result of 4 allele deletions.
1396914035041 1395802358422 {{c1::H Barts (<sub>4</sub>)}} is a form of hemo
lobin that manifests in alpha-Thalassemia due to a complete lack of alpha-lobi
n expression and an excess of -lobin.
1396914128610 1395802358422 What is the etioloy of -Thalassemia?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Point mutations in splice sites and promoter sequences for
the -gloin gene, therey causing decreased -gloin synthesis}}</div>
1396914547348 1395802358422 Which demographic has a high prevalence of&nsp;Thalassemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mediterranean populations}}</div>
1396914580106 1395802358422 What form of&nsp;-Thalassemia is seen in someone
who is heterozygous for mutations in the&nsp;-gloin gene splice sites and prom
oter sequences?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-Thalassemia minor}}</div>
1396914944146 1395802358422 What form of&nsp;-Thalassemia is seen in someone
who is homozygous for mutations in the&nsp;-gloin gene splice sites and promot
er sequences?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-Thalassemia Major}}</div>
1396914956018 1395802358422 {{c1::-Thalassemia Minor}} is a form of&nsp;-Thal
assemia that is usually aymptomatic despite involving an underproduction of&nsp
;-gloin.
1396914997976 1395802358422 {{c1::-Thalassemia Minor}} is a type of&nsp;-Thal
assemia that can e confirmed y an increase&nsp;(> 3.5%)&nsp;in HA2&nsp;
(<sub>2</sub><sub>2</sub>) on gel electrophoresis.
1396915096045 1395802358422 What percentage of HbA2 (<sub>2</sub><sub>2</sub>)
on gel electrophoresis is iagnostic of -Thalassemia Minor?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::> 3.5%}}</div>
1396915233444 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemochromatosis}} is a potential secondary
complication of&nsp;-Thalassemia Major due to the frequent and required lood t
ransfusions.
1396915614457 1395802358422 {{c1::-Thalassemia Major}} is a type of&nsp;-Thal
assemia that involves one marrow expansion, therey resulting in characteristic
skeletal deformities such as a <>'crew cut'</>&nsp;on cranial x-ray and <>'
chipmunk-like facies'</>.<r /><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1669453787
9829.jpg" /></div>
1396915622030 1395802358422 {{c1::Hepatosplenomegaly}} is a possile complic
ation of&nsp;-Thalassemia that results from extramedullary hematopoiesis.
1396915657419 1395802358422 Which condition involves an increased risk of Pa
rvovirus B19-induced aplastic crisis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-Thalassemia Maj
or}}</div>
1396915702883 1395802358422 How do the levels of fetal hemogloin (HF) chan
ge in an infant with&nsp;-Thalassemia Major?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase
d}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, HF (a<su>2</su><sub>2</sub>) does not
involve -gloin.</i></div>
1396915805782 1395802358422 {{c1::HF (a<su>2</su><sub>2</sub>; fetal Hb)}}
is a type of hemolobin that is protective in an infant with -Thalassemia M
ajor, hence the disease will only present after 6 months as its levels decrease.
1396915878517 1395802358422 How long after irth will an infant with&nsp;-Th
alassemia Major present with symptoms?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::6 months (as H
F levels decline)}}</div>
1396915915532 1395802358422 {{c1::-Thalassemia Major}} is a type of&nsp;-Thal
assemia that presents with <u>anisocytosis</u>, <u>poikilocytosis</u>, <u>target
cells</u>&nsp;(1; 2), <u>microcytosis</u>&nsp;(3), and <u>schistocytes</u>&n
sp;(4).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17205638988092.jpg" /></div>
1396923584670 1395802358422 Which 2 enzymes involved in heme synthesis are i
nhiited y Lead?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ferrochelatase; ALA Dehydratase}}</

div>
1396924529687 1395802358422 {{c1::Ferrochelatase}} and&nsp;{{c2::ALA Dehydr
atase}} are 2 enzymes involved in heme synthesis that are inhiited y lead.
1396924595823 1395802358422 How do protoporphyrin levels change in Lead pois
oning?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
45213.jpg" />
1396927213794 1395802358422 {{c1::Basophilic Stippling}} is a feature of lea
d poisoning that results from the retention of aggregates of rRNA in RBCs due to
lead inhiiting rRNA degradation.<div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
<img src
="paste-1868310773927.jpg" />
1396927309507 1395802358422 What causes Basophilic Stippling of RBCs in Lead
poisoning?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1864015806631.jpg" /><r /><div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lead causes inhiition of rRNA degradation}}</div></div>
1396927347370 1395802358422 What type of microcytic anaemia has a high risk
of manifesting in patients that live in old houses with chipped paint?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Siderolastic Anaemia (via Lead poisoning)}}</div>
1396927540738 1395802358422 {{c1::Burton Lines}} are a feature of Lead poiso
ning and are descried as lead lines on gingivae.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-2259152798291.jpg" /></div>
1396927833491 1395802358422 <div>{{c1::Lead Lines}} are a feature of Lead po
isoning and are characterized as visile lines at the metaphyses of long ones o
n x-ray.</div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
82191.jpg" />
1396927931581 1395802358422 Which anaemia is seen following Lead poisoning?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Siderolastic Anaemia}}</div>
1396927947907 1395802358422 {{c1::Wrist/Foot Drop}} are a feature of {{c2::l
ead poisoning}} that arise due to weakening of the distal musculature of oth up
per and lower lims.
1396928199219 1395802358422 {{c1::Succimer}} is a chelating agent that is us
ed to treat {{c2::Lead poisoning}} in kids.
<r /><div><i>It <>suc</>ks to
e a kid who eats lead</i></div>
1396928228190 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Siderolastic Anaemia?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Any defect in heme synthesis}}</div>
1396928462524 1395802358422 What is the etiology of <>Hereditary</>&nsp;S
iderolastic Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked defect in -ALA Synthase
}}</iv>
1396928537687 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Hereitary Si
eroblastic Anaemia?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::X-linke efect in -ALA Synthase}
}</iv>
1396928565901 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of ACQUIRED Siero
blastic Anaemia?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Alcohol}}</iv>
<i>The cause of
congenital Sieroblastic Anaemia is a efect in ALAS, the rate limiting enzyme f
or protoporphyrin synthesis, which ens in the attachment of protoporphyrin to F
e to make Heme.</i>
1396928585454 1395802358422 {{c1::Isoniazi}} is an antibiotic that can caus
e Sieroblastic Anaemia.
<br /><iv><i>INH can cause Vitamin B6 eficienc
y. Also it is an anti-TB antibiotic</i></iv>
1396928651987 1395802358422 Which <b>vitamin</b> eficiency is commonly
associate with Sieroblastic Anaemia?<iv><br />{{c1::Vitamin B<sub>6</sub>&nb
sp;eficiency}}</iv>
1396928709449 1395802358422 Besies Lea, which heavy metal/trace element is
able to cause Sieroblastic Anaemia?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Copper}}</iv>
1396928821491 1395802358422 {{c1::Ringe Sieroblasts}} are a characteristic
feature of Sieroblastic Anaemia an are escribe as immature RBCs with iron-l
aen mitochonria.<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-3633542332617.jpg" /></
iv>
1396928905197 1395802358422 What is the primary general treatment for Siero
blastic Anaemia?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Pyrioxine (Vitamin B<sub>6</sub>)}}
</iv> <br /><iv><i>Sieroblastic Anemia is ue to <b>efective porphoryin syn
thesis</b>.</i></iv><iv><i>The <b>rate limiting</b> step for that process is t

he enzyme <b>Aminolevulinic Aci Synthetase (ALAS)</b>, whose cofactor is <b>Vit
amin B6</b></i></iv>
1396928975740 1395802358422 Which vitamin serves as a cofactor for -ALA
Synthase, an enzyme involve in heme synthesis?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Vitam
in B<sub>6</sub>}}</iv>
1396974399864 1395802358422 Which type of macrocytic anaemia arises ue to i
mpaire DNA synthesis?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Megaloblastic Anaemia}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>Hence, the maturation of the nucleus of precursor cells in the bon
e marrow is elaye relative to the maturation of the cytoplasm. The abnormal ce
ll ivision that then occurs results in pancytopenia.</i></iv>
1396974723360 1395802358422 Which 2 vitamin eficiencies commonly cause Mega
loblastic Anaemia?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Folate an Vitamin B<sub>12</sub>&
nbsp;eficiencies}}</iv>
1396974790238 1395802358422 Which rug of abuse can commonly cause Folate e
ficiency?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Alcohol}}</iv>
1396974837769 1395802358422 {{c1::Megaloblastic Anaemia}} is a type of macro
cytic anaemia that presents with <b>hypersegmente neutrophils</b> an <b>g
lossitis</b>.<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-850403524813.jpg" /></iv>
<br /><iv><i>glossitis = inflammation of the tongue</i></iv><iv><i><br /></i>
</iv>
1396974924108 1395802358422 How o Homocysteine levels change in Megaloblast
ic Anaemia cause by Folate or Vitamin B12 eficiency?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1
::Increase}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>This is ue to impaire conversion of Homo
cysteine to Methionine, a process that requires both Folate an Vitamin B12.</i>
</iv>
1396975199225 1395802358422 How o Methylmalonic Aci levels change in Folat
e eficiency?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::They are <b>normal</b>}}</iv> <br /><
iv><i>Folate is not require to convert Methylmalonic Aci to Succinyl CoA. Vita
min B12 is. Hence there are no neurological symptoms in Folate eficiency.</i></
iv>
1396978114974 1395802358422 {{c1::Folate eficiency}} is a vitamin eficienc
y that can cause Megaloblastic Anaemia but <b>oes not</b> involve any neur
ological symptoms.
1396978153919 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitamin B12 Deficiency}} is a vitamin efi
ciency that can cause Megaloblastic Anaemia <b>with </b>neurological symptoms.
1396978188307 1395802358422 Which inflammatory bowel isease is most commonl
y associate with Vitamin B12 eficiency?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Crohn's Dis
ease}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>Due to amage to the terminal ileum, where Vit B12
is absorbe.</i></iv>
1396981283853 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Vitamin B12 ef
iciency?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Pernicious Anaemia}}</iv> <br /><iv><i>Au
toimmune estruction of gastric Parietal Cells causing instrinsic factor eficie
ncy. Remember, intrinsic factor bins to Vitamin B12 in the stomach an is neee
for absorption at the terminal ileum.</i></iv>
1396981353074 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Diphyllobothrium latum</i>}} commonly c
auses Vitamin B12 eficiency through consumption of Vitamin B12 an amage to th
e terminal ileum.
<iv><br /></iv><i>Note Diphyllobothrium latum is a tap
e worm.</i><br /><iv><i>Remember, Vitamin B12 is absorbe at the terminal ileum
.</i></iv>
1396981420597 1395802358422 Which type of iet is commonly known to cause Vi
tamin B12 eficiency?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Vegan}}</iv> <br /><iv><i>Ot
herwise, ietary eficiency of Vitamin B12 is rare.</i></iv>
1396981950889 1395802358422 How o Methylmalonic Aci levels change in Vitam
in B12 eficiency?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Increase}}</iv> <br /><iv><i>Vi
tamin B12 is require to convert Methylmalonic Aci to Succinyl CoA.</i></iv>
1396981978709 1395802358422 {{c1::Subacute Combine Degeneration}} is a neur
ological complication of Vitamin B12 eficiency that results ue to increase le
vels of {{c2::Methylmalonic Aci}} which {{c2::impairs spinal cor myelinization
.}}
<br /><iv><i>refers to egeneration of the posterior an lateral column
s of the spinal cor</i></iv>

1396982321391 1395802358422 Which metabolic compoun is elevate in Vitamin
B12 eficiency an is responsible for the neurological symptoms seen?<iv><br />
</iv><iv>{{c1::Methylmalonic Aci}}</iv>
1396982390296 1395802358422 {{c1::Orotic Aciuria}} is a genetic cause of Me
galoblastic Anaemia that involves an autosomal recessive efect in UMP Synthase,
an enzyme involve in e novo pyrimiine synthesis.
1396983368059 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Orotic Aciur
ia?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</iv>
1396983382912 1395802358422 Which enzyme involve in e novo pyrimiine synt
hesis is efective in Orotic Aciuria?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::UMP Synthase}}
</iv>
1396983407817 1395802358422 {{c1::UMP Synthase}} is an enzyme involve in e
novo pyrimiine synthesis that converts Orotic Aci to UMP.
1396983445591 1395802358422 {{c1::Orotic Aciuria}} is a cause of Megaloblas
tic Anaemia that cannot be cure by Folate or Vitamin B12 supplementation.
1396983653929 1395802358422 What is the ifference between Orotic Aciuria a
n Ornithine Transcarbamylase Deficiency (both have elevate Orotic Aci)?<iv><
br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Orotic Aciuria <b>oes not</b> have Hyperammonemia, OTD
oes}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>Ornithine Transcarbamylase Deficiency is associate
with seconary blockage of the <b>Urea cycle</b>, leaing to bloo urea nitrog
en.</i></iv>
1396983715945 1395802358422 {{c1::Orotic Aciuria}} is a cause of Megaloblas
tic Anaemia that presents with Orotic Aci in the urine.
1396983921224 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Orotic Aciuria?<iv><
br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Uriine Monophosphate (UMP), which bypasses UMP Synthase (
the efective enzyme)}}</iv>
1396983990634 1395802358422 {{c1::Nonmegaloblastic Anaemia}} is a type of Ma
crocytic Anaemia that <b>oes not</b> involve impairments in DNA synthesis.
<br /><iv><i>Typically ue to liver isease, alcoholism or certain anti-neoplas
tic rugs.</i></iv>
1396984225274 1395802358422 {{c1::5-Fluorouracil}} is a pyrimiine analog us
e as anti-cancer treatment that can cause {{c2::Nonmegaloblastic Macrocytic Ana
emia.}}
1396984320833 1395802358422 {{c1::Ziovuine (AZT)}} is a NRTI anti-retrovir
al rug that can cause Nonmegaloblastic Macrocytic Anaemia.
1396984375701 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyroxyurea}} is an anticancer rug use i
n myeloproliferative isorers that can cause Nonmegaloblastic Macrocytic Anaemi
a.
1396984461529 1395802358422 Which rug of abuse can cause Nonmegaloblastic M
acrocytic Anaemia?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Alcohol}}</iv> <img src="paste12799002542685.jpg" />
1396984484043 1395802358422 {{c1::Intravascular Hemolysis}} is a type of hem
olysis that occurs <b>within</b> bloo vessels.
1396985584746 1395802358422 {{c1::Extravascular Hemolysis}} is a type of hem
olysis that occurs in the Reticuloenothelial System (via Splenic Macrophages, L
iver an Lymph Noes).
1396985625896 1395802358422 How o Haptoglobin levels change in Intravascula
r Hemolysis?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Decrease}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>Re
member, we measure <b>free</b> Haptoglobin, which woul ecrease when Hapto
globin begins bining to free Hemoglobin release from RBCs via hemolysis.</i></
iv>
1396985781982 1395802358422 How o LDH levels change in both Intravascular a
n Extravascular Hemolysis?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Increase}}</iv>
1396986016836 1395802358422 Which type of Hemolysis is associate with incre
ase <b>Unconjugate</b> Bilirubin an subsequent jaunice?<iv><br /></iv><iv
>{{c1::Extravascular Hemolysis}}</iv>
1396986078397 1395802358422 Which type of hemolysis is associate with Urobi
linogen in the urine?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Intravascular Hemolysis}}</iv>
1396986112850 1395802358422 Which type of hemolysis is associate with Schis
tocytes?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Intravascular Hemolysis}}</iv>

1396986194916 1395802358422 Which type of hemolysis is associate with Spher
ocytes in the peripheral bloo smear?<iv><br /></iv><iv><img src="paste-60086
59247266.jpg" /></iv><iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Extravascular Hemolysis}}</iv
>
<br /><iv><i>As oppose to increase LDH, increase reticulocytes
an schistocytes in the peripheral bloo smear for Intravascular Hemolysis</i><
/iv>
1396986334863 1395802358422 {{c1::Hepciin}} is an acute phase reactant prot
ein release from the liver uring chronic inflammation/isease that bins to Fe
rroportin on intestinal mucosal cells an macrophages.
ein release from the liver in Anaemia of Chronic Disease that bins to Ferropor
tin on intestinal mucosal cells an macrophages, thereby inhibiting iron transpo
rt.
ein from the liver involve in Anaemia of Chronic Disease that bins to Ferropor
tin on Macrophages, thereby <b>ecreasing</b> iron release from Macrophages
.
<br /><iv><i>Remember, it is Macrophages that transfer iron to erythroi
precursors.</i></iv>
1397005043090 1395802358422 {{c1::Anaemia of Chronic Disease}} is a Nonhemol
ytic Normocytic Anaemia ue to chronic inflammation/isease that can become Micr
ocytic in its later stages.
1397005592139 1395802358422 {{c1::Aplastic Anaemia}} is a nonhemolytic, norm
ocytic anaemia that is cause by failure or estruction of myeloi stem cells in
the bone marrow.
1397005712093 1395802358422 {{c1::Chloramphenicol}} is an antibiotic that ca
n cause Aplastic Anaemia.
<br /><iv><i>Rare, but very severe an generall
y fatal.</i></iv>
1397005799996 1395802358422 Which <b>Herpes</b> virus can cause Aplastic Ana
emia?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::EBV}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>also cause by par
vovirus B19 , HIV, an Hepatitis viruses</i></iv>
1397005823015 1395802358422 Which Hepatitis virus can cause Aplastic Anaemia
?<iv><br />{{c1::HCV}}</iv>
1397005834779 1395802358422 {{c1::Parvovirus B19}} is a viral cause of Aplas
tic Anaemia that targets progenitor re cells, thereby halting erythropoiesis.
<br /><iv><br /></iv>
1397006285884 1395802358422 {{c1::Fanconi's Anaemia}} is a genetic form of A
plastic Anaemia that results from efects in DNA repair mechanisms.
1397006311677 1395802358422 {{c1::Aplastic Anaemia}} is a non-hemolytic norm
ocytic anaemia that presents with <b>pancytopenia </b>(severe anaemia, leukopeni
a an thrombocytopenia).
1397006515129 1395802358422 {{c1::Aplastic Anaemia}} is a non-hemolytic norm
ocytic anaemia that presents with a <b>hypocellular bone marrow with fatty infil
tration</b> (i.e. a <u>ry bone marrow tap</u>).<iv><br /></iv><iv><img
src="paste-7649336754390.jpg" /></iv> <br /><iv><i>The cells on peripheral bl
oo smear show normal morphology.</i></iv>
1397006614145 1395802358422 {{c1::Filgrastim (G-CSF)}} an {{c2::Sargra
mostim (GCM-CSF)}} are colony stimulating factors that are use to treat the pan
cytopenia seen in Aplastic Anaemia by stimulating recovery of the bone marrow.
1397007493588 1395802358422 What <b>type</b> of rugs are useful in Ii
opathic or Autoimmune Aplastic Anaemia?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Immunosuppres
sants}}</iv>
1397007560952 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Kiney Disease}} is a cause of non
-hemolytic, normocytic anaemia that results from a seconary ecrease in Erythro
poietin.
1397007616867 1395802358422 How o Erythropoietin levels change in Chronic K
iney Disease?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Decrease}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>He
nce there is ecrease hematopoiesis.</i></iv>
1397007669093 1395802358422 Which RBC cytoskeleton-membrane tethering protei
ns are <u>most commonly</u> efective in Hereitary Spherocytosis?<iv><br
/></iv><iv>{{c1::Ankyrin; Ban 3; Spectrin}}</iv>

1397009192248 1395802358422 {{c1::Hereitary Spherocytosis}} is an intrinsic
hemolytic anaemia that involves <b>inherite efects</b> in RBC cytoskelet
on-membrane tethering proteins. <br /><iv><i>Most commonly Ankyrin, Ban 3 an
Spectrin. Sometimes Protein 4.2 as well</i></iv>
1397009259163 1395802358422 {{c1::Spherocytes}} are small, roun, pathologic
al RBCs with <u>no central pallor</u> ue to less cell membrane being prese
nt. They are seen in {{c1::Hereitary Spherocytosis}}<iv><br /></iv><iv><img
src="paste-9169755177129.jpg" /></iv> <br /><iv><i>The lack of central pallou
r is ue to the spherical shape of these RBCs. Remember, normally RBCs are bicon
cave an hence yiel an area of central pallour.</i></iv>
1397009399953 1395802358422 Where oes the hemolysis occur in Hereitary Sph
erocytosis?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Extravascular; typically at the Spleen u
e to premature removal by Splenic Macrophages}}</iv> <br /><iv><i>Hence ther
e is going to be Splenomegaly</i></iv>
1397009760974 1395802358422 {{c1::Aplastic Crisis}} is a severe complication
of Hereitary Spherocytosis an can be triggere by Parvovirus B19 infection.
<br /><iv><i>Aplastic Crisis is also known as marrow failure -- it causes RBC p
rouction to be shut own, for up to 10 ays</i></iv>
1397009800179 1395802358422 Which anaemia is iagnose by a <b>positive osmo
tic fragility test</b> of RBCs in hypotonic solution?<iv><br /></iv><iv>
{{c1::Hereitary Spherocytosis}}</iv>
1397009875932 1395802358422 Which intrinsic hemolytic anaemia can be screene
via an Eosin-5-Maleimie Bining Test?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Hereitary S
pherocytosis}}</iv>
1397009946079 1395802358422 How oes MCHC change in Hereitary Spherocytosis
?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Increase}}</iv> <br /><iv><i>MCHC = Mean Corpus
cular Hemoglobin Concentration</i></iv><iv><i><br /></i></iv><iv><i>Note tha
t in HS, there is a ecrease in Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV) ue to loss of K+
an Water, thus the MCHC will increase.</i></iv>
1397009970884 1395802358422 How oes RDW change in Hereitary Spherocytosis?
<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Increase}}</iv> <br /><iv><i>RDW = Re Cell Dis
tribution With</i></iv>
1397010027836 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Hereitary Spherocytos
is?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Splenectomy}}</iv>
<iv><i><br /></i></iv>
1397010075966 1395802358422 What is the most common enzymatic isorer of RB
Cs?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::G6PD Deficiency}}</iv>
1397010094332 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of G6PD Deficien
cy?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::X-Linke recessive}}</iv>
1397010107527 1395802358422 Which enzyme is efective in G6PD Deficiency?<i
v><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehyrogenase (G6PD)}}</iv>
<br /><iv><i>Easy one :)</i></iv>
1397010182120 1395802358422 {{c1::Glutathione}} is an important antioxiant
that is eficient in the RBCs of a patient with G6PD Deficiency, thereby greatly
increasing the susceptibility of RBCs to oxiant stress.
1397010288046 1395802358422 How o Glutathione levels in RBCs change in a pa
tient with G6PD Deficiency?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Decrease}}</iv>
1397010314484 1395802358422 {{c1::G6PD Deficiency}} is an X-linke Recessive
enzyme efect that results in a ecrease in Glutathione levels in RBCs, thereby
facilitating oxiant stress an subsequent hemolysis.
1397010488690 1395802358422 Which foo item is commonly known to cause oxia
nt stress in G6PD Deficiency?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Fava Beans}}</iv>
1397010576242 1395802358422 {{c1::Heinz Boies}} are intracellular inclusion
s foun in the RBCs of a patient with G6PD Deficiency.<iv><br /></iv><iv><img
src="paste-11544872091815.jpg" /></iv>
<br /><iv><i>Are a result of th
e oxiation of hemoglobin sulfhyryl groups, leaing to Hb precipitation an pha
gocytic amage.</i></iv>
1397010718958 1395802358422 {{c1::Bite Cells}} are a pathological form of RB
Cs that are classically seen in G6PD eficiency ue to the phagocytic amage ont
o RBCs cause by Heinz Boy formation.<iv><br /></iv> <img src="paste-11596411
699361.jpg" /><br /><iv><i>Heinz Boies are remove by splenic macrophages, the

reby creating Bite Cells.</i></iv><iv><i><br /></i></iv><iv><i>Oxiative str
ess precipitates Hb as Heinz boies</i></iv><iv><i><br /></i></iv>
1397010796248 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyruvate Kinase Deficiency}} is an autosom
al recessive enzyme efect that results in a significant ecrease in [ATP] in RB
Cs, thereby leaing to rigi RBCs an subsequent hemolysis.
1397010854692 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Pyruvate Kina
se Deficiency?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</iv>
1397010875601 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis occurs in Pyruvate Kinase
Deficiency?<iv><br /></iv><iv>{{c1::Extravascular}}</iv> <br /><iv><i>De
fect in pyruvate kinase --> ecrease ATP --> rigi RBCs --> extravascu
lar hemolysis</i></iv><iv><i><br /></i></iv><iv><i>Finings associate: Hemo
lytic anemia in the newborn</i></iv>
1397011083128 1395802358422 {{c1::HbC Defect}} is a cause of intrinsic hemol
ytic anaemia that results from a <b>glutamic aci-to-lysine mutation</b> at
resiue 6 of -gloin. <r /><div><i>Note that patients with HSC (1 sickle cel
l mutation and 1 HC mutation) will have milder anaemia than patients with HSS
(sickle cell disease).</i></div>
1397011323357 1395802358422 Which mutation is seen in HC Defect?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Glutamic Acid to Lysine (at residue 6 of -gloin)}}</div>
1397011437956 1395802358422 What type of hemolysis occurs in HC Defect Anae
mia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Extravascular}}</div>
1397011471619 1395802358422 {{c1::Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemogloinuria}} is a
n intrinsic hemolytic anaemia that is due to <>complement-mediated hemolysis</
>&nsp;as a result of a <>lack of glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)</>.
1397011657084 1395802358422 {{c1::Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)}} is a
cell-memrane anchor for Decay-Accelerating Factor (CD55), a protein that protec
ts RBCs against complement mediated hemolysis.
1397011793302 1395802358422 Which cell-memrane anchor in RBCs is asent in
Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemogloinuria, therey leading to complement mediated hemo
lysis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>It inds to Decay Accelerating Factor (DAF; CD55)</i></div>
cause of intrinsic hemolytic anaemia that presents with <>Cooms-negative</>&
nsp;hemolytic anaemia, pancytopenia and venous thromosis.
<div><r /></div
><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><img src="p
aste-58810987184129.jpg" />
1397011983423 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is used to <>screen</>&n
sp;for Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemogloinuria (PNH)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Su
crose test}}</div>
cause of intrinsic hemolytic anaemia that involves&nsp;<>{{c2::CD55/59-negati
ve}} </>RBCs on flow cytometry.
1397012075486 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Paroxysmal Nocturnal H
emogloinuria?<div><r />{{c1::Eculizuma}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Binds to C
omplement Protein 5 (C5), therey stopping the complement cascade and hemolysis.
</i></div>
1397012192097 1395802358422 {{c1::Eculizuma}} is used to treat {{c2::Paroxy
smal Nocturnal Hemogloinuria}} y inding to and inhiiting Complement Protein
5 (C5), therey stopping the complement cascade.
<r /><div><i>Eculizuma
is a monoclonal Antiody</i></div>
1397012231749 1395802358422 {{c1::Sickle Cell Anaemia}} is a cause of intrin
sic hemolytic anaemia that results from a <>HS point mutation</>&nsp;that ca
uses a <>glutamic acid-to-valine sustitution</>&nsp;in the&nsp;-gloin chain
at position 6.
1397012946233 1395802358422 Which amino acid sustitution is seen in the&ns
p;-gloin chain in Sickle Cell Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glutamic Acid
to Valine (at position 6)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Do not confuse this with G
lutamic Acid to Lysine that is seen in HC Defect.</i></div>
sic hemolytic anaemia that involves polymerization of deoxygenated HS that typi
cally results from hypoxia, dehydration or acidosis.
sic hemolytic anaemia that involves vaso-occlusive symptoms as a result of RBC s
ickling.
1397013114368 1395802358422 What causes RBC sickling in Sickle Cell Anaemia?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Precipitation of deoxygenated HS}}</div>
1397013134887 1395802358422 Why are neworns that have Sickle Cell Anaemia i
nitially asymptomatic?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HF levels are high; HS level
s are low}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, HF is generally protective in -g
loin defects as it involves&nsp;<sub>2</sub><sub>2</sub>. </i></div><div><i
>Understandably, this does not apply to </i><i>-thlssemi.</i></div>
1397013296521 1395802358422 Ptients with Sickle Cell Trit (heterozygotes)
re resistnt to which protozol infection?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mlri}}
</div>
1397013396358 1395802358422 {{c1::Sickle Cell Anemi}} is cuse of intrin
sic hemolytic nemi tht involves crescent-shped RBCs known s Sickle Cells.<
div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-14328010899663.jpg" /></div>
1397013491314 1395802358422 {{c1::Sickle Cell Anemi}} is type of intrins
ic hemolytic nemi tht involves <b>"crew cut" </b>ppernce on crnil x-r
y due to the bone mrrow expnsion tht occurs s result of incresed erythro
poiesis.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-14916421419283.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, this is lso seen with the Thlssemis.</i></div>
1397013545745 1395802358422 {{c1::Aplstic Crisis}} is possible complicti
on of Sickle Cell Disese tht cn be triggered by Prvovirus B19.
1397016449860 1395802358422 {{c1::Autosplenectomy}} is compliction of Sic
kle Cell Disese tht leds to n increse risk of infection with encpsulted o
rgnisms nd the formtion of Howell-Jolly Bodies in RBCs.
1397016496339 1395802358422 Which genus of bcteri commonly cuses osteomye
litis in Sickle Cell Disese ptients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Slmonell<
/i>}}</div>
1397016528254 1395802358422 {{c1::Dctylitis}} is pinful vso-occlusive c
risis seen in Sickle Cell Disese tht involves pinful swelling of the hnds.
1397016571966 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Chest Syndrome}} is pinful vso-o
cclusive crisis seen in Sickle Cell Disese tht involves severe chest pin nd
shortness of breth due to occlusion of pulmonry microcircultion.
1397016602359 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of deth in dults
with Sickle Cell Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Chest Syndrome}}</di
v>
1397016687040 1395802358422 {{c1::Renl Ppillry Necrosis}} is complicti
on of {{c2::Sickle Cell Disese}} tht results from low O<sub>2</sub> t th
e renl ppille.
<br /><div><i>Involves hemturi nd proteinuri</i></di
v>
1397016777062 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Sickle Cell Disese?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hydroxyure (increses HbF) nd bone mrrow trnsplnt
tion}}</div>
1397016815301 1395802358422 {{c1::Hydroxyure}} is n nti-neoplstic drug u
sed in myeloprolifertive disorders tht cn tret the pinful ttcks of Sickle
Cell Disese by incresing HbF expression.
<br /><div><i>Remember gin, br
h, HbF is 22 and does not involve -gloin.</i></div>
1397061521398 1395802358422 {{c1::Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia}} is a type o
f extrinsic hemolytic anaemia that occurs due to idiopathic autoimmune destructi
on of RBCs.
1397063663213 1395802358422 {{c1::Warm AIHA}} is a type of Autoimmune Hemoly
tic Anaemia (AIHA) that involves IgG antiodies.
1397063691286 1395802358422 Which type of&nsp;Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia
(AIHA) involves IgG antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Warm agglutinin}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>Warm weather is <>G</>reat.</i></div>
1397063717138 1395802358422 Which type of anaemia is commonly seen in System
ic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Warm Autoimmune Hemolyt
ic Anaemia (AIHA)}}</div>
<i>question previously stated which type of chro
nic anemia</i>
1397063763093 1395802358422 {{c1::alpha-Methyldopa}} is an alpha-adrenergic
agonist that is associated with causing Warm&nsp;Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia (
AIHA).
(AIHA) involves IgM antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cold agglutinin}}</di
v>
1397065165244 1395802358422 {{c1::Cold Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia (AIHA)}}
is a type of&nsp;Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia (AIHA) that involves <>acute</
>&nsp;anaemia <r /><div><i>The acute anemia is triggered y the cold</i></div
>
(AIHA) is <>chronic</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Warm agglutinin}}</div>
(AIHA) is <>acute</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cold}}</div>
1397065218102 1395802358422 Which viral infection is associated with <>Cold
</>&nsp;Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia (AIHA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infect
ious Mononucleosis (EBV)}}</div>
1397065248133 1395802358422 Which acterial infection is associated with <>
Cold</>&nsp;Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia (AIHA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i
>Mycoplasma pneumoniae</i>}}</div>
1397065276583 1395802358422 What is the Cooms Test result in&nsp;Autoimmun
e Hemolytic Anaemia (AIHA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Usually <>positive</>&n
sp;(Cooms+)}}</div>
1397065317668 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Direct Cooms Test}} is a type of
Cooms Test that involves the addition of <>anti-Ig antiodies (Cooms reagent
)</> to a patient's lood.
<r /><div><i>If the patient's RBCs agglutinate,
then that means that their RBCs are coated with Ig (and hence is a positive Coo
ms Test).</i></div>
1397065388097 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::Indirect Cooms Test}} is a type
of Cooms Test that involves the addition of <>normal RBCs</>&nsp;to the pati
ent's serum <u>followed y the addition of anti-Ig antiodies (Cooms reagent)</
u>.
<r /><div><i>If the patient's serum has anti-RBC surface immunogloulin
, the added normal RBCs will agglutinate when Cooms reagent is added (yielding
a positive Cooms test).</i></div>
1397065544048 1395802358422 {{c1::<>Micro</>angiopathic Anaemia}} is a typ
e of extrinsic hemolytic anaemia that involves damage to RBCs as they pass throu
gh ostructed or narrowed <>vessel lumina</>. <r /><div><i>Prime examples are
DIC, TTP, HUS, SLE, and Malignant HTN.</i></div>
1397067018618 1395802358422 {{c1::<>Macro</>angiopathic Anaemia}} is a typ
e of extrinsic hemolytic anaemia that involves destruction of RBCs as they pass
through prosthetic heart valves or a stenotic aortic valve.
1397067077313 1395802358422 What type of anaemia is seen in infections that
target RBCs, such as Malaria and Baesiosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Extrinsi
c Hemolytic Anaemia (Normocytic)}}</div>
1397067109603 1395802358422 How do serum iron levels change in Iron Deficien
cy Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
<div><i><r /></
i></div>
1397067327763 1395802358422 How do TIBC (Transferrin) levels change in Iron
Deficiency Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Rememer, TIBC is always the opposite of Ferritin.</i></div><div><i>Also,
Iron Deficiency Anaemia refers to lower storage iron.</i></div>
1397067378375 1395802358422 How do Ferritin levels change in Iron Deficiency
Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1397067399786 1395802358422 What is the function of Transferrin in Iron ala
nce and storage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to and transports Iron <>in t
he lood</>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Transferrin is what we indirectly measure
with TIBC (Total Iron Binding Capacity).</i></div>
1397067444374 1395802358422 What does TIBC (Total Iron Binding Capacity) mea
sure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The total amount of Transferrin in the lood (i

ndirectly)}}</div>
1397067474658 1395802358422 What is the role of Ferritin in Iron storage and
transport?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::It is the primary iron storage protein of
the ody}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Basically, Ferritin = Iron storage levels
of the ody.</i></div>
1397067518690 1395802358422 How does % Transferrin Saturation change in Iron
Deficiency Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Greatly decreased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>% saturation = serum iron/TIBC x 100%</i></div>
1397067576844 1395802358422 How do serum iron levels change in Anaemia of Ch
ronic Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Ir
on is stored in ACD ecause infections use iron to thrive so it gets locked away
.</i></div>
1397067735005 1395802358422 How does TIBC change in Anaemia of Chronic Disea
se?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
this is in response to a chronic disease/infection and pathogens use circulating
iron to thrive. Hence the ody attempts to not only limit circulating iron (i.e
. decrease Transferrin levels) ut to also increase intracellular iron stores (i
.e. increased Ferritin) to prevent pathogens from thriving.</i></div>
1397067851074 1395802358422 How do Ferritin levels change in Anaemia of Chro
nic Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Re
memer, this is in response to a chronic disease/infection and pathogens use cir
culating iron to thrive. Hence the ody attempts to not only limit circulating i
ron (i.e. decrease Transferrin levels) ut to also increase intracellular iron s
tores (i.e. increased Ferritin) to prevent pathogens from thriving.</i></div>
1397067888943 1395802358422 How does % Transferrin Saturation change in Anae
mia of Chronic Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Rememer, serum iron AND TIBC decrease in ACD, typically in proportion to
each other. As a result, % Saturation does not change.</i></div><div><i><r /></
i></div><div><i>Rememer, % saturation = serum iron/TIBC x 100%</i></div><div><i
><r /></i></div><div><i>Also, in ACD, iron is decreased due to Hepcidin sequest
ration</i></div>
1397068004896 1395802358422 How do Serum Iron levels change in Hemochromatos
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1397069449766 1395802358422 How does TIBC change in Hemochromatosis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div> <r /><div><i>Hemochromatosis is excess
ody iron leading to deposition in tissue (Hemosiderosis), which means increased
Ferritin for storage.</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>Always rememer
Increased Ferritin means decreased TIBC (Transferrin)</i></div>
1397069469623 1395802358422 How do Ferritin levels change in Hemochromatosis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div> <div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>
<r /></i></div><i>Hemochromatosis is excess ody iron leading to:</i><div><i><
r /></i><div><i>Hemosiderosis -- deposition in tissues and thus increased Ferrit
in</i></div><div><i>Organ Damage -- tissue damage mediated y Free Radical Forma
tion</i></div><div><r /></div></div>
1397069482462 1395802358422 How does % Transferrin Saturation change in Hemo
chromatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Greatly increased}}</div>
1397069497536 1395802358422 How does TIBC (Transferrin) change in pregnancy
or with oral contraceptive use?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Pregnancy and OCPs induce Transferrin production due to the increa
sed need for iron transport in the lood.</i></div>
1397069543819 1395802358422 How does % Transferrin Saturation change in Preg
nancy or with oral contraceptive use?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, there is an increase in Transferrin/TIBC, as a r
esult there will e less saturation.</i></div>
1397069586958 1395802358422 What asolute neutrophil count is diagnostic of
Neutropenia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::< 1500 cells/mm<sup>3</sup>}}</div>
1397075949830 1395802358422 What asolute lymphocyte count is diagnostic of
Lymphopenia <>in adults</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::< 1500 cells/mm<sup>
3</sup>}}</div>
1397075991704 1395802358422 What asolute lymphocyte count is diagnostic of

Lymphopenia <>in children</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::< 3000 cells/mm<su
p>3</sup>}}</div>
1397076869252 1395802358422 {{c1::Corticosteroids}} are drugs that cause <>
neutrophilia</>&nsp;y decreasing activation of {{c2::neutrophil adhesions mol
ecules}}, therey impairing migration of neutrophils out of the vasculature and
into tissue.
1397076922427 1395802358422 {{c1::Corticosteroids}} are a type of drug that
can causes&nsp;<>eosinopenia</>&nsp;through sequestration of eosinophils in
lymph nodes.
1397076968065 1395802358422 {{c1::Corticosteroids}} is a drug that causes <
>lymphopenia</>&nsp;through triggering apoptosis of lymphocytes.
1397076990838 1395802358422 {{c1::Cushing's Syndrome}} is an adrenal cortex
hormone disorder that can cause Eosinopenia y triggering the sequestration of e
osinophils in lymph nodes.
1397077100052 1395802358422 {{c1::Porphyrias}} are a group of hereditary or
acquired disorders that result from defective heme synthesis and therey involve
accumulation of heme precursors.
1397077202752 1395802358422 Which 2 enzymes involved in Heme synthesis are i
nhiited y Lead?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ferrochelatase; ALA Dehydratase}}</
div>
1397077227495 1395802358422 {{c1::Ferrochelatase}} and&nsp;{{c2::ALA Dehydr
atase}} are 2 enzymes involved with Heme synthesis that are inhiited y Lead.
1397077498444 1395802358422 Which sustrate in the heme synthesis pathway ac
cumulates as a result of Ferrochelatase inhiition y Lead?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Protoporphyrin}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-5536212845213.jpg" />
</div>
1397077636526 1395802358422 Which sustrate in the heme synthesis pathway ac
cumulates as a result of ALA Dehydratase inhiition y Lead?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::delta-ALA (Aminolevulinic acid) (will e found in the lood)}}</div>
1397077640694 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of lead poisoning
in children?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Exposure to lead paint}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Will present with mental deterioration</i></div>
1397077682419 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Lead poisoning
in adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Environmental exposure (such as atteries,
ammunition, radiator factory work)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Will present with
headache, memory loss and signs of demyelination.</i></div>
1397077734522 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Intermittant Porphyria}} is a porphy
ria that involves a defect in the enzyme Porphoilinogen Deaminase.
1397077780919 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in heme synthesis is defec
tive in Acute Intermittent Porphyria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Porphoilinogen
Deaminase}}</div>
1397077878343 1395802358422 Which sustrates involved in the heme synthesis
pathway accumulate in Acute Intermittent Porphyria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::M
ostly Porphoilinogen; also delta-ALA and coporphoilinogen in the urine}}</div>
1397077956394 1395802358422 Which porphyria is associated with <>port-wine
coloured urine</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Intermittent Porphyria}}</d
iv>
1397077999357 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Acute Intermittent Por
phyria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glucose and Heme}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Bo
th Glc and Heme inhiit delta-ALA Synthase, the first enzyme involved in heme sy
nthesis.</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-5536212845213.
jpg" /></i></div>
1397078060168 1395802358422 {{c1::Porphyria Cutanea Tarda}} is a porphyria t
hat involves a defect in the enzyme Uroporphyrinogen Decaroxylase.
1397078100122 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in heme synthesis is defec
tive in Porphyria Cutanea Tarda?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uroporphrinogen Deca
roxylase}}</div>
1397078156173 1395802358422 Which sustrate involved in the heme synthesis p

athway accumulates in Porphyria Cutanea Tarda?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uropor
phyrin (yielding <>tea-coloured urine</>)}}</div>
te-8796093022883.jpg" /></div>
1397078202364 1395802358422 Which porphyria is associated with <>tea-colour
ed urine</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Porphyria Cutanea Tarda}}</div>
1397078221365 1395802358422 What is the most common porphyria?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Porphyria Cutanea Tarda}}</div>
1397078287082 1395802358422 {{c1::Porphyria Cutanea Tarda}} is a porphyria t
hat presents with <>listering cutaneous photosensitivity.</><div><><r /></
></div><div><><img src="paste-8989366550695.jpg" /></></div>
1397078288173 1395802358422 How do Glucose and Heme affect the activity of d
elta-ALA Synthase, the first enzyme in Heme synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Inhiition}}</div>
1397078379596 1395802358422 How does an <>increase</>&nsp;in heme levels
influence the activity of delta-ALA Synthase, the first enzyme involved in Heme
synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreases delta-ALA Synthase activity}}</d
iv>
1397078429327 1395802358422 Which coagulation test gauges the <>common</>&
nsp;and <>extrinsic</>&nsp;coagulation pathways?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
PT}}</div>
1397091308752 1395802358422 Which coagulation test gauges the function of th
e <>common</>&nsp;and <>intrinsic</>&nsp;pathway?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::PTT}}</div>
1397091364392 1395802358422 Which coagulation pathways are gauged y PT?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Common and extrinsic}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Factors I,
II, V and X (common)</i></div><div><i>Factor VII (extrinsic)</i></div>
1397091443346 1395802358422 Which coagulation pathway is gauged y PTT?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Common and intrinsic}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Factors I,
II, V, and X (common)</i></div><div><i>Factors XII, XI, IX, VIII ("tenet") (int
rinsic)</i></div>
1397091530341 1395802358422 How does PT change in Hemophilia A or B?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::No change; factors VIII and IX are in the intrinsic pathway
(PTT)}}</div> <r /><div><i>Did I get you? Think things through, rah!</i></di
v>
1397091614159 1395802358422 How does PTT change in Hemophilia A or B?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased due to Factor VIII or IX deficiency}}</div>
1397091634184 1395802358422 Which coagulation pathway is defective in Hemoph
ilia A?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intrinsic (due to Factor VIII deficiency)}}</
div>
1397091657782 1395802358422 Which coagulation pathway is defective in Hemoph
ilia B?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intrinsic (due to Factor IX deficiency)}}</di
v>
1397091678755 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is deficient in Hemophi
lia A?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factor VIII}}</div>
1397091694250 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is deficient in Hemophi
lia B?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factor IX}}</div>
1397091714599 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemarthroses}} is a macrohemorrhage that o
ccurs in Hemophilia A or B and involves leeding into joints.
1397091738994 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Hemophilia A?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Recominant Factor VIII}}</div>
1397091762344 1395802358422 How does PT change in Vitamin K Deficiency?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Vitamin K gamma ca
roxylates (activates) Factors II, <>VII</>&nsp;(PT), IX, X, Protein C and Pr
otein S</i></div>
1397092297405 1395802358422 How does PTT change in Vitamin K deficiency?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
<div><i>Activated vitamin K gamm
a caroxvlates factors II, VII, IX, X, and proteins C</i></div><div><i>and S; ga
mma caroxylation is necessary for factor function.</i></div>
1397092325099 1395802358422 Which vitamin is involved with the synthesis of
coagulation Factors II, VII, IX, X, Protein C and Protein S?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Vitamin K}}</div>
1397092364076 1395802358422 Which coagulation factors require Vitamin K for
their synthesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factors II, VII, IX and X}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"2, 7, 9, 10"</i></div>
1397092398631 1395802358422 What does Bleeding Time (BT) gauge?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::<>Platelet</>&nsp;function (esp. platelet plug formation)}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i><><u>It does not gauge the function of coagulation factor
s!!!</u></></i></div>
1397092437344 1395802358422 Which <>type</>&nsp;of leeding disorder invo
lves <>macro</>hemorrhaging and easy ruising?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coag
ulation disorders}}</div>
1397092474568 1395802358422 Which <>type</>&nsp;of leeding disorder invo
lves <>micro</>hemorrhaging (e.g. petechiae, purpura, mucosal leeding)?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Platelet disorders}}</div>
1397092520852 1395802358422 {{c1::Bernard-Soulier Syndrome}} is a platelet d
isorder that involves a deficiency in GpI, therey causing a defect in platelet
adhesion via vWF.
1397092799124 1395802358422 How does platelet count change in Bernard-Soulie
r Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <i>GP1 deficiency occur
s in Bernard-Soulier syndrome -- impairing platelet adhesion</i>
1397092825789 1395802358422 How does Bleeding Time change in Bernard-Soulier
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <i>Bernard-Soulier syndr
ome is characterized y a genetic GP1 deficiency, the receptor for von Willera
nd factor --> decreased adhesion</i>
1397092843275 1395802358422 What is deficient in Bernard-Soulier Syndrome?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::GpI platelet receptor}}</div>
1397092894682 1395802358422 What does the GpI platelet receptor ind to in
platelet adhesion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::von Willerand's Factor (vWF)}}</d
iv>
1397092931003 1395802358422 {{c1::Glanzmann Thromasthenia}} is a platelet d
isorder that involves a deficiency in GpII/IIIa, therey causing a defect in pl
atelet-to-platelet aggregation.
1397093827489 1395802358422 How does platelet count change in Glanzmann Thro
masthenia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Gl
anzmann Thromasthenia is due to a GPII/IIIa deficiency, and platelet aggregati
on is impaired.</i></div>
1397093843701 1395802358422 How does Bleeding Time (BT) change in Glanzmann
Thromasthenia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397093869769 1395802358422 What is deficient in Glanzmann Thromasthenia?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::GpII/IIIa platelet receptor}}</div>
1397093891842 1395802358422 {{c1::Glanzmann Thromasthenia}} is a platelet d
isorder that <>will not </>show platelet clumping on a peripheral lood smear.
<r /><div><i>Glanzmann Thromasthenia is a deficiency in GPII/IIIa</i></div>
1397094752105 1395802358422 {{c1::Immune Thromocytopenia (ITP)}} is a plate
let disorder that involves <>GpII/IIIa autoantiodies</>, therey causing spl
enic macrophage consumption of the platelet-antiody complex. <r /><div><i>Th
ere is decreased platelet survival and hence <u>thromocytopenia</u></i></div>
1397094866363 1395802358422 How does platelet count change in Immune Thromo
cytopenia (ITP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Pl
atelets get consumed y splenic macrophages due to antiody inding.</i></div>
1397094903174 1395802358422 How does Bleeding Time (BT) change in Immune Thr
omocytopenia (ITP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397094917715 1395802358422 Which antiodies against platelets are involved
in Immune Thromocytopenia (ITP)?<r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-GpII/II
Ia antiodies}}</div> <r /><div><i>Therey causing destruction/consumption of
the antiody-ound platelets y splenic macrophages.</i></div>
let disorder that can e triggered y a viral illness. <r /><div><i>i.e. "Acut
e ITP"</i></div>

let disorder that involves an <>increase in megakaryocytes</>&nsp;on a one m
arrow iopsy. <r /><div><i>Rememer that in ITP, you have autoantiodies atta
ching to platelets, which causes macrophages to kill them so you need more plate
lets --> increased megakaryocytes</i></div>
1397095560531 1395802358422 {{c1::Thromotic Thromocytopenic Purpura (TTP)}
} is a platelet disorder that is due to the inhiition or deficiency of ADAMTS 1
3 (vWF metalloprotease), therey resulting in decreased reakdown of vWF monomer
s.
<r /><div><i>The increase in vWF monomers leads to an <>increase in pl
atelet adhesion</>&nsp;and susequent thromosis</i></div>
1397095673249 1395802358422 How does Platelet Count change in Thromotic Thr
omocytopenic Purpura (TTP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, there is a lack of ADAMTS 13 and hence overactivation of
platelets. Increased platelet adhesion leads to thromosis and increased platel
et consumption, therefore thromocytopenia.</i></div>
1397095792698 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Thromotic Thromocytope
nic Purpura (TTP)?<div><r />{{c1::Inhiition or deficiency of ADAMTS 13 (vWF me
talloprotease)}}</div> <r /><div><i>The increase in vWF monomers leads to an&n
sp;<>increase in platelet adhesion</>&nsp;and susequent thromosis</i></div
>
} is a platelet disorder that involves <>schistocytes</>&nsp;on peripheral l
ood smear and <>elevated LDH</>.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, <>TTP</> is a
kind of <>Microangiopathic Hemolytic Anemia</>, along with <>Hemolytic Uremic
Syndrome (HUS)</></i></div>
1397095842494 1395802358422 Which platelet disorder is associated with eleva
ted LDH?<div><r />{{c1::Thromotic Thromocytopenic Purpura (TTP)}}</div>
1397095861158 1395802358422 What type of anaemia is associated with Thromot
ic Thromocytopenic Purpura (TTP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microangiopathic H
emolytic Anaemia}}</div>
} is a platelet disorder that presents with a pentad of <>neurological and rena
l symptoms</>, fever, thromocytopenia and microangiopathic hemolytic anaemia.
1397095984839 1395802358422 {{c1::von Willerand's Disease}} is a mixed plat
elet and coagulation disorder that involves a deficiency in von Willerand's Fac
tor (vWF).
1397096486724 1395802358422 How does platelet count change in von Willerand
Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
1397096501228 1395802358422 How does Bleeding Time (BT) change in von Wille
rand Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Re
memer, vWF is needed in platelet <>adhesion</></i></div>
1397096525402 1395802358422 How does PT change in von Willerand Disease?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, vWF func
tions to carry/protect Factor VIII, which is in the intrinsic pathway (PTT).</i>
</div>
1397096564685 1395802358422 How does PTT change in von Willerand Disease?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase (or no change, depending on severity)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, vWF functions to carry/protect Factor VIII, which is in
the intrinsic pathway (PTT).</i></div>
1397096616677 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor does von Willerand Fac
tor (vWF) carry and protect?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factor VIII}}</div>
1397096844846 1395802358422 Which coagulation pathway is defective in von Wi
llerand Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intrinsic}}</div> <r /><div><i>Re
memer, vWF carries and protects Factor VIII</i></div>
1397096876101 1395802358422 Which stage of platelet plug formation is defect
ive in von Willerand Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Platelet-to-vWF <>adh
esion</>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>And rememer, it's "D's efore G's" (i.e.
adhesion efore aggregation)</i></div>
1397096914733 1395802358422 What is the most common <>inherited</>&nsp;l
eeding disorder?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::von Willerand Disease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>It is generally mild and may not even increase PTT.</i></div>
1397096944572 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of von Willeran
d Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1397096959468 1395802358422 Which diagnostic test is often used to diagnose
von Willerand Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ristocetin Cofactor Assay}}</
div>
<r /><div><i>A decrease in agglutination is diagnostic of vWD.</i></div
>
1397097001486 1395802358422 What is the treatment for von Willerand Disease
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Desmopressin (DDAVP)}}</div>
1397097037157 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmopressin (DDAVP)}} is a synthetic horm
one used to treat von Willerand Disease as it triggers the release of vWF from
endothelial cells.
1397097076424 1395802358422 Which cells release vWF?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Endothelium (from their Wieel-Palade odies)}}</div>
1397097099485 1395802358422 {{c1::Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DI
C)}} is a mixed platelet and coagulation disorder that involves widespread activ
ation of clotting, leading to a systemic deficiency in clotting factors and plat
elets causing a <u>hypocoagulale state</u>.
1397097818545 1395802358422 How does platelet count change in DIC?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, platelets are e
ing widely used in DIC.</i></div>
1397097841666 1395802358422 How does Bleeding Time (BT) change in DIC?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><i>Disseminated Intravascular
Coagulation is a pathologic activation of the coagulation cascade. The consumpt
ion of platelets and factors results in leeding, especially from IV sites and m
ucosal surfaces (leeding from ody orifices).</i></div>
1397097853979 1395802358422 How does PT change in DIC?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397097859376 1395802358422 How does PTT change in DIC?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397097865548 1395802358422 Which coagulation disorder is associated with an
<>elevation of firin split products (D-Dimers)</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::DIC}}</div>
1397097892777 1395802358422 How do Firinogen levels change in DIC?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Clots are eing made syste
mically, hence Firinogen is going to e widely activated into Firin.</i></div>
1397097951135 1395802358422 How do the levels of Factor V and VIII change in
DIC?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1397097974712 1395802358422 Which <>mixed</>&nsp;platelet and coagulation
disorder is associated with schistocytes on a peripheral lood smear?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::DIC}}</div>
1397097999226 1395802358422 Which <>road&nsp;group</>&nsp;of acteria c
ommonly cause DIC via sepsis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gram-negatives}}</div>
disorder is associated with Acute Pancreatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DIC}
}</div>
disorder is associated with Nephrotic Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::DIC
or Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The protei
n loss in Nephrotic Syndrome involves loss of Antithromin III, which normally i
nactivates coagulation factors. The acquired deficiency of ATIII leads to widesp
read overactivation of clotting and hence DIC.</i></div>
1397140935507 1395802358422 {{c1::Factor V Leiden}} is hereditary thromosis
syndrome that involves the production of a mutant coagulation Factor V that is
resistant to degradation y Protein C.
1397141585814 1395802358422 Which anti-coagulaility enzyme degrades Factor
V?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Protein C}}</div>
1397141614657 1395802358422 What is the most common <>inherited hypercoagul
aility in white people</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factor V Leiden}}</div>
1397141635839 1395802358422 {{c1::Prothromin Gene Mutation}} is a hereditar
y thromosis syndrome that involves a mutation in the 3' UTR of Factor II, there
<r /><div><i>Re
y leading to increased Factor II production and thromosis.
memer, Prothromin = Factor II.</i></div>
1397141763247 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is Prothromin?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Factor II}}</div> <r /><div><i>Hence, Thromin is Factor
IIa</i></div>
1397141804582 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is Firinogen?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Factor I}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, Firin is Factor Ia
.</i></div>
1397141963631 1395802358422 {{c1::Antithromin Deficiency}} is an inherited
thromosis syndrome that involves a deficiency of Antithromin. <r /><div><i>It
can also e acquired via Renal Failure/Nephrotic Syndrome.</i></div>
1397142190706 1395802358422 Which coagulation factors are the primary target
s of Antithromin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factors II and X}}</div>
1397142209373 1395802358422 How does PT change in Antithromin Deficiency?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
1397142239778 1395802358422 How does PTT change in Antithromin deficiency?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
<r /><div><i>However, <>Antith
romin Deficiency will diminish the increase in PTT following Heparin administra
tion</>. Rememer, Heparin functions through Antithromin III.</i></div>
1397142298360 1395802358422 {{c1::Protein C or S Deficiency}} is a hereditar
y thromosis syndrome that involves a decreased aility to inactivate Factors V
and VIII, therey increasing the risk of thromotic skin necrosis and hemorrhagi
ng following Warfarin administration.
1397142769805 1395802358422 Which hereditary thromosis syndrome is associat
ed with skin and sucutaneous tissue necrosis after Warfarin administration?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Protein C deficiency}}</div>
in addition to Factors II, VII, IX and X, Warfarin inhiits the synthesis of Pro
tein C and S.</i></div><div><i>All of the aove ^^ require Vitamin K in their sy
nthesis.</i></div>
1397142945499 1395802358422 Which type of lood transfusion therapy is used
to treat Acute Blood Loss and Severe Anaemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Packed
RBCs}}</div>
to treat Thromocytopenia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Platelets}}</div>
to treat DIC?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fresh Frozen Plasma}}</div>
to treat&nsp;Cirrhosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fresh Frozen Plasma}}</div>
to treat&nsp;Warfarin Overdose?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fresh Frozen Plasma}
}</div>
to treat&nsp;TTP/HUS?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fresh Frozen Plasma}}</div>
1397143315081 1395802358422 {{c1::Fresh Frozen Plasma}} is a lood transfusi
on therapy that increases <>coagulation factor levels</>.
to treat&nsp;coagulation factor deficiencies involving <>firinogen</>&nsp;a
nd <>Factor VIII</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cryoprecipitate}}</div>
1397143389619 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemochromatosis}} is a possile lood tran
sfusion risk that results due to iron overload following frequent and chronic l
ood transfusions.
1397143443047 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperkalemia}} is a possile serum electro
lyte complication of lood transfusions that results due to RBC lysis in old, st
agnant lood units.
1397143549816 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypocalcemia}} is a serum electrolyte comp
lication of lood transfusions that occurs due to the presence of <>Citrate</>
in lood units.
<r /><div><i>Citrate is a calcium chelator.</i></div>
1397143636810 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukemia}} is a WBC disorder that involves
lymphoid or myeloid neoplasms with widespread involvement of one marrow and tu
mour cells in peripheral lood circulation.

1397144762132 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymphoma}} is a WBC disorder that involves
a discrete tumour mass that arises from lymph nodes.
1397144801568 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukemoid Reaction}} is an acute inflammat
ory response to infection that involves an increase in WBC count with an increas
e in oth neutrophils and and cells (i.e. left shift).
1397145439888 1395802358422 How do Leukocyte ALP levels change in Leukemoid
Reactions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><div><i>Contrast t
his with CML where Leukocyte ALP <>decreases</>, despite there eing an increa
se in WBC count and a left shift.</i></div>
1397145490870 1395802358422 How do Leukocyte Alkaline Phosphatase (LAP) stai
n levels change in CML?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease/Negative Result}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Contrast this with Leukemoid Reactions where Leukocyte ALP
<>increases / Positive Result</></i></div><div><i><><r /></></i></div><div
>Leukemoid Reactions = Reactive Neutrophilic Leukocytosis</div>
1397145566647 1395802358422 Which has a higher LAP score, Leukemoid Reaction
s or CML?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Leukemoid Reactions}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Due to the <>increase</>&nsp;in Leukocyte ALP. In CML, Leukocyte ALP le
vels decrease.</i></div>
1397145624681 1395802358422 Which type of lymphoma involves a&nsp;<>locali
zed</>, <>single </>group of nodes?<r /><r /><div>{{c1::Hodgkin Lymphoma}}<
/div>
1397150674935 1395802358422 Which type of lymphoma involves <>contiguous sp
read</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hodgkin Lymphoma}}</div> <r /><div><i>Th
erefore the strongest predictor of prognosis is stage.</i></div>
1397150698504 1395802358422 Which type of lymphoma generally has a etter pr
ognosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hodgkin Lymphoma}}</div>
1397150716467 1395802358422 Which type of lymphoma <>rarely</>&nsp;has ex
tranodal involvement?<div><r />{{c1::Hodgkin Lymphoma}}</div>
1397150762120 1395802358422 Which type of lymphoma involves <>multiple, per
ipheral</>&nsp;nodes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma}}</div>
1397150787731 1395802358422 Which type of lymphoma <>commonly </>has extra
nodal involvement?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma}}</div>
1397150844443 1395802358422 Which type of lymphoma involves <>noncontiguous
(diffuse)</>&nsp;spread?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma}}</d
iv>
1397151386304 1395802358422 Which type of lymphoma is characterized y ReedSternerg Cells?<div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ho
dgkin Lymphoma}}</div> <img src="paste-5510443041073.jpg" />
1397151460219 1395802358422 {{c1::Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma}} is a type of lympho
ma that primarily involves B-cells, except for the few lympholastic types of Tcell origin.
1397151495504 1395802358422 {{c1::Hodgkin Lymphoma}} is a type of lymphoma t
hat has a imodal distriution of occurrence (young adulthood and > 55 y/o).
1397151537311 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y Hodgkin L
ymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Males (except for Nodular Sclerosing Hodgkin
Lymphoma)}}</div>
ma that has a peak incidence for certain sutypes at 20-40 y/o.
1397151592225 1395802358422 Which virus is associated with 50% of cases of H
odgkin Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
ma that may e associated with HIV and immunosuppression.
1397151645779 1395802358422 {{c1::Hodgkin Lymphoma}} is a type of lymphoma t
hat is associated with constitutional "B" symptoms such as <>low grade fever, n
ight sweats and weight loss</>.
<r /><div><i>Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma has f
ewer constitutional "B" symptoms.</i></div>
1397151710066 1395802358422 {{c1::Reed-Sternerg Cells}} are a distinctive t
umour giant cell seen in Hodgkin Lymphoma and involve inucleate or iloed nucl
ei with <>"owl eyes".</><div><><r /></></div><div><><r /></></div>
<img src="paste-5901285065012.jpg" /><r /><div><i>The 'owl eyes' are essentiall

y mirror images of the 2 nuclei or 2 loes.</i></div>
1397152780950 1395802358422 Which cell surface markers (CD) are found on Ree
d-Sternerg Cells?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5896990097716.jpg" /></d
iv><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD15+ and CD30+}}</div> <r /><div><i><>2 </>o
wl eyes x <>15</>&nsp;= <>30</></i></div>
1397152832245 1395802358422 {{c1::Reed-Sternerg Cells}} are characteristic
tumour cells of Hodgkin Lymphoma that are of B-cell origin and are necessary, u
t not sufficient, for the Dx of Hodgkin Lymphoma.<div><r /></div><div><r /></d
iv>
<img src="paste-5896990097716.jpg" />
1397152896583 1395802358422 What is the most common type of Hodgkin Lymphoma
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nodular Sclerosing}}</div> <r /><div><i>As it affe
cted men and women equally; all other Hodgkin Lymphomas affect males more often.
</i></div>
1397152962177 1395802358422 What is the prognosis of Hodgkin Lymphoma that h
as a strong stromal or lymphocytic reaction against Reed-Sternerg Cells?<div><
r />{{c1::Good}}</div>
1397153218250 1395802358422 What type of Hodgkin Lymphoma has the est progn
osis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lymphocyte-rich}}</div>
<r /><div><i>As
a general rule, <>the more lymphocytes there are, the etter the prognosis of
the Hodgkin Lymphoma.</></i></div>
1397153553512 1395802358422 What is the prognosis of Lymphocyte-depleted Hod
gkin Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Poor}}</div> <r /><div><i>As a gener
al rule,&nsp;<>the more lymphocytes there are, the etter the prognosis of the
Hodgkin Lymphoma.</></i></div>
1397153577342 1395802358422 What is the prognosis of Lymphocyte-mixed Hodgki
n Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Poor}}</div>
<r /><div><i>As a gener
al rule,&nsp;<>the more lymphocytes there are, the etter the prognosis of the
Hodgkin Lymphoma.</></i></div>
1397153612893 1395802358422 {{c1::Burkitt's Lymphoma}} is a type of Non-Hodg
kin Lymphoma that involves a <>"starry-sky"</>&nsp;appearance on iopsy with
sheets of lymphocytes and interspersed macrophages.<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-7331509174433.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>No idea how that looks lik
e a starry sky ut whatever...</i></div>
1397154119780 1395802358422 Which age group is commonly affected y Burkitt
Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adolescents; oung Adults}}</div>
1397154140017 1395802358422 Which chromosome translocation is involved with
Burkitt Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(8;14) of <i>C-myc</i>&nsp;to the
Ig heavy chain}}</div>
1397154288294 1395802358422 {{c1::Burkitt Lymphoma}} is a Non-Hodgkin Lympho
ma that involves a t(8;14) translocation of <i>C-myc</i>&nsp;to the Ig heavy ch
ain.
1397154328132 1395802358422 Which gene in translocated with the Ig heavy-cha
in in Burkitt Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>C-myc</i>}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>t(8;14)</i></div>
1397154376901 1395802358422 Which virus is associated with Burkitt Lymphoma?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1397154393696 1395802358422 Where is the endemic form of Burkitt Lymphoma th
at involves jaw lesions commonly found?<div><r /></div><div><r /><div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Africa}}</div></div>
<img src="paste-7541962571937.jpg" />
1397154440694 1395802358422 Where are lesions found in the endemic (African)
form of Burkitt Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Jaw}}</div>
<r /><d
1397154501153 1395802358422 Where are lesions found in the sporadic (America
n) form of Burkitt Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pelvis/Adomen}}</div>
1397154522567 1395802358422 What is the most common type of Non-Hodgkin Lymp
homa <>in adults</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma}
}</div>
1397154574745 1395802358422 What age group is commonly affected y Diffuse L
arge B-Cell Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Older adults, however 20% of ca
ses are in children}}</div>

1397154625713 1395802358422 {{c1::Mantle Cell Lymphoma}} is a type of Non-Ho
dgkin Lymphoma that involves a t(11;14) translocation of <>Cyclin D1</>&nsp;a
nd the Ig Heavy Chain.
1397154658604 1395802358422 Which chromosome is the Ig Heavy Chain found on?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosome 14}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Know this.
The other numer in translocations (e.g. t(8;14)) is then the location of the o
ther gene.</i></div>
1397154723271 1395802358422 Which age group is most commonly affected y Man
tle Cell Lymphoma?<div><r />{{c1::Older males}}</div>
1397154773977 1395802358422 Which type of Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma is CD5+?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Mantle Cell Lymphoma}}</div>
1397154798916 1395802358422 What chromosomal translocation is seen in Mantle
Cell Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(11;14) of Cyclin D1 and the Ig heav
y chain}}</div>
1397154835297 1395802358422 Which gene is translocated with the Ig Heavy Cha
in in Mantle Cell Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclin D1}}</div>
1397154849336 1395802358422 {{c1::Follicular Lymphoma}} is a Non-Hodgkin Lym
phoma that presents with a painless "waxing and waning" lymphadenopathy.
<r /><div><i>It generally has an indolent (painless) course.</i></div>
1397154946552 1395802358422 Which age group is commonly affected y Follicul
ar Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adults}}</div>
1397154976376 1395802358422 {{c1::Follicular Lymphoma}} is a type of Non-Hod
gkin Lymphoma that involves a t(14;18) translocation of <i><>Bcl-2</>&nsp;</i
>and the Ig heavy chain.
1397155021693 1395802358422 What gene is translocated with the Ig Heavy Chai
n in Follicular Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Bcl-2</i>}}</div>
1397155047209 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Bcl-2</i>}}<i>&nsp;</i>is a gene that
inhiits apoptosis and is translocated [t(14;18)] in Follicular Lymphoma with th
e Ig Heavy Chain gene.
1397155088536 1395802358422 What is the function of <i>Bcl-2</i>?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of apoptosis}}</div>
1397155113564 1395802358422 What chromosomal translocation is seen in Follic
ular Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(14;18) of <i>Bcl-2</i>&nsp;and the
Ig Heavy Chain gene}}</div>
1397155798079 1395802358422 What demographic is most commonly affected y Ad
ult T-Cell Lymphoma?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Adults}}</div>
<r><div><i>Lol,
did I get you? Read the question!!</i></div>
1397155839748 1395802358422 {{c1::Adult T-Cell Lymphoma}} is a type of Non-H
odgkin Lymphoma that is caused y HTLV-1.
1397155890412 1395802358422 What is the cause of Adult T-Cell Lymphoma?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::HTLV-1}}</div> <r /><div><i>Also associated with IV dr
ug ause</i></div>
1397155905897 1395802358422 {{c1::Adult T-Cell Lymphoma}} is a Non-Hodgkin L
ymphoma that presents with cutaneous lesions, <>lytic one lesions</>&nsp;and
<>hypercalcemia</>. <i><div></div></i><i><r /></i><div><i><r /></i></div><
i>Associated with Human T Cell Virus 1 (HTLV-1)</i><div><i><r /></i></div><div>
<i>Most commonly seen in Japan and the Carriean&nsp;</i></div><div><i><r /><
/i></div><div><i>Clinical features can also include rash and generalized lymphad
enopathy with hepatosplenomegaly.</i></div>
1397155949392 1395802358422 Which <>east asian</>&nsp;country is commonly
affected y Adult T-Cell Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Japan}}</div>
1397155983113 1395802358422 Which area of Africa is commonly affected y Adu
lt T-Cell Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::West Africa}}</div>
1397156102014 1395802358422 Which area of North America is commonly affected
y Adult T-Cell Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cariean}}</div>
1397156117688 1395802358422 What age group is commonly affected y Mycosis F
ungoides/Sezary Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adults}}</div>
1397156201207 1395802358422 {{c1::Mycosis Fungoides/Sezary Syndrome}} is a n
on-hodgkin lymphoma that presents with cutaneous patches/plaques/tumours that ha
ve the potential to spread to lymph nodes and viscera.<div><r /></div><div><r

/></div>
<img src="paste-9904194584742.jpg" /><r /><div><i>Sezary Syndro
me involves circulating malignant cells.</i></div><div><i>Both are indolent (pai
nless)</i></div>
1397156371279 1395802358422 {{c1::Mycosis Fungoides/Sezary Syndrome}} is a t
ype of Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma that involves CD4+ T cells.
1397156449796 1395802358422 {{c1::Multiple Myeloma}} is a plasma cell cancer
that involves neoplastic monoclonal plasma cells with a <>'fried egg' appearan
ce</>.<div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
<img src="paste-11141145166130.j
pg" />
1397157379969 1395802358422 {{c1::Mutliple Myeloma}} is a monoclonal plasma
cell cancer that arises in the one marrow and involves mass production of large
amount of IgG (55%) or IgA (25%).
1397157437263 1395802358422 What is the most common primary tumour arising w
ithin one <>in the elderly</>&nsp;(> 40-50 y/o)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Mutliple Myeloma}}</div>
1397157459058 1395802358422 What type of immunogloulin is most commonly pro
duced in large amounts in Multiple Myeloma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG (55%)
}}</div>
<r /><div><i>IgA is 25%</i></div>
that involves an increased susceptiility to infection and <>primary amyloidos
is</>.
1397157643635 1395802358422 {{c1::Mutiple Myeloma}} is a plasma cell cancer
that involves <>punched-out lytic one lesions on x-ray</>.<div><r /></div><d
iv><r /></div> <div><r /></div><div><i>These are due to neoplastic cells in Mu
ltiple Myeloma secreting <>RANKL</>, which activates <>osteoclasts</>. Also
results in hypercalcemia and one pain.</i></div><img src="paste-11755325489362.
jpg" />
1397157691233 1395802358422 The&nsp;{{c1::M-Spike}} is a feature of Multipl
e Myeloma that arises due to the significant increase in immunogloulin producti
on and <u>can e measure on serum protein electrophoresis</u>. <r /><div><img
src="paste-11866994639023.jpg" /></div>
1397157766207 1395802358422 {{c1::Multiple Myeloma}} is a plasma cell disord
er that involves an M Spike on serum protein electrophoresis due to the signific
ant increase in immunogloulin production.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste11862699671727.jpg" /></div>
1397157856094 1395802358422 {{c1::Bence-Jones Proteinuria}} is a renal compl
ication of Multiple Myeloma that involves the presence of immunogloulin light c
hains in the urine.
1397157918639 1395802358422 {{c1::Rouleaux Formation}} is a complication of
Multiple Myeloma that involves the stacking of RBCs on top of each other like po
ker chips on a peripheral lood smear.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1244
2520256914.jpg" /></div>
that involve numerous plasma cells with <>"clock face" </>chromatin and intra
cytoplasmic inclusions that contain immunogloulin.<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-12614318948662.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Also notice the eccentric
nuclei and "fried egg" appearance.</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>Norm
al Plasma Cell:</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-43598213021697.jpg" /></i></div
>
1397158191757 1395802358422 What type of immunogloulins are involved in the
M-Spike seen in Multiple Myeloma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mostly Monoclonal
IgG (and some Monoclonal IgA)}}</div>
1397158633499 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypercalcemia}} is a serum electrolyte com
plication of Multiple Myeloma that results from an increase in RANKL Secretion f
rom proliferating Plasma Cells.
1397158672492 1395802358422 What type of anaemia is seen in Multiple Myeloma
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normocytic, Normochromic Anaemia}}</div>
1397158693710 1395802358422 {{c1::Lytic Bones Lesions and Back Pain}} are co
mplications of Multiple Myeloma due to systemic osteoclast activation resulting
from RANKL secretion. <r /><div><i>RAN<>KL</> activates Osteo<>KL</>asts.

</i></div>
1397158794576 1395802358422 {{c1::Waldenstrom Macrogloulinema}} is a plasma
cell disorder that involves a monoclonal <>IgM</>&nsp;M-Spike.
1397160145506 1395802358422 {{c1::Waldenstrom Macrogloulinemia}} is a plasm
a cell disorder that <>presents similarly to Multiple Myeloma ut lacks lytic
one lesions</>.
<r /><div><i>And also involves a monoclonal IgM M-spike
instead of IgG/IgA</i></div>
1397160183465 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperviscosity Symptoms}} are a complicati
on of Waldenstrom Macrogloulinemia due to the large increase in monoclonal IgM
levels. <r /><div><i>Hyperviscosity symptoms include things like lurred vision
and Raynaud's Phenomenon</i></div>
1397160215910 1395802358422 {{c1::Monoclonal Gammopathy of Undetermined Sign
ificance (MGUS)}} is a plasma cell disorder that involves monoclonal expansion o
f plasma cells with a serum monoclonal M-spike (< 3 g/dL) <>ut no other sym
ptoms</>.
<r><div><i>It is essentially an asymptomatic precursor to multi
ple myeloma.</i></div>
1397160463970 1395802358422 What percentage of patients with Monoclonal Gamm
opathy of Undetermined Significance (MGUS) develop Multiple Myeloma every year?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1-2%}}</div>
1397160485458 1395802358422 {{c1::Myelodysplastic Syndromes}} are a group of
stem cell disorders that involve ineffective hematopoiesis and defective cell m
aturation in all <u style="font-weight: old; ">non-lymphoid</u>&nsp;lineages.
1397160597922 1395802358422 Myelodysplastic Syndromes have a chance to trans
form into which leukemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Myelogenous Leukemia
(AML)}}</div>
1397161066608 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudo-Pelger-Huet Anomaly}} is a histolog
ical phenomenon that manifests in Myelodysplastic Syndromes and involves neutrop
hils with iloed nuclei connected with a thin filament of chromatin.<div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-14413910245958.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>It is typi
cally seen after chemotherapy.</i></div>
1397161070460 1395802358422 Which class of Leukemia involves proliferation o
f <>immature</>&nsp;cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Leukemias}}</div>
1397161826911 1395802358422 Which class of Leukemia involves proliferation o
f <>mature </>cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Leukemias}}</div>
1397161842554 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukemia}} is a WBC disorder that involves
unregulated growth of Leukocytes in the one marrow, eventually leading to marr
ow failure (pancytopenia) and infection.
<r /><div><i>There is an increa
se risk of infection ecause there is often fewer mature, functional WBCs in cir
culation.</i></div>
1397162463073 1395802358422 Which age groups is commonly affected y Acute L
ympholastic Leukemia/Lymphoma (ALL)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::< 15 y/o}}</
div>
1397162721396 1395802358422 {{c1::T-Cell ALL}} is a type of Acute Lympholas
tic Leukemia that can present with a mediastinal mass due to leukemic infiltrati
on of the thymus.
1397162767752 1395802358422 Which type of lymphoid leukemia is associated wi
th Down Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Lympholastic Leukemia (ALL)}
}</div>
1397163518361 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Lympholastic Leukemia/Lymphoma (ALL
)}} is a type of leukemia that involves proliferation of <>lympholasts</>&ns
p;that are visile on oth peripheral lood smear and at the one marrow.<div><
1397163587778 1395802358422 {{c1::TdT}} is a marker found on pre-T and pre-B
lympholasts that is used to diagnose Acute Lympholastic Leukemia (ALL).
1397163622978 1395802358422 Which cell surface marker found on <u>oth</u>&n
sp;pre-T and pre-B cells is positive in Acute Lympholastic Leukemia/Lymphoma (
ALL)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TdT}}</div>
1397163673663 1395802358422 Which cell surface marker found <>only on pre-B
</>&nsp;cells is positive in Acute Lympholastic Leukemia/Lymphoma (ALL)?<div>
<r></div><div>{{c1::CD10}}</div>
1397164199432 1395802358422 Which type of leukemia is the most responsive to
therapy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ALL}}</div>
1397164217475 1395802358422 Which 2 regions of the ody are common sites of
spread for Acute Lympholastic Leukemia/Lymphoma (ALL)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::CNS and Testes}}</div>
1397164260636 1395802358422 Which chromosomal translocation is <u>most commo
nly</u>&nsp;involved in Acute Lympholastic Leukemia/Lymphoma (ALL)?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::t(12;21); if present there is a good prognosis}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Can also involve the Phildelphia chromosome (t[9;22]) which has a worse pr
ognosis.</i></div>
1397164329689 1395802358422 Which chromosomal translocation associated with
Acute Lympholastic Leukemia/Lymphoma involves a <>worse prognosis</>?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::t(9;22); Philadelphia (Ph) chromosome}}</div>
1397164405231 1395802358422 Which age group is most commonly affected y Sma
ll Lymphocytic Lymphoma (SLL)/Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::> 60 y/o}}</div>
1397164452569 1395802358422 {{c1::Small Lymphocytic Lymphoma (SLL)/Chronic L
ymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)}} is a type of leukemia that involves neoplastic proli
feration of <u>mature</u>&nsp;B-cells and involves the presence of <>smudge ce
lls</>&nsp;in a peripheral lood smear.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1
6578573762920.jpg" /></div>
1397164607943 1395802358422 Which type of leukemia is associated with <>smu
dge cells</>&nsp;on a peripheral lood smear?<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-16574278795624.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::SLL/CLL</div><div><
r /></div><div>Small Lymphocytic Leukemia/Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia}}</div>
<i><u style="font-weight: old; ">C</u>hronic <u style="font-weight: old; ">L</
u>ymphocytic <u style="font-weight: old; ">L</u>eukemia = <u style="font-weight
: old; ">C</u>rushed <u style="font-weight: old; ">L</u>ittle <u style="font-w
eight: old; ">L</u>ymphocytes (Smudge Cells)</i>
1397164625989 1395802358422 Which cell surface markers (CD) are positive in
Small Lymphocytic Lymphoma (SLL)/Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::CD20+; CD5+}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Both involve a neoplastic
proliferation of <>naive B cells</></i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><
div>Involvement of lymph nodes in CLL leads to generalized lymphadenopathy and i
s called</div><div><>small lymphocytic lymphoma</></div></i></div>
1397164699874 1395802358422 {{c1::Small Lymphocytic Lymphoma (SLL)/Chronic L
ymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)}} is a type of leukemia that involves neoplastic proli
feration of <u>mature</u>&nsp;B-cells and is often asymptomatic with a slow pro
gression.
1397164741009 1395802358422 What type of anaemia is associated with&nsp;Sma
ll Lymphocytic Lymphoma (SLL)/Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Autoimmune Hemolytic Anaemia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>SLL and CL
L is a B-cell cancer. Hence, there will e an increase in antiody production an
d hence, AIHA.</i></div>
1397164789060 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)}} is a
leukemia that presents the same as Small Lymphocytic Lymphoma (SLL) except that
is has <u>increased peripheral lood lymphocytosis</u>&nsp;or <u>one marrow in
volvement</u>. <r /><div><i>Rememer, that is essentially the different etwee
n a lymphoma and leukemia.</i></div>
1397164962546 1395802358422 What is the difference etween&nsp;Small Lympho
cytic Lymphoma (SLL) and Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL)?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::CLL has <>increased peripheral lood lymphocytosis</>&nsp;or <>one
marrow involvement</>}}</div>
1397165016428 1395802358422 What age group is commonly affected y Hairy Cel
l Leukemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adults, typically the elderly}}</div>
1397165365709 1395802358422 {{c1::Hairy Cell Leukemia}} is a type of leukemi
a that involves a neoplastic proliferation of <u>mature</u>&nsp;B-cells that ha
ve&nsp;<>filamentous, hair-like projections</>&nsp;on peripheral lood smear
1397165434904 1395802358422 Which immunostain is positive in Hairy Cell Leuk

emia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TRAP (tartrate resistant acid phosphatase)}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>"<>TRAP</>&nsp;the <>hairy</>&nsp;east!"</i></div><
div><i>However the TRAP stain has een largely replaced with flow cytometry.</i>
</div>
1397165525467 1395802358422 {{c1::Hairy Cell Leukemia}} is a lymphoid leukem
ia that causes one marrow firosis and will hence yield a dry one marrow tap u
pon aspiration.
1397165581242 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Hair Cell Leukemia?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cladriine (2-CDA)}}</div>
1397165616727 1395802358422 {{c1::Cladriine (2-CDA)}} is an adenosine analo
g used to treat Hairy Cell Leukemia as it is resistant to Adenosine Deaminase de
gradation.
1397165690680 1395802358422 What is the median age of onset of Acute Myeloge
nous Leukemia (AML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::65 y/o}}</div>
1397172058127 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Myelogenous Leukemia (AML)}} is a le
ukemia that involves circulating neoplastic <>myelolasts</>&nsp;on a periphe
ral lood smear that contain <>Auer rods</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-18511309046114.jpg" /></div>
1397172166926 1395802358422 {{c1::AML-M3}} is a type of Acute Myelogenous Le
ukemia (AML) that involves <>Auer rods</>&nsp;(<>peroxidase-positive</>&ns
p;cytoplasmic inclusions).
1397172264476 1395802358422 Which type of chemotherapy is a risk factor for
developing Acute Myelogenous Leukemia (AML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alkylati
ng agents}}</div>
1397172307221 1395802358422 Which myeloid leukemia is associated with Down S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Myelogenous Leukemia (AML)}}</div>
1397173257550 1395802358422 Which chromosomal translocation is involved in A
cute Myelogenous Leukemia M3 (AML-M3)?<div><r />{{c1::t(15;17)}}</div>
1397173330573 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Acute Myelogenous Leuk
emia M3 (AML-M3)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::All-<i>trans</i>&nsp;Retinoic Acid
(ATRA; Vitamin A)}}</div>
1397173364266 1395802358422 {{c1::All-<i>trans</i>&nsp;Retinois Acid (ATRA;
Vitamin A)}} is a vitamin drug used to treat Acute Myelogenous Leukemia M3 (AML
-M3) y inducing the differentiation of myelolasts.
1397173408074 1395802358422 {{c1::DIC}} is a common complication of Acute My
elogenous Leukemia M3 (AML-M3) and involves widespread activation of clotting le
ading to a deficiency of clotting factors and a hypocoagulale state. <r /><d
iv><i>Possily due to the release of Auer Rods in response to chemotherapy, howe
ver the process is not fully understood.</i></div>
1397173499171 1395802358422 What age group is commonly affected y Chronic M
yelogenous Leukemia (CML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::45-85 years (median age of
Dx is 64 y/o)}}</div>
1397173982310 1395802358422 What chromosomal translocation is involved in Ch
ronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(9;22); Philadelph
ia chromosome}}</div> <r /><div><i>Causes a <>cr-al</>&nsp;merger.</i></
div>
1397174047188 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML)}} is a
type of leukemia that involves proliferation of myeloid stem cells and presents
with an increase in neutrophils, asophils and metamyelocytes.<div><r /></div><
div><r /></div>
<img src="paste-19731079758170.jpg" />
1397174102831 1395802358422 {{c1::Blast Crisis}} is a complication of Chroni
c Myelogenous Leukemia (CML) and involves acceleration of CML and transformation
of it into AML or ALL. <div><r /></div>ALL = Acute Lympholastic Leukemia
1397174146857 1395802358422 What Leukocyte Alkaline Phosphatase (LAP) score
is seen in Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Very l
ow; due to low LAP activity in mature, <>functioning</>&nsp;granulocytes}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>This is part of why there is an increased risk of infectio
n.</i></div>
1397174247994 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Chronic Myelogenous Le
ukemia (CML)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Imatini}}</div>

1397174333317 1395802358422 {{c1::Imatini}} is a small-molecular drug that
is used to treat Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML) y inhiiting the <i>cr-al
</i>&nsp;tyrosine kinase.
1397174372627 1395802358422 Which 2 genes are comined in Chronic Myelogenou
s Leukemia (CML) as a result of the Phildelphia chromosome (t[9;22])?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::<i>cr-al</i>; causing increased tyrosine kinase activity}}</d
iv>
1397174641774 1395802358422 {{c1::Auer Rods}} are <>peroxidase-positive</>
&nsp;cytoplasmic inclusions in granulocytes and myelolasts that are commonly s
een in the neoplastic myelolasts of AML-M3.
1397174692278 1395802358422 Which WBC disorder is associated with the Philad
elphia chromosome (t[9;22])?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CML (and less commonly A
LL)}}</div>
1397174745869 1395802358422 Which WBC disorder is associated with a t(8;14)
translocation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Burkitt lymphoma}}</div>
<r /><d
1397174784739 1395802358422 Which gene is overactive in Burkitt Lymphoma fol
lowing the t(8;14) translocation?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::<i>C-myc</i>}}</div>
<r><div><img src="paste-20774756811109.jpg" /></div>
translocation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mantle Cell Lymphoma (Non-Hodgkin)}}<
1397174857079 1395802358422 Which gene is overactive in Mantle Cell Lymphoma
following the t(11;14) translocation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclin D1}}</d
iv>
translocation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Follicular Lymphoma (Non-Hodgkin)}}</
div>
1397175023298 1395802358422 Which gene is overactive in Follicular Lymphoma
following the t(14;18) translocation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>cl-2</i>}}<
translocation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AML-M3}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-20774756811109.jpg" /></div>
1397175080981 1395802358422 Which type of Leukemia is responsive to all-<i>t
rans </i>retinoic acid (ATRA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AML-M3}}</div>
1397175107138 1395802358422 {{c1::Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis}} is a WBC d
isorder that involves proliferation of dendritic cells from the monocytic lineag
e.
<r /><div><i>Langerhans Cells = Dendritic Cells in the skin and mucosa<
1397175590055 1395802358422 {{c1::Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis}} is a WBC d
isorder that involves the proliferation of dendritic cells and presents in child
ren as <>lytic one lesions </>and skin rashes.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-21758304321844.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Or it presents as recurren
t otitis media with a mass involving the mastoid one.</i></div>
1397176263046 1395802358422 Which immunostain is positive in Langerhans Cell
Histiocytosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S-100}}</div>
1397176302691 1395802358422 Which cell surface marker (CD) is positive in La
ngerhans Cell Histiocytosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD1a}}</div>
1397176319964 1395802358422 {{c1::Bireck Granules}} are characteristic intr
acellular inclusions in Langerhans Cell Histiocytosis and resemle <>tennis rac
kets</>&nsp;on EM.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22247930593449.jpg" />
</div>
1397176378419 1395802358422 {{c1::Janus Kinase (<i>JAK2</i>)}} is a enzyme t
hat is involved in hematopoietic growth factor signalling and is mutated in a nu
mer of chronic myeloproliferative disorders. <img src="paste-23450521436389.j
pg" />
1397177161972 1395802358422 {{c1::Polycythemia Vera}} is a chronic myeloprol
iferative disorder that involves proliferation of RBCs.
1397177224704 1395802358422 What hematocrit (Hct) is diagnostic of Polycythe

mia Vera?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 55%}}</div>
1397177247706 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Polycythemia Vera?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Somatic mutation in <i>JAK2</i>&nsp;(Janus Kinase)}}</div
>
1397177328643 1395802358422 {{c1::Polycythemia Vera}} is a chronic myeloprol
iferative disorder that often presents as intense itching after a hot shower.
<r /><div><i>Polycythemia Vera is a neoplastic proliferation of mature myeloid
cells, especially RBCs, granulocytes, and platelets.</i></div><div><i><r /></i>
</div><div><i>Itching is due to histamine release from increased mast cells.</i>
</div>
1397177356705 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythromelalgia}} is a rare, ut classic s
ymptom of Polycythemia Vera that involves a severe urning pain and reddish or
luish colouration of the extremities due to episodic lood clots.<div><r /></di
v><div><r /></div>
<img src="paste-22780506538199.jpg" />
1397177429949 1395802358422 What is the cause of <>secondary</>&nsp;Polyc
ythemia Vera?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A natural or artificial increase in EPO
levels}}</div> <i>Secondary or Reactive PV has increased RBC due to the reactiv
e condition</i><div><i>-----High Altitude/Lung Disease ---> SAO2 is low, EPO
is increased</i></div><div><i>-----Due to ectopic EPO production from renal cell
carcinoma --> SAO2 is normal, EPO is high</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><
div><i>In the second case, SAO2 is normal ecause no hypoxia</i></div><div><i><
r /></i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>In PV, EPO is decreased ecause th
ere are so many RBCs and SAO2 is normal</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i
>Note: SAO2 <95% = Hypoxia&nsp;</i></div>
1397177455555 1395802358422 {{c1::Essential Thromocythemia}} is a chronic m
yeloproliferative disorder that involves the overproduction of anormal platelet
s, therey causing oth leeding and thromosis.
1397177704920 1395802358422 {{c1::Essential Thromocythemia}} is a chronic m
yeloproliferative disorder that involves <>enlarged megakaryocytes</>&nsp;at
the one marrow.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22986664968401.jpg" /></di
v>
1397177733279 1395802358422 {{c1::Myelofirosis}} is a chronic myeloprolifer
ative disorder that involves firotic oliteration of the one marrow.<div><r /
1397177798422 1395802358422 {{c1::Myelofirosis}} is a chronic myeloprolifer
ative disorder that involves <>teardrop RBCs</>&nsp;and immature forms of the
myeloid line.<div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
379690.jpg" /><r /><div><i>Due to a firotic one marrow.</i></div>
1397177887007 1395802358422 {{c1::Myeloproliferative Disorders}} are a <>ty
pe</>&nsp;of WBC Disorder that involve proliferation of all cells in the myelo
id lineage, however they differ in which myeloid cell is predominant.
1397177978747 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>cr-al</i>}} is a hyrid cell surface
receptor formed y a t(9;22) translocation in Chronic Myeloid Leukemia and leads
to an increase in cell division and a decrease in apoptosis. <r /><div><i>Re
memer, the treatment is Imatini, a drug that targets tyrosine kinase receptors
.</i></div>
1397178083763 1395802358422 What is the only Chronic Myeloproliferative Diso
rder that <>does not</>&nsp;involve a <i>JAK2</i>&nsp;mutation?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Chronic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML)}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-23450521436389.jpg" /></div>
1397178209172 1395802358422 What is the only Chronic Myeloproliferative Diso
rder that involved the Philadelphia chromosome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chron
ic Myelogenous Leukemia (CML)}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-2345052143638
9.jpg" /></div>
1397178238955 1395802358422 {{c1::Relative Polycythemia}} is a type of Polyc
ythemia that is associated with a decrease in plasma volume.
<r /><div><i>Po
lycythemia Vera is a neoplastic proliferation of mature myeloid cells, especiall
y <>RBCs</>. However,&nsp;<>Relative polycythemia</> is an <>apparent rise
</> of the <>erythrocyte level</> in the lood; however, the underlying cause
is <>reduced lood plasma</></i></div>

1397178378141 1395802358422 {{c1::Appropriate Asolute Polycythemia}} is a t
ype of Polycythemia that involves a <>decrease in O<su>2</su>&nsp;saturation
</>&nsp;and is associated with lung disease, congenital heart disease and high
altitude.
1397178440639 1395802358422 {{c1::Inappropriate Asolute Polycythemia}} is a
type of Polycythemia that is associated with renal cell carcinoma, Wilms tumour
, hepatocellular carcinoma or hydronephrosis. <r /><div><i>i.e. it is associa
ted with <>ectopic EPO secretion</></i></div>
1397178494415 1395802358422 {{c1::Inappropriate Asolute Polycythemia}} is a
type of Polycythemia that is associated with <>ectopic EPO secretion</>.
1397178552953 1395802358422 {{c1::Asolute (Secondary) Polycythemia}} is a t
ype of Polycythemia that involves an increase in EPO levels.
<r /><div><i>Ca
n e Appropriate (due to decreased O<su>2</su>&nsp;saturation and hence a nee
d for more EPO) or Inappropriate (due to ectopic EPO secretion, typically y a R
enal or Hepatic cancer).</i></div>
1397178623168 1395802358422 {{c1::Polycythemia Vera (primary polycythemia)}}
is a type of polycythemia that occurs due to defects in negative feedack and h
ematopoietic growth factor signalling. <r><div><i>Rememer, there is a mutatio
n in JAK2.</i></div>
1397178758935 1395802358422 {{c1::Polycythemia Vera}} is a type of Polycythe
mia that involves <>decreased</>&nsp;levels of EPO. <r /><div><i>There is a
lso an increase in plasma volume.</i></div>
1389721169561 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Virchow-Roin}} space is formed
y extensions of the pia mater that form sleeves around lood vessels that are pa
ssing from the Suarachnoid Space into rain tissue.
78438.jpg" />
1389721329129 1358629116480 CSF flows from the&nsp;{{c1::lateral}} ventricl
es to the&nsp;{{c2::3rd}} ventricle through the&nsp;{{c3::interventricular for
amen (of monro)}}
1389721381590 1358629116480 CSF flows from the&nsp;{{c1::3rd}} ventricle to
the&nsp;{{c2::4th}} ventricle through the&nsp;{{c3::cereral aqueduct}}.
1389721410764 1358629116480 CSF flows from the&nsp;{{c1::4th}} ventricle to
the&nsp;{{c2::suarachnoid space}} through the&nsp;{{c3::foramen of Magendie}
} and&nsp;{{c4::foramina of Luschka}} <r /><div><i>Magendie is medial; Luschk
a is lateral.</i></div>
1389721461840 1358629116480 What type of tissue shown elow forms CSF?<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-1928440316128.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Choroid Plexus}}</div>
1389721493680 1358629116480 What causes ostructive, non-communicating hydro
cephalus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ostruction of CSF flow}}</div>
<i><div>
</div></i><i><r /></i>Most commonly at cereral aqueduct; also at foramina of m
onro, luschka or magendie
1389721950004 1358629116480 Communicating, non-ostructive hydrocephalus can
e caused y&nsp;{{c1::increased CSF production}} or&nsp;{{c2::decreased CSF
asorption}}
1389721983505 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of increased CSF p
roduction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Choroid Plexus Tumour}}</div>
1389721998985 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of decreased CSF a
sorption?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sclerosis of arachnoid villi and granulati
ons}}</div>
1389722024429 1358629116480 What is the cause of compensatory (<i>ex vacuo</
i>) hydrocephalus?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2628519985379.jpg" /><r
/><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Brain atrophy}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Th
ere is an apparent increase in CSF volume ut that is simply a result of a decre
ase in neural tissue.</i></div>
1389722320129 1358629116480 Type&nsp;{{c1::I}} Arnold-Chiari malformations
are typically enign.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2667174691122.jpg" />
</div>
1389722549554 1358629116480 Type&nsp;{{c1::II}} Arnold-Chiari Malformations
are severe and often present with ostructive hydrocephalus at the {{c2::cerer
al aqueduct}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2804613644607.jpg" /></div>
1389722646200 1358629116480 {{c1::Red Neurons}} are triangular shaped neuron
s with deeply eosinophilic cytoplasm that have undergone irreversile injury.<di
1389723122882 1358629116480 {{c1::Central Chromatolysis}} occurs following a
xon transection, viral infection or VitB group deficiency.<div><r /></div><div>
1389723232191 1358629116480 What is Gliosis/Astrocytosis?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::The formation of a glial scar}}</div>
1389723451322 1358629116480 What is a glial scar?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Long astrocytic processes without collagen}}</div>
<r /><div><i>aka Glial
Firils</i></div>
1389723513425 1358629116480 {{c1::Rod}} cells are seen in rain tissue damag
e as microglia enlarge and elongate.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-339731
9131366.jpg" /></div>
1389723663192 1358629116480 {{c1::Foamy macrophages}} are seen in <>severe<
/>&nsp;rain tissue damage and necrosis as rod cells transform to deal with th
e deris.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3431678869714.jpg" /></div>
1389723701824 1358629116480 What type of necrosis is seen at the rain?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Liquefactive}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, it is se
en typically > 24 hrs&nsp;</i></div>
1389723767529 1358629116480 What does the wall of the neural tue ecome?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::CNS tissue}}</div>
1389724229504 1358629116480 What does the lumen of the neural tue ecome?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricles and central canal}}</div>
1389724242186 1358629116480 Neural Tue Defects are associated with low leve
ls of what vitamin <>prior to</>&nsp;conception?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::F
olate}}</div>
1389724275934 1358629116480 {{c1::Anencephaly}} is a congenital CNS defect d
efined as the asence of the skull and rain due to defects at the cranial end o
f the neural tue.
1389724333497 1358629116480 Anencephaly is commonly associated with&nsp;{{c
1::maternal polyhydramnios}} as the fetus lacks the aility to swallow amniotic
fluid.
1389724392868 1358629116480 {{c1::Spina Bifida}} is a congenital CNS anorma
lity defined as the failure of posterior verteral arches to close.
1389724420778 1358629116480 {{c1::Spina Bifida Occulta}} is a form of Spina
Bifida that presents with a dimple or patch of hair aove the spinal defect.
<r /><div><i>Typically at the lumar level.</i></div>
1389724453036 1358629116480 {{c1::Meningocele}} is a form of Spina ifida th
at presents with a cystic protrustion of <>meninges only</>&nsp;through the v
erteral defect.
1389724478091 1358629116480 {{c1::Meningomyelocele}} is a form of Spina Bifi
da that presents with a cystic protrusion of <>meninges and spinal cord</>&ns
p;through the underlying spinal defect.
1389724529824 1358629116480 Neural Tue Defects can e detected y an elevat
ion of what fetal protein in the amniotic fluid and/or maternal lood?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)}}</div>
1389724580817 1358629116480 What is the most common etiology of Hydrocephalu
s in neworns?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cereral Aqueduct Stenosis}}</div>
1389724599861 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Dandy-Walker}} Malformation is defi
ned as a congenital failure of the cereellar vermis to develop.
<r /><d
iv><i>Presents with a massively dilated 4th ventricle and an asent cereellum.<
/i></div>
1389724656493 1358629116480 What is a Dandy-Walker Malformation?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Failure of the cereellar vermis to develop}}</div>
1389724674968 1358629116480 What is an Arnold-Chiari Malformation?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Downward displacement of the cereellar vermis and tonsils thr
ough the foramen magnum}}</div>
1389724709646 1358629116480 Where are cell odies for the optic nerve locate
d?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5102421148000.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::The ganglion later of the retina}}</div></div>
1389724920647 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::cataract}} is defined as opacificat
ion of the lens of the eye due to degeneration of lens fiers leading to a loss
of optic translucency.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5660766896308.jpg" /
></div>
1389725661552 1358629116480 Cataracts can e acquired secondary to&nsp;{{c1
::diaetes mellitus}} or prolonged use of&nsp;{{c2::corticosteroids}}. <r /><d
iv><i>Increased age has increased risk as well.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste
-30210799960302.jpg" /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-30258044600434.jpg" /><
1389725801574 1358629116480 {{c1::Glaucoma}} is defined as an elevation of i
ntraocular pressure with atrophy of the retina and cupping of the optic disk.
1389725846557 1358629116480 What is the cause of glaucoma?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Ostruction of the outflow of aqueous humour into the Canal of Schlemm
}}</div>
1389725872908 1358629116480 What is the most common and severe complication
of glaucoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Blindness}}</div>
1389725886133 1358629116480 In&nsp;{{c1::open-angle}} glaucoma, the anterio
r chamer angle is not ostructed.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-29824252
904187.jpg" /></div>
1389725942500 1358629116480 In&nsp;{{c1::closed-angle (or narrow)}} glaucom
a, the anterior chamer angle is ostructed.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-29828547871483.jpg" /></div>
1389725979244 1358629116480 Where is the ostruction located in open-angle g
laucoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Distal</>&nsp;to the anterior chamer a
ngle}}</div>
<img src="paste-6588479832350.jpg" />
1389726157756 1358629116480 What is the most commoncause of&nsp;<>primary<
/>&nsp;open-angle glaucoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Genetic anormalities o
f the traecular meshwork}}</div>
1389726185235 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of <>secondary</
>&nsp;<>open-angle</> glaucoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Angular accumulati
on of RBCs due to trauma or tumour/retinal deris}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Tu
mours involved are retinolastoma and melanoma</i></div>
1389726254996 1358629116480 In&nsp;{{c1::primary}} closed-angle glaucoma, t
he angle closure is not the etiology, ut is a symptom of a short optical axis o
r pupil dilation.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-6721623818423.jpg" /><img s
rc="paste-7099580940479.jpg" /></div>
1389726653759 1358629116480 What is the common mechanism of <>secondary</>
&nsp;<>closed angle</> glaucoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Formation of a ne
ovascular memrane over the iris through the release of VEGF in response to hypo
xia}}</div>
<div><r /></div><div><i>Commonly seen in retinal ischemia &
diaetes mellitus</i></div><div><r /></div><img src="paste-7138235646171.jpg"
/><div><r /></div>
1389726821176 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Primary Closed-Angle}} Glaucoma is a
medical emergency characterized y a <>steamy cornea and mid-dilated non-react
ive pupils</> and results from <>increased IOP pushing the iris forward</>.<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7670811590853.jpg" /></div>
1389727247605 1358629116480 The central dark spot on the retina is called th
e&nsp;{{c1::fovea}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7756710936864.jpg" />
</div>
1389727303203 1358629116480 {{c1::Papilledema}} is an eye pathology defined
as the swelling of the head of the optic nerve.<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-8572754723071.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-30906584662204.jpg" /></div
>
1389727513771 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Papilledema?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased intracranial pressure; leads to ilateral pap
illedema.}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Can also e due to central retinal vein oc
clusion and optic neuritis.</i></div>
1389727588573 1358629116480 On the retinal exam elow, the hyperemic disc,

lurred margins and asence of a physiological cup is indicative of&nsp;{{c1::pa
pilledema}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8306466750679.jpg" /><img src=
"paste-30906584662204.jpg" /></div>
1389727694377 1358629116480 Optic nerve damage due to&nsp;{{c1::glaucoma}}
involves excavation/cupping of the optic disk and the loss of retinal ganglion c
ells due to elevated intraocular pressure and thinning of the nerve fier layer.
<r /><d
iv><i>Rememer, the ganglion cells' axons make up the optic nerve.</i></div>
1389727847071 1358629116480 The fundoscopy on the right is showing&nsp;{{c1
::cupping}} of the optic disc.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-868012890551
0.jpg" /></div>
1389727900994 1358629116480 {{c1::Optic Neuritis}} is an eye pathology defin
ed as demyelination of the optic nerve. It may or may not include an inflammator
y component.
1389735399668 1358629116480 What is the major cause of Optic Neuritis?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Multiple Sclerosis}}</div>
1389735475958 1358629116480 Fundoscopy of a patient with Optic Neuritis will
reveal&nsp;{{c1::papilledema}}<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8976481648
1389735523155 1358629116480 Flames on a fundoscopy indicate the presence of&
nsp;{{c1::streak-shaped}} hemorrhages.
1389735707936 1358629116480 Dots and lots on a fundoscopy indicate the pres
ence of&nsp;{{c1::small, dot-like}} hemorrhages.
1389735735643 1358629116480 Small yellow swellings on a fundoscopy are indic
ative of accumulations of&nsp;{{c1::transudate/exudate}}.
1389735762391 1358629116480 What is Drusen (typically seen on fundoscopy)?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Deposition of yellowish extracellular material in and
eneath Bruch's memrane and retinal pigment epithelium of the eye.}}</div>
1389735804413 1358629116480 Cotton-wool spots (large fluffy white patches) o
n a fundoscopy are indicative of&nsp;{{c1::axon injury/regeneration}}.
1389735837311 1358629116480 {{c1::Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD)}} i
s an eye pathology that typically affects the fovea of the eye, resulting in a l
oss of central vision.
1389735886363 1358629116480 What is the most common form of AMD?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Dry/atrophic}}</div>
0.jpg" /></div>
1389735905365 1358629116480 What is the cause of dry, atrophic AMD?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Atrophy of the retinal pigmented epithelium (RPE) in the macu
lar area}}</div>
1389735960345 1358629116480 {{c1::Drusen}} are yellowish accumulations of ex
tracellular material in and eneath the retinal pigment epithelium and the Bruch
memrane found in&nsp;{{c2::dry, atrophic}} AMD.<div><r /></div><div><r /></
div>
<img src="paste-9908489552148.jpg" /><img src="paste-31177167601896.jpg"
/>
1389736459316 1358629116480 What is the cause of wet, exudative AMD?<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-10312216477973.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Neovascular memrane growth etween the RPE and photoreceptor layer at the
macula}}</div></div> <i><r /></i><div><i>Results in edema, hemorrhaging and
retinal detachment.</i></div><div><i>Treated with anti-VEGF injections.</i></div
>
1389736584637 1358629116480 What causes retinopathy in essential, enign hyp
ertension?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10784662880485.jpg" /><r /><div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyaline arteriosclerosis of retinal vasculature causing
arteriolar narrowing}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Results in arteriolar narr
owing and tortuosity</i></div>
1389736796106 1358629116480 What fundoscopic finding elow is also found in
Retinopathy secondary due to Benign Hypertension?<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-10797547782370.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arterio-venous ni
cking (and copper/silver wiring of vasculature)}}</div>
1389736868377 1358629116480 What causes Retinopathy in Malignant Hypertensio

n?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperplastic arteriolosclerosis; causing transudat
e accumulation that separates the photoreceptor layer from the RPE}}</div>
1389737002462 1358629116480 The fundoscopy elow involves papilledema, cotto
n-wool spots, flames and exudates. It is characteristic of&nsp;{{c1::Retinopath
y in malignant HTN}}<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10922101834077.jpg" />
</div>
1389737099382 1358629116480 What is a "Macular Star"?<div><r /></div><div><
img src="paste-11020886081887.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A star sh
ape of radiating exudate coming out from the macula; seen in advanced cases of R
etinopathy of Malignant HTN}}</div></div>
1389737176935 1358629116480 {{c1::Background/Non-proliferative retinopathy}}
is a type of diaetic retinopathy that involves the <>glycosylation of collage
n</>, therey leading to <>increased vascular permeaility</>.<div><r /></di
<r /><div><i>Fundoscopy
will show many exudates (2), dot hemorrhages (3), cotton wool spots (4) and mic
roaneurysms (5)</i></div>
1389737425138 1358629116480 {{c1::Proliferative}} retinopathy is a type of d
iaetic retinopathy that involves <>proliferation of capillaries with the forma
tion of a neovascular memrane</> due to chronic hypoxia.<div><r /></div><div>
<r /><div><i>Notice the presenc
e of new capillaries and vasculature.</i></div><div><i>Can e treated with antiVEGF injection into the eye.</i></div>
1389737754283 1358629116480 {{c1::Retinal Artery Occlusion}} is an eye patho
logy typically affecting the Central Retinal Artery. It has a sudden onset and c
an rapidly cause ischemic injury and infarct.
1389738107962 1358629116480 Retinal Artery Occlusion presents with sudden un
ilateral loss of&nsp;{{c1::vision}}. <r /><div><i>Retinal infarct can lead t
o permanent unilateral lindness.</i></div>
1389738156804 1358629116480 The fundoscopy elow shows a red fovea (1), empt
y arteries (2), and a pale optic disc (3), therey indicative of&nsp;{{c1::Cent
ral Retinal Artery Occlusion}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12025908429
119.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Note that the occlusion can e at a ranch
as well, such as elow</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste
-12416750453065.jpg" /></i></div>
1389738236817 1358629116480 {{c1::Retinal Vein Occlusion}} is an eye patholo
gy that presents with <>multiple, large flame shaped hemorrhages,</>&nsp;papi
lledema and exudates.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-12429635354980.jpg" /><
/div> <r><i>Pretty much the eye of Sauron</i>
1389738311386 1358629116480 Occlusion of the&nsp;{{c1::retinal vein}} prese
nts with sudden <>painless </>loss of vision in the affected eye and can lead
to severe glaucoma.
1389738387441 1358629116480 {{c1::Xanthelasma}} is an eyelid pathology invol
ving yellow plaques of cholesterol. It may e associated with underlying hyperli
pidemia and/or atherosclerosis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12657268621
651.jpg" /></div>
1389739271226 1358629116480 {{c1::Sty}} is a small, acute and painful eyelid
pathology defined as an infection of an eyelash follicle and/or associated sea
cious glands.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12717398163628.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>It is self-limiting.</i></div>
1389739386677 1358629116480 {{c1::Chalazion}} is a large, chronic and painle
ss eyelid pathology defined as ostruction and rupture of Meiomian glands with
an accumulation of lipids and susequent inflammation.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-12768937771176.jpg" /></div>
<div><i><r /></i></div>
1389739494878 1358629116480 Which eyelid glands are more commonly affected i
n Sty?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Zeis glands}}</div> <r /><div><i>Meiomiam
glands are far less involved</i></div>
1389739525728 1358629116480 {{c1::Blepharitis}} is an eyelid pathology defin
ed as chronic inflammation of the eye; commonly involving hyperemia, flaking and
crusting.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13245679141099.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>It is often painful and itchy.</i></div>

1389739579409 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Angioedema?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Epinephrine}}</div>
1389739599769 1358629116480 What is Entropion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<
>Inward</> rolling of the <>lower</>&nsp;eyelid}}</div>
<img src="paste13327283519679.jpg" />
1389739642750 1358629116480 What is Ectropion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Be
nign <>outward</> rolling of the <>lower</> eyelid}}</div> <img src="paste13370233192639.jpg" />
1389739701487 1358629116480 {{c1::Entropion}} is an eyelid pathology with a
more serious clinical importance as the inwardly rolled eyelashes can lead to co
rneal scarring and lindness.
1389739748110 1358629116480 What is the Episclera?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Loose CT etween the sclera and conjunctiva}}</div>
1389739773704 1358629116480 {{c1::Episcleritis/scleritis}} is an eye patholo
gy defined as inflammation of the episclera or sclera. It is usually idiopathic
or may accompany an autoimmune disease.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-141
69097109682.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Tx is NSAIDs or Glucocorticoids</i
></div>
1389739844197 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::suconjunctival hemorrhage}} is an
eye pathology that occurs spontaneously after trauma or severe outs of coughing
. It does not involve eye pain or photophoia.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-14181982011700.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>However, you <>must first
rule out a leeding disorder</></i></div>
1389739934967 1358629116480 <div>{{c1::Bacterial}} conjunctivitis commonly p
resents with pain, purulent discharge and mating eyelashes.</div><r /><div><img
src="paste-14366665605312.jpg" /></div>
1389739983590 1358629116480 {{c1::Viral}} conjunctivitis typically presents
with hyperemia, minimal exudate and lymphadenopathy.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-14401025343682.jpg" /></div>
1389740023106 1358629116480 {{c1::HSV}} conjunctivitis typically presents wi
th corneal ulceration.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-14426795147459.jpg"
/></div>
1389740058973 1358629116480 Conjunctivitis often progresses into&nsp;{{c1::
keratitis}} which commonly presents with corneal ulceration, especially with HSV
1.
1389740130650 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypopyon}} is a sterile exudate from the i
ris and ciliary ody that is typically seen in keratitis.<div><r /></div><div><
1389740186034 1358629116480 {{c1::Uveitis}} is an eye pathology defined as t
he inflammation of the iris (iritis) and ciliary ody (cyclitis).<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-14705968021733.jpg" /><img src="paste-29326036697436.jpg"
/></div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with severe photophoia, lurry vision, i
ntraocular pain and <>congestion of the ciliary lood vessels near the cornea.<
/></i></div>
1389740277501 1358629116480 Congestion of the ciliary lood vessels near the
cornea is diagnostic of&nsp;{{c1::Uveitis}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-15182709391589.jpg" /></div>
1389740304164 1358629116480 What is the normal intraocular pressure?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::8-21 mmHg}}</div>
1389740609658 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Angle Closure Glaucoma (AACG)}} is a
n eye pathology that presents with conjunctival hyperemia and a mid-dilated pupi
l.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15414637625574.jpg" /></div>
1389740687437 1358629116480 The shadow sign shown elow is commonly seen in&
nsp;{{c1::Acute Angle Closure Glaucoma (AACG)}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-15474767167670.jpg" /><img src="paste-15573551415479.jpg" /></div>
1389740904123 1358629116480 What level of visual impairment is considered to
e legally lind?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::20/200 to 20/400}}</div>
1389741041286 1358629116480 What level of visual impairment can count finger
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::20/200 to 20/400}}</div>
1389741058971 1358629116480 What level of visual impairment can detect hand

motion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::20/500 to 20/1000}}</div>
1389741075630 1358629116480 What level of visual impairment can perceive lig
ht?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Less than 20/1000, aka near lindness}}</div>
1389741110222 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of vision loss wor
ldwide?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cataracts}}</div>
<div><r /></div><img sr
c="paste-30258044600434.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-30215094927598.jpg" />
</div>
1389741153463 1358629116480 What is Emmetropia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c2::N
ormal vision; lightrays focus onto the retina}}</div> <img src="paste-15801184
682120.jpg" />
1389741200855 1358629116480 What is Myopia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::aka S
hort-Sightedness; lightrays focus <>efore </>the retina; eyeall is too long}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Corrected y a diverging lens</i></div><div><i><r /></i><
/div><div><i><img src="paste-15938623635639.jpg" /></i></div>
1389741280351 1358629116480 What is Hypermetropia?<div><r />{{c1::aka Far-S
ightedness; The eyeall is too short; light rays focus <>ehind</>&nsp;the re
tina}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Corrected y a converging lens</i></div><div><i><
r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-15981573308644.jpg" /></i></div>
1389741356256 1358629116480 What is Presyopia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S
tiffening of the lens where the patient cannot accommodate for a close oject}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Corrected y a converging lens.</i></div>
1389741401489 1358629116480 What is an Astigmatism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::When light rays propagate in 2 different planes focused at different areas of
the retina}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Patient can neither see near or far oject
s. Corrected y a cylindrical lens.</i></div>
1389741459393 1358629116480 Pathological cupping of the optic disk is common
ly indicative of&nsp;{{c1::Primary Open Angle Glaucoma}}<div><r /></div><div><
1389741554627 1358629116480 {{c1::Arcuate Scotomas}} are scimitar shaped are
as of loss of visual acuity seen in Primary Open Angle Glaucoma.<div><r /></div
1389741690346 1358629116480 What is the leading cause of severe visual loss
in <>adults over 50</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Age-Related Macular Degener
ation (AMD)}}</div>
1389741734844 1358629116480 {{c1::Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD)}} i
s an eye pathology that involves a gradual loss of aility to see ojects clearl
y and distortion of oject shape. It is commonly seen in adults over 50 y/o.
1389835224526 1358629116480 What is normal intracranial pressure (ICP)?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::10-15 mmHg}}</div>
1389835277805 1358629116480 When the volume of a lesion in the rain is&nsp
;{{c1::> 100}} mL, there are clinical manifestations and a need to intervene.
1389835317907 1358629116480 A flattening of the gyri and compression of the
sulci is a common finding when there is increased&nsp;{{c1::intracranial pressu
re (ICP)}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-545460846824.jpg" /></div>
1389835673355 1358629116480 Compressed ventricles are a common sign of incre
ased&nsp;{{c1::intracranial pressure (ICP)}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-588410519784.jpg" /></div>
1389835701713 1358629116480 What is a Sufalcine Herniation?<div><r /></div
><div><img src="paste-1099511628046.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Her
niation of the cingulate gyrus through the falx cereri to the other side of the
<r /><div><i>aka Cingulate Herniation</i></div>
rain}}</div></div>
1389835874550 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::sufalcine/cingulate}} herniation i
s defined as herniation of the cingulate gyrus through the {{c2::falx cereri}}
to the opposite side of the rain.
9.jpg" /></div>
1389835936800 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::uncal}} herniation is defined as h
erniation of the temporal loe uncus under the {{c2::tentorium cereelli}}.
1389835982220 1358629116480 What is an uncal herniation?<div><r /></div><di
v><img src="paste-1181116006688.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Herniat

ion of the temporal loe uncus under the tentorium cereelli}}</div>
1389836014684 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Duret hemorrhage}} is a CNS trauma
pathology that occurs following an uncal herniation and compression of the {{c2:
:paramedian}} artery and/or perforating ranches of the {{c3::asilar}} artery.<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1318554960055.jpg" /><img src="paste-134002
9796653.jpg" /></div>
1389836185346 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::tonsillar}} herniation is defined a
s herniation of the cereellar tonsils through the&nsp;{{c2::foramen magnum}}.<
94762313.jpg" /></div>
1389836212956 1358629116480 What is a Tonsillar Herniation?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Herniation of the cereellar tonsils through the foramen magnum}}</di
v>
1389836305232 1358629116480 What is Cereral Edema?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Accumulation of transudate in rain tissue}}</div>
1389836356348 1358629116480 {{c1::Vasogenic}} edema is a type of cereral ed
ema that occurs due to an increase in vascular permeaility.
<img src="paste1898375545063.jpg" />
1389837026800 1358629116480 {{c1::Cytotoxic}} edema is a type of cereral ed
ema that occurs due to cell memrane damage.
g" />
ema where transudate accumulates in white matter and/or <>inter</>cellular spa
ces.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2521145803015.jpg" /></div>
ema where transudate accumulates in grey matter and/or <u style="font-weight: o
ld; ">intra</u>cellular spaces.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-25812753450
49.jpg" /></div>
ema that has a wet and shiny appearance.
ema that has dry and sticky appearance.
1389837217504 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::concussion}} is a traumatic rain i
njury involving transient loss of consciousness secondary to lunt head trauma.
1389837541030 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::contusion}} a traumatic rain injur
y involving rain microhemorrhages due to lunt rain trauma. It does not involv
e cavity formation.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2727304233229.jpg" /></
div>
1389837588694 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::laceration}} is a traumatic rain i
njury descried as a tear of rain tissue typically cause y direct contact etw
een the injuring oject and rain tissue via penetrating injury.<div><r /></div
<r /><div><i>It involve
s cavity/hematoma formation.</i></div>
1389837681592 1358629116480 {{c1::Diffuse Axonal Injury (DAI)}} is a CNS tra
uma injury defined as widespread axonal damage due to shearing stress during ra
in acceleration induced y inertia or impact.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-3723736645740.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>There is no <>direct</>&nsp;dam
age to rain tissue.</i></div>
1389837825065 1358629116480 What is the most common affected CNS structure i
n Diffuse Axonal Injury?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Corpus Callosum}}</div>
1389837874327 1358629116480 {{c1::Axonal swellings}} are spheroids of damage
at the edge of damaged axons in Diffuse Axonal Injury.<div><r /></div><div><im
1389838105874 1358629116480 {{c1::Retraction Balls}} are spots of damage vis
ualized with a silver stain in Diffuse Axonal Injury.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-3822520893642.jpg" /></div>
1389838169130 1358629116480 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::epidural}} hematoma presents as
a lens-shaped lesion.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4217657885023.jpg" />
</div>
1389838214015 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::sudural}} hematoma presents as a c

rescent-shaped lesion and is unale to cross the midline.<div><r /></div><div><
1389838299363 1358629116480 A(n) {{c1::acute}} sudural hematoma lasts for 7
-10 days and involves lood clots.
1389838359653 1358629116480 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::chronic}} sudural hematoma invo
lves a liquefied lood lot instead of a lood clot.
<r /><div><i>An acute S
DH typically resolves right away or progresses to a chronic SDH.</i></div>
1389838397009 1358629116480 A(n) {{c1::acute}} sudural hematoma had a highe
r density than rain tissue on a CT scan.
1389838458384 1358629116480 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::chronic}} sudural hematoma show
s isodensity or hypodensity when compared to rain tissue on a CT scan.
1389838529594 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::proper}} chronic sudural hematoma
is the form that has the possiility to releed and/or expand.
1389838574557 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::chronic hygroma}} is a type of chro
nic sudural hematoma that is filled with clear, yellow fluid and/or CSF.
1389838611966 1358629116480 Tense dura mater is commonly a sign indicative o
f increased&nsp;{{c1::intracranial pressure}}.
1389838753472 1358629116480 What is an epidural hematoma?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::A collection of lood <>aove</>&nsp;the dura (etween the dura and
skull)}}</div>
1389838784068 1358629116480 What lood vessel is commonly ruptured and cause
s an epidural hematoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Middle Meningeal Artery}}</di
v>
1389838830117 1358629116480 {{c1::"Talk & Die"}} syndrome is commonly se
en due to herniation secondary to an epidural hematoma and involves sudden, rapi
d deterioration of the patient; often leading to death.
1389838886373 1358629116480 What is a sudural hematoma?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::A collection of lood <>underneath</>&nsp;the dura}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Blood is in contact with the pia.</i></div>
1389838911539 1358629116480 What lood vessel(s) are damaged in the formatio
n of a sudural hematoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bridging veins etween the
dura and arachnoid}}</div>
1389838952950 1358629116480 A sudural hematoma can occur following&nsp;{{c
1::rain atrophy}}, as the rain shrinks and pulls on ridging vessels, therey
rupturing them.
1389838994756 1358629116480 What structures are compressed following a Tonsi
llar Herniation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The medulla/rain stem; leading to c
ardiopulmonary arrest}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-47966194762313.jpg" /
></div>
1389839073495 1358629116480 What structures are compressed during a Sufalci
ne/Cingulate Herniation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Cereral Artery, le
ading to infarction}}</div>
></div>
1389839103153 1358629116480 Compression of&nsp;{{c1::CN III}} during an&ns
p;{{c2::uncal}} herniation can present with&nsp;{{c3::oculomotor palsy}}.
1389839130018 1358629116480 Which way are the eyes displaced in Oculomotor P
alsy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Down & Out}}</div>
1389839145749 1358629116480 Compression of the&nsp;{{c1::cereral peduncles
}} during an uncal herniation results in lim weakness and extensor rigidity.
1389839178590 1358629116480 Compression of the&nsp;{{c2::posterior cereral
}} artery during an uncal herniation can lead to infarction of the occipital lo
e.
<r /><div><i>Leads to contralateral homonymous hemianopia.</i></div><di
v><i><img src="paste-47966194762313.jpg" /></i></div>
1389909802272 1358629116480 {{c1::Firillary Astrocytoma}} is a primary CNS
tumour that consists of invasive, well-differentiated astrocytes and is typicall
y found at the gray/white matter junction at the cereral hemispheres.<div><r /
1389910411168 1358629116480 What kind of cells are found in Firillary Astro

cytoma?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8048768712937.jpg" /></div><div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Well-differentiated astrocytes}}</div>
1389910577113 1358629116480 {{c1::Gliolastoma Multiforme (GBM)}} is a prima
ry CNS tumour that exhiits a <>"utterfly lesion"</> as it invades and crosse
s the corpus callosum.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8194797601003.jpg" /
1389910724889 1358629116480 Where does a Gliolastoma Multiforme (GBM) cross
in the rain from one side to another?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Through the c
orpus callosum}}</div>
1389910748825 1358629116480 {{c1::Gliolastoma Multiforme (GBM)}} is a prima
ry CNS tumour that commonly exhiits <>pseudopalisading</> where neoplastic, t
umour cells surround areas of necrosis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-833
1389910845973 1358629116480 Endothelial cell proliferation is a key characte
ristic of the primary CNS tumour&nsp;{{c1::Gliolastoma Multiforme (GBM)}}.<div
1389910893461 1358629116480 Which type of cells are commonly found to prolif
erate in a Gliolastoma Multiforme (GBM)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endothelial
Cells}}</div>
1389910921144 1358629116480 {{c1::Pilocytic Astrocytoma}} is a primary CNS t
umour that involves astrocytes. It is commonly found in children and at the cere
ellum.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8946416877848.jpg" /><img src="past
e-47347719471438.jpg" /></div>
1389911449887 1358629116480 {{c1::Rosenthal Fiers}} are thick, intracellula
r, eosinophillic processes found in the neoplastic astrocytes of&nsp;{{c2::Pilo
cytic Astrocytoma}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8959301779687.jpg" /><
1389911499302 1358629116480 {{c1::Oligodendroglioma}} is a primary CNS tumou
r that involves oligodendrocytes. It commonly exhiits a <>'chicken wire</>' a
ppearance of capillaries.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9062380994822.jpg
" /></div>
1389911673751 1358629116480 {{c1::Oligodendrioglioma}} is a primary CNS tumo
ur that has a 'fried-egg' appearance on histology and may exhiit calcifications
1389911727661 1358629116480 What type of rosettes are seen in Retinolastoma
?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9251359555887.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Flexner-Wintersteiner rosettes}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Cl
ear lumen.</i></div>
1389912256042 1358629116480 What kind of rosettes are found in Ependyoma?<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9620726743353.jpg" /><img src="paste-10045928
505644.jpg" /><img src="paste-47682726920528.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Perivascular Pseudorosettes}}</div></div> <r /><div><i>Blood vessel in th
e lumen.</i></div>
1389912299725 1358629116480 What kind of rosettes are seen in all 3 of Retin
olastoma, Neurolastoma and Medullolastoma?<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-9655086481716.jpg" /><img src="paste-10243497001200.jpg" /><r /><div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Homer-Wright rosettes (pseudorosettes)}}</div></div>
1389912345572 1358629116480 What is found in the lumen of Homer-Wright roset
tes in Neurolastoma, Retinolastoma and Medullolastoma?<div><r /></div><div><
img src="paste-9650791514420.jpg" /><img src="paste-10247791968496.jpg" /></div>
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuropils}}</div>
1389912406310 1358629116480 {{c1::Medullolastoma}} is a primary CNS tumour
that is typically found at the cereellar vermis.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-10058813407514.jpg" /><img src="paste-47480863457617.jpg" /></div>
1389912500193 1358629116480 {{c1::Meningioma}} is a primary CNS tumour that
presents as a round mass attached to the dura with a possile "tail".<div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-10307921510614.jpg" /><img src="paste-46325517254990.
jpg" /></div>
1389912554709 1358629116480 The whorled pattern seen elow is often seen in
the primary CNS tumour called&nsp;{{c1::meningioma}}.<div><r /></div><div><img

src="paste-10342281249025.jpg" /></div>
1389912593712 1358629116480 {{c1::Psammoma odies}} are nodules of calcifica
tion that can e seen in Meningioma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-103680
1389912630918 1358629116480 What primary CNS tumour shows the characteristic
Angiocentric Patterning shown elow?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10428
180594905.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CNS B-Cell Lymphoma}}</div>
1389913086655 1358629116480 Where are primary CNS tumours in adults generall
y found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Supratentorial}}</div>
1389913680695 1358629116480 Where are primary CNS tumours in children genera
lly found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infratentorial}}</div>
1389913695041 1358629116480 What is the most common primary malignant CNS tu
mour in adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gliolastoma Multiforme (GBM)}}</div>
1389913725518 1358629116480 What kind of cells are found in Gliolastoma Mul
tiforme?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Astrocytes}}</div>
1389913746554 1358629116480 What intermediate filament is found in glial cel
ls?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glial Firillary Acid Protein (GFAP)}}</div>
1389913780195 1358629116480 What intermediate filament is found in Gliolast
oma Multiforme?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GFAP}}</div>
1389913795616 1358629116480 What is the most common <>enign</>&nsp;CNS t
umour in adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Meningioma}}</div>
1389913831280 1358629116480 What type of cells are found in Meningioma?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Arachnoid cell}}</div>
1389913840618 1358629116480 A meningioma may present with&nsp;{{c2::seizure
s}} as the tumour is ale to compress onto the cortex.
1389913938587 1358629116480 Which cranial nerve is most often affected in a
Schwannoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CN VIII (Vestiulocochlear); therey resu
lting in tinnitus and vertigo}}</div>
1389913972311 1358629116480 At which location is CN VIII most commonly affec
ted y a Schwannoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The Cereellopontine Angle (CPA)
}}</div>
1389914021451 1358629116480 What tumour marker is present in a Schwannoma?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::S-100}}</div>
1389914036728 1358629116480 Schwannoma is commonly associated with a genetic
disorder called&nsp;{{c1::Neurofiromatosis Type 2}}, with which there will e
presence of ilateral tumours.
1389914343700 1358629116480 Where are Oligodendrogliomas commonly found?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Frontal loe}}</div>
237185868.jpg" /></div>
1389914374228 1358629116480 What is the most common CNS tumour in children?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pilocytic Astrocytoma}}</div>
1389914396487 1358629116480 Where does Pilocytic Astrocytoma typically arise
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cereellum}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-47343
424504142.jpg" /></div>
1389914412754 1358629116480 {{c1::Pilocytic Astrocytoma}} is a primary CNS t
umour that commonly involves a cystic lesion with a mural nodule and Rosenthal f
iers. <r /><div><img src="paste-47390669144398.jpg" /></div>
1389914461659 1358629116480 What intermediate filament is found in Pilocytic
Astrocytoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GFAP}}</div>
1389914476369 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::medullolastoma}} is a CNS tumour t
hat is derived from malignant granular cells of the cereellum from the <>neuro
ectoderm</>.
1389914607106 1358629116480 Where is a medullolastoma commonly found?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Cereellar vermis}}</div>
1389914621917 1358629116480 {{c1::Medullolastoma}} is a CNS tumour that com
monly displays drop metastasis where it metastasizes to the cauda equina via the
CSF.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-47485158424913.jpg" /></div>
1389914650611 1358629116480 {{c1::Medullolastoma}} is a CNS tumour that inv
olves <>small, round lue cells</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-47601
122541904.jpg" /></div>
1389914677399 1358629116480 What kind of cells are found in Ependyoma?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Ependymal Cells}}</div>
1389914696921 1358629116480 Where is Ependymoma commonly found?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::The 4th ventricle}}</div>
777247569.jpg" /></div>
1389914705910 1358629116480 {{c1::Craniopharyngioma}} is a CNS tumour that a
rises from the remnants of Rathke's pouch that may present with <>calcification
s</>&nsp;(tooth enamel-like).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-47764331299
153.jpg" /></div>
1389914734658 1358629116480 {{c1::Craniopharyngioma}} is a CNS tumour that m
ay present with itemporal hemoaniopia due to compression of the tumour onto the
optic chiasm.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-47300474831183.jpg" /></div>
1389914768906 1358629116480 What is a common etiology of Primary CNS B-Cell
Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1389914795477 1358629116480 What demogaphic is Gliolastoma Multiforme commo
nly seen in?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adults}}</div>
1389914847058 1358629116480 What demogaphic is Meningioma commonly found in?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adults}}</div>
1389914856854 1358629116480 What demogaphic is Firillary Astrocytoma common
ly found in?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adults}}</div>
1389914869078 1358629116480 What demogaphic is Acoustic Schwannoma commonly
found in?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adults}}</div>
1389914880495 1358629116480 What demogaphic is Pilocytic Astrocytoma commonl
y found in?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Children}}</div>
1389914895683 1358629116480 What demographic is Ependyoma commonly found in?
<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Children}}</div>
1389914906333 1358629116480 What demographic is is Medullolastoma commonly
found in?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Children}}</div>
1390080096344 1358629116480 Which CNS cells are most susceptile to ischemia
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neurons}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Neurons > glia
> white matter</i></div>
1390080249091 1358629116480 Which loes of the rain are more vulnerale to
ischemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Occipital & Parietal}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Occipital & Parietal > Temporal & Frontal</i></div>
1390080281713 1358629116480 Ischemic injury to CNS neurons results in the ex
cessive release of&nsp;{{c1::glutamate}}, which activates downstream cation cha
nnels, causing cell death though Ca influx.
1390080335040 1358629116480 {{c1::Cortical Laminar}} necrosis is seen follow
ing moderate ischemia to pyramidal neuron of the cereral cortex.<div><r /></di
1390080695896 1358629116480 What is the duration of a Transient Ischemic Att
ack (TIA)?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::< 24 hrs}}</div>
1390080745079 1358629116480 What is the duration of a Cereral Infarct/Ische
mic Stroke?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 24 hrs}}</div>
1390080765876 1358629116480 A {{c2::pale}} infarct occurs following a&nsp;{
{c1::thromotic}} stroke.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1889785610480.jpg
" /></div>
1390080910670 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::red/hemorrhagic}} infarct occurs fo
llowing an&nsp;{{c2::emolic}} stroke.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-201
0044694771.jpg" /></div>
1390080931725 1358629116480 What type of infarct is shown elow?<div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-2044404433251.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Lacunar}}</div>
1390080951548 1358629116480 <div>When do red neurons appear after a cereral
infarction?</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2095944040676.jpg" /></d
iv><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::12 hours}}</div>
1390081021102 1358629116480 When do neutrophils appear after a cereral infa
rction?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2130303779043.jpg" /></div><div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::2-3 days}}</div>
1390081097435 1358629116480 When does necrosis appear after a cereral infar

ction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::24 hrs}}</div>
1390081126689 1358629116480 When do microglia (macrophage) appear after a ce
reral infarction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3-7 days}}</div>
1390081140090 1358629116480 When does Gliosis and liquefaction appear after
a cereral infarction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2-3 weeks}}</div>
1390081163525 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::penumra}} is the zone of viale
tissue surrounding an infarct where the cells are at an increased risk of underg
oing irreversile injury.
</div>
1390081218906 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Charcot-Bouchard}} aneurysm is comm
only seen in hypertension and can cause intracereral hemorrhages.<div><r /></d
1390082482631 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::intracereral hemorrhage}} is defi
ned as leeding into the rain parenchyma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste3354369458435.jpg" /></div>
1390082569611 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::erry}} aneurysm is a developmental
anormality that involves a thin-walled saccular outpouching of vasculature.<di
1390082660509 1358629116480 What are Arteriovenous Malformations?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Vasculature with no capillary ed; they have direct arterio-ven
ous channels that can rupture}}</div> <img src="paste-3925600108833.jpg" />
1390082817002 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypertensive Encephalopathy}} is a type of
hypertensive cererovascular disease characterized y malignant hypertension, c
ereral edema and increased ICP.
1390082882017 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypertensive Encephalopathy}} is a type of
hypertensive cererovascular disease caused y malignant hypertension. It <>do
es not</>&nsp;involve infarction or hemorrhage.
1390082931330 1358629116480 {{c1::Binswanger Disease}} is a <>hypertensive
cererovascular disease</> characterized y <>degeneration of sucortical whit
e matter with loss of myelin and axons</>.
<r /><div><i>aka <>Sucortical
Leukoencephalopathy</></i></div>
1390082986462 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::slit hemorrhage}}, shown elow, is
a variant form of intracereral hemorrhaging seen in hypertensive patients.<div>
1390083022171 1358629116480 How long does it take for cell death to ensue in
neurons?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::3-5 minutes}}</div>
1390084360889 1358629116480 What does mild Gloal Cereral Ischemia present
with?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Transient confusion; readily correctale}}</div
>
<r /><div><i>e.g. prompt recovery following glucose administration</i><
/div>
1390084480301 1358629116480 What causes a thromotic stroke?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Rupture of atherosclerotic plaque}}</div>
1390084524632 1358629116480 What kind of infarct does a Thromotic stroke ca
use?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pale infarct}}</div>
1390084544177 1358629116480 What causes an Emolic Stroke?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Thromoemoli}}</div>
1390084558002 1358629116480 Middle Cereral Artery (MCA) is most commonly af
fected y {{c1::Emolic}} &nsp;Stroke.<div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
<i>Source: Roins asic pathology 9th ed. p816</i>
1390084580706 1358629116480 What kind of infarct does an Emolic Stroke caus
e?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Hemorrhagic (Red) infarct}}</div>
1390084601370 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Lacunar Stroke?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyaline Arteriolosclerosis; seen in HTN and T2DM}}</
div>
1390084636599 1358629116480 What cereral vessels are involved in Lacunar St
roke?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lenticulostriate Vessels}}</div>
1390084652586 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Lacunar}} stroke is a cereral stro
ke that presents with small, cystic, 'lake-like' areas of infarction, typically
at the deep structures of the rain.
1390084684173 1358629116480 A lacunar stroke will present as a pure motor st

roke if the&nsp;{{c1::internal capsule}} is affected.
1390084705083 1358629116480 A lacunar stroke will present as a pure sensory
stroke if the&nsp;{{c1::thalamus}} is affected.
1390084721198 1358629116480 At which cereral vessels are Charcot-Bouchard m
icroaneurysms typically found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lenticulostriate Vesse
ls}}</div>
1390084765722 1358629116480 What is the most common site of Intracereral He
morrhaging?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basal Ganglia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Or
other deep rain structures near the MCA.</i></div>
1390084794188 1358629116480 {{c1::Berry}} aneurysms are thin-walled, saccula
r outpouchings of lood vessels in the rain that lack a media layer.
1390084831570 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::suarachnoid}} hemorrhage is a type
of hemorrhagic stroke that will present as the 'worst headache of my life'.
1390084867832 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::suarachnoid}} hemorrhage is a type
of cereral hemorrhage that presents with nuchal rigidity.
1390084888910 1358629116480 {{c1::Xanthochromia}} is often seen upon lumar
puncture of a patient with suarachnoid hemorrhaging. It involves CSF with a yel
low hue due to iliruin reakdown.
1390084935835 1358629116480 What is the most important risk factor for strok
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertension}}</div>
1390086086968 1358629116480 In younger patients, thromotic strokes are like
ly to have occurred due to a&nsp;{{c1::hypercoagulale}} state.
<r /><d
iv><i>Or some other disorder that is not atherosclerosis.</i></div>
1390088014597 1358629116480 {{c1::Watershed}} infarcts are a form of cerera
l infarct that develops from relative hypoperfusion in the most distal arterial
territories. They can produce ilateral symptoms.
17103.jpg" /><div><r /><div><i>aka Border Zone Infarcts</i></div></div>
1390088203694 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Suarachnoid He
morrhage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Berry Anerysm}}</div>
1390088259491 1358629116480 How do you differentiate etween a migraine and
suarachnoid hemorrhage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::SAH has a sudden onset}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>They are oth vascular in nature.</i></div>
1390088289638 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemorrhagic}} strokes are a form of stroke
that presents with pounding headaches, stiff neck and focal long tract signs.
1390088457343 1358629116480 If there is a stroke at the&nsp;{{c2::Middle Ce
reral}} artery, deficits at the face and arms will e greater than deficits at
the legs.
1390088520773 1358629116480 If there is a stroke at the&nsp;{{c1::Anterior
Cereral}} Artery, then deficits at the legs will e greater than deficits at th
e face and arms.
1390088548188 1358629116480 If there is a stroke at the&nsp;{{c1::Internal
Capsule}} deficits will e equal etween the face, arm and legs.
1390088598551 1358629116480 Occlusion to the Anterior Cereral Artery will r
esult in <>restricted contralateral</> deficits at the {{c1::lower}} lims.
1390090779662 1358629116480 Occlusion to the Middle Cereral Artery will res
ult in <>restricted contralateral&nsp;</>deficits to the&nsp;{{c1::upper}} l
ims.
1390090826958 1358629116480 An occlusion to the {{c1::Posterior Cereral}} A
rtery results in Superior Alternating (Weer's) Syndrome.
1390091325750 1358629116480 An occlusion to the&nsp;{{c1::Posterior Cerera
l}} Artery results in Benedikt's Syndrome.
1390091361903 1358629116480 An occlusion to the&nsp;{{c1::Anterior Inferior
Cereellar (AICA)}} Artery results in {{c2::Lateral Pontine}} Syndrome.
1390091400024 1358629116480 An occlusion to the&nsp;{{c1::Posterior Inferio
r Cereellar (PICA)}} Artery results in&nsp;{{c2::Lateral Medullary (Wallenerg
's)}} Syndrome.
1390091437004 1358629116480 An occlusion to the&nsp;{{c1::Anterior Spinal}}
Artery <>at the medullary level</> results in&nsp;{{c2::Medial Medullary}} S
yndrome.
1390326891973 1358629116480 Alzheimer's Disease is characterized y a loss o

f&nsp;{{c1::cholinergic}} neurons of the asal forerain.
<r /><div><i>Th
ese project to the cortex, neocortex and hippocampus.</i></div>
1390326979433 1358629116480 Aside from cholinergic nuclei of the asal fore
rain, Alzheimer's Disease involves degeneration of the noradrenergic nucleus&ns
p;{{c1::locus ceruleus}}.
1390327041902 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::A peptide}} is a pathological prot
ein in Alzheimer's Disease that causes NMDA and AMPA receptor sites to e downre
gulated, therey affected LTP and LTD.
1390327199408 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::A peptide}} is a pathological pept
ide in Alzheimer's Disease that inds to BDNF and inactivates it, therey facili
tating neurodegeneration.
1390327362658 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::A peptide}} is a pathological prot
ein in Alzheimer's Disease that activates&nsp;{{c2::Caspases}} and other stress
kinases, therey resulting in increased apoptosis.
<r /><div><i>Hence, can
Caspase inhiitors slow the progression of AD?</i></div>
1390327433958 1358629116480 What is the iggest risk factor for developing A
lzheimer's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Old age}}</div> <r /><div><i>Ri
sk doules every 5 years after 65 y/o.</i></div>
1390521932951 1358629116480 Parkinsons Disease is characterized y depigment
ation and neuronal loss of dopaminergic neurons at the&nsp;{{c1::sustantia nig
ra}} of the asal ganglia.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3006477107436.jp
g" /></div>
1390523334057 1358629116480 {{c1::Lewy Bodies}} are round, eosinophilic odi
es of misfolded -synuclein nd ubiquitin found in ffected neurons in Prkinson's
Disese. There is sometimes peripherl hlo.<div><br /></div><div><img src="p
ste-3092376453323.jpg" /></div>
1390523413578 1358629116480 Wht misfolded protein is the mjor component of
Lewy Bodies seen in Prkinson's Disese nd Lewy Body Dementi?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::-synuclein}}</div> <img src="pste-3088081486027.jpg" />
1390523456028 1358629116480 Which bsl gngli structure sees depigmenttio
n nd loss of neurons in Prkinson's Disese?<div><br /></div><div><img src="p
ste-3161095930033.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Substnti Nigr}}</
div>
1390523514048 1358629116480 Huntington's Disese is chrcterized by trophy
of the cortex nd the {{c1::Cudte nucleus}} of the bsl gngli, ledin
g to expnsion of the ventricles on imging.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pst
e-3616362463535.jpg" /></div>
1390525504567 1358629116480 Prkinson's nd other hypokinetic motor disorder
s reflect dysfunction of the {{c1::direct}} pthwy of the bsl gngli.
1390526368243 1358629116480 Huntington's nd other hyperkinetic disorders ty
piclly reflect problem with the {{c1::indirect}} pthwy of the bsl g
ngli.
1390526400037 1358629116480 Wht is chore?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Purpo
seless, quick jerks tht my be superimposed on top of voluntry movement}}</div
>
1390526476161 1358629116480 {{c1::Huntington's Chore}} is n utosoml domi
nnt movement disorder chrcterized by degenertion of GABA neurons of the indi
rect pthwy t the cudte nucleus.
<br /><div><i>Typiclly the hed of the
cudte nucleus.</i></div>
1390526537888 1358629116480 {{c1::Sydenhm's Chore}} is movement disorder
tht rises s trnsient compliction in some children with rheumtic fever,
commonly in girls.
1390526769754 1358629116480 {{c1::Chore Grvidrum}} is movement disorder
tht occurs usully during the second trimester of pregnncy.
1390526800350 1358629116480 {{c1::Trdive Dyskinesi}} is n <b>itroge
nic</b> movement disorder chrcterized by repetitive choreic movements ffectin
g the fce, hnds nd trunk.
1390526853430 1358629116480 {{c1::Trdive Dyskinesi}} is n <b>itrogenic</
b> movement disorder tht often results from tretment with ntipsychotics.
1390526882329 1358629116480 {{c1::Athetosis}} is defined s slow, writhing,

involuntry, snke-like movements typiclly evident t the fingers nd hnds.
1390527257828 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemibllismus}} is hyperkinetic movement
disorder tht results from lesion of the Subthlmic Nucleus (STN).
1390527317467 1358629116480 Wht is the most common cuse of Hemibllismus?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lcunr Stroke of thlmoperforting brnch off the
PCA in HTN}}</div>
1390527345300 1358629116480 {{c1::Tourette's Syndrome}} is movement disord
er chrcterized by fcil nd vocl tics tht progress to jerking movements of
the limbs. Involuntry, explosive, vulgr speech nd behviour my lso be invol
ved.
1390527481262 1358629116480 {{c1::Heptolenticulr Degenertion (Wilson's Di
sese)}} is movement disorder cused by n utosoml recessive disorder in the
metbolism of copper nd defects in Ceruloplsmin.
1390528333767 1358629116480 Thin, brown {{c1::Kyser-Fleischer}} rings
re seen in the outer corne of ptients with Wilson's Disese.
1390528371880 1358629116480 {{c1::Prkinson's Disese}} is movement disord
er chrcterized by degenertive loss of dopminergic neurons in the substnti
nigr of the bsl gngli.
1390529346612 1358629116480 Rre cses of Prkinson's Disese hve been link
ed to exposure to {{c1::MPTP}}, contminnt of illicit IV drugs.
1390529377229 1358629116480 {{c1::Lewy Body Dementi}} is form of dementi
tht is chrcterized by <b>erly-onset </b>dementi, hllucintions nd prkin
sonism.
1390529445581 1358629116480 Where re Lewy Bodies found in Lewy Body Dementi
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The cortex}}</div>
1390529464473 1358629116480 {{c1::Huntington's Disese}} is movement disor
der chrcterized by the degenertion of GABAergic neurons in the cudte nucleu
s of the bsl gngli.
1390529510767 1358629116480 Wht is the genetic inheritnce of Huntington's
Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autosoml Dominnt}}</div>
1390529525537 1358629116480 On wht chromosome is the Huntingtin (Htt) gene
found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div>
1390529542635 1358629116480 Which trinucleotide repet in the Huntingtin (Ht
t) gene is involved in Huntington's Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CAG}}</d
iv>
1390529569344 1358629116480 Anticiption is seen in Huntington's Disese due
to further CAG expnsion during {{c1::spermtogenesis}}.
1390678867844 1358629116480 {{c1::Dementi}} is neurologicl pthology def
ined s decline in cognitive bility, memory nd/or function with intct consc
iousness.
1390679947868 1358629116480 Ptients with dementi re eventully die in&nbs
p;{{c1::5-10}} yers s symptoms grdully develop nd progress.
1390680001833 1358629116480 Wht is often the first cognitive impirment see
n in dementi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Memory loss nd/or dysfunction}}</div>
1390680072753 1358629116480 Wht neurologicl deficits hve to be present to
meet the criteri for dignosis of Dementi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Memor
y +1 cognitive deficit}}</div>
1390680215948 1358629116480 Wht is the hllmrk neurologicl deficit in Alz
heimer's Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Memory deficits; with slow, insid
ious onset nd progression}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Specificlly, there is p
roblem reclling fcts</i></div>
1390681200489 1358629116480 Hyperphosphoryltion of the {{c1::Tu}} pro
tein is ssocited with Alzheimer's Disese.
1390681423708 1358629116480 Which modifiction to the tu protein is ssoci
ted with Alzheimer's Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperphosphoryltion}}<
/div>
1390681446363 1358629116480 The A amyloid peptide fragments are usually
found in 2 length. The&nsp;{{c1::A<su>42</su>}}&nsp;form is the amyloidogenic
form.
1390681792083 1358629116480 {{c1::Cortical atrophy}} is a key gross anatomic

al feature of Alzheimer's Disease.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10329396
347180.jpg" /></div>
1390682096284 1358629116480 The cortical atrophy seen in Alzheimer's Disease
can cause&nsp;{{c1::Hydrocephalus <i>ex vacuo</i>}}, involving enlarged ventri
cles and increased CSF volume.
1390682151724 1358629116480 {{c1::Neurofirillary tangles}} are a key histol
ogical feature of Alzheimer's Disease that are composed of hyperphosphorylated t
au protein.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10827612553435.jpg" /></div>
1390682235842 1358629116480 {{c1::Neuritic Plaques}} are a key histological
feature of Alzheimer's Disease that involve an amyloid core (2) and peripheral t
au aggregates (3).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10840497455413.jpg" /><i
mg src="paste-10853382357194.jpg" /><img src="paste-10866267259056.jpg" /></div>
1390682320875 1358629116480 What colour do Amyloid proteins show on immunofl
uorescence?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Apple-Green}}</div>
<img src="paste10917806866687.jpg" />
1390682414777 1358629116480 {{c1::Cereral Amyloid Angiopathy}} is a cerero
vascular pathology that occurs due to&nsp;A amyloid accumulation in the tunica m
edia of small vessels in the rain.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1096075
6539642.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Has increased risk of intracereral hemorr
haging.</i></div>
1390697322563 1358629116480 {{c1::vascular dementia}} is a type of vascular
dementia characterized y multiple-single infarcts that damage functionally crit
ical areas of the rain.
<r /><div><i>There is cognitive decline within
3 months following such multiple focal infarcts.</i></div><div><i><r /></i></di
v><div><i>vascular dementia is aka multi-infarct dementia</i></div>
1390697416452 1358629116480 {{c1::Binswanger's Disease}} is a vascular demen
tia characterized y multiple, tiny lacunar infarcts at sucortical deep white m
atter that is strongly associated with HTN.
1390697490431 1358629116480 {{c1::Binwanger's Disease}} is a vascular dement
ia that presents similarly to Alzheimer's Disease ut will present with vascular
defects upon MRI.
<r /><div><i>Use the patient Hx and MRI to differentiat
e etween the 2.</i></div>
1390697553446 1358629116480 {{c1::Mixed Dementia}} is a form of dementia tha
t involves a comination of Alzheimer's and Binswanger's changes with insidious
progression.
1390697786256 1358629116480 Where does Binswanger's Disease commonly present
in the rain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Periventricularly}}</div>
1390697815645 1358629116480 What are the 3 key clinical features diagnostic
of Lewy Body Dementia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dementia, Parkinsonism, Halluc
inations}}</div>
1390697920293 1358629116480 {{c1::Lewy Body Dementia}} is a type of dementia
that is characterized y parkinsonism with fluctuating dementia and hallucinati
ons.
<r /><div><i>Hallucinations are non-frightening.</i></div>
1390697973600 1358629116480 What is the second most common dementia?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Lewy Body Dementia}}</div>
1390698018786 1358629116480 If dementia precedes parkinsonism in a patient,
the diagnosis is likely {{c2::Lewy Body Dementia}}
<r /><div><i>i.e. if th
e dementia is early onset</i></div>
1390698913688 1358629116480 If parkinsonism precedes dementia y 1 year in a
patient, the diagnosis is likely&nsp;{{c1::Parkinson's Disease}}.
1390698994343 1358629116480 {{c1::Lewy Bodies}} are intraneuronal, intranucl
ear amyloid-like inclusions containing accumulations of misfolded&nsp;{{c2::alp
ha-synuclein}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="ARlZnKt.jpg" /></div>
1390699735254 1358629116480 {{c1::Alpha-synuclein}} is a synaptic protein in
volved in vesicular production that accumulates in Lewy Body Dementia and Parkin
son's as it misfolds.
1390699897956 1358629116480 {{c1::Lewy neurites}} are neurites filled with a
ggregates of misfolded alpha-synuclein.
1390700160382 1358629116480 Where are Lewy Bodies found in Lewy Body Dementi
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cortex}}</div>
1390700190819 1358629116480 Where are Lewy Bodies found in Parkinson's Disea
se?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basal Ganglia; Sustantia Nigra}}</div>
1390700241981 1358629116480 {{c1::Frontotemporal Dementia}} is a slowly prog
ressive dementia that has very prominent personality and ehavioural changes (mo
reso than the memory loss).
1390700843806 1358629116480 {{c1::Frontotemporal Dementia}} is a dementia th
at primarily affects the frontotemporal loe, yielding much more significant eh
avioural deficits as opposed to memory.
1390700874544 1358629116480 {{c1::Pick's Disease}} is a dementia that primar
ily affects the frontotemporal loe, ut has a <>rapid</>&nsp;progression and
onset.
1390700900596 1358629116480 Cortical neurons in the frontal and temporal lo
es in Frontotemporal Dementia accumulate mutated&nsp;{{c1::tau}} proteins, lead
ing to neuronal loss.
1390701009667 1358629116480 The atrophied gyri in Frontotemporal Dementia (F
TD) are said to have a&nsp;{{c1::knife-edge}} appearance.<div><r /></div><div>
1390701201163 1358629116480 {{c1::Pick Cells}} are seen in Pick's Disease an
d are descried as surviving neurons with homogenous swollen cytoplasm.<div><r
1390701248880 1358629116480 {{c1::Pick Bodies}} are intracytoplasmic eosinop
hilic inclusions of mutated&nsp;{{c2::tau protein}} seen in Pick cells of Pick'
s Disease.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4299262263555.jpg" /></div>
1390707933961 1358629116480 Degeneration of the cortex often leads to&nsp;{
{c1::dementia}}
1390707952884 1358629116480 Denegeration of the rainstem and asal ganglia
leads to&nsp;{{c1::movement disorders}}
1390707965558 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Dementia?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Alzheimers}}</div>
1390707981468 1358629116480 Which comination of Secretases yields the <>no
rmal</>&nsp;A amyloid peptide fragment?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha and ga
mma}}</div>
1390708014886 1358629116480 Which comination of Secretases yields the <>pa
thogenic</>&nsp;and <>amyloidogenic</>&nsp;A amyloid peptide fragments?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Beta and gamma}}</div>
1390708039848 1358629116480 Which isoform of ApoE is linked to an increased
risk of Alzheimers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ApoE4}}</div>
1390708081727 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::ApoE4}} isoform of ApoE is the fo
rm that is deficient in its aility to reakdown&nsp;A amyloid peptide fragments
.
1390708172447 1358629116480 Which isoform of ApoE is associated with a decre
ased risk in developing Alzheimer's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ApoE2; d
ue to it's aility to reakdown A amyloid peptides}}</div>
1390708240468 1358629116480 Mutations in&nsp;{{c1::Presenilin 1 and 2}} res
ult in gamma-secretase having increased activity, therey yielding more&nsp;A am
yloid peptides.
1390708276751 1358629116480 Patients with&nsp;{{c1::Down Syndrome}} often s
ee an early onset of Alzheimer's y the age of&nsp;{{c2::40}} due to the fact t
hat the APP gene is found on chromosome 21.
1390708309774 1358629116480 On which chromosome is the Amyloid Precursor Pro
tein (APP) found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::21}}</div>
1390708332061 1358629116480 {{c1::Neuritic plaques}} are histological featur
es of &nsp;Alzheimer's Disease and involve an extracellular core of&nsp;A amylo
id peptide with entangled neuritic processes.
1390708392745 1358629116480 {{c1::Neurofirillary Tangles}} are a histologic
al feature of Alzheimer's characterized y intracellular aggregates of hyperphos
phorylated&nsp;{{c2::tau protein}} in paired helical fragments.
1390708435481 1358629116480 Which gene codes Tau protein?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::MAPT on chr 17}}</div>
1390708453318 1358629116480 The ehavioural symptoms seen in Pick's Disease

and Frontotemporal Dementia are due to&nsp;{{c1::frontal}} loe degeneration.
1390708509374 1358629116480 The language deficits seen in Pick's Disease and
Frontotemporal Dementia are due to&nsp;{{c1::temporal}} loe degeneration.
1390708539470 1358629116480 {{c1::Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus}} is defined
as an <>idiopathic</>&nsp;increase in CSF, resulting in dementia.<div><r />
1390708575967 1358629116480 The increase in CSF in Normal Pressure Hydroceph
alus results in dilated ventricles that stretch the&nsp;{{c1::Corona Radiata}}
in the rain, therey leading to dementia.
1390708608099 1358629116480 Dementia secondary to&nsp;{{c1::Normal Pressure
Hydrocephalus}} commonly presents with a classic triad of u<>rinary incontinen
ce, gait instaility and dementia</>&nsp;due to distortion of the corona radia
ta.
<r /><div><i>Wet, woly and wacky</i></div>
1390708662564 1358629116480 Symptoms of Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus can e
alleviated through a&nsp;{{c1::Lumar Puncture}}.
1390708685742 1358629116480 What is the Tx for Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventriculoperitoneal Shunting}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Surgically formed shunt that allows for increased drainage of CSF into the
venous system.</i></div>
1390960276503 1358629116480 Where is the purulent exudate found in Meningoco
ccal and Pneumococcal Meningitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Over the cereral c
onvexities}}</div>
1390962213659 1358629116480 Where is the purulent exudate found in <i>Haemph
ilus influenzae</i>&nsp;meningitis?<div><r />{{c1::At the ase of the rain}}<
/div>
1390962241760 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Adhesive Arachnoiditis}} is a comp
lication of pneumococcal meningitis characterized y oliteration of the Foramin
a of Luschka and Magendie and firosis of the arachnoid granulations.
1390962319543 1358629116480 Brain ascesses have a central cavity filled wit
h pus and an outer wall that has undergone&nsp;{{c1::firosis}}<div><r /></div
><div><img src="paste-1108101562721.jpg" /><img src="paste-1095216660734.jpg" />
</div>
1390962411678 1358629116480 What does an ascess in the temporal loe common
ly cause?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epilepsy}}</div>
1390962440306 1358629116480 Meningitis caused y&nsp;{{c1::<i>Mycoacterium
tuerculosis</i>}} is characterized y a grey-green gelatinous or firinous exu
date in the suarachnoid space and granulomas in CNS tissue.<div><r /></div><di
1390962543965 1358629116480 {{c1::Basal Adhesive Arachnoiditis}} is a compli
cation of TB Meningitis characterized y oliteration of the suarachnoid space
or foramina of Luschka and Magendie, causing hydrocephalus.
1390962611181 1358629116480 {{c1::Oliterative Endarteritis}} is a complicat
ion of TB meningitis that can lead to ischemia and cereral infarct.<div><r /><
1390962651041 1358629116480 {{c1::Meningovascular Neurosyphilis}} is a type
of Neurosyphilis that involves chronic meningitis at the ase of the rain and o
literative endarteritis (leading to stroke).<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-1537598292227.jpg" /></div>
1390963016427 1358629116480 {{c1::Paretic Neurosyphilis}} is a type of neuro
syphilis that involves cortical atrophy, especially at the frontal loe, and gra
nular ependymitis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1614907703561.jpg" /></d
iv>
1390963081850 1358629116480 {{c1::Taes Dorsalid}} is a complication of neur
osyphilis that involves the loss of myelin and axons in the dorsal root and dors
al columns.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2048699400416.jpg" /></div>
1390963126743 1358629116480 Brain Toxoplasmosis is a CNS infection y&nsp;{
{c1::<i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>}} that involves cereral ascesses with tachyzoite
s and ring-enhancing lesions on MRI.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-210453
3975272.jpg" /></div>
1390963333121 1358629116480 What causes Brain Toxoplasmosis?<div><r /></div

><div>{{c1::<i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>}}</div>
1390963354762 1358629116480 What causes Cryptococcal Meningoencephalitis?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Cryptococcus neoformans</i>}}</div>
1390963376114 1358629116480 {{c1::Cryptococcal Meningoencephalitis}} is a CN
S infection typically seen in the immunocompromised that involves chronic asal
meningitis, <>'soap ule' cysts</> and encephalitis with cryptococci in Virc
how-Roin's space.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-2224793059559.jpg" /></div
>
1390963446423 1358629116480 What stain is used to visualize <i>Cryptococcus
neoformans</i>&nsp;in the perivascular space in the CNS?<div><r></div><div>{{c
1::Mucicarmine}}</div>
1390963482874 1358629116480 Acute viral meningitis is also known as&nsp;{{c
1::Aseptic meningitis}}
1390963502513 1358629116480 In viral meningitis,&nsp;{{c1::Microglia}} eco
me diffuse and undergo focal hyperplasia into rod cells.<div><r /></div><div><i
1390963566432 1358629116480 {{c1::Neuronophagia}}, shown elow, is a histolo
gical change that microglia under in viral meningoencephalitis.<div><r /></div>
1390963626705 1358629116480 {{c1::Cowdry A}} inclusions are eosinophilic int
ranuclear inclusions seen in HSV encephalitis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-2585570312429.jpg" /></div>
1390963681312 1358629116480 {{c1::HSV Encephalitis}} is a viral encephalitis
that involves necrosis and hemorrhaging, typically at the temporal and frontal
loe.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2619930050797.jpg" /></div>
1390963718437 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::anterior}} horn of the spinal cor
d is commonly affected in Poliomyelitis.
1390963762685 1358629116480 {{c1::Negri odies}} are eosinophilic intracytop
lasmic inclusions that are commonly found in pyramidal cells of the hippocampus
and purkinje cells of the cereellum in <>Raies infection</>.<div><r /></div
1390963831444 1358629116480 In which cells of the Hippocampus are Negri odi
es found in Raies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pyramidal}}</div>
<img src
="paste-2723009265955.jpg" />
1390963861191 1358629116480 In which cells of the cereellum are Negri odie
s found in Raies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Purkinje}}</div> <img src="paste2723009265955.jpg" />
1390963890901 1358629116480 {{c1::Suacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis (SSPE)
}} is a chronic and lethal complication of Measles that involves dementia, loss
of myelin and intranuclear inclusion in oligodendrocytes.
1390963942390 1358629116480 The intranuclear inclusions in Suacute Sclerosi
ng Panencephalitis (SSPE) are found in&nsp;{{c1::oligodendrocytes}}.
1390963977721 1358629116480 {{c1::HIV encephalitis}} is a viral encephalitis
characterized y microglial nodules and giant multinucleated cells.<div><r /><
1390964014722 1358629116480 {{c1::Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy
(PML)}} is a complication of <>JC virus</> infection (or AIDS) that affects o
ligodendrocytes and causes <>dementia, weakness, vision loss and ataxia</>.
<r /><div><i>Fatal; mean surivival is 3 months</i></div>
1390964110372 1358629116480 Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy (PML)
is a viral encephalopathy that involves large indistinct purple inclusions in {
{c1::oligodendrocytes}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3375844294892.jpg"
/></div>
<r /><div><i>Blue arrow</i></div>
1390964217200 1358629116480 {{c1::Spongiosis}} is a process of microscopic v
acuolation of the neuron somata and surrounding neuropil commonly seen in prion
disease and spongiform encephalopathy.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3539
053052175.jpg" /></div>
1391020158522 1358629116480 Which cells myelinate the PNS?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Schwann Cells}}</div>
1391020174247 1358629116480 Which spinal cord tract is affected in Amyotroph

ic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-738734375199.jp
g" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lateral Corticospinal Tract}}</div>
1391023413813 1358629116480 In ALS, the&nsp;{{c1::ventral}} roots of the sp
inal cord ecome atrophied.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-781684048239.jp
g" /></div>
1391023462744 1358629116480 {{c1::Multiple Sclerosis}} is a demyelinating di
sorder that involve grey paraventricular plaques of demyelinated white matter.<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-927712936250.jpg" /><img src="paste-38276748
542369.jpg" /></div>
1391023895929 1358629116480 The presence of Oligoclonal IgG ands on a highresolution electrophoresis gel is indicative of&nsp;{{c1::Multiple Sclerosis}}<
1391024201284 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::endoneurium}} is the layer of cel
ls that are found around individual nerve fiers within a nerve fascicle.
<r /><div><i>Endo --> Peri --> Epi</i></div>
1391024745392 1358629116480 {{c1::Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS)}} is a lifethreatening neuropathy involving <>ascending</>&nsp;paralysis and eventual de
ath from respiratory paralysis and cardiac arrest.
<r /><div><i><r /></i>
</div>
1391025738315 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Guillain-Barre Syndrome?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vaccination, viral infection or acterial infection}
}</div>
1391025842485 1358629116480 What are the common viral causes of Guillain-Bar
re Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CMV; EBV}}</div>
1391025858179 1358629116480 What are the common acterial causes of Guillain
-Barre Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Campyloacter jejuni</i>; <i>Myco
plasma pneumoniae</i>}}</div>
1391025893085 1358629116480 What is responsile for the demyelination seen i
n Guillain-Barre Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T cells and circulating an
tiodies}}</div>
1391026057497 1358629116480 {{c1::Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS)}} is a perip
heral neuropathy that involves segmental demyelination and perivascular/endoneur
al lymphoid infiltration.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1812476199171.jpg
" /></div>
1391026164795 1358629116480 {{c1::Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) Disease}} is a h
ereditary sensorimotor neuropathy that involves anormalities in myelin synthesi
s due to defective structural and synthesis proteins.
1391026374985 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Charcot-Marie
-Tooth (CMT) Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1391026395952 1358629116480 {{c1::Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) Disease}} is a p
eripheral neuropathy that involves <>peroneal muscular dystrophy and pes cavus
(hollow foot)</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2061584302329_1358629116
480.jpg" /></div>
1391026515183 1358629116480 Repetitive remyelination in Charcot-Marie-Tooth
Disease results in concentric layers of Schwann cells around axons called&nsp;{
{c1::Onion Buls}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2147483648251.jpg" /></
div>
1391026586880 1358629116480 {{c1::Diaetic Neuropathy}} is a peripheral neur
opathy defined as a symmetrical sensory and motor neuropathy of distal extremiti
es. However the sensory deficits are greater than the motor deficits.
1391026773137 1358629116480 {{c1::Diaetic Neuropathy}} is a peripheral neur
opathy that involves decreased pain sensation leading to leg trauma and eventual
poor healing of ulcers.
1391026834935 1358629116480 Diaetic Neuropathy involves thickening and hyal
inization of&nsp;{{c1::endoneural}} arterioles, therey leading to peripheral n
europathy and osmotic damage of Schwann cells.
1391026925203 1358629116480 {{c1::Traumatic Neuroma}} is a peripheral neurop
athy that often occurs after trauma where damaged or severed nerves misalign dur
ing recovery and regeneration.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-294634756540
3.jpg" /></div>
1391027137575 1358629116480 What is the typical lifespan of someone with Duc
henne's Muscular Dystrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Into their 20s only}}</di
v>
1391030735323 1358629116480 What is the typical lifespan of someone with Bec
ker Muscular Dystrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal}}</div>
1391030750126 1358629116480 {{c1::Gottron Papules}} are red, scalar papules
found on the elows, knuckles and knees in Dermatomyositis.<div><r /></div><div
1391031158336 1358629116480 {{c1::Dermatomyositis}} is an inflammatory myopa
thy that involves perivascular infiltrate and perifascicular atrophy.<div><r />
1391031544458 1358629116480 {{c1::Polyomyositis}} is an imflammatory myopath
y that involves heavy intrafascicular mononuclear infiltrate.<div><r /></div><d
1391032030551 1358629116480 {{c1::Inclusion Body Myositis}} is an inflammato
ry myopathy that involves anormal folding of eta-amyloid and/or hyperphosphory
lated tau protein at the distal muscles.
1391032214734 1358629116480 Inclusion Body Myositis in an inflammatory myopa
thy that involves intracellular aggregates of misfolded&nsp;{{c1::eta-amyloid}
} filaments.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3813930959184.jpg" /></div>
1391032319915 1358629116480 Which drug do we use to <>diagnose</>&nsp;Mya
sthenia Gravis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Edrophonium, an AChE inhiitor}}</div
>
<r /><div><i>If there is a short-term increase in muscle strength then
the Dx is Myasthenia Gravis</i></div>
1391032403286 1358629116480 A {{c1::Schwannoma}} is a PNS tumour that can e
excised as it grows on the side of axons.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste4539780432060.jpg" /></div>
1391032506145 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::neurofiroma}} is a PNS tumour that
cannot e excised as it grows in etween nerve axons.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-4574140170427.jpg" /></div>
1391032537143 1358629116480 A {{c1::solitary neurofiroma}} is a type of neu
rofiroma that is sporadic and has <>no risk of malignancy</>.
1391032585866 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::plexiform neurofiroma}} is a neuro
firoma that is only seen in NF1 and has a risk of malignancy.<div><r /></div><
div><r /></div>
1391032613263 1358629116480 {{c1::Neurofiroma}} is a PNS tumour that has an
emedded nerve trunk and a serpentine histological pattern.<div><r /></div><di
1391032683819 1358629116480 Which type of neurofiromas are characteristic o
f Neurofiromatosis 1?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Plexiform}}</div>
1391032717352 1358629116480 {{c1::Lisch nodules}} are pigmented nodules of t
he iris found in Neurofiromatosis 1 (NF1).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-46020574576977.jpg" /></div>
1391032753534 1358629116480 {{c1::Cafe-au-lait spots}} are a morphological f
eature of Neurofiromatosis 1 seen on the skin.<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-4810363371716.jpg" /></div>
1391032800682 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Neurofiromat
osis 1?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal dominant}}</div>
1391032823588 1358629116480 What gene is implicated in Neurofiromatosis 1?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NF1; codes for Neurofiromin, a RAS family GTPase act
ivating proteins}}</div>
1391032856043 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Schwannoma}} is a PNS tumour that i
s associated with Neurofiromatosis 2.
1391032897049 1358629116480 {{c1::Acoustic Neuroma}} is a type of Schwannoma
that affects CN VIII at the cereello-pontine angle (CPA) causing tinnitus and
hearing loss.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5488968204565.jpg" /><img src
="paste-46875273068878.jpg" /></div>
1391032967673 1358629116480 {{c1::Verocay odies}} are a histological featur
e of Schwannomas that involves 2 rows of nuclear odies adjacent to each other.<

8008271.jpg" /></div>
1391033061419 1358629116480 Bilateral acoustic neuromas are characteristic o
f&nsp;{{c1::Neurofiromatosis 2}}.
1391033089534 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Neurofiromat
osis 2?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal dominant}}</div>
1391043146480 1358629116480 Which meningeal layers make up the leptomeninges
}}</div>
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pia and Arachnoid
1391043195466 1358629116480 What is the most common viral cause of meningiti
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coxsackievirus}}</div>
1391043232704 1358629116480 How is Coxsackievirus transmitted?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Fecal-oral transmission}}</div>
1391043244974 1358629116480 What is the classic triad of symptoms seen in me
ningitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Headache, Nuchal Rigidity, Fever}}</div>
1391043273190 1358629116480 {{c1::Photophoia}} may e a significant symptom
of meningitis, typically when the cause is viral.
1391043299127 1358629116480 At which verteral level is a lumar puncture pe
rformed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Between L4 and L5}}</div>
1391044896853 1358629116480 What is the pathogenic form of prions?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::PrPsc; eta-pleated sheet}}</div>
1391045020919 1358629116480 {{c1::Creutzfeldt-Jako Disease (CJD)}} is a spo
ngiform encephalopathy that is acquired sporadically as prions misfold in the r
ain.
1391045065891 1358629116480 {{c1::Variant CJD}} is a type of Creutzfeldt-Jak
o Disease that is associated with exposure to ovine spongiform encephalopathy.
<r /><div><i>aka Mad Cow</i></div>
1391045105137 1358629116480 {{c1::Familial Fatal Insomnia}} is an inherited
prion disease that presents with severe insomnia and exaggerated startle respons
es.
1391045308068 1358629116480 In demyelinating disorders, the&nsp;{{c1::axons
}} are preserved, therey resulting in greatly impaired signal conduction.
1391045368617 1358629116480 {{c1::Metachromatic Leukodystrophy}} is an autos
omal recessive lysosomal storage disorder with a deficiency of Arylsulfatase, th
erey resulting in a uildup of sulfatide and imapired myelination.
1391045405510 1358629116480 Which enzyme is deficient in Metachromatic Leuko
dystrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arylsulfatase A}}</div>
1391045424635 1358629116480 What enzyme is deficient in Krae's Disease?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Galactocererosidase}}</div>
1391045442701 1358629116480 {{c1::Krae's Disease}} is an autosomal recessi
ve leukoencepalopathy characterized y a deficiency of Galactocererosidase, the
rey resulting in a uildup of galactocereroside and psychosine.
<r /><d
iv><i>The metaolites destroy myelin.</i></div>
1391045472777 1358629116480 {{c1::Adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD)}} is an <>X-li
nked</> leukodystrophy that involves an impaired aility to add Coenzyme A to l
ong-chain fatty acids, resulting in uildup at the CNS, adrenal gland and testes
.
<r /><div><i>Watch the movie "Lorenzo's Oil". Sad, ut it's aout ALD.<
/i></div>
sorder due to the autoimmune destruction of CNS myelin and oligodendrocytes.
1391045565721 1358629116480 Which sex is more commonly affected y Multiple
Sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Women}}</div>
1391045578023 1358629116480 Which HLA sutype is associated with Multiple Sc
lerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR2}}</div>
sorder that is far more common in regions away from the equator (temporate clima
tes)
1391045619448 1358629116480 What do the IgG autoantiodies in Multiple Scler
osis target?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::K channels on glial cells}}</div>
1391045664046 1358629116480 Lesion of the&nsp;{{c1::Medial Longitudinal Fas
cicle (MLF)}} in Multiple Sclerosis causes&nsp;{{c2::Internuclear Ophthalmopleg
ia (INO)}}
<r /><div><i>INO a MiLF that can't ADD(uct).</i></div><div><i>R
ememer, the MLF is very highly myelinated such that horizontal gaze is smooth a
nd occurs quickly. Hence, in demyelinating disorders, INO is seen early and ofte
n.</i></div>
sorder that involves <>periventricular&nsp;</>plaques in white matter, typica
lly noticeale via MRI.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-38272453575073.jpg"
/></div>
sorder that involves increased immunogloulins and <>oligoclonal IgG ands</>&
nsp;on a high-res electrophoresis.
1391046121652 1358629116480 What type of ands are seen on a high-res electr
ophoresis in Multiple Sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligoclonal IgG and
s}}</div>
1391046153354 1358629116480 {{c1::Suacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis (SSPE)
}} is a progressive, deilitating encephalitis that occurs due to slow, progress
ive, persistent measles virus infection.
1391046617482 1358629116480 {{c1::Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy
(PLE)}} is a demyelinating leukoencephalopathy due to JC virus infection of oli
godendrocytes.
1391046694142 1358629116480 What is the cause of Suacute Sclerosing Panence
phalitis (SSPE)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Persistent measles virus infection}}
</div>
1391046720936 1358629116480 What is the cause of Progressive Multifocal Leuk
oencephalopathy (PMLE)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::JC virus infection of oligode
ndrocytes}}</div>
1391046756613 1358629116480 {{c1::Central Pontine Myelinosis}} is a demyelin
ating disorder defined as a focal demyelination of the pons due to rapid IV corr
ection of hyponatremia.
1391046791311 1358629116480 What is the cause of Central Pontine Myelinosis?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rapid IV correction of hyponatremia}}</div>
1391046804684 1358629116480 {{c1::Locked In Syndrome (Acute Bilateral Paraly
sis)}} is a classical presention of Central Pontine Myelinosis due to ilateral
lesions to the corticospinal tract
1391046848062 1358629116480 What enzyme mutation is seen in some familial ca
ses of ALS?<div><r />{{c1::Superoxide Dismutase (SOD1) gain of toxic function m
utations}}</div>
1391046968542 1358629116480 Degeneration of the&nsp;{{c1::anterior motor ho
rn}} in ALS leads to the LMN deficits seen.
1391047033925 1358629116480 Degeneration of the&nsp;{{c1::lateral corticosp
inal tract}} in ALS leads to the UMN deficits seen.
1391047049510 1358629116480 How is ALS distinguished from Syringomyelia?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::ALS will not have sensory deficits}}</div>
1391047070812 1358629116480 {{c1::Duchenne's Muscular Dystrophy}} is a muscu
lar dystrophy due to a <>deletion</>&nsp;of the Dystrophin gene.
1391047129185 1358629116480 {{c1::Becker Muscular Dystrophy (BMD)}} is a mus
cular dystrophy that involves a <>mutation </>in Dystrophin.
1391047156722 1358629116480 {{c1::Dermatomyositis}} is an inflammatory dystr
ophy that affects the skin and skeletal muscle.
thy that is thought to e due to an autoimmune reaction against capillaries.
1391047219327 1358629116480 What cancer is commonly associated with Dermatom
yositis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lung cancer}}</div>
1391047235738 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Heliotrope rash}} is a rash of the
upper eyelids seen in Dermatomyositis.
1391047274225 1358629116480 {{c1::Gottron papules}} are red, scalar papules
seen on the elows, knees and knuckles in Dermatomyositis.
1391047299103 1358629116480 Which autoantiodies are associated with Dermato
myositis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ANA and Anti-Jo-1}}</div>
thy that involves <>perimysial inflammation</>&nsp;and <>perifascicular atro

phy</>&nsp;upon iopsy.
1391047363538 1358629116480 {{c1::Polymyositis}} is an inflammatory myopathy
that does not involve the skin and has <>endomysial inflammation</>.
1391048088062 1358629116480 What is the cause of Myasthenia Gravis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Autoantiodies against the postsynaptic ACh receptor at the N
MJ}}</div>
1391048214673 1358629116480 Which sex is more affected y Myasthenia Gravis?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Women}}</div>
1391048234387 1358629116480 {{c1::Myasthenia Gravis}} is an NMJ disorder tha
t <>worsens</>&nsp;with more muscle contractions and improves with rest.
1391048266307 1358629116480 {{c1::Myasthenia Gravis}} is an NMJ disorder tha
t is associated with thymic hyperplasia and thymoma.
1391048286833 1358629116480 {{c1::Lamert Eaton Syndrome}} is an NMJ disorde
r that <>improves</>&nsp;with more muscle contractions.
1391048311426 1358629116480 What is the cause of Lamert Eaton Syndrome?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autoantiodies against presynaptic Ca channels of the NM
J}}</div>
1391048328611 1358629116480 Which cancer is commonly associated with Lamert
-Eaton Syndrome?<div><r />{{c1::Small cell carcinoma of the lung}}</div>
1391048351646 1358629116480 {{c1::Lamert-Eaton Syndrome}} is a NMJ disorder
with impaired ACh release due to autoantiody targeting of Ca channels.
1391907050788 1358629116480 Where are Berry aneurysms commonly located?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior Circle of Willis; Branch points of the Anterior
Communicating Artery}}</div>
1391918970908 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}} is a gram p
ositive <>cocci</>&nsp;that can cause Styes, an infection of the follicle or
glands of the upper eyelid.
1391919043020 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Propioniacterium acnes</i>}} is a gram
positive <>rod</>&nsp;that can cause Styes, an infection of the follicle or
glands of the upper eyelid.
1391919065665 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Trichinella</i>}} is a genus of nematod
e that is contracted from ingestion of undercooked game/pork.
1391919294234 1358629116480 {{c1::Romana's Sign}} is a feature of Chagas Dis
ease where the upper eyelid ecomes swollen.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-31615254266162.jpg" /></div>
1391919560524 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Neonatal Conjun
ctivitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>}}</div>
1391919611047 1358629116480 Neonatal Conjunctivitis caused y&nsp;{{c1::<i>
Neisseria gonorrheae</i>}} is a medical emergency due to the possiility of seve
re ulceration, perforation and severe lindness.<div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-32113470472363.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Must e treated immediatel
y; may also occur with Neisseria meningitidis</i></div>
1391919742732 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of ocular keratiti
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HSV}}</div>
1391919826357 1358629116480 Conjunctivitis due to&nsp;{{c1::HSV}} typically
involves <>periocular vesicles</>, lepharitis and periauricular nodes.
1391919875084 1358629116480 Which serotypes of <i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>&
nsp;are involved with TRIC (Trachoma Inclusion Body Conjunctivitis)?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::D--K}}</div> <r /><div><i>"TRICH comes from D--K"</i></div>
1391920163116 1358629116480 {{c1::Trachoma}} is a <>chronic</>&nsp;conjun
ctivitis caused y <i>Chlaymydia trachomatis.</i>
1391920191671 1358629116480 What is the cause of Trachoma?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Chronic <i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>&nsp;infection}}</div>
1391920207745 1358629116480 Which serotypes of <i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>&
nsp;are involved with Trachoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A, B, Ba, C}}</div>
1391920228881 1358629116480 {{c1::TRIC (Trachoma Inclusion Body Conjunctivit
is)}} is a type of inclusion conjunctivitis caused y <i>Chlamydia trachomatis</
i>&nsp;infection, typically in neworns.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3
2405528248730.jpg" /></div>
1391920308929 1358629116480 Which vector transmits <i>Onchocerca volvulus</i

>&nsp;(River Blindness)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Black Fly}}</div>
1405805530948 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with uveitis?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div>
1405805611052 1395802358422 Which race is associated with Open Angle Glaucom
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::African-American}}</div>
1405813754960 1395802358422 On which chromosome is Presenilin 1 found?<div><
r></div><div>{{c1::14}}</div>
1405814148613 1395802358422 On which chromosome is Presenilin 2 found?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>
1405814158004 1395802358422 On which chromosome is ApoE2 found?<div><r></di
v><div>{{c1::19}}</div>
1405814186366 1395802358422 Which demyelinating disorder is aka Acute Inflam
matory Demyelinating Polyradiculopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Guillain-Barr
Syndrome}}</div>
1405814346266 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antody increases the risk of P
rogressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Natalizuma
}}</div>
1405814408302 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Disseminated Postinfectious Encephal
omyelitis}} is a demyelinating disorder that involves <>multifocal perivenular
inflammation</>&nsp;and <>demyelination</>&nsp;after an infection or vaccin
ation.
1405814461843 1395802358422 Which viral infections are associated with&nsp;
Acute Disseminated Postinfectious Encephalomyelitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Measles; VZV}}</div>
1405814478239 1395802358422 Which vaccines are associated with&nsp;Acute Di
sseminated Postinfectious Encephalomyelitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Raies;
Smallpox}}</div>
1405814489241 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Metachromatic
Leukodystrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1405814517507 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Krae Diseas
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AR}}</div>
1405814630989 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Adrenoleukody
strophy (ALD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1405814740082 1395802358422 Which type of seizures <>affect 1 area of the
rain</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Focal/Partial}}</div>
1405815339625 1395802358422 Which loe is the most common origination of Foc
al/Partial Seizures?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medial temporal loe}}</div>
1405815359966 1395802358422 Which type of seizure is often preceded y a <>
seizure aura</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Focal/Partial Seizure}}</div>
1405815381289 1395802358422 {{c1::Secondarily Generalized seizure}} is a typ
e of <>partial seizure</>&nsp;that secondarily generalizes after/if it crosse
s the midline.
1405815414847 1395802358422 {{c1::Simple Partial seizure}} is a type of part
ial seizure that involves <>intact consciousness</>&nsp;and typically present
s with <u>motor, sensory, autonomic, psychic</u>&nsp;manifestations.
1405815455171 1395802358422 {{c1::Complex Partial Seizure}} is a type of par
tial seizure that involves <>impaired consciousness</>.
1405815474535 1395802358422 Which type of partial seizure involves <>impair
ed</>&nsp;consciousness?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Complex partial}}</div>
1405815487812 1395802358422 Which type of partial seizure involves <>intact
consciousness</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Simple}}</div>
1405815499756 1395802358422 Which type of seizure <>is diffuse</>&nsp;and
involves multiple rain areas?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Generalized seizures}
}</div>
1405815526266 1395802358422 Which type of generalized seizure presents with
<>a lank stare, 3 Hz rain waves</>&nsp;and <>no postictal confusion</>?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Asence seizure (Petit Mal)}}</div>
1405815809640 1395802358422 Which type of generalized seizure is aka Petit M
al?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Asence seizure}}</div>

<>quick, repetitive jerks</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myoclonic Seizure}}</
div>
<>alternating stiffening and movement</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tonic-Clo
nic (Grand Mal)}}</div>
1405815862666 1395802358422 Which type of generalized seizure is aka Grand M
al?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tonic-clonic seizure}}</div>
<>stiffening</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tonic seizure}}</div>
1405815888141 1395802358422 Which type of generalized seizure presents as a
<>"drop" seizure</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atonic seizure}}</div>
1405815909465 1395802358422 Which type of generalized seizure is commonly mi
staken for fainting?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atonic seizure}}</div>
1405815925540 1395802358422 {{c1::Epilepsy}} is a neurological disorder that
involves <>recurrent seizures</>.
<r /><div><i>This does not include fer
ile seizures.</i></div>
1405816107464 1395802358422 {{c1::Status Epilepticus}} is a neurological dis
order that presents with <>continuous seizure for > 30 minutes</>&nsp;<u s
tyle="font-weight: old; ">or</u>&nsp;<>recurrent seizures without regaining c
onsciousness etween them for > 30 min</>. <r /><div><i>Medical emergency.
</i></div>
1405816152928 1395802358422 What is the duration of Cluster headaches?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::15 min - 3 hrs}}</div>
1405816450749 1395802358422 {{c1::Cluster Headache}} is a type of headache t
hat presents with <>excruciating periorital pain with lacrimation and rhinorrh
ea</>. <r /><div><i>Supposedly this is some of the worst pain you can have.</i
></div>
1405816517396 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y Cluster H
eadaches?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Males}}</div>
1405816557604 1395802358422 What is the treatment for cluster headaches?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhaled O<su>2</su>&nsp;and Sumatriptan}}</div>
1405816574863 1395802358422 What is the duration of tension headaches?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::> 30 min (typically 4-6 hrs)}}</div>
1405816596789 1395802358422 What is the only type of headache that presents
<>ilaterally</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tension headache}}</div>
1405816609663 1395802358422 {{c1::Tension headache}} is a type of headache t
hat presents with steady pain <>with no aura, no photophoia and no phonophoia
</>.
1405816652567 1395802358422 What is the treatment for chronic tension headac
he?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amitriptyline}}</div>
1405816667058 1395802358422 What is the treatment for tension headache?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::OTC analgesics (acetaminophen, NSAIDs)}}</div>
1405816685630 1395802358422 What is the duration of migraines?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::4-72 hrs}}</div>
1405816698647 1395802358422 {{c1::Migraine}} is a type of headache that pres
ents with <>pulsating pain nausea, photophoia or phonophoia</>.
<r /><d
iv><i>Due to irritation of CN V, meninges, lood vessels.</i></div><div><i><img
src="paste-43392054591610.jpg" /></i></div>
1405816732947 1395802358422 Which type of headache is associated with <>aur
as</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Migraine}}</div>
1405816765670 1395802358422 Which type of headache involves the release of <
>Sutance P, CGRP</>&nsp;and <>vasoactive peptides</>?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Migraine}}</div>
1405816893822 1395802358422 Which type of CNS hemorrhage yields the <>"wors
t headache of life</>"?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suarachoid Hemorrhage}}</di
v>
1405817107082 1395802358422 How is cluster headaches differentiated from tri
geminal neuralgia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Duration}}</div> <r /><div><i>Tr
igeminal neuralgia is in the distriution of CN V and lasts < 1min.</i></div>
<div><i>Cluster headaches typically last > 15 min.</i></div>

1405821054674 1395802358422 {{c1::Vertigo}} is a neurological disorder that
is descried as a <>sensation of spinning while actually stationary</>.
1405821331369 1395802358422 {{c1::Peripheral Vertigo}} is a type of vertigo
that involves damage to the <>inner ear</>.
1405821350603 1395802358422 What is the most common type of vertigo?<div><r
></div><div>{{c1::Peripheral}}</div>
1405821362356 1395802358422 Which type of vertigo involves <>rain stem or
cereellar lesions</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Central vertigo}}</div>
1405821397321 1395802358422 {{c1::Peripheral Vertigo}} is a type of vertigo
that yields <u style="font-weight: old; ">delayed</u>&nsp;horizontal nystagmus
following positional testing.
1405821425699 1395802358422 {{c1::Central Vertigo}} is a type of vertigo tha
t involves <u style="font-weight: old; ">immediate</u>&nsp;nystagmus in any di
rection following positional testing.
1405822470539 1395802358422 Which activating gene mutation is seen in Sturge
-Weer Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>GNAQ</i>}}</div>
1405822693077 1395802358422 {{c1::Tuerous Sclerosis}} is a neurocutaneous d
isorder that involves <>hamartoma formation</>&nsp;in the CNS and skin.
1405822881079 1395802358422 Which cardiac valvular disorder is seen in Tuer
ous Sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral regurgitation}}</div> <r /><d
1405822898581 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Tuerous Scle
rosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-45621142618277.jpg" /></div>
1405822918636 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemangiolastoma}} is a CNS tumour most of
ten found in the <>cereellum</>&nsp;that is associated with <>von Hippel-Li
ndau syndrome</>&nsp;when found with retinal angiomas.<div><r /></div><div><i
1405823262505 1395802358422 Which primary adult rain tumour can produce ery
thropoietin, therey causing secondary polycythemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Hemangiolastoma}}</div>
1405823299517 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemangiolastoma}} is a primary CNS adult
tumour that involves <>closely arranged, thin-walled capillaries with minimal i
nterleaving parenchyma</>.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-46724949213512.jp
g" /></div>
1405823364613 1395802358422 {{c1::Oligodendroglioma}} is a primary CNS adult
tumour of oligodendrocytes that presents with <>"fried-egg" cells</>&nsp;wit
h round nuclei and clear cytoplasm.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4711579
1237456.jpg" /></div>
1381617255451 1358629116480 What are the 2 complement components that functi
on as anaphylatoxins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5a and C3a}}</div>
1381618976724 1358629116480 {{c1::Mellitin}} is a toxin present in ee venom
that is ale to trigger Type I Hypersensitivity reactions.
1381619007700 1358629116480 {{c1::Pemphigus Vulgaris}} is a Type II Hypersen
sitivity disorder where the epithelium unzips and antiodies target the&nsp;{{c
2::desmoglein}} protein in desmosomes, therey forming listers.
1381621091627 1358629116480 ANCA Associated Vasculitis involves the activati
on of&nsp;{{c1::neutrophils}} y auto-antiodies leading to inflammation of the
lood vessel wall.
1381622003980 1358629116480 {{c1::Myasthenia Gravis}} is a Type II hypersens
itivity disorder where auto-antiodies target ACh Receptors, therey locking th
em or triggering their destruction.
1381622160841 1358629116480 {{c1::Type I}} Hypersensitivity involves IgE and
mast cell-mediated lieration of Histamine causing local and systemic anaphylax
is.
<r /><div><i>Type I = A for Allergy, Anaphylaxis and Asthma</i></div>
1381623711483 1358629116480 {{c1::Type II}} Hypersensitivity involves the i
nding of antiodies to cell surface antigens causing damage through classical co
mplement activation or cell cytotoxicity.
1381623765341 1358629116480 {{c1::Type II}} Hypersensitivity involves the i

nding of antiodies to cell surface surface receptors causing stimulation, lock
age or destruction of that receptor.
1381623824714 1358629116480 {{c1::Type III}} Hypersensitivity involves local
or circulating antiody-antigen complexes that cause damage y getting trapped
in tissues and activating complement proteins.
1381623870032 1358629116480 {{c1::Type IV}} Hypersensitivity involves the ac
tivation of T cells resulting in CD4+ mediated macrophage recruitment or CD8+ me
diated cytotoxicity.
1381623954708 1358629116480 What ANAs are indicative of Systemic Lupus Eryth
ematosus (SLE)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-dsDNA or nonspecific ANA}}</div>
1381626724903 1358629116480 What ANA is indicative of Drug-induced Lupus Ery
thematosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-histone}}</div>
1381626763463 1358629116480 What ANA is indicative of <>diffuse&nsp;</>Sy
stemic&nsp;Scleroderma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Scl-70}}</div>
1381627054060 1358629116480 What ANA is indicative of <>limited </>Systemi
c&nsp;Scleroderma (i.e. CREST Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-centro
mere}}</div>
1381627075578 1358629116480 What ANAs are indicative of Sjogren's Syndrome?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::SS-A/Ro and SS-B/La}}</div>
1381627111555 1358629116480 What is a Malar Butterfly Rash a common clinical
feature of?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Systemic Lupus Erythematosus}}</div>
1381627386489 1358629116480 {{c1::Liman-Sacks}} Endocarditis is an aseptic/
sterile form of endocarditis characterized y small deposits on <>oth</>&nsp
;sides of the {{c2::mitral}} valve.
1381628108416 1358629116480 Antiphospholipid Antiody Syndrome (APS) typical
ly involves which 2 autoantiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anticardiolipin a
nd Lupus Anticoagulant}}</div> <r /><div><i>ielding a false positive syphilis
test and a false elevated PTT respectively.</i></div>
1381628704524 1358629116480 {{c1::Raynaud's}} Phenomenon is characterized y
an excessively reduced lood flow in response to cold or emotional stress, ther
ey causing discoloration of the fingers, toes or other areas.
1381635094021 1358629116480 {{c1::Sjogren's Syndrome}} is an autoimmune diso
rders characterized y the T cell mediated destruction of the lacrimal and saliv
ary glands.
1381635159376 1358629116480 {{c1::Scleroderma}} is an autoimmune disorder ch
aracterized y the activation of firolasts and deposition of collagen.
1404151930975 1395802358422 {{c1::Inflammation}} is a pathological process t
hat involves the allowance of inflammatory cells, plasma proteins and fluid to e
xit lood vessels and enter the interstitium.
1404152054817 1395802358422 Which type of inflammation is characterized y t
he presence of <>edema</>&nsp;and <>neutrophils</>&nsp;in tissue?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Acute}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4788888535
373.jpg" /></div>
1404153262540 1395802358422 Which type of inflammation arises in response to
tissue necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute inflammation}}</div>
1404153444296 1395802358422 Which type of inflammation is an immediate respo
nse and part of the <>innate immunity</>&nsp;(i.e. limited specificity)?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute inflammation}}</div>
1404153488782 1395802358422 Which cell surface protein on macrophages recogn
izes LPS on the outer memrane of gram-negative acteria?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::CD14 (co-receptor for TLR4)}}</div>
1404154057160 1395802358422 Which TLR on macrophages recognizes LPS on the o
uter memrane of gram-negative acteria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TLR4 (alongs
ide CD14)}}</div>
1404154086432 1395802358422 {{c1::NF-kB}} is a nuclear transcription factor
that is upregulated y TLR activation and susequently activated immune respose
genes.
1404154145359 1395802358422 Which enzyme releases Arachidonic Acid from the
phospholipid cell memrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Phospholipase A<su>2</su
>}}</div>
1404154195657 1395802358422 Which enzyme converts Arachidonic Acid into Pros
taglandins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclooxygenase (COX)}}</div>
1404154215458 1395802358422 Which prostaglandin is known to mediate pain and
fever?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PGE<su>2</su>}}</div>
1404154243928 1395802358422 {{c1::PGI<su>2</su>}},&nsp;{{c2::PGD<su>2</s
u>}} and&nsp;{{c3::PGE<su>2</su>}} are prostaglandins that mediate vasodilat
ion and increased vascular permeaility.
<r /><div><i>The vasodilation o
ccurs at <>arterioles.</></i></div><div><i>The increased vascular permeaility
occurs at <>post capillary venules</>.</i></div>
1404154306282 1395802358422 Which enzymes converts Arachidonic Acid into Leu
kotrienes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5-Lipoxygenase}}</div>
1404154335290 1395802358422 Which Leukotriene functions to attract and activ
ate neutrophils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LTB<su>4</su>}}</div>
1404154370362 1395802358422 {{c1::LTC<su>4</su>}},&nsp;{{c2::LTD<su>4</s
u>}} and&nsp;{{c3::LTE<su>4</su>}} are leukotrienes that mediate <>vasocons
triction</>, <>ronchospasm</>&nsp;and <>increased vascular permeaility</
>.
<r /><div><i>This is done through the smooth muscle contraction of:</i>
</div><div><i>- Arteriolar smooth muscle (vasoconstriction)</i></div><div><i>- B
ronchiolar smooth muscle (ronchioconstriction)</i></div><div><i>- Pericytes (in
creased vascular permeaility)</i></div>
1404154476820 1395802358422 Which complement proteins are known to activate
Mast Cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3a; C5a}}</div>
1404154504498 1395802358422 Which sustance released from Mast Cell granules
mediates the <>immediate response</>&nsp;of mast cell degranulation?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Histamine}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, vasodilation is
at arterioles and vascular permeaility increases at post-capillary venules.</i>
</div>
1404154584886 1395802358422 Which arachidonic acid metaolite mediates the <
>delayed response</>&nsp;of mast cell degranulation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Leukotrienes}}</div>
1404154621946 1395802358422 Which complement pathway is activated y C1 ind
ing to IgG or IgM ound to antigen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Classical}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"GM makes classic cars."</i></div>
1404154992356 1395802358422 Which complement pathway is activated y microi
al products directly?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alternative}}</div>
1404155007879 1395802358422 Which complement pathway is activated y Mannose
-inding Lectin (MBL) inding to mannose on microorganisms?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Mannose-inding lectin pathway}}</div>
1404155061351 1395802358422 Which complement proteins are referred to as ana
phylatoxins?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3a; C5a}}</div>
1404155092547 1395802358422 {{c1::C3a}} and&nsp;{{c2::C5a}} are complement
proteins that act as anaphylatoxins, therey triggering mast cell degranulation
and histamine release.
1404155124220 1395802358422 Which complement protein is chemotactic for neut
rophils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5a}}</div>
1404155134613 1395802358422 Which complement protein is an opsonin for neutr
ophils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3}}</div>
1404155145551 1395802358422 Which complement protein complex lyses microes
y creating a hole in the cell memrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MAC}}</div>
1404155170156 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is referred to as Hagem
an Factor?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Factor XII}}</div>
1404155194912 1395802358422 {{c1::Kallikrein}} is an enzyme that cleaves hig
h-molecular weight kininogen (HMWK) to Bradykinin.
1404155233002 1395802358422 {{c1::Bradykinin}} is a reakdown product of hig
h-molecular weight kininogen that mediates vasodilation and icnreased vascular p
ermeaility as well as pain.
1404161286124 1395802358422 {{c1::Redness (ruor)}} and&nsp;{{c2::warmth (c
alor)}} are 2 cardinal signs of inflammation that arise due to vasodilation.
<r /><div><i>Via relaxation of arteriolar smooth muscle.</i></div><div><i>Key m
ediators are histamine, prostaglandins and radykinin.</i></div>

1404161378472 1395802358422 {{c1::Swelling (tumour)}} is a cardinal sign of
inflammation that arises due to leakage of fluid from postcapillary venules into
the interstitial space (exudate).
<r /><div><i>Key mediators are histamin
e (which causes endothelial cell contraction) and tissue damage which results in
endothelial cell disruption.</i></div>
1404161579549 1395802358422 {{c1::Pain (dolor)}} is a cardinal sign of infla
mmation that is mediated y Bradykinin and PGE<su>2</su>&nsp;action sensitizi
ng sensory nerve endings.
1404161619890 1395802358422 {{c1::Fever}} is a cardinal sign of inflammation
that results from <>IL-1</>&nsp;and <>TNF</>&nsp;release from activated M
acrophages.
1404162502774 1395802358422 Which cytokines released from macrophages in res
ponse to pyrogens increase cyclooxygenase activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::I
L-1; TNF}}</div>
1404162534601 1395802358422 {{c1::IL-1}} and&nsp;{{c2::TNF}} are 2 cytokine
s released from macrophages following pyrogen activation that results in increas
ed cyclooxygenase activity in the <>perivascular cells of the hypothalamus</>.
<r /><div><i>The susequent increase in PGE<su>2</su>&nsp;results in fever.<
/i></div>
1404162731893 1395802358422 {{c1::Selectins}} are cell surface proteins upre
gulated on endothelium in Neutrophil margination that act as <>"speed umps</>
".
1404164280118 1395802358422 Which Selectin protein is released from Weiel-P
alade odies in Endothelium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::P-selectin}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>W</>eiel-<>P</>alade odies = v<>W</>F & and <>P</>
-Selectin</i></div>
1404164408771 1395802358422 Which inflammatory mediator trigger P-selectin u
pregulation from Weiel-Palade odies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Histamine}}</d
iv>
1404164448782 1395802358422 Which Selectin protein in endothelium is induced
y TNF and IL-1?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::E-selectin}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-9547712299709.jpg" /></div>
1404164595983 1395802358422 Which inflammatory cytokines induce E-Selectin e
xpression in endothelium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TNF; IL-1}}</div>
1404164779348 1395802358422 Which cell surface protein on leukocytes inds t
o selectins on endothelium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sialyl Lewis X}}</div>
1404164864652 1395802358422 Which <>adhesion</>&nsp;molecules are upregul
ated on endothelium in inflammation y IL-1 and TNF?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
ICAM; VCAM}}</div>
1404164898523 1395802358422 Which inflammatory cytokines upregulate ICAM and
VCAM adhesion molecules on endothelium in inflammation?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::IL-1; TNF}}</div>
1404164936689 1395802358422 {{c1::ICAM}} and&nsp;{{c2::VCAM}} are adhesion
molecules that are upregulated on endothelium during neutrophil adhesion.
<r /><div><i>Induced y IL-1 and TNF.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-95434173
32413.jpg" /></i></div>
1404165097789 1395802358422 What surface proteins on leukocytes inds to <>
ICAM/VCAM</>&nsp;on endothelium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Integrins (LFA-1)}
1404165260296 1395802358422 Which inflammatory mediators upregulate Integrin
(LFA-1) expression on adhering leukocytes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5a; LTB<
su>4</su>}}</div>
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9543417332413.jpg"
/></div>
1404165431966 1395802358422 {{c1::Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency}} is an auto
somal recessive immunological disorder that involves a defect in the CD18 suuni
t of leukocyte integrins.
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>delayed separatio
n of the umilical cord</>, <>increased circulating neutrophils</>&nsp;and <
>recurrent acterial infections without pus formation</>.</i></div>
1404166243047 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Leukocyte Adh

esion Deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive}}</div>
1404166793993 1395802358422 What are the 4 major chemoattractants for Neutro
phils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5a; IL-8; LTB<su>4</su>; Kinin}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"<>CILK</>"</i></div><div><i>- C5a</i></div><div><i>- IL-8</i></
div><div><i>- LTB<su>4</su></i></div><div><i>- Kinin</i></div>
1404166892602 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin isotype functions as an ops
onin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgG}}</div>
1404166914184 1395802358422 Which complement protein functions as an opsonin
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3}}</div>
1404166922848 1395802358422 {{c1::Chediak-Higashi Syndrome}} is an autsomal
recessive protein trafficking defect characterized y an impairment in forming p
hagolysosomes.
1404167046624 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Chediak-Higas
hi Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive}}</div>
1404167068265 1395802358422 {{c1::Neutropenia}} is a feature of Chediak-Higa
shi Syndrome that presents due intramedullary death of neutrophils.
1404167211427 1395802358422 {{c1::Chediak-Higashi Syndrome}} is a protein tr
afficking disorder that presents with <>giant granules in leukocytes</>&nsp;d
ue to fusion of granules arising from the Golgi apparatus.
1404167273654 1395802358422 {{c1::Alinism}} is a cutaneous complication of
Chediak-Higashi Syndrome that results from defective transport of Melanin from m
elanocytes to keratinocytes.
1404167507356 1395802358422 {{c1::Peripheral neuropathy}} is a neurological
complication of Chediak-Higashi Syndrome due to defective protein trafficking ca
using atrophy of nerve terminals.
1404174237556 1395802358422 Which enzyme in phagocytes converts O2 into supe
roxide?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NADPH Oxidase}}</div>
1404174930116 1395802358422 Which enzyme in phagocytes converts superoxide r
adicals into H2O2?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superoxide dismutase (SOD)}}</div>
1404174956236 1395802358422 Which enzyme in phagocytes converts H2O2 into HO
Cl (leach)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myeloperoxidase}}</div>
1404174979519 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Granulomatous Disease}} is an immu
nological disorder that is characterized y poor O2-dependent killing due to an
NADPH Oxidase deficiency.
<r /><div><i>Presents with recurrent infection
and granuloma formation y catalase positive organisms.</i></div>
1404175112284 1395802358422 What is a <>colourless</>&nsp;nitrolue tetra
zolium (NBT) test indicative of?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NADPH Oxidase defect
}}</div>
1404175154560 1395802358422 {{c1::Myeloperoxidase Deficiency}} is a disorder
of the oxidative urst pathway that presents with the inaility to make HOCl fr
om H2O2.
<r /><div><i>Mostly asymptomatic, ut more Candida infections c
an occur.</i></div>
1404175216629 1395802358422 Which type of infection has an increased risk of
manifesting in patients with Myeloperoxidase Deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::<i>Candida</i>}}</div>
1404175244873 1395802358422 What nitrolue tetrazolium (NBT) test result is
seen in Myeloperoxidase Deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal}}</div>
<r /><div><i>NBT gauges NADPH Oxidase actino (formation of Superoxide radicals)
.</i></div>
1404175718993 1395802358422 How long after inflammation do neutrophils under
go apoptosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Within 24 hrs}}</div> <r /><div><i>Th
is apoptosis of neutrophils is how pus is made.</i></div>
1404175836145 1395802358422 {{c1::Lysozyme}} is an antimicroial enzyme foun
d in the secondary granules of macrophages that function to kill phagocytosed pa
thogens in an O2-independent manner.
1404175878811 1395802358422 {{c1::Major asic protein}} is an antimicroial
enzyme in the secondary granules of Eosinophils that functions to kill pathogens
in an O2-independent manner
1404175913804 1395802358422 How long after inflammation egins do <>macroph
ages</>&nsp;predominate in the tissue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Peak after 2

-3 days}}</div>
1404175956525 1395802358422 Which 2 anti-inflammatory cytokines are released
y macrophages in the <>resolution</>&nsp;and <>healing</>&nsp;phase of i
nflammation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-10; TGF-eta}}</div> <r /><div><i>Re
memer, IL-1 and TNF are the pro-inflammatory cytokines.</i></div>
1404176259030 1395802358422 Which cytokine released y macrophages recruits
additional neutrophils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-8}}</div> <r /><div><i>Th
is is typically seen at the end of acute inflammation to ensure that there is co
ntinued acute inflammation.</i></div>
1404176851463 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic inflammation}} is a type of inflam
mation that can follow acute inflammation as macrophages present antigen to acti
vate CD4+ helper T cells which secrete cytokines to promote the phenomenon.
1404176936799 1395802358422 Which type of inflammation is characterized y t
he presence of <>lymphocytes</>&nsp;and <>plasma cells</>&nsp;in tissue?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer,&nsp;<>
acute = neutrophils</></i></div>
1404176977488 1395802358422 Which type of inflammation presents as a delayed
response ut with more specificity as part of adaptive immunity?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Chronic inflammation}}</div>
1404177479458 1395802358422 What is the most common stimulus for chronic inf
lammation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Persistent infection}}</div>
1404177511029 1395802358422 Where do T cells mature?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Thymus}}</div>
1404178004538 1395802358422 What is the second activation signal in the acti
vation of CD4+ helper T cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::B7 on APCs to CD28 on
CD4+ T cells}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"7 x 4 = 28"</i></div>
1404178096140 1395802358422 {{c1::IFN-gamma}} is a cytokine secreted y <>T
h1</>&nsp;cells that <>activates macrophages</>, <>promotes B-cell class sw
itching</>&nsp;from IgM to IgG and inhiis th2 cells.
1404178201643 1395802358422 {{c1::IL-4}} is a cytokine secreted y <>Th2</
>&nsp;cells that facilitates <>B-cell class switching to IgE</>.
>&nsp;cells that promotes <>eosinophil chemotaxis and activation</>.
>&nsp;cells that promotes <>B-cell class switching to IgA</>.
1404178302919 1395802358422 Which cytokine from Th2 cells promotes B-cell cl
ass switching to IgE?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-4 (and IL-13)}}</div>
1404178339684 1395802358422 Which cytokine from Th2 cells facilitates B-cell
class switching to IgA?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-5}}</div>
1404178360353 1395802358422 {{c1::IL-10}} is a cytokine secreted y Th2 cell
s that inhiits the Th1 phenotype.
<r /><div><i>i.e. it is anti-inflammato
ry.</i></div>
vation of <>CD8+ T cells</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-2 from Th1 cells}}<
/div>
1404178539109 1395802358422 {{c1::Perforin}} is an enzyme expressed y CD8+
T cells that creates pores in target cells.
1404178559595 1395802358422 {{c1::Granzyme}} is an enzyme made y CD8+ T cel
ls that enters target cells and triggers apoptosis.
1404178577655 1395802358422 {{c1::FasL}} is a cell surface protein expressed
y CD8+ T cells that inds to Fas on target cells and causes apoptosis.
1404178601909 1395802358422 Which immunogloulin isotypes are expressed y n
aive B-cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgM; IgD}}</div>
vation of B-cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD40L on CD4+ T cell to CD40R on B
cells}}</div> <r /><div><i>The helper T cell then secretes cytokines that med
iate B-cell isotype switching, hypermutation and maturation.</i></div><div><i>IL-4 = switch to IgE</i></div><div><i>- IL-5 = switch to IgA</i></div><div><i>IFN-gamma = switch to IgG</i></div>
1404179064494 1395802358422 {{c1::Granulomatous inflammation}} is a sutype

of chronic inflammation that is characterized y <>granulomas</>&nsp;surround
ed y giant cells and lymphocytes.
<r /><div><i>A <>granuloma</>&nsp;=
collection of epithelioid histiocytes (macrophages with aundant pink cytoplasm)
.</i></div>
1404179736031 1395802358422 {{c1::Noncaseating granulomatous inflammation}}
is a type of granulomatous inflammation that <>lacks central necrosis</>.<div>
1404179938764 1395802358422 Which type of granulomatous inflammation is asso
ciated with <>Sarcoidosis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Noncaseating}}</div>
ciated with Beryllium exposure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Noncaseating}}</div>
ciated with Crohn Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Noncaseating}}</div>
ciated with <>cat-scratch disease</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Noncaseating}
1404180004041 1395802358422 Which type of granulomatous inflammation <>lack
s central necrosis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Noncaseating}}</div> <r /><d
1404180087111 1395802358422 Which type of granulomatous inflammation <>exhi
its central necrosis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caseating}}</div> <r /><d
ciated with <>tuerculosis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caseating}}</div>
ciated with <>fungal infections</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caseating}}</di
v>
1404180126450 1395802358422 {{c1::Cat-scratch disease}} is a acterial infec
tion that is characterized y <>stellate-shaped, noncaseating granulomatous inf
lammation</>.
1404180325793 1395802358422 Which cytokine from macrophages induces helper C
D4+ T cells to differentiate into Th1 cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IL-12}}<
/div> <r /><div><div><i>Steps in the formation of granulomas:</i></div><div><
i>1. Macrophage finds, processes and presents antigen to CD4+ T-cells via MHC II
</i></div><div><i>2. Binding triggers&nsp;<>IL-12</>&nsp;release from the ma
crophage.</i></div><div><i>3. CD4+ T cells ecome the&nsp;<>Th1&nsp;</>suty
pe.</i></div><div><i>4. Th1 cells secrete&nsp;<>IFN-gamma</>&nsp;which conve
rts macrophages into epithelioid histiocytes and giant cells.</i></div></div>
1404180488842 1395802358422 Which cytokine from Th1 cells converts macrophag
es into epithelioid histiocytes and giant cells (i.e. forms granulomas)?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::IFN-gamma}}</div> <r /><div><i>Steps in the formation of
granulomas:</i></div><div><i>1. Macrophage finds, processes and presents antigen
to CD4+ T-cells via MHC II</i></div><div><i>2. Binding triggers <>IL-12</>&n
sp;release from the macrophage.</i></div><div><i>3. CD4+ T cells ecome the <>T
h1 </>sutype.</i></div><div><i>4. Th1 cells secrete <>IFN-gamma</>&nsp;whic
h converts macrophages into epithelioid histiocytes and giant cells.</i></div>
1404180633484 1395802358422 {{c1::DiGeorge Syndrome}} is a primary immunodef
iciency that involves developmental failure of the 3rd and 4th pharyngeal pouche
s.
1404182076931 1395802358422 What is the etiology of DiGeorge Syndrome?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::22q11 chromosomal deletion}}</div>
1404182093421 1395802358422 {{c1::DiGeorge Syndrome}} is a&nsp;primary immu
nodeficiency that presents with <>T-cell deficiency</>&nsp;and <>hypocalcemi
a</>&nsp;due to thymic and parathyroid aplasia respectively.
1404182137644 1395802358422 {{c1::Severe Comined Immunodeficiency (SCID)}}
is a&nsp;primary immunodeficiency that can develop from <>cytokine receptor de

fects.</>
is a&nsp;primary immunodeficiency that can develop from <>Adenosine Deaminase
(ADA) deficiency</>. <r /><div><i>ADA is necessary to deaminate adenosine an
d deoxyadenosine; uildup of oth of them is toxic to lymphocytes.</i></div>
is a&nsp;primary immunodeficiency that can develop from an <>MHC II deficiency
</>&nsp;as MHC II is required for CD4+ helper T cell activation and cytokine p
roduction.
is a&nsp;primary immunodeficiency that can e treated y <>sterile isolation</
>&nsp;("ule ay").
1404182332349 1395802358422 {{c1::X-linked (Bruton) Agammagloulinemia}} is
a&nsp;primary immunodeficiency that involves a complete lack of immunogloulin
due to disordered B-cell maturation as a result of a <i style="font-weight: old
; ">BTK</i>&nsp;mutation.
1404182384469 1395802358422 What is the etiology of X-linked (Bruton) Agamma
gloulinemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mutation in <i>BTK</i>, Bruton tyrosine
kinase}}</div>
1404182424139 1395802358422 {{c1::X-linked (Bruton) Agammagloulinemia}} is
a&nsp;primary immunodeficiency that presents after 6 months of life with recurr
ent acterial, enterovirus and <i>Giardia lamlia</i>&nsp;infections.
1404182470188 1395802358422 {{c1::Bacterial}},&nsp;{{c2::enterovirus}} and&
nsp;{{c3::<i>Giardia lamlia</i>}} infections are 3 hallmark infections of gene
ralised immunogloulin deficiency.
1404182514449 1395802358422 What is the most common immunogloulin deficienc
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgA}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Seen in many celia
c patients.</i></div>
1404182547807 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyper IgM Syndrome}} is a&nsp;primary imm
unodeficiency that presents with elevated IgM due to <>mutated CD40L </>on hel
per T cells or <>CD40</>&nsp;on B cells.
<r /><div><i>Hence, <>there is
no secondary signal for B cell activation</>. If there is no B cell activation
, cytokines needed for B cell class switching (IL-4; IL-5) are not produced. The
result is an elevation of IgM (which is the default class) and a significant la
ck of IgA, IgE and IgG.</i></div>
1404182900584 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Hyper IgM Syndrome?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Mutation in CD40L on helper T cells or CD40 on B cells}}<
/div>
1404182998858 1395802358422 {{c1::Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome}} is a&nsp;prima
ry immunodeficiency that presents with thromocytopenia, eczema and recurrent in
fections due to a mutation in WASP.
1404183137353 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::WASP mutation}}</div>
1404183147500 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Wiskott-Aldri
ch Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
1404183158836 1395802358422 Which complement deficiency is associated with i
ncreased risk for <i>Neisseria</i>&nsp;infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5
-C9}}</div>
1404183201081 1395802358422 Which complement deficiency results in Hereditar
y Angioedema?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C1 inhiitor deficiency}}</div><div><r
<r /><div><i>Ty
pically presents perioritally and at mucosal surfaces.</i></div>
1404183254737 1395802358422 {{c1::Autoimmune Polyendocrine Syndrome}} is an
autoimmune disorder caused y a mutation in <i>AIRE</i>, a transcription factor
in medullary epithelial cells that is involved with the expression of self-antig
ens.
<r /><div><i>A mutation in AIRE allows for self-reactive lymphoytes to
mature.</i></div>
1404183638161 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Autoimmune Polyendocrine
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>AIRE</i>&nsp;mutation}}</div>
1404183655133 1395802358422 {{c1::Autoimmune Polyendocrine Syndrome}} is an

autoimmune disorder due to a mutation in <i>AIRE</i>&nsp;that presents with a t
riad of <>hypoparathyroidism, adrenal failure, </>and <>chronic candida infec
tion</>&nsp;of the skin or oral mucosa.
1404183728145 1395802358422 Which lymphocytes are primarily affected in Auto
immune Polyendocrine Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T cells}}</div>
1404183756706 1395802358422 {{c1::Autoimmune Lymphoproliferative Syndrome (A
LPS)}} is an autoimmune disorder that results from a mutation in the FAS (CD95)
apoptotic pathway.
<r /><div><i>The mutation can either e in FAS, FASL or
Caspase10</i></div>
LPS)}} is an autoimmune disorder that results from a mutation in the Fas apoptot
ic pathway and involves an <>inaility to induce anergy at the periphery</>.
<r /><div><i>i.e. peripheral tolerance is defective. This affects oth T and B
cells.</i></div>
1404184176174 1395802358422 Which type of lymphocyte is affected in&nsp;Aut
oimmune Lymphoproliferative Syndrome (ALPS)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T and B
cells}}</div>
LPS)}} is an autoimmune disorder that results in <>lymphoproliferation</>&nsp
;due to impaired destruction of self-reactive B-cells as a result of a defect in
the Fas apoptotic pathway.
1404184590720 1395802358422 Polymorphisms in which cell surface protein on r
egulatory T cells are associated with autoimmunity (e.g. MS and T1DM)?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::CD25}}</div>
1404184638672 1395802358422 {{c1::IPEX Syndrome}} is an autoimmune disorder
that results from a mutation in <i>FOXP3</i>. <r /><div><i>IPEX = <>I</>mmu
ne dysregulation, <>P</>olyendocrinopathy, <>E</>nteropathy, <>X</>-linked
</i></div>
1404184694079 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of IPEX Syndrome
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::XLR}}</div>
<r /><div><i>IPEX =&nsp;<>I</
>mmune dysregulation,&nsp;<>P</>olyendocrinopathy,&nsp;<>E</>nteropathy,&
nsp;<>X</>-linked</i></div>
1404184702856 1395802358422 {{c1::IPEX syndrome}} is an autoimmune disorder
due to a <i>FOXP3</i>&nsp;mutation that presents with <>immune dysregulation,
polyendocrinopathy</>&nsp;and <>enteropathy</>.
<r /><div><i>IPEX =&ns
p;<>I</>mmune dysregulation,&nsp;<>P</>olyendocrinopathy,&nsp;<>E</>nter
opathy,&nsp;<>X</>-linked</i></div>
1404184746898 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y autoimmun
e disorders?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Women}}</div> <r /><div><i>Especially
those of childearing age.</i></div><div><i><u>Estrogen seems to decrease the a
poptosis of self-reactive B cells.</u></i></div>
1404184807940 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y SLE?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Women; especially african americans}}</div>
1404185166699 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype has the strongest association
to autoimmune disorders?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div>
1404185274495 1395802358422 {{c1::PTPN22}} is a tyrosine phosphatase whose p
olymorphisms can yield a <>gain of function mutation</>&nsp;that <>decreases
the signalling to develop tolerance</>.
1404185311436 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is primarily invol
ved in SLE?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III (antigen-antiody complex)}}</di
v>
<r /><div><div><i>1. Poorlycleared apoptotic deris (e.g., from UV damag
e) activates selfreactive&nsp;</i><i>lymphocytes, which then produce antiodies
to host nuclear antigens.</i></div><div><i>2. Antigenantiody complexes are gener
ated at low levels and taken up y&nsp;</i><i>dendritic cells.</i></div><div><i
>3. DNA antigens activate TLRs, amplifying immune response (IFNalpha).</i></div><
div><i>4. Antigenantiody complexes are susequently generated at higher levels a
nd deposit in multiple tissues causing disease.</i></div><div><i>5. Deficiency o
f early complement proteins (C1q, C4, and C2) is associated with SLE.</i></div><
/div>
1404185559377 1395802358422 Deficiency of which early complement proteins is

associated with SLE?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C1q; C2; C4}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Early complement proteins are involved with opsonization of exposed nuclea
r material from apoptosis (poorly cleared apoptosis).</i></div>
1404185591189 1395802358422 Which complement deficiency is most commonly ass
ociated with SLE?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C2}}</div>
1404185685056 1395802358422 {{c1::Malar rash}} is a cutaneous feature of SLE
that is descried as a <>utterfly-shaped</>&nsp;rash.<div><r /></div><div>
1404186040625 1395802358422 {{c1::Discoid Rash}} is a cutaneous feature of S
LE that is descried as an erythematous, scaly rash typically seen on the arm or
other areas exposed to sunlight.
1404186084665 1395802358422 {{c1::Arthritis}} is a musculoskeletal feature o
f SLE that typically involves joints.
1404186141705 1395802358422 {{c1::Pleuritis}} and&nsp;{{c2::pericarditis}}
are 2 types of serositis that are seen in SLE.
1404186156059 1395802358422 {{c1::Psychosis}} or&nsp;{{c2::seizures}} are 2
CNS complications seen in SLE.
1404186173547 1395802358422 {{c1::Diffuse Proliferative Glomerulonephritis}}
is a renal complication seen in SLE that is the <>most common</>&nsp;and <>
most severe</>&nsp;form of renal injury.
<r /><div><i>Memranous glomeru
lonephritis and other patterns of renal damage also occur.</i></div>
1404186222095 1395802358422 {{c1::Anaemia}},&nsp;{{c2::Thromocytopaenia}}
or&nsp;{{c3::leukopaenia}} are 3 hematological complications of SLE that occur
due to Type II hypersensitivity reactions via autoantiodies against cell surfac
e proteins.
1404186260530 1395802358422 {{c1::Liman-Sacks Endocarditis}} is a type of e
ndocarditis seen in SLE that is characterized y <>small, sterile deposits</>&
nsp;on <>oth sides</>&nsp;of the <>mitral valve</>.
1404186329215 1395802358422 {{c1::Anti-dsDNA antiodies}} and&nsp;{{c2::Ant
i-Sm antiodies}} are 2 autoantiodies that are highly specific for SLE.
1404186395025 1395802358422 {{c1::Antiphospholipid Antiody Syndrome}} is an
autoimmune disorder that involves autoantiodies directed against proteins oun
d to phopsholipids and is seen in 30% of SLE cases.
1404186944049 1395802358422 {{c1::Anticardiolipin}} is an autoantiody seen
in&nsp;Antiphospholipid Antiody Syndrome that yields <>false-positive VDRL an
d RPR syphilis tests</>.
<r /><div><i>VDRL and RPR tests for the presenc
e of cardiolipin A's.</i></div><div><i>In SLE patients, we have to use direct t
esting to confirm syphilis.</i></div>
1404187012370 1395802358422 {{c1::Lupus anticoagulant}} is an autoantiody s
een in&nsp;Antiphospholipid Antiody Syndrome that yields a <>falsely-elevated
PTT</>.
<r /><div><i>This is actually paradoxical as SLE patients are h
ypercoagulale.</i></div>
1404187051800 1395802358422 {{c1::Anticardiolipin}},&nsp;{{c2::anti-eta2-g
lycoprotein I}} and&nsp;{{c3::lupus anticoagulant}} are the 3 autoantiodies se
en in&nsp;Antiphospholipid Antiody Syndrome.
1404187090214 1395802358422 {{c1::Antiphospholipid Antiody Syndrome}} is an
autoimmune disorder that is characterized y a <>hypercoagulale state</>&ns
p;due to <>antiphospholipid antiodies</>, especially <>lupus anticoagulant</
<r /><div><i>Presents with arterial and venous thromosis including dee
>.
p venous, hepatic vein, placental and cereral.</i></div><div><i>Requires lifelo
ng anticoagulant.</i></div>
1404187251555 1395802358422 What type of autoantiodies are associated with
drug-induced SLE?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Antihistone antiodies}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The ANA is positive and definitive.</i></div>
1404187274483 1395802358422 {{c1::Procainamide}},&nsp;{{c2::Hydralazine}} a
nd&nsp;{{c3::Isoniazid}} are 3 drugs that commonly cause drug-induced SLE.
<r /><div><i>Removal of the drug usually results in remission.</i></div><div><i
>CNS and renal involvement is rare in drug-induced SLE.</i></div>
1404187360380 1395802358422 {{c1::Sjogren Syndrome}} is an autoimmune disord
er that involves destruction of the lacrimal and salivary glands.

1404187501275 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity is seen in Sjogren
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1404187516258 1395802358422 {{c1::Keratoconjunctivitis sicca}} is an ocular
complication of Sjogren Syndrome that is descried as dry eyes.
1404187554788 1395802358422 {{c1::Xerostomia}} is an oral complication of Sj
ogren Syndrome that is descried as dry mouth.
1404187590636 1395802358422 {{c1::Recurrent dental caries}} is a dental comp
lication of Sjogren Syndrome due to a lack of salivation.
1404187609774 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y Sjogren S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Women}}</div>
1404187617668 1395802358422 What is a possile <>primary</>&nsp;cause of
Sjogren Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sicca syndrome}}</div>
1404187650866 1395802358422 {{c1::Rheumatoid factor}} is an autoantiody tha
t is often present in Sjogren Syndrome patients even when rheumatoid arthritis i
s asent.
1404187673064 1395802358422 Whic autoantiodies are associated with Sjogren
Syndrome<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-SS-A (Ro) and Anti-SS-B (La)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>These 2 are especially associated with extraglandular menifestatio
ns (e.g. neuropathy).</i></div>
1404187728812 1395802358422 {{c1::Neonatal lupus}} and&nsp;{{c2::congenital
heart lock}} are 2 possile complications for aies delivered y women with A
nti-SS-A antiodies.
1404187764124 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymphocytic Sialadentitis}} is a common di
agnostic feature of Sjogren Syndrome that involves lymphocytic infiltration of m
inor salivary glands.
1404187824642 1395802358422 How does the risk for B-cell (marginal zone) lym
phoma change in Sjogren Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Will present as <>unilateral enlargement of the parotid gland</>
&nsp;late in disease course.</i></div>
1404187874799 1395802358422 {{c1::Scleroderma}} is an autoimmune disorder ch
aracterized y sclerosis of the skin and visceral organs.
1404187949947 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y Scleroder
ma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Women; esp of 30-50 years}}</div>
1404187968884 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Scleroderma?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Firolast activation leading to collagen deposition}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Possily due to autoimmune damage to mesenchyme (against mesenchym
al antigens).</i></div><div><i><div>Endothelial dysfunction leads to inflammatio
n (increased adhesion molecules), vasoconstriction (increased endothelin and dec
reased NO), and secretion of growth factors (TGF-eta and PDGF).</div><div>The r
esultant firosis starts perivascularly ut progresses to cause organ damage.</d
iv></i></div>
1404188205154 1395802358422 {{c1::Limited Scleroderma}} is a type of Sclerod
erms that has involved limited skin involvement with late visceral involvement.
1404188530598 1395802358422 {{c1::CREST Syndrome}} is a type of Limited Scle
roderma that involves <>anti-centromere antiodies</>.
<r /><div><i><
>CREST</>:</i></div><div><i>- <>C</>alcinosis & anti-<>C</>entromere an
tiodies</i></div><div><i>- <>R</>aynaud phenomenon</i></div><div><i>- <>E</
>sophageal dysmotility</i></div><div><i>- <>S</>clerodactyly</i></div><div><i>
- <>T</>elangiectasia of the skin</i></div>
1404188645678 1395802358422 What does the C in CREST Syndrome stand for?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcinosis & anti-centromere antiodies}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i><>CREST</>:</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>C</>alcinosis &
anti-<>C</>entromere antiodies</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>R</>aynaud phenom
enon</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>E</>sophageal dysmotility</i></div><div><i>-&n
sp;<>S</>clerodactyly</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>T</>elangiectasia of the ski
n</i></div></div>
1404188664246 1395802358422 What does the R in CREST Syndrome stand for?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Raynaud phenomenon}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i><>CR
EST</>:</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>C</>alcinosis & anti-<>C</>entromere
antiodies</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>R</>aynaud phenomenon</i></div><div><i>-&
nsp;<>E</>sophageal dysmotility</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>S</>clerodactyly<
/i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>T</>elangiectasia of the skin</i></div></div>
1404188674301 1395802358422 What does the E in CREST Syndrome stand for?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Esophageal dysmotility}}</div> <r /><div><div><i><>CR
EST</>:</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>C</>alcinosis & anti-<>C</>entromere
antiodies</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>R</>aynaud phenomenon</i></div><div><i>-&
nsp;<>E</>sophageal dysmotility</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>S</>clerodactyly<
/i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>T</>elangiectasia of the skin</i></div></div>
1404188688167 1395802358422 What does the S in CREST Syndrome stand for?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sclerodactyly}}</div> <r /><div><div><i><>CREST</>:
</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>C</>alcinosis & anti-<>C</>entromere antiodi
es</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>R</>aynaud phenomenon</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>
E</>sophageal dysmotility</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>S</>clerodactyly</i></div
><div><i>-&nsp;<>T</>elangiectasia of the skin</i></div></div>
1404188701013 1395802358422 What does the T in CREST Syndrome stand for?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Telangiectasia of the skin}}</div>
<r /><div><div>
<i><>CREST</>:</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>C</>alcinosis & anti-<>C</>en
tromere antiodies</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>R</>aynaud phenomenon</i></div><d
iv><i>-&nsp;<>E</>sophageal dysmotility</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>S</>clero
dactyly</i></div><div><i>-&nsp;<>T</>elangiectasia of the skin</i></div></div
>
1404188712831 1395802358422 {{c1::Diffuse Scleroderma}} is a type of Sclerod
erma that has <>diffuse</>&nsp;skin involvement with <>early</>&nsp;skin i
nvolvement.
1404188765184 1395802358422 Which autoantiodies are associated with CREST S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-centromere antiodies}}</div>
1404188776127 1395802358422 Which autoantiodies are associated with Diffuse
Scleroderma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-Scl-70 (Anti-DNA Topoisomerase I)}
}</div>
1404188805319 1395802358422 {{c1::Mixed Connective Tissue Disease}} is an au
toimmune disorder that involves mixed features of SLE, Scleroderma and Polymyosi
tis.
<r /><div><i>The features often overlap over time, ut there is a <>la
ck of CNS and renal involvement</>.</i></div><div><i>Common cause of death is P
ulmonary HTN.</i></div>
1404188974274 1395802358422 Which autoantiodies are seen in Mixed Connectiv
e Tissue Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-U1 RNP antiodies}}</div>
1404188994289 1395802358422 {{c1::Regeneration}} is a mechanism of wound hea
ling that involves the replacement of damaged tissue with <>native tissue</>.
<r /><div><i>Depends on the regenerative capacity of the tissue (i.e. stale, l
aile, permanent tissue).</i></div>
1404189092700 1395802358422 {{c1::Laile tissue}} is a type of tissue that p
ossesses stem cells that continuously cycle to regenerate the tissue.
1404189134776 1395802358422 Where are the stem cells of the small and large
owels found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mucosal crypts}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-27943057228122.jpg" /></div>
1404189264534 1395802358422 Where are the stem cells of the skin found?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Basal layer of the skin}}</div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-27977416966486.jpg" /></div>
1404189284641 1395802358422 Where are the stem cells of the one marrow foun
d?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hematopoietic stem cells (CD34+)}}</div>
1404189307439 1395802358422 {{c1::Stale tissue}} is a type of tissue that i
s comprised of cells that are quiescent in G<su>0</su>&nsp;ut can reenter th
e cell cycle to regenerate tissue when needed. <r /><div><i>e.g. regeneration
of the liver y compensatory hyperplasia after partial resection. Each hepatocyt
e produces additional cells and then reenters quiescence.</i></div>
1404189392174 1395802358422 {{c1::Permanent tissue}} is a type of tissue tha
t lacks any significant regenerative potential. <r /><div><i>e.g. myocardium, s
keletal muscle and neurons</i></div>
1404189426470 1395802358422 {{c1::Repair}} is a mechanism of wound healing t
hat involves the replacement of damaged tissue with a <>firous scar</>.

<r /><div><i>Seen when a tissue's regenerative capacity (stem cells) are lost o
r permanent tissue is involved.</i></div>
1404189593619 1395802358422 {{c1::Granulation tissue}} is a type of tissue t
hat forms in the initial phase of repair and consists of <>firolasts, capilla
ries</>&nsp;and <>myofirolasts</>.
<r /><div><i>Firolasts secret
e type III collagen.</i></div><div><i>Capillaries provide nutrients.</i></div><d
iv><i>Myofirolasts contract the wound.</i></div><div><i><>Granulation tissue
granuloma</>.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-29553669964121.jpg" /></i></div>
1404189653749 1395802358422 What type of collagen is seen in granulation tis
sue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
1404189684455 1395802358422 What type of collagen is found in scars?<div><r
<r /><div><i>Type I collagen replaces t
ype III collagen in scar formation.</i></div>
1404189710626 1395802358422 Which enzyme involved in scar formation removed
type III collagen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Collagenase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Requires zinc as a cofactor.</i></div>
1404189826439 1395802358422 {{c1::Primary intention}} is a process seen in c
utaneous wound healing that involves wound edges eing rought together.
<r /><div><i>This yields minimal scar formation.</i></div><div><i>e.g. suturing
</i></div>
1404189874065 1395802358422 {{c1::Secondary Intention}} is a process of cuta
neous wound healing that involves a lack of approximation of wound edges.
<r /><div><i>Hence, granulation tissue fills the defect and a large scar is for
med when myofirolasts contract the wound.</i></div>
1404189952105 1395802358422 Which acteria is the most common cause of delay
ed would healing?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}</div
>
1404189997718 1395802358422 Which water solule vitamin deficiency can delay
wound healing?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin C}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Re
memer, Vitamin C is a cofactor the hydroxylation of proline/lysine residues in
collagen. Collagen is needed in fucking wound healing so.. yeah.</i></div>
1404190104215 1395802358422 {{c1::Copper}} is a trace element that acts as a
cofactor for Lysyl Oxidase, an enzyme which cross links collagen.
<r /><d
iv><i>Deficiency will slow wound healing.</i></div>
1404190163074 1395802358422 {{c1::Zinc}} is a trace element that acts as a c
ofactor for Collagenase, an enzyme required in wound healing as it replaces type
III collagen with stronger Type I collagen.
<r /><div><i>Deficiency of zinc
delays wound healing.</i></div>
1404190213176 1395802358422 {{c1::Dehiscence}} is defined as the rupture of
a wound.
<r /><div><i>Most commonly seen after adominal surgery.</i></d
iv>
1404190236647 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertrophic scar}} is a type of aerrant
wound repair that involves <>excess scar production</>&nsp;that is <>localiz
ed to the wound</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-30309584208226.jpg" />
<r /><div><i>Excess Type I coll
agen formation.</i></div>
1404190291608 1395802358422 {{c1::Keloid}} is a type of aerrant wound repai
r that involves excess production of scar tissue that is <>out of proportion to
the wound</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-30429843292517.jpg" /><img
src="paste-3023656976801.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Classically affects the ea
rloes, face and upper extremities.</i></div>
1404190405410 1395802358422 Which type of collagen is made in excess in a <
>Keloid</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-30425548325221.jpg" /><img src="paste-3027951944097.jpg" /></div>
1404190422594 1395802358422 Which type of collagen is made in excess in a <
>hypertrophic scar</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><img src="paste-30489972834662.jpg" /><img src="paste-2976412336545.jpg" /></
div>
1404190440455 1395802358422 Which race is more commonly affected y Keloid?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::African-americans}}</div>
1404237564110 1395802358422 Which type of shock is associated with <>vasodi
lation</>&nsp;(and hence warm, dry skin)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Distriut
ive}}</div>
1404237619073 1395802358422 Which type of shock is associated with <>high o
utput cardiac failure</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Distriutive}}</div>
1404237677700 1395802358422 Which type of shock is associated with a failure
of IV fluids to increase lood pressure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Distriutiv
e}}</div>
1404237859722 1395802358422 Which type of shock is associated with <>low ou
tput cardiac failure</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypovolemic/cardiogenic}}</
div>
1404237879480 1395802358422 Which type of shock is associated with <>vasoco
nstriction</>&nsp;(and hence cold, clammy skin)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hy
povolemic/cardiogenic}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-468151435620.jpg" /><
/div>
1404237919979 1395802358422 Which type of shock is associated with IV fluids
eing ale to restore lood pressure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypovolemic/ca
rdiogenic}}</div>
1404238393445 1395802358422 Where along the capillary ed does extravasation
predominantly occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Post-capillary venules}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer,&nsp;</i><i><>vasodilation is at arterioles</>&nsp;an
d <>increased vascular permeaility is at post-capillary venules</>.</i></div>
1404238866108 1395802358422 In leukocyte margination and rolling,&nsp;{{c1:
:E-selectin}} and&nsp;{{c2::P-selectin}} on endothelium inds to&nsp;{{c3::Sia
lyl-Lewis X}} on leukocytes.
</div>
1404239019475 1395802358422 In leukocyte margination and rolling,&nsp;{{c1:
:GlyCAM-1}} and&nsp;{{c2::CD34}} on endothelium inds to&nsp;{{c3::L-selectin}
} on leukocytes.
1404239055174 1395802358422 In leukocyte tight-inding during inflammation,&
nsp;{{c1::ICAM (CD54)}} on endothelium inds to&nsp;{{c2::CD11/18 Integrins (L
FA-1, Mac-1)}} on leukocytes. <r /><div><img src="paste-1649267442362.jpg" />
</div>
1404239102720 1395802358422 In leukocyte tight-inding during inflammation,&
nsp;{{c1::VCAM (CD106)}} on endothelium inds to&nsp;{{c2::VLA-4 Integrin}} on
leukocytes.
1404239163182 1395802358422 In leukocyte diapedesis during inflammation,&ns
p;{{c1::PECAM-1 (<>CD31</>)}} on endothelium inds to&nsp;{{c2::PECAM-1 (<>C
D31</>)}} on leukocytes.
</div>
1404239364558 1395802358422 {{c1::Platelet-derived Growth factor (PDGF)}} is
a mediator of wound repair secreted y <>platelets</>&nsp;and <>macrophages
</>&nsp;that stimulates vascular remodeling, smooth muscle migratino and firo
last growth.
1404239580287 1395802358422 {{c1::Firolast growth factor (FGF)}} is a medi
atorof wound healing that stimulates <>all aspects of angiogenesis</>&nsp;and
<>mediates skeletal development</>.
1404239831562 1395802358422 {{c1::Epithelial Growth Factor (EGF)}} is a medi
ator of wound healing that stimulates cell growth <>via Tyrosine kinases</>.
1404239857011 1395802358422 {{c1::TGF-eta}} is a mediator of wound healing
that stimulated firolasts ut is also <>anti-inflammatory</>.
1404239886981 1395802358422 {{c1::Exudate}} is a type of inflammatory fluid
that is <>protein rich</>&nsp;with a <>specific gravity > 1.020</>.
1404241051724 1395802358422 {{c1::Transudate}} is a type of inflammatory flu
id that is <>protein poor</>&nsp;and has a <>specific gravity < 1.012.</
>
1404241077320 1395802358422 How does ESR change in inflammation?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Products of inflammation (
e.g. acute phase reactants) coat RBCs and cause aggregation. This aggregation ca
uses RBCs to fall at a faster rate within the test tue (i.e. increased rate of
sedimentation).</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-3779571220816.jpg" /></i></div>
1404241383446 1395802358422 What is the treatment for iron poisoning?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Chelation via IV Deferoxamine or Oral Deferasirox; Dialysis
}}</div>
1382036642275 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic atrophic gastritis}} seen in perni
cious anaemia has the aility to ecome&nsp;{{c2::gastric adenocarcinoma}}.
1382039334837 1358629116480 Actinic keratosis of the skin has the aility to
ecome&nsp;{{c2::squamous cell carcinoma}} of the skin.
1382039380132 1358629116480 Oral {{c1::leukoplakia}} has the aility to eco
me oral {{c2::squamous cell carcinoma}}.
<r /><div><i>Oral cancers typic
ally have poor prognoses.</i></div>
1382039423005 1358629116480 What does Barrett's Esophagus have the chance to
ecome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adenocarcinoma of the esophagus}}</div>
1382039627313 1358629116480 What cancer can a <i>Helicoacter pylori</i>&ns
p;infection cause?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adenocarcinoma of the stomach}}</d
iv>
1382039665924 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Ulcerative}} colitis has the possi
ility to develop into&nsp;{{c2::adenocarcinoma}} of the colon.
1382039704745 1358629116480 Tuular/Villous adenoma of the colon has the ai
lity to ecome&nsp;{{c2::adenocarcinoma}} of the colon.
1382039730374 1358629116480 What cancer can liver cirrhosis develop into?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatocellular carcinoma}}</div>
1382040179249 1358629116480 What cancer can hyperplasia of the endometrium d
evelop into?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adenocarcinoma of the endometrium}}</div
>
1382040210084 1358629116480 Dysplastic nevus of the skin can develop into&n
sp;{{c2::melanoma}}.
1382040227395 1358629116480 What gene is involved in inherited Retinolastom
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RB}}</div>
1382040815811 1358629116480 What gene is involved in inherited Li-Fraumeni S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p53}}</div>
1382040832493 1358629116480 What gene is involved in inherited Familial Aden
omatous Polyposis/Colon Cancer?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::APC (Adenomatous Polypo
sis Coli tumour suppressor)}}</div>
<r><i>"What do you need to fap? A PC."<
/i>
1382040863663 1358629116480 What gene is involved in inherited Neurofiromat
osis 1 and 2?<div><r />{{c1::NF1 and NF2}}</div>
1382040880606 1358629116480 What gene is involved in inherited Breast and Ov
arian Tumours?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::BRCA1 (and BRCA2) }}</div>
1382040898608 1358629116480 What gene is involved in inherited Multiple Endo
crine Neoplasia 1 and 2?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MEN1/RET}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>"Chicks are always looking for the right (RET) men"</i></div>
1382040925330 1358629116480 What gene is involved in <>inherited</> Melano
ma?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::p16INK4A}}</div>
1382040948754 1358629116480 What gene(s) are involved with Hereditary non-po
lyposis colon cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MLH1, MSH2, and MSH6}}</div>
1382041920523 1358629116480 Over-expression of&nsp;{{c1::PDGF-B}} can cause
&nsp;{{c2::Astrocytoma}}
1382051662383 1358629116480 What change regarding PDGF-B causes Astrocytoma?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Over-expression}}</div>
1382051681208 1358629116480 Amplification of&nsp;{{c1::ERBB2 (Her2/Neu)}} c
auses&nsp;{{c2::reast}} cancer.
1382051808001 1358629116480 What change regarding ERBB2 (HER2/NEU) causes Br
east cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amplification}}</div>
1382051823805 1358629116480 A point mutation in&nsp;{{c1::RET}} can cause&n
sp;{{c2::Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia (MEN2A, MEN2B)}}.
1382051875203 1358629116480 What change regarding RET causes Multiple Endocr
ine Neoplasia (MEN2A, MEN2B)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Point mutation}}</div>

1382051903994 1358629116480 A point mutation in&nsp;{{c1::KIT}} can cause&n
sp;{{c2::GI Stromal}} tumour.
1382051929982 1358629116480 What change regarding KIT causes GI Stromal Tumo
ur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Point mutation}}</div>
1382051941606 1358629116480 A point mutation in&nsp;{{c1::ras}} can cause m
any carcinomas, melanomas and lymphoma. Typically&nsp;{{c2::pancreatic}} and&n
sp;{{c2::colon}} cancer.
1382052005698 1358629116480 What change in ras can cause cancer?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Point mutation}}</div>
1382052030001 1358629116480 A translocation of&nsp;{{c1::ABL}} can cause&n
sp;{{c2::Chronic Myeloid Leukemia}}.
1382052062745 1358629116480 What is the translocation of ABL that causes Chr
onic Myeloid Leukemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(9;22) to e with BCR}}</div>
1382052095196 1358629116480 A translocation of&nsp;{{c1::C-Myc}} can cause&
nsp;{{c2::Burkitt's Lymphoma}}.
1382057767666 1358629116480 What translocation involving C-Myc will cause Bu
rkitt's Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(8;14) to an Ig heavy chain locus}
}</div>
1382057811421 1358629116480 Amplification of&nsp;{{c1::N-Myc}} can cause&n
sp;{{c2::Neurolastoma}}
1382057842281 1358629116480 What change associated with N-Myc causes Neurol
astoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amplification}}</div>
1382057868385 1358629116480 Translocation of&nsp;{{c1::Cyclin D1}} can caus
e&nsp;{{c2::Mantle Cell Lymphoma}}.
1382057900938 1358629116480 What translocation associated with Cyclin D can
cause Mantle Cell Lymphoma?<div><r /><div>{{c1::t(11;14) to Ig heavy chain}}</d
iv></div>
1382057989416 1358629116480 A point mutation and amplification in&nsp;{{c1:
:CDK4}} can cause&nsp;{{c2::melanoma}}.
1382058030493 1358629116480 What tumour marker is seen in all cancers derive
d from Neural Crest Cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S-100}}</div>
1382058072589 1358629116480 What translocation involving PML and Retinoic Ac
id Receptor (RARA) causes Acute pro-Myelocytic Leukemia (APML; AML)?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::t(15;17)}}</div>
1382059076330 1358629116480 What translocation involving Bcl2 can cause Foll
icular Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(14;18) to Ig heavy chain}}</div>
1382059366684 1358629116480 What translocation involving FLI1 and EWSR1 caus
es Ewing Sarcoma?<div><r>{{c1::t(11;22)}}</div>
11 + 22 = 33 = Patrick E
wing's jersey numer
1382059540927 1358629116480 What is an 'onion-skin' pattern of periosteal o
ne indicative of?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ewing Sarcoma}}.</div>
1382059569349 1358629116480 What is the normal function of BRCA1/BRCA2?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Regulation of DNA repair}}</div>
1382059702820 1358629116480 Aside from Retinolastoma, what other cancer is
commonly associated with R?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteogenic Sarcoma (Oste
osarcoma)}}</div>
1382060064019 1358629116480 What is the normal function of NF-1 (Neurofirom
in-1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::It is a GAP that regulates signal transduction
y inactivating ras}}</div>
1382060386627 1358629116480 What tumour suppressor gene does the E6 protein
from Human Papillomavirus (HPV) ind to and inhiit?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
p53}}</div>
1382060716767 1358629116480 What tumour suppresor does the E7 protein from H
uman Papillomavirus (HPV) ind to and inhiit?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::R}}</
div>
1382060751535 1358629116480 Which of the BRCA genes is involved with Male Br
east Cancer?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::BRCA2}}</div>
1382060884993 1358629116480 What cancers are associated with cigarette smoke
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous or small cell carcinoma and urothelial car
cinoma}}</div>
1382063772375 1358629116480 What cancer is associated with Naphthylamine?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Urothelial carcinoma of the ladder}}</div>
1382063836301 1358629116480 What cancer is associated with Aflatoxin B1 from
<i>Aspergillus flavus</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatocellular carcinoma}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Commonly seen in contaminated rice, corn, grains and peanu
ts</i></div>
1382063880924 1358629116480 What cancer is associated with Nitrosamines?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gastric carcinoma}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Typically
seen in smoked foods</i></div>
1382063978962 1358629116480 What cancer(s) are associated with Asestos?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesothelioma and Lung Carcinoma}}</div> <r /><div><i>Ty
pically seen in pipe fitters and ship uilders</i></div>
1382064087132 1358629116480 What cancer is associated with vinyl chloride?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Angio-sarcoma of the liver}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Ty
pically due to exposure to plastics.</i></div>
1382064119711 1358629116480 What cancer(s) are associated with Arsenic?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma of the skin, lung or angiosarcoma
of the liver}}</div>
1382064171652 1358629116480 What cancer(s) are associated with Chromium and
Nickel?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lung carcinoma}}</div>
1382064187084 1358629116480 What cancer(s) are associated with chronic alcoh
ol consumption?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma of the oropha
rynx/esophagus and hepatocellular carcinoma}}</div>
1382064234054 1358629116480 What cancer is associated with Diethyl-Stileste
rol?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Clear cell carcinoma of the vagina}}</div>
1382064287946 1358629116480 What cancer(s) are associated with HBV and HCV?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatocellular carcinoma}}</div>
1382064696163 1358629116480 What cancer(s) are associated with EBV?<div><r>
</div><div>{{c1::Burkitt's, Hodgkin's and &nsp;CNS B-Cell lymphoma in AIDS; Nas
opharyngeal carcinoma}}</div>
1382064781888 1358629116480 {{c1::Burkitt's}} lymphoma is a high grade lymph
oid tumour that is descried y a "starry-sky appearance."<div>
79231.jpg" /></div>
1382064909888 1358629116480 What cancer is associated with HHV8?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Kaposi's Sarcoma in AIDS patients}}</div>
1382064965166 1358629116480 What cancer(s) is associated with HTLV-1?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma}}</div>
1382065060799 1358629116480 What cancer is associated with <i>Schistosoma he
matoium</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma of the ladder}
}</div>
1383272351480 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::Osteoma}} is a enign tumour of o
ne.
1383272799143 1358629116480 Where do Osteomas commonly arise?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::On the surface of facial ones}}</div>
1383272822554 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::Osteoid Osteoma}} is a <>enign</
> tumour of Osteolasts surrounded y a rim of reactive one.
1383273071799 1358629116480 Where do Osteoid Osteomas commonly arise?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Diaphysis/cortex of long ones}}</div>
1383273089192 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteolastoma}} is a enign, <>larger</>
&nsp;tumour of osteolasts that involves pain that&nsp;<>does not respond </
>to aspirin.
1383273199801 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteoid Osteoma}} is a enign tumour of os
teolasts that <>responds </>to aspirin.
1383273221166 1358629116480 Where in the ody do Osteolastomas commonly ari
se?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Verterae}}</div>
1383273251247 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::Osteochondroma}} is a tumour of o
ne with an overlying cartilage cap.
<r /><div><i>It is the most common eni
gn tumour</i></div>
1383273279224 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteochondroma}} is a enign one tumour t
hat arises from a lateral projection of the growth plate; at the metaphysis.
1383273316745 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteosarcoma}} is a malignant tumour of os
teolasts.
1383273742056 1358629116480 Where does Osteosarcoma arise?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Metaphysis of long one; typically distal femur or proximal tiia}}</d
iv>
1383273770224 1358629116480 What one tumour is Codman's Triangle associated
with?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteosarcoma}}</div> <r /><div><i>It is the
lifting off of the periosteum.</i></div>
1383273816768 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Giant Cell Tumour}} is a tumour of
multinucleated giant cells and stromal cells
1383274306890 1358629116480 Where do Giant Cell Tumours arise?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Epiphysis of long ones}}</div> <r /><div><i>Are the only tumou
rs to do so</i></div>
1383274332256 1358629116480 What one tumour is associated with a 'Soap u
le' appearance?<div><r />{{c1::Giant Cell Tumour}}</div>
1383274349691 1358629116480 What one tumour is associated with an 'Onion Sk
in' appearance?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ewing's Sarcoma}}</div>
1383274369557 1358629116480 What translocation is involved with Ewing's Sarc
oma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(11;22)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>11 + 22 =
33 = Patrick Ewing's jersey numer</i></div>
1383274395810 1358629116480 {{c1::Ewing's Sarcoma}} is a one tumour defined
as a malignant proliferation of poorly-differentiated cells derived from neuroe
ctoderm.
1383274429193 1358629116480 Where does Ewing's Sarcoma arise?<div><r />{{c1
::Diaphysis of long ones}}</div>
1383274441298 1358629116480 {{c1::Chondroma}} is a enign tumour of cartilag
e.
1383274662856 1358629116480 {{c1::Chondrosarcoma}} is a malignant tumour of
cartilage that arises in the medulla of the pelvis or central skeleton.
1383274689514 1358629116480 Metastatic&nsp;{{c1::prostate}} cancer will pro
duce osteo<>lastic</>&nsp;lesion.
1383274738214 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Lipoma}} is a enign tumour of adip
ose tissue.
1383274781224 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Liposarcoma}} is a malignant tumour
of fat tissue.
1383274789570 1358629116480 What type of cells are proliferating in a Liposa
rcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lipolasts}}</div>
1383274808462 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Rhadomyoma}} is a enign tumour of
skeletal muscle.
1383274825259 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Rhadomyosarcoma}} is a malignant t
umour of skeletal muscle.
1383274866318 1358629116480 What cells are proliferating in Rhadomyosarcoma
?<div><r />{{c1::Rhadomyolasts}}</div>
1383274966032 1358629116480 What immunohistochemical marker is used to Dx Rh
adomyosarcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Desmin}}</div>
1394067343388 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::vulva}} is the area of the female
genital tract that involves the skin and mucosa <>external to the hymen</>.
1394067655070 1358629116480 {{c1::Bartholin Cyst}} is a cystic dilation of t
he Bartholin gland.
1394067979293 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Bartholin Gland}} is a mucinous g
land located on each side of the vaginal canal and produces mucous-like fluid th
at luricates and coats the vaginal orifice and lower vestiule.
1394068031319 1358629116480 {{c1::Bartholin Cyst}} is a vulvar pathology tha
t arises due to inflammation or ostruction of the Bartholin gland in women of r
eproductive age.
1394068074714 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Bartholin Cyst}} is a vulvar pathol
ogy that presents as a unilateral, painful cystic lesion of the Bartholin Gland
at the lower vestiule adjacent to the vaginal canal.
1394068109536 1358629116480 {{c1::Condyloma}} is a warty neoplasm of vulvar
skin.
1394068322402 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Condyloma?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::HPV6; HPV11}}</div>
1394068343387 1358629116480 {{c1::Condyloma Acuminatum}} is a type of Condyl
oma that is caused y HPV, typically types 6 and 11.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-3934190043515.jpg" /></div>
1394068367510 1358629116480 {{c1::Condyloma Latum}} is a type of Condyloma c
aused y Syphilis.
1394068386223 1358629116480 {{c1::Koilocytes}} are a histological feature of
HPV infected cells and are a hallmark of HPV infection.<div><r /></div><div><i
<r /><div><i>Very apparent in C
ondyloma Acuminatum.</i></div>
1394068608346 1358629116480 What is the carcinoma risk associated with HPV6
and HPV11?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div>
1394068658990 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichen Sclerosis (et Atrophicus)}} is a vu
lvar pathology defined as the thinning of the epidermis and firosis/sclerosis o
f the dermis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2555505541443.jpg" /></div>
1394068695908 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichen Sclerosis}} is a vulvar pathology t
hat presents as leukoplakia with <>parchment-like</>&nsp;vulvar skin.<div><r
<r /><div><i>Re
memer, leukoplakia just means white patches.</i></div>
1394068740402 1358629116480 Which demographic is commonly affected y Lichen
Sclerosis?<div><r />{{c1::Postmenopausal women}}</div>
1394068766315 1358629116480 What is the squamous cell carcinoma risk associa
ted with Lichen Sclerosis?<div><r />{{c1::Slight increase}}</div>
1394068797286 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichen Simplex Chronicus}} is a enign vul
var pathology that is also referred to as Vulvar Squamous Cell Hyperplasia.<div>
1394068832061 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichen Simplex Chronicus}} is a vulvar pat
hology characterized y enign hyperplasia of the vulvar squamous epithelium.<di
1394068864891 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichen Simplex Chronicus}} is a vulvar pat
hology that presents as leukoplakia with <>thick, leathery</>&nsp;vulvar skin
1394068888852 1358629116480 What is the cancer risk associated with Lichen S
implex Chronicus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::None}}</div>
1394068945521 1358629116480 What is the cause of HPV-related vulvar carcinom
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HPV16 and HPV18}}</div>
1394069037895 1358629116480 {{c1::Vulvar Intraepithelial Neoplasia (VIN)}} i
s a dysplastic precursor lesion to vulvar carcinoma that is characterized y koi
locytic change, disordered cellular maturation, nuclear atypia and increased mit
otic activity.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4445291151703.jpg" /></div>
1394069456522 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Non-HPV related
Vulvar Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Long-standing Lichen Sclerosis}}</
div>
1394069518333 1358629116480 Which type of Vulvar Carcinoma is typically seen
in elderly women?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non-HPV related}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Average age is ~70 y/o</i></div>
1394069562561 1358629116480 Which type of Vulvar Carcinoma is typically seen
in women of reproductive age?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HPV-related}}</div>
1394069590022 1358629116480 {{c1::Extramammary Paget Disease}} is a vulvar p
athology that involves malignant epithelial cells in the epidermis and vulvar ca
rcinoma in situ <>without</>&nsp;underlying carcinoma.<div><r /></div><div><
1394069848655 1358629116480 Paget cells must e distinguished from Melanoma.
What is the immunostain profile in Paget Cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PAS+
, Keratin+, S100-}}</div>
1394070124075 1358629116480 Paget cells must e distinguished from Melanoma.
What is the immunostain profile in Melanoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PAS-, K
eratin-, S100+}}</div>
1394070175708 1358629116480 Which immunostain is positive in Melanoma and di

fferentiates it from Paget Cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S100}}</div>
1394070201363 1358629116480 {{c1::S100}} is an immunostain that is found in
cells derived from the Neural Crest and is hence used to differentiate Melanoma
from Paget Cells.
1394070352682 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Pelvic Inflamma
tory Disease (PID)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseria gonnorheae</i>}}</di
v>
1394070404472 1358629116480 {{c1::Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)}} is a p
elvic pathology that results from infections that arise in the vulva/vagina and
ascend to involve other genital structures in the pelvis.<div><r /></div><div><
img src="paste-6970731921578.jpg" /><img src="paste-7894149890436.jpg" /></div>
1394132971976 1358629116480 What kind of epithelium lines the vaginal mucosa
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non-Keratinizing Squamous Epithelium}}</div>
1394133015995 1358629116480 {{c1::Adenosis}} is a vaginal pathology defined
as a focal persistence of columnar epithelium in the upper vagina.
1394133048424 1358629116480 Which emryonic structure does the lower 2/3 of
the vagina develop from?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Urogenital Sinus}}</div>
1394133083113 1358629116480 Which emryonic structure does the upper 1/3 of
the vagina develop from?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mullerian duct AKA Parameson
ephric duct}}</div>
1394133103639 1358629116480 Which drug is associated with an increased incid
ence of vaginal Adenosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diethylstilestrol (DES) in
utero}}</div>
1394133468892 1358629116480 {{c1::Clear Cell Adenocarcinoma}} is a vaginal c
ancer that is a rare ut feared complication of Diethylstilestrol (DES) exposur
e in utero.
1394133514572 1358629116480 {{c1::Emryonal Rhadomyosarcoma}} is a rare mal
ignant vaginal cancer that involves <>mesenchymal immature skeletal muscle</>.
1394133563935 1358629116480 {{c1::Emryonal Rhadomyosarcoma}} is a vaginal
cancer that is also known as Sarcoma Botyroides.
1394133594531 1358629116480 {{c1::Emryonal Rhadomyosarcoma}} is a vaginal
cancer that presents as leeding and a <>grape-like mass</>&nsp;protruding fr
om the vagina in <>young girls</> (or penis if in a male).<div><r /></div><di
1394133644569 1358629116480 What is the characteristic cell seen in Emryona
l Rhadomyosarcoma (Sarcoma Botyroides)?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-60
00069312789.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rhadomyolast}}</div></div
>
1394133690378 1358629116480 {{c1::Rhadomyolast}} is the characteristic cel
l of Emryonal Rhadomyosarcoma and involves <>cytoplasmic cross-striations</>
&nsp;and positive immunohistochemical stains for <>desmin</>&nsp;and <>myog
enin</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6004364280085.jpg" /></div>
1394133749781 1358629116480 Which immunohistochemical stains are positive in
the Rhadomyolasts in Emryonal Rhadomyosarcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::D
esmin and Myogenin}}</div>
1394133781493 1358629116480 {{c1::Vaginal Carcinoma}} is a vaginal cancer th
at arises from the squamous epithelium lining the vaginal mucosa.
1394134223150 1358629116480 What is the precursor lesion to Vaginal Carcinom
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vaginal Intraepithelial Neoplasia (VAIN)}}</div>
1394134243723 1358629116480 Which lymph nodes does cancer from the <>lower
1/3</>&nsp;of the vagina spread to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inguinal Nodes}
}</div>
1394134279977 1358629116480 Which lymph nodes does cancer from the <>upper
2/3</>&nsp;of the vagina spread to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Iliac Nodes}}</
div>
1394134318361 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Vaginal Carcino
ma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::High-risk HPV sutypes}}</div>
1394134335240 1358629116480 Which age group of women is commonly affected y
Lichen Simplex Chronicus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Any age; usually young wom

en}}</div>
1394135224181 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichen Sclerosis (et Atrophicus)}} is a vu
lvar pathology that involves thinning of the vulvar epidermis and an hour glass
appearance with involvement of the peri-anal area.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-2598455214444.jpg" /></div>
1394135324598 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichen Planus}} is an inflammatory cutaneo
us lesion that involves raised purplish plaques and patches.<div><r /></div><di
1394135866439 1358629116480 What immune cell is involved in the listering s
kin lesions Pemphigoid and Herpes Gestationis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Eosino
phils}}</div>
1394136081902 1358629116480 What immune cell is involved in the listering s
kin lesion Dermatitis Herpetiformis seen alongside Celiac Disease?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Neutrophils}}</div>
1394136113265 1358629116480 What immune cells are involved with the listeri
ng skin lesion Erythema Multiforme and Lichen Planus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Lymphocyte}}</div>
1394136141655 1358629116480 What is the cause of Granuloma Inguinale?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Klesiella granulomatis</i>}}</div>
1394136324321 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Klesiella granulomatis</i>}} is a act
eria that causes Granuloma Inguinale which involves ulcerating nodules on the vu
lva with characteristic <>donovan odies</>.
1394136371344 1358629116480 What is the cause of Lymphogranuloma Venereum?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis </i>serogroups L1-L3}}</div>
1394136395058 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis s</i>erotypes L1
- L3}} is a acteria that causes Lymphogranuloma Venereum which involves ulcerat
ing vulval papules and enlarged inguinal lymph nodes.
1394136430114 1358629116480 What is the cause of Chancroid?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::<i>Haemophilus ducreyi</i>}}</div>
1394136454196 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Haemophilus ducreyi</i>}} is a acteria
that causes Chancroid which involves ulcerating vulval <>tender</> papules an
d nodules with <>tender </>enlargement of inguinal lymph nodes.&nsp;
1394136556857 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Treponema pallidum</i>}} is a acteria
that causes Syphilis which initially involves small, <>painless</>&nsp;indura
ted vulval/vaginal papules.
<r /><div><i>Later stage involves multiple, moi
st, warty, vulvovaginal and perineal lesions (condylomata lata).</i></div>
1394136700036 1358629116480 {{c1::Keratinizing Squamous Cell Carcinoma}} is
a type of vulvar carcinoma that is Non-HPV related and involves infiltrating nes
ts/tongues of malignant squamous epithelium with prominent keratin pearls.<div><
1394137582438 1358629116480 {{c1::Basaloid Squamous Cell Carcinoma}} is a ty
pe of vulvar carcinoma that is HPV related that &nsp;involve nests and cords of
small, tightly packed cells resemling immature asal cells.<div><r /></div><d
1394137664256 1358629116480 {{c1::Gartner Duct Cyst}} is a relatively common
cystic vaginal lesion on the lateral wall of the vagina that results from remna
nts of the Wolffian Duct.
1394139554508 1358629116480 {{c1::Honail}} Cells are a histological feature
of Clear Cell Adenocarcinoma of the Vagina.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-5729486373116.jpg" /></div>
1394139642186 1358629116480 Which age group of women are commonly affected
y Emryonal Rhadomyosarcoma (Sarcoma Botryoides)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&l
t; 6 y/o}}</div>
1394139680516 1358629116480 {{c1::Vaginal Candidiasis}} is a type of vaginit
is that involves a cottage cheese like discharge and perivulvar pruritis.
1394140074692 1358629116480 {{c1::Bacteral Vaginosis}} is a type of vaginiti
s that involves watery discharge with a fishy odour.
1394140099865 1358629116480 {{c1::Vaginal Trichomonas}} is a type of vaginit
is that involves foamy greenish discharge and vaginal discomfort.
1394140126120 1358629116480 {{c1::Atrophic Vaginitis}} is a type of vaginiti

s that involves a dry vagina.
1394140139173 1358629116480 What is the second most common cause of Pelvic I
nflammatory Disease (PID)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</
i>}}</div>
1394140418230 1358629116480 {{c1::Fitz-Hugh-Curtis Syndrome}} is a complicat
ion of Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) that involves perihepatitis and periton
eal firous adhesions due to the ascending infection and firosis.<div><r /></d
1394140689124 1358629116480 {{c1::Pyosalpinx}} is a complication of Pelvic I
nflammatory Disease (PID) that occurs due to the infection and firosis spreadin
g to the fallopian tues and the formation of an intrasalpingeal ascess/pus.<di
1394237966447 1358629116480 What type of epithelium lines the exocervix?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non-keratinizing squamous epithelium}}</div>
1394238302553 1358629116480 What type of epithelium lines the endocervix?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Simple columnar epithelium}}</div>
1394238331622 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::transformation zone}} is the junc
tion etween the endo- and exocervix.
1394238351603 1358629116480 Which area of the cervix is especially targeted
y HPV?<div><r />{{c1::Transformation zone}}</div>
1394238400609 1358629116480 What is the cancer risk associated with HPV16?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::High}}</div>
1394239228891 1358629116480 What is the cancer risk associated with HPV6?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div>
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div>
1394239238481 1358629116480 Which protein from high-risk HPV strains inds t
o p53?<div><r />{{c1::E6}}</div>
1394239276637 1358629116480 {{c1::E6}} is a protein from high-risk HPV that
inds to {{c2::p53}}. <r /><div><i>"6 efore 7, P efore R"</i></div>
1394239309479 1358629116480 {{c1::E7}} is a protein from high-risk HPV that
<r /><div><i>"6 efore 7, P efore R"</i></div>
inds to&nsp;{{c2::R}}.
1394239337348 1358629116480 Which protein from high-risk HPV inds to R?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::E7}}</div>
1394239349572 1358629116480 {{c1::Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia (CIN)}}
is a dysplastic pre-cancerous lesion of the cervix that commonly manifests foll
owing the loss of the tumour suppressors p53 and R following HPV infection.
1394239418125 1358629116480 {{c1::Cervival Intraepithelial Neoplasia (CIN)}}
is a dysplastic pre-cancerous lesion characterized y koilocytic change, disord
ered cellular maturation, nuclear atypia and increased mitotic activity <u>withi
n the cervical epithelium</u>.
1394239798129 1358629116480 Which grade of Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasi
a (CIN) involves 1/3 of the thickness of the epithelium?<div><r /></div><div><i
mg src="paste-4320737100023.jpg" /><img src="paste-4410931413233.jpg" /><img src
="paste-4432406249581.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::I}}</div></div>
1394239839883 1358629116480 Which grade of&nsp;Cervical Intraepithelial Neo
plasia (CIN) involves 2/3 of the thickness of the epithelium?<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-4496830759162.jpg" /><img src="paste-4475355922669.jpg" /><im
g src="paste-4518305595503.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::II}}</div></
div>
1394239860497 1358629116480 Which grade of&nsp;Cervical Intraepithelial Neo
plasia (CIN) involves slightly less that the entire thickness of the epithelium?
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4574140170489.jpg" /><img src="paste-45526
65333999.jpg" /><img src="paste-4595615006833.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div

>{{c1::III}}</div></div>
1394239887736 1358629116480 {{c1::Cervical Carcinoma <i>in situ</i>}} is a t
ype of&nsp;Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia (CIN) that involves the entire th
ickness of the epithelium.
1394239928616 1358629116480 Which grades of&nsp;Cervical Intraepithelial Ne
oplasia (CIN) are reversile?<div><r />{{c1::I, II and III}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>The chance of reversal decreases with increased grade.</i></div>
1394239958498 1358629116480 What is the most common types of high-risk HPV?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HPV16; HPV18}}</div>
1394240219632 1358629116480 What are the most common types of low-risk HPV?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HPV6; HPV11}}</div>
1394240234843 1358629116480 {{c1::Cervical Carcinoma}} is an invasive squamo
us cell carcinoma of the cervix that presents with vaginal leeding, postcoital
leeding and cervical discharge.
1394240306915 1358629116480 What demographic of women are more commonly affe
cted y Cervical Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Middle ages (40-50)}}</di
v>
1394240326453 1358629116480 What is the key risk factor for Cervical Carcino
ma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::High-risk HPV}}</div>
1394240357505 1358629116480 What is the most common <>modifiale</>&nsp;r
isk factor for Cervical Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smoking}}</div>
1394240399533 1358629116480 What is the most common type of Cervical Carcino
ma?<div><r /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous Cell Carcinoma (80%)}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Adenocarcinoma is 15% of cases; oth are related to HPV</i
></div>
1394240440688 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydronephrosis with Post-Renal failure}} i
s a common cause of death in advanced cases of Cervical Carcinoma due to the tum
our invading through the anterior uterine wall into the ladder.
1394240497605 1358629116480 How long does CIN typically take to ecome Cervi
cal Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::10-20 years}}</div>
1394240523986 1358629116480 What is the gold standard procedure for screenin
g for Cervical Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3693671874779.jpg
" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pap Smear}}</div></div> <div><r /></div
><img src="paste-3715146711394.jpg" />
1394240885054 1358629116480 What is the grade of dysplasia for cells with hy
perchromatic (dark) nuclei and a high nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::High grade dysplasia}}</div>
1394240943148 1358629116480 {{c1::Colposcopy}} is defined as visualization o
f the cervix with a magnifying glass. <r /><div><img src="paste-3749506449712
.jpg" /></div>
1394240978725 1358629116480 Which sutypes of HPV are covered y the current
quadrivalent vaccine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HPV6, 11, 16, 18}}</div>
1394241419152 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of infectious Cerv
icitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>}}</div>
1394241584251 1358629116480 {{c1::Cervicitis}} is a reproductive pathology d
efined as inflammation of the cervix.
1394241637476 1358629116480 {{c1::Endocervical Polyps}} are a enign cervica
l pathology that presents in the endocervical canal as a mass and involves vagin
al leeding or "spotting".<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3216930505096.jp
g" /><img src="paste-11789685227763.jpg" /></div>
1394241705535 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of CIN and Cervica
l Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::High-risk HPV}}</div>
1394242185928 1358629116480 What is the cancer risk associated with HPV42-44
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div>
1394242887061 1358629116480 What urogenital disorder is associated with lowrisk HPV sutypes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Condylomas/warts}}</div>
1394242914870 1358629116480 {{c1::Koilocytes}} are a histological feature of
HPV infected cells and involve a nucleus with a 'raisin-like' shape.<div><r />
790777760.jpg" /></div>
1394243578784 1358629116480 {{c1::Exophytic Cervical Carcinoma}} is a morpho
logical type of cervical carcinoma that presents as a fungating mass with nodule
s.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5987184410893.jpg" /></div>
1394244224708 1358629116480 {{c1::Infiltrative Cervical Carcinoma}} is a mor
phological type of cervical carcinoma that presents as a arrel-shaped cervix.<d
1394244275238 1358629116480 {{c1::Small Cell Carcinoma of the Cervix}} is a
Cervical cancer that involves the proliferation of neuroendocrine cells.
1394244499915 1358629116480 {{c1::Adenosquamous Carcinoma}} is a cervical ca
ncer that involves a mixture of malignant glandular and squamous epithelium.
1394244526202 1358629116480 Which hormone drives the growth of the endometri
um in the proliferative phase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estrogen}}</div>
1394244850826 1358629116480 Which hormone drives the preparation of the endo
metrium for implantation in the Secretory Phase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prog
esterone}}</div>
1394244873241 1358629116480 Loss of the hormone&nsp;{{c1::Progesterone}} tr
iggers the shedding of the endometrium in the Menstrual Phase.
1394244897737 1358629116480 What is the cause of Asherman Syndrome?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Loss of the asalis layer of the endometrium due to overaggre
ssive dilation/curettage}}</div>
1394244935163 1358629116480 {{c1::Asherman's Syndrome}} is a uterine disorde
r that involves secondary amenorrhea due to loss of the asalis layer of the end
ometrium and scarring. <r /><div><i>The asalis layer of the endometrium is th
e stem cell layer and regenerates the endomertrium as a whole.</i></div>
1394244976516 1358629116480 Which layer of the endometrium is the stem cell/
regenerative layer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basalis}}</div>
1394244990104 1358629116480 {{c1::Anovulatory Cycle}} is a uterine disorder
that involves a lack of ovulation due to a lack of Progesterone-driven secretory
phase that follows an Estrogen-driven proliferative phase.
1394245067689 1358629116480 {{c1::Anovulatory Cycle}} is a uterine disorder
that presents with irregular leeding due to lack of a Progesterone-driven secre
tory phase.
<r /><div><i>Glands shed and cause leeding; this is especially
seen during menarche and menopause.</i></div>
1394245127242 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Endometritis}} is defined as acute i
nfection of the endometrium, typically due to <>retained products of conception
</> that act as a nidus for infection. <r /><div><i>Typically seen following d
elivery, miscarriage, aortion or a foreign ody such as an IUD.</i></div><div><
i>Bacterial flora from the vagina or GI tract are the most common invaders.</i><
/div>
1394245175491 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Endometritis}} is defined as chron
ic inflammation of the endometrium and involves oth <>lymphocytes and plasma c
ells</>.
1394245209606 1358629116480 {{c1::Plasma Cells}} are an immune cell that is
<>necessary for the diagnosis of Chronic Endometritis as lymphocytes are normal
ly found in the endometrium</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1139025326
1394245840054 1358629116480 {{c1::Endometrial Polyps}} are a hyperplastic pr
otrusion of endometrium that commonly presents as anormal leeding, especially
in menopause.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11793980195059.jpg" /></div>
1394245866214 1358629116480 {{c1::Tamoxifen}} is an anti-estrogenic drug tha
t can cause endometrial polyps as it has weak pro-estrogenic effects on the endo
metrium.
1394245911690 1358629116480 {{c1::Endometriosis}} is a uterine disorder invo
lving the <>presence of endometrial glands and stroma outside of the uterine en
dometrium</> that presents with painful menstruation and pelvic pain.<div><r /
<r /><div><i>He
re there is an endometrial gland in the adominal musculature.</i></div><div><i>
Presents with <>cyclic pelvic pain, leeding, dysmenorrhea, dyspareunia, dysche
zia</>&nsp;and potentially <>infertility</>.</i></div>

1394246027424 1358629116480 What is the most likely cause of Endometriosis?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Retrograde Menstruation}}</div>
<img src="paste11553462026711.jpg" />
1394246043726 1358629116480 What is the most common site of involvement in E
ndometriosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ovary}}</div> <r /><div><i>Pelvis and
peritoneum round up the top 3.</i></div>
1394246072478 1358629116480 {{c1::Chocolate Cyst}} is a cystic formation at
the ovaries in endometriosis due to the growing and shedding of the ectopic endo
metrium.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11579231830283.jpg" /></div>
1394246183121 1358629116480 Endometriosis located at the&nsp;{{c1::Pouch of
Douglas}} will present as pain with defecation.
1394246276436 1358629116480 Endometriosis at the&nsp;{{c1::ladder wall}} w
ill present with pain during urination.
1394246307055 1358629116480 Endometriosis at the&nsp;{{c1::owel serosa}} w
ill present with adominal pain and adhesions.
1394246322301 1358629116480 Endometriosis at the&nsp;{{c1::Fallopian tue}}
will present with an increased risk of ectopic tual pregnancy due to the scarr
ing that occurs.
1394246357395 1358629116480 {{c1::Endometriosis}} is a uterine disorder that
involves ectopic implantations of endometrium that appear as <>yellow-rown</
>&nsp;<>'gun-powder'</>&nsp;nodules.
1394246397264 1358629116480 {{c1::Adenomyosis}} is defined as <u>endometrios
is that involves the uterine myometrium</u> due to <>hyperplasia of the asalis
layer of the endometrium</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-114847425497
56.jpg" /><img src="paste-11725260718426.jpg" /><img src="paste-11751030522085.j
pg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Involves <>dysmenorrhea, menorrhagia</>&nsp;and
a <>uniformly enlarged, soft, gloular uterus</>.</i></div><div><i>Tx: hyster
ectomy.</i></div>
1394246412808 1358629116480 What is the cause of Endometrial Hyperplasia?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Unopposed Estrogen}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. Estro
gen is not followed y Progesterone</i></div><div><i>Risk factors include <>ano
vulatory cycles, hormone replacement therapy, PCOS, granulosa cell tumour</>.</
i></div>
1394246617672 1358629116480 {{c1::Endometrial Hyperplasia}} is a uterine dis
order that involves hyperplasia of the endometrial glands relative to the stroma
.
1394246635041 1358629116480 What is the most important predictor for progres
sion of Endometrial Hyperplasia to carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Presenc
e of Cellular Atypia}}</div>
1394246696450 1358629116480 {{c1::Endometrial Carcinoma}} is a uterine cance
r that involves malignant proliferation of endometrial glands.
1394246735659 1358629116480 What is the most common <>invasive</>&nsp;tum
our of the female genital tract?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endometrial Carcinom
a}}</div>
1394246764849 1358629116480 What is the most common pathway leading to Endom
etrial Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperplasia}}</div>
1394246788725 1358629116480 What is the 2nd most common pathway leading to&n
sp;Endometrial Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sporadic}}</div>
1394246797681 1358629116480 What is the major risk factor for&nsp;Endometri
al Carcinoma via the Hyperplasia pathway?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Exposure to
Estrogen}}</div>
1394246840286 1358629116480 What is the average age of presentation of&nsp;
Endometrial Carcinoma via Hyperplasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::60}}</div>
1394246856483 1358629116480 {{c1::Endometrial Carcinoma via Hyperplasia}} is
a type of&nsp;Endometrial Carcinoma that involves an endometrioid histology (n
ormal endometrium-like).
1394246898384 1358629116480 {{c1::Sporadic Endometrial Carcinoma}} is a type
of&nsp;Endometrial Carcinoma that arises in atrophic endometrium without evide
nce of a precursor lesion or sign.
1394246940609 1358629116480 What is the average age of onset of Sporadic&ns

p;Endometrial Carcinoma?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::70}}</div>
1394246950082 1358629116480 {{c1::Sporadic Endometrial Carcinoma}} is a type
of&nsp;Endometrial Carcinoma that is usually serous and characterized y papil
lary structures with psammoma odies.
1394246986005 1358629116480 What gene mutation is commonly seen in Sporadic&
nsp;Endometrial Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p53}}</div>
1394246997622 1358629116480 What is the most common tumour in females?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Leiomyoma (Uterine Firoids)}}</div>
1394247019320 1358629116480 {{c1::Leiomyoma (Uterine Firoids)}} are enign
neoplastic proliferations of smooth muscle arising from the myometrium.<div><r
<r /><div><i>Of
ten presents with multiple discrete tumours.</i></div>
1394247183569 1358629116480 {{c1::Leiomyoma}} is a uterine neoplasm that inv
olves <>multiple, well defined, white, whorled</> masses that may distort the
uterus and pelvic structures.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1307388044938
7.jpg" /><img src="paste-13099650253169.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>However it
is typically asymptomatic.</i></div>
1394247250299 1358629116480 Which demographic of women is a commonly affecte
d with Leiomyoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Premenopausal and <u>lack</u>&nsp
;women}}</div>
1394247272868 1358629116480 {{c1::Leiomyosarcoma}} is a malignant proliferat
ion of smooth muscle arising <><u>de novo</u></> from the myometrium of the ut
erus. <r /><div><><i>Leiomyosarcoma does not arise from leiomyoma.</i></></
div>
1394247294932 1358629116480 {{c1::Leiomyosarcoma}} is a uterine neoplasm tha
t presents as a <>single</>&nsp;lesion with areas of necrosis and hemorrhage.
1394247327294 1358629116480 What demographic of women are commonly affected
with Leiomyosarcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Postmenopausal}}</div>
1394247385056 1358629116480 What is the risk of Leiomyoma progressing into L
eiomyosarcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::None; Leiomyosarcoma manifests <i>de n
ovo</i>&nsp;and not from Leiomyoma}}</div>
1394247563952 1358629116480 {{c1::Arias-Stella Phenomenon}} is a uterine dis
order that involves the in-folding and vacuolation of the glandular epithelium d
uring pregnancy.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10591389352074.jpg" /></di
v>
1394247618232 1358629116480 {{c1::Metrorrhagia}} is uterine leeding that oc
curs at <>inappropriate </>time with spotting and irregular intervals.
1394247712521 1358629116480 {{c1::Menorrhagia}} is defined as uterine leedi
ng at <>appropriate</>&nsp;times ut in excessive amounts (at regular interva
ls).
y Metrorrhagia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Peri-menopausal}}</div>
y Meno-metrorrhagia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Reproductive Age}}</div>
1394247819968 1358629116480 What demographic of women is commonly affected
y Menorrhagia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adolescent}}</div>
1394247834166 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Dysfunctional U
terine Bleeding (DUB)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anovulatory Cycle}}</div>
1394247882590 1358629116480 What are the 2 most common causes of Uterine Ble
eding in Pre-puescent females?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sexual ause and prec
ocious puerty}}</div>
1394247957996 1358629116480 What is the second most common cause of Uterine
Bleeding in adolescent females?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coagulation Disorders
}}</div>
<r /><div><i>First is anovulatory cycle</i></div>
1394248208873 1358629116480 What gene is involved with Simple Endometrial Hy
perplasia?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11948599017635.jpg" /><img src="
paste-11961483919512.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PTEN}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>There is minimal gland crowding and small cysts.</i></div>
1394248257156 1358629116480 Which gene is involved with Complex Endometrial

Hyperplasia?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11995843657893.jpg" /><img src
="paste-12008728559769.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::hMLH1}}</div></d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Crowded ack-to-ack glands; > 50% of the tissue is gla
ndular</i></div>
1394248304683 1358629116480 What gene is involved in Complex <>Atypical</>
&nsp;Hyperplasia of the Endometrium?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12034
498363556.jpg" /><img src="paste-12047383265423.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::K-RAS}}</div> <r /><div><i>Involves nuclear pleomorphism and mitoses.
</i></div>
1394248349298 1358629116480 What gene is involved in the progression of Comp
lex Atypical Hyperplasia to Grade 1 uterine Endometrioid Carcinoma?<div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-12137577578639.jpg" /><img src="paste-12193412153500.jp
g" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Beta-catenin and PIK3CA}}</div>
1394248425259 1358629116480 Which grade of Endometrial Carcinoma is poorly d
ifferientiated?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12227771891813.jpg" /><r /
><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div></div>
1394248462251 1358629116480 Which grade of Endometrial Carcinoma is moderate
ly differentiated?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12262131630182.jpg" /><
r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2}}</div></div>
1394248479965 1358629116480 Which grade of Endometrial Carcinoma is well-dif
ferentiated into glands?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12296491368534.jpg
" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div></div>
1394248501082 1358629116480 Which type of Endometrial Carcinoma is sporadic?
<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Type II, Non-endometrioid}}</div>
1394248540696 1358629116480 What is the major risk factor for sporadic, nonendometrioid Endometrial Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estrogen Deficien
cy}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Prognosis is poor.</i></div>
1394248578047 1358629116480 {{c1::Serous Carcinoma}} is a type of Non-Endome
trioid Endometrial Carcinoma that develops from endometrial surface epithelium.<
1394248642811 1358629116480 {{c1::Clear Cell Carcinoma}} is a type of&nsp;N
on-Endometrioid Endometrial Carcinoma that resemles gestational endometrium.<di
1394248665331 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant mixed Mullerian Tumour (MMMT)}}
is a type of Non-Endometrioid Endometrial Carcinoma that involves oth glandular
and stromal compartments that are malignant.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-12519829667925.jpg" /></div>
1394319101550 1358629116480 The {{c1::follicle}} is the functional unit of t
he ovary.
1394319147337 1358629116480 Which cells of the follicle respond to LH and ma
ke androgens?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Theca}}</div>
1394319181192 1358629116480 Which cells of the follicle respond to FSH and c
onvert androgens to estradiol?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Granulosa}}</div>
1394319207142 1358629116480 {{c1::LH}} is a pituitary hormone that acts on&n
sp;{{c2::Theca}} cells of the follicle to induce androgen production.
1394319237418 1358629116480 {{c1::FSH}} is a pituitary hormone that acts on&
nsp;{{c2::Granulosa}} cells of the follicle to convert androgen to estradiol.
1394319272192 1358629116480 Which hormone is predominantly secreted y the C
orpus Luteum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Progesterone}}</div>
1394319304927 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemorrhagic Corpus Luteal Cyst}} is an ova
rian disorder that results from hemorrhaging into a corpus luteum, especially du
ring early pregnancy.
1394319636355 1358629116480 {{c1::Follicular Cysts}} is a cystic ovarian pat
hology that results from degeneration of follicles. They have no clinical signif
icance.
1394319896976 1358629116480 {{c1::Polycystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD)}} is an
ovarian pathology that involves multiple follicular cysts due to hormonal imala
nce.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-14839112008044.jpg" /></div><div><img
src="paste-97495757619614.jpg" /></div>
1394319997633 1358629116480 What is the hormone imalance seen in Polycystic

Ovarian Disesae (PCOD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased LH; decreased FSH}
}</div>
1394320032230 1358629116480 What is the LH:FSH ratio in&nsp;Polycystic Ovar
ian Disesae (PCOD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 2}}</div>
1394320050270 1358629116480 Increased levels of&nsp;{{c1::LH}} in&nsp;Poly
cystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD) results in excess androgen production from theca c
ells, therey causing hirsutism.
1394320081685 1358629116480 {{c1::Hirsutism}} is defined as excess hair in f
emales in a male distriution.
1394320099430 1358629116480 The excess amount of androgens in&nsp;Polycysti
c Ovarian Disease (PCOD) is converted into&nsp;{{c1::estrone}} at adipose tissu
e.
1394320152292 1358629116480 {{c1::Estrone}} is a hormone made in&nsp;Polycy
stic Ovarian Disease (PCOD) through adipose-mediated conversion of androgens.
1394320179214 1358629116480 Estrone action in&nsp;Polycystic Ovarian Diseas
e (PCOD) involves feedack to the pituitary and susequent decrease in&nsp;{{c1
::FSH}} levels.
1394320212610 1358629116480 Reduced levels of the hormone&nsp;{{c1::FSH}} i
n&nsp;Polycystic Ovarian Disesae (PCOD) results in cystic degeneration of folli
cles in the ovary.
1394320867229 1358629116480 What cancer risk is associated with high levels
of circulating Estrone?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Increased risk of Endometrial C
arcinoma}}</div>
1394320910889 1358629116480 What is the classic triad of presentation in Pol
ycystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infertility, oligomen
orrhea and hirsutism}}</div>
<r /><div><i>And commonly seen in <>oese wome
n</>.</i></div>
1394321035552 1358629116480 {{c1::T2DM}} is a potential complication of Poly
cystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD) due to the insulin resistance that develops.
1394321071725 1358629116480 What is the most common <>type</>&nsp;of ovar
ian tumour?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface Epithelium}}</div>
1394326019256 1358629116480 Which type of ovarian tumour is derived from Coe
lomic Epithelium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surface Epithelial}}</div>
1394326065796 1358629116480 {{c1::Coelomic Epithelium}} is an emryological
epithelial structure that produces the epithelial lining of the fallopian tue,
endometrium and endocervix.
1394326165214 1358629116480 What are the 2 common sutypes of Surface Epithe
lial Ovarian tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Serous and Mucinous}}</div>
1394326197760 1358629116480 {{c1::Serous tumours}} are a sutype of Surface
Epithelial Ovarian tumours that are full of watery-fluid.
1394326236512 1358629116480 {{c1::Mucinous tumours}} are a sutype of&nsp;S
urface Epithelial Ovarian tumours that are full of mucous-like fluid. <r /><d
iv><i>Lined with mucus-secreting epithelium.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-10
0089917866322.jpg" /></i></div>
1394326250794 1358629116480 {{c1::Ovarian Cystadenoma}} is a type of&nsp;Su
rface Epithelial Ovarian tumour that is<> enign</> and is composed of a <>si
ngle cyst</> with a<> simple, flat lining</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-15753940041909.jpg" />serous</div><div><img src="paste-16651588206833.jpg"
/>mucinous</div>
y Ovarian Cystadenoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pre-menopausal; 30-40 y/o}}</
div>
1394326366684 1358629116480 {{c1::Ovarian Cystadenocarcinoma}} is a malignan
t&nsp;Surface Epithelial Ovarian tumour that involves <>complex cysts</>&nsp
;with a <>thick, shaggy </>lining.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-157797
09845735.jpg" />serous</div><div><img src="paste-16690242912544.jpg" /></div>
y Ovarian Cystadenocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Postmenopausal; 60-70
y/o}}</div>
1394326468667 1358629116480 {{c1::Borderline Ovarian tumour}} is a type of&n
sp;Surface Epithelial Ovarian tumour that have features in etween enign and m
alignant tumours, ut still have metastatic potential. <r /><div><img src="pas
te-15676630630586.jpg" /></div>
1394326514494 1358629116480 Which gene mutation is associated with an increa
sed risk for <>serous carcinoma</>&nsp;of the ovary and fallopian tue?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>BRCA1</i>}}</div>
1394326541946 1358629116480 {{c1::Endometrioid Ovarian tumour}} is a type of
malignant Surface Epithelial Ovarian tumour that is composed of endometrial-lik
e glands.
<r /><div><i>May arise from endometriosis; 15% associated with
independent endometrial carcinoma</i></div>
1394327131105 1358629116480 {{c1::Brenner tumour}} is a&nsp;Surface Epithel
ial Ovarian tumour that is composed of <>ladder-like/urothelial-like epitheliu
m with cofee-ean nuclei</> and are usually enign.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-17330193039637.jpg" /></div>
1394327197119 1358629116480 What serum tumour maker is useful to monitor tre
atment response or recurrence of ovarian cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CA-1
25}}</div>
1394327232407 1358629116480 What is the 2nd most common type of Ovarian tumo
ur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Germ Cell}}</div>
y Germ Cell Ovarian tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Reproductive}}</div>
1394327278238 1358629116480 {{c1::Cystic Teratoma}} and&nsp;{{c2::Emryonal
Carcinoma}} are Germ Cell Ovarian tumours that are comprised of fetal tissue.
1394327358514 1358629116480 {{c1::Dygerminoma}} is a&nsp;Germ Cell Ovarian
tumour that mimics oocytes.
1394327387970 1358629116480 {{c1::Endodermal Sinus Tumour}} is a&nsp;Germ C
ell Ovarian tumour that mimics yolk sac tissue.
1394327402134 1358629116480 {{c1::Choriocarcinoma}} is a&nsp;Germ Cell Ovar
ian tumour that mimics placental tissue.
1394327416246 1358629116480 {{c1::Cystic Teratoma}} is a&nsp;Germ Cell Ovar
ian tumour that is composed of cystic fetal tissue from 2 or 3 different emryol
ogic layers.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18360985190795.jpg" /></div><d
1394327743565 1358629116480 What is the most common Germ Cell Ovarian tumour
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cystic Teratoma}}</div>
1394327790445 1358629116480 {{c1::Cystic Teratoma}} is a type of&nsp;Germ C
ell Ovarian tumour that is usually enign, however the <>presence of immature t
issue or somatic malignancy will indicate the malignant potential</>.
1394327845026 1358629116480 What kind of immature tissue is normally seen in
malignant Cystic Teratomas?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18296560681339
.jpg" /><img src="paste-18322330484979.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Neural}}</div></div>
1394327866253 1358629116480 What somatic malignancy is commonly seen in mali
gnant Cystic Teratomas?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma of th
e skin}}</div>
1394327900576 1358629116480 {{c1::Struma ovarii}} is a Cystic Teratoma that
is composed primarily of thyroid tissue.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18
<r /><d
iv><i><>Thyrotoxicosis</> may occur.</i></div>
1394327958053 1358629116480 {{c1::Dysgerminoma}} is a&nsp;Germ Cell Ovarian
tumour that is composed of <>large cells with clear cytoplasm and central nucl
ei resemling oocytes or fried-eggs</>. There is also a delicate stroma with ly
mphocytes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17961553232141.jpg" /></div><div
1394328368672 1358629116480 What is the most common <>malignant</>&nsp;Ge
rm Cell Ovarian tumour?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dysgerminoma}}</div>
1394328382735 1358629116480 Which Germ Cell Ovarian Tumour is associated wit
h elevated LDH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dysgerminoma}}&nsp;</div>
1394328405722 1358629116480 What is the prognosis for Dysgerminoma?<div><r

/></div><div>{{c1::Good; good response to radiotherapy}}</div>
1394328422799 1358629116480 {{c1::Endodermal Sinus Tumour}} is a malignant G
erm Cell Ovarian tumour that mimics the yolk sac.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-18034567676189.jpg" /></div>
1394328451968 1358629116480 What is the most common&nsp;Germ Cell Ovarian t
umour in children?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endodermal Sinus Tumour}}</div>
1394328464572 1358629116480 What serum marker is elevated in Endodermal Sinu
s Tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AFP}}</div>
1394328481838 1358629116480 {{c1::Schiller-Duval odies}} are histological f
eatures of Endodermal Sinus (olk Sac) Tumours that resemle glomeruli.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-18064632447231.jpg" /><img src="paste-1009489113255
1394328530408 1358629116480 {{c1::Choriocarcinoma}} is a malignant Germ Cell
Ovarian tumour that is composed of cytotropholast and syncytiotropholasts.<di
1394328571319 1358629116480 {{c1::Choriocarcinoma}} is a malignant&nsp;Germ
Cell Ovarian tumour that mimics placental tissue, ut <>does not involve have
villi</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-100721278058830.jpg" /></div>
1394328596803 1358629116480 {{c1::Choriocarcinoma}} is a&nsp;Germ Cell Ovar
ian tumour that is small and hemorrhagic and hence spreads hematogenously and ea
rly.
1394328660602 1358629116480 What serum marker is characteristically elevated
in Choriocarcimoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::eta-hCG; produced y Syncytiotr
opholasts}}</div>
1394328699644 1358629116480 {{c1::Emryonal Carcinoma}} is a malignant Germ
Cell Ovarian tumour that is composed of large, primitive emryonal cells. It is
aggressive with early metastasis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-866294903
6245.jpg" /></div>
1394328741715 1358629116480 {{c1::Sex Cord Stromal Tumours}} are a type of O
varian Tumour that resemle the sex-cord stromal tissue of the ovary (theca and
granulosa cells).
1394329873494 1358629116480 {{c1::Granulosa-Theca Cell Tumour}} is a type of
Sex Cord-Stromal Ovarian tumour that involves a neoplastic proliferation of gra
nulosa and theca cells.
1394329914752 1358629116480 What hormone is produced y Granulosa-Theca Cell
Tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estrogen}}</div>
1394329939327 1358629116480 A Granulosa-Theca Cell tumour that presents&nsp
;{{c1::prior to puerty}} will present as precocious puerty.
1394329973492 1358629116480 A Granulosa-Theca Cell Tumour that presents duri
ng&nsp;{{c1::reproductive age}} will present with menorrhagia and metrorrhagia.
1394330000568 1358629116480 A Granulosa-Theca Cell tumour that presents&nsp
;{{c1::postmenopause}} will present with endometrial hyperplasia and postmenopau
sal uterine leeding.
y Granulosa-Theca Cell tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Postmenopausal}}</div
>
1394330066142 1358629116480 {{c1::Sertoli-Leydig cell tumour}} is a type of&
nsp;Sex Cord-Stromal Ovarian tumour composed of Sertoli cells that form tuules
and Leydig cells etween them with <>Reinke</>&nsp;crystals.<div><r /></div
1394330123439 1358629116480 {{c1::Reinke crystals}} are a histological featu
re of Leydig cells of Sertoli-Leydig Cell Tumours that appear as intracellular c
rystals.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9058086027599.jpg" /></div>
1394330174052 1358629116480 {{c1::Ovarian Firoma}} is a enign&nsp;Sex Cor
d-Stromal Ovarian tumour of firolasts.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18
923625906437.jpg" /></div>
1394330196169 1358629116480 {{c1::Meigs Syndrome}} is a tumour syndrome that
involves <>ovarian firoma, pleural effusions and ascites</>.
1394330218316 1358629116480 {{c1::Krukenerg tumour}} is a type of metastati
c mucinous ovarian tumor that involves <>oth</>&nsp;ovaries.<div><r /></div

1394330252158 1358629116480 What cancer most commonly causes Krukenerg tumo
urs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metastatic Diffuse Gastric Carcinoma}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, Krukenerg tumours likely have signet-ring cells.</i></div>
<div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-19155554140545.jpg" /></i></div>
1394330284182 1358629116480 {{c1::Pseudomyxoma Peritonei}} is a metastatic o
varian tumour that presents as massive amounts of mucous in the peritoneum typic
ally due to Appendiceal Mucinous Cystadenocarcinoma.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-16728897618285.jpg" /></div>
1394330341649 1358629116480 Which gene is closely associated with <>Mucinou
s</> Cystadenocarcinoma of the Ovary?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::K-Ras}}</div>
1394332017566 1358629116480 {{c1::Serous Cystadenocarcinoma}} is a type of m
alignant Surface Epithelial Ovarian tumour that involves malignant epithelial ce
lls arranged in a papillae or solid sheet formation with <>psamomma odies</>.
7213570211.jpg" /></div>
1394332073100 1358629116480 What gene is commonly implicated in Endometrioid
Ovarian Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PTEN}}</div>
<r /><div><i>p5
3 in the poorly differentiated tumours</i></div>
1394332477626 1358629116480 What gene is associated with Clear Cell Carcinom
a of the Ovary?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17274358464776.jpg" /><r /
><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>HNF1</i>}}</div></div>
1394332585588 1358629116480 What gene is commonly upregulated in Dysgerminom
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>c-KIT</i>}}</div>
1394332960259 1358629116480 {{c1::Dysgerminoma}} is a&nsp;Germ Cell Ovarian
tumour that is unilateral, solid and has a osselated surface.<div><r></div><d
1394333032196 1358629116480 What marker is produced y Granulosa Cell Tumour
s that we can use diagnostically?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiin}}</div>
1394333879442 1358629116480 {{c1::Granulosa Cell Tumours}} is a type of Stro
mal Cell Ovarian tumour that involves sheets or cords or small polygonal cells w
ith follicular structures called&nsp;<>Call-Exner odies</>&nsp;and <>coffe
e ean nuclei</>.<div><><r /></></div><div><><img src="paste-18644453032202
.jpg" /></></div><div><><img src="paste-18657337934057.jpg" /></></div>
1394387633986 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypospadias}} is a congenital disorder of
the penis that involves opening of the urethra on the inferior surface of the pe
nis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6210522710177.jpg" /></div>
1394388395006 1358629116480 What is cause of Hypospadias?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Failure of the urethral folds to close}}</div>
1394388410609 1358629116480 {{c1::Epispadias}} is a congenital penis disorde
r that involves opening of the urethra on the superior surface of the penis.<div
1394388434982 1358629116480 What is the cause of Epispadias?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Anormal positioning of the genital tuercle}}</div>
1394388455675 1358629116480 What causes Condylomata Acuminatum?<div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-6532645257480.jpg" /><img src="paste-6562710028496.jpg"
/><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HPV6; HPV11}}</div></div>
1394388479848 1358629116480 What is the cause of Lymphogranuloma Venereum?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>&nsp;serotypes L1-L3}}</d
iv>
1394388519835 1358629116480 {{c1::Rectal Strictures}} are a possile complic
ation of Lymphogranuloma Venereum if the perianal area is involved and undergoes
firosis.
1394388562593 1358629116480 What is the most common risk factor for Squamous
Cell Carcinoma of the Penis?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7413113553274
.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::High-risk HPV (66% of cases)}}</div></
div>
1394388597280 1358629116480 Besides high-risk HPV, what is the second most m
ajor risk factor for Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Penis?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Lack of circumcision and poorly maintained foreskin}}</div>

1394388883189 1358629116480 {{c1::Bowen's Disease}} is a precursor carcinoma
<i>in situ</i>&nsp;lesion of the penile shaft or scrotum that presents as leuk
oplakia, it may progress to Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Penis.
1394388951738 1358629116480 {{c1::Erythroplasia of Queyrat}} is a precursor
carcinoma <i>in situ</i>&nsp;lesion found on the <>glans</> of the penis and
presents as <>erythroplakia</>. It may progress to&nsp;Squamous Cell Carcinom
a of the Penis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7224134992134.jpg" /></div>
1394389027207 1358629116480 {{c1::Bowenoid Papulosis}} is a precursor carcin
oma <i>in situ</i>&nsp;lesion that presents as <>multiple reddish papules</>&
nsp;on the penis and is seen more commonly in younger patients (40 y/o).
<r /><div><><i>Will not progress to invasive carcinoma.</i></></div>
1394389100397 1358629116480 {{c1::Cryptorchidism}} is a testicular disorder
defined as a failure of the testicles to descend into the scrotal sac. <r /><d
1394389141450 1358629116480 What is the most common congenital male reproduc
tive anormality?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cryptorchidism}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Seen in 1% of male infants.</i></div>
1394389168922 1358629116480 Which cancer has an increase risk of manifesting
with Cryptorchidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Seminoma}}</div>
1394389209574 1358629116480 {{c1::Orchitis}} is defined as inflammation of t
he testicles.
1394389221377 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>&nsp;(D-K)}}
and&nsp;{{c2::<i>Neisseria gonorrheae</i>}} are the 2 most common acterial cau
ses of orchitis in <>young adults</>.&nsp;
1394389639918 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Escherichia coli</i>}} and&nsp;{{c2::<
i>Pseudomonas sp.</i>}} are the 2 most common acterial causes of orchitis in <
>older adults</>.
<r /><div><i>These UTI ugs commonly spread to the repr
oductive tract in older men.</i></div>
1394389682409 1358629116480 {{c1::Mumps virus}} is a common <>viral</> cau
se of orchitis in teenage males.&nsp;<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7958
574399711.jpg" /></div>
1394389709312 1358629116480 {{c1::Autoimmune Orchitis}} is a type of orchiti
s that involves granulomas at the seminiferous tuules. <r /><div><i>TB orchiti
s can also involve granulomas, so an AFB stain may e used to differentiate the
2.</i></div>
1394389767100 1358629116480 {{c1::Testicular Torsion}} is a testicular patho
logy that involves twisting of the spermatic cord and susequent congestion and
hemorrhagic infarct due to thin-walled veins ecoming ostructed.<div><r /></di
1394389867697 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Testicular Tors
ion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congenital failure of the testes to attach to th
e inner lining of the scrotum}}</div>
1394389905276 1358629116480 {{c1::Varicocele}} is a testicular pathology tha
t involves dilation of the spermatic vein due to impaired drainage. It presents
with a <>"ag of worms"</>&nsp;appearance.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-7911329759481.jpg" /><img src="paste-7932804595875.jpg" /></div><div><img src
="paste-104049877713314.jpg" /></div>
1394389950293 1358629116480 What side of the ody is commonly affected y Va
ricocele?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left; due to Left Testicular Vein draining
into the Left Renal Vein}}</div>
<r /><div><i>There is increased resista
nce to lood flow from the left gonadal vein drainage into the left renal vein.<
/i></div>
1394389987933 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydrocele}} is a testicular pathology that
involves fluid collection within the tunica vaginalis and can <>transilluminat
e</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7464653160614.jpg" /></div>
1394390026103 1358629116480 What is the cause of Hydrocele in infants?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Incomplete closure of the processus vaginalis; therefore a
llowing for communication with the peritoneal cavity}}</div>
1394390065559 1358629116480 What is the cause of Hydrocele in adults?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Blockage of lymphatic drainage}}</div>

1394390081587 1358629116480 Testicular tumours are not iopsied due to risk
of seeding the&nsp;{{c1::scrotum}}.
1394392202469 1358629116480 What is the most common type of testicular tumou
r?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Germ cell tumour}}</div>
1394392216454 1358629116480 {{c1::Kleinfelter's Syndrome}} is a sex chromoso
me disorder that presents with an increased risk for Germ Cell Testicular tumour
s.
1394392250003 1358629116480 {{c1::Seminoma}} is a type of&nsp;Germ Cell Tes
ticular tumour that are highly responsive to radiotherapy, metastasize late and
have excellent prognosis.
1394392284941 1358629116480 {{c1::Nonseminoma}} is a type of&nsp;Germ Cell
Testicular tumour that shows variale responses to treatment and metastasizes<>
early.</><div><><r /></></div><div><><img src="paste-8637179232575.jpg" />
</></div>
1394392315416 1358629116480 {{c1::Seminoma}} is a malignant Germ Cell Testic
ular tumour that is comprised of large cells with clear cytoplasm and central nu
clei.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8598524526829.jpg" /></div>
1394392375671 1358629116480 {{c1::Seminoma}} is a type of&nsp;Germ Cell Tes
ticular tumour that forms a homogenous mass with no hemorrhaging or necrosis.<di
1394392396581 1358629116480 What is the most common testicular tumour?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Seminoma}}</div> <i><div></div></i><i><r />Resemles Dys
germinoma of the ovaries</i>
1394392414883 1358629116480 What is the prognosis for Seminoma?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Good}}</div>
1394392430258 1358629116480 {{c1::Emryonal Carcinoma}} is a malignant&nsp;
Germ Cell Testicular tumour comprised of immature, primitive cells that may prod
uce glands.
1394392455552 1358629116480 {{c1::Emryonal Carcinoma}} is a malignant&nsp;
Germ Cell Testicular tumour that forms a <>hemorrhagic mass with necrosis</> a
nd hence metastasizes early via the lood.
1394392500373 1358629116480 {{c1::olk Sac (Endodermal Sinus) tumour}} is a
malignant&nsp;Germ Cell Testicular tumour that resemles the yolk sac.
1394392569243 1358629116480 What is the most common testicular tumour in chi
ldren?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::olk Sac (Endodermal Sinus) tumours}}</div>
1394392838361 1358629116480 {{c1::Schiller-Duval odies}} are histological f
eatures of yolk sac tumours that look like glomeruli.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-8963596747012.jpg" /></div>
1394392871998 1358629116480 What serum marker is classically elevated in yol
k sac tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AFP}}</div>
Cell Testicular tumour that involves syncytiotropholasts and cytotropholasts.
Cell Testicular tumour that characteristically presents with elevated eta-hCG
and hence <>hyperthyroidism</>&nsp;or <>gynecomastia</>&nsp;may e seen.
1394392972531 1358629116480 What serum marker is classically elevated in Cho
riocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::eta-hCG}}</div>
1394392989979 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperthyroidism}} is a common complication
of Choriocarcinoma as the alpha-suunit of hCG is similar to that of TSH.
1394393015203 1358629116480 {{c1::Gynecomastia}} is a common complication of
Choriocarcinoma as the alpha-suunit of hCG is similar to that of FSH and LH.
1394393037029 1358629116480 In whic sex is a teratoma malignant?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Males}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-9028021256356.jpg" />
</div>
1394394266996 1358629116480 {{c1::Germ Cell tumours}} are a type of testicul
ar tumour that are commonly mixed. The prognosis is ased on the worst complaint
.
1394394301545 1358629116480 {{c1::Leydig Cell tumours}} are a Sex Cord-Strom
al Tumour seen in males that usually produces androgens, therey causing precoci
ous puerty in children or gynecomastia in adults.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-9062380994895.jpg" /></div>
1394394542087 1358629116480 {{c1::Reinke crystals}} are a characteristic his
tological feature of Leydig Cell Tumours.
1394394557978 1358629116480 {{c1::Sertoli Cell tumours}} are a type of&nsp;
Sex Cord-Stromal Tumour that are comprised of tuules and is usually clinically
silent.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9118215569659.jpg" /></div>
1394394589426 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of a testicular ma
ss in males > 60 y/o?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lymphoma; usually diffuse la
rge-B cell}}</div>
1394394664135 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Prostatitis}} is defined as acute in
flammation of the prostate, typically due to acterial infection.<div><r /></di
1394394808008 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>}} and&nsp;{{
c2::<i>Neisseria gonorrheae</i>}} are the 2 most common causes of acute prostati
tis in young adults.
1394394831823 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Escherichia coli</i>}} and&nsp;{{c2::<
i>Pseudomonas sp.</i>}} are the 2 most common causes of acute prostatitis in old
er adults.
1394394854973 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Prostatitis}} is a type of prostatit
is that will involve WBCs in prostatic secretions and a positive acterial cultu
re.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9311489097931.jpg" /></div>
1394394896026 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Prostatitis}} is a type of prostat
itis that will involve WBCs in the prostatic secretion and <>negative</>&nsp;
acterial cultures.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9345848836312.jpg" /></
div>
1394394923599 1358629116480 Which hormone is related to Benign Prostatic Hyp
erplasia (BPH)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)}}</div>
1394395127421 1358629116480 {{c1::Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)}} is an androgen
that acts on the androgen receptors of stromal and epithelial cells of the pros
tate, resulting in hyperplastic nodules.
1394395158683 1358629116480 Which zone of the prostate is affected in BPH?<d
iv><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Central periurethral (transition) zone}}</div></d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Hence, urinary prolems are frequent and common.</i></div>
<div><i><img src="paste-103379862815128.jpg" /><img src="paste-10445360464262.jp
g" /></i></div>
1394395204958 1358629116480 What makes Prostate-specific Antigen (PSA)?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Prostatic glands}}</div>
1394395238512 1358629116480 What is the most common cancer in men?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Prostate Adenocarcinoma}}</div>
1394395355386 1358629116480 What zone of the prostate is commonly affected
y Prostate Adenocarcinoma?<div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Peripheral, posterior
zone}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, urinary symptoms will only present
after the tumour has developed.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-103375567847832
.jpg" /></i></div>
1394395401131 1358629116480 Which level of PSA is worrying and a possile si
gn of Prostate Adenocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 10 ng/mL}}</div>
1394395427823 1358629116480 What type of PSA is made y prostate cancer?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bound-PSA}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence, decreased %
of free PSA is worrying</i></div>
1394395457820 1358629116480 What are the 2 most common sites of spread for p
rostate cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lumar spine & pelvis}}</div>
1394395654386 1358629116480 {{c1::Reiter Syndrome}} is a self-limiting infec
tious syndrome that involves <>urethritis, conjunctivitis </>and <>arthritis<
/>.
<r><i>Everyone at AUC has Reiters Syndrome</i>
1394396756282 1358629116480 What HLA sutype is associated with Reiter's Syn
drome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div>
1394396768534 1358629116480 {{c1::Phimosis}} is a congenital disorder of the
penis that involves the foreskin eing too tight, therey increasing the risk f
or recurrent infections and carcinoma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5699

421601958.jpg" /></div>
1394396916291 1358629116480 {{c1::Paraphimosis}} is a congenital disorder of
the penis where the foreskin is trapped ehind the glans of the penis.<div><r
1394396948976 1358629116480 {{c1::Balanoposthitis}} is defined as inflammati
on of the glans and prepuce of the penis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6
713033883942.jpg" /></div>
1394397054600 1358629116480 {{c1::Peyronie's Disease}} is a penile disorder
that involves focal asymmetical firosis of the penis, therey resulting in ano
rmal penile curvature and pain during erection.&nsp;<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-6850472837346.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>"Nike dick"</i></div>
1394397203370 1358629116480 {{c1::Spermatocele}} is a testicular disorder th
at is defined as a cystic dilation of the epididymis. The drained fluid is milky
with spermatozoa.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7632156885268.jpg" /><im
1394397847580 1358629116480 {{c1::Orchiopexy}} is a surgical procedure that
involves the placement of the testis into the scrotum.
1394397981699 1358629116480 Which lymph nodes are typically the first site o
f metastasis in Testicular Cancer?<div><r />{{c1::Retroperitoneal para-aortic l
ymph nodes}}</div>
1394398025421 1358629116480 Which genes are associated with Seminoma?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>c-KIT</i>&nsp;and <i>OCT4</i>}}</div>
1394398087621 1358629116480 Which cell marker is positive in Emryonal Cell
Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD30}}</div>
1394398497876 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome}} is the most
common type of prostatitis and involves lower ack pain, dysuria, puic discomf
ort, painful ejaculation and no pathogens grown.
1394398568281 1358629116480 {{c1::Granulomatous Prostatitis}} is a type of p
rostatitis that involves inflammatory infiltrations of plasma cells, lymphocytes
and macrophages with granulomas.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-988701471
5748.jpg" /></div>
1394399051593 1358629116480 {{c1::Prostate Adenocarcinoma}} is a cancer of t
he prostate that shows small invasive glands with prominent nuclei.<div><r /></
251441568.jpg" /></div>
1394399184103 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Gleason grading/pattern scale}} i
s a scale used to grade prostate cancer ased off of <>architecture</>&nsp;al
one, not cellular atypia.
1394399212336 1358629116480 {{c1::Serum AlkPhos}} is a serum marker that wil
l e elevated if prostate cancer shows osteolastic metastases.
1394419096491 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::testes}} are homologous to the&n
sp;{{c2::ovaries}}
1394419736396 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::penis}} is homologous to the&nsp
;{{c2::clitoris}} in women.
1394419769514 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::spongy urethra}} is homologous to
the&nsp;{{c2::laia minora}} in women.
1394419787965 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::scrotum}} is homologous to the&n
sp;{{c2::laia majora}} in women.
1394419799750 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::prostate gland}} is homologous to
the&nsp;{{c2::paraurethral glands/female prostate (G spot)}} in women.
1394419822656 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Bulourethral glands}} are homolo
gous to the&nsp;{{c2::greater vestiular glands}} in women.
1394419841938 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::guernaculum}} is homologous to t
he&nsp;{{c2::round ligament}} in women.
1394419859737 1358629116480 {{c1::Sertoli Cells}} are homologous to&nsp;{{c
2::granulosa cells}} in women.
1394419874792 1358629116480 {{c1::Leydig cells}} are homologous to&nsp;{{c2
::thecal cells}} in women.
1394419889599 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::uterosacral}} and&nsp;{{c2::card
inal}} ligaments provide <>vertical</>&nsp;support for the uterus.

1394419925056 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::puocervical}} and&nsp;{{c2::rec
tovaginal}} fascia provide <>horizontal</>&nsp;support for the internal femal
e genitalia.
1394419955676 1358629116480 {{c1::Uterine prolapse}} is a gynegological diso
rder that occurs when the internal female genitalia loses <>apical</>&nsp;sup
port.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16582868730113.jpg" /></div>
1394420078906 1358629116480 {{c1::Cystocele (Anterior Wall Vaginal Prolapse)
}} is a gynecological disorder that occurs when the internal female genitalia lo
ses <>puocervical horizonal</>&nsp;support.<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-17025250361660.jpg" /></div>
<div><i><r /></i></div>
1394420243222 1358629116480 {{c1::Rectocele}} is a gynecological disorder th
at occurs when the internal female genitalia loses <>horizontal rectovaginal</
>&nsp;support.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17038135263545.jpg" /></div
>
1394420335832 1358629116480 Which emryological structure develops into the
epididymis, vas deferens and seminal vesicles?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesone
phric (Wolffian) ducts}}</div>
1394420404553 1358629116480 Which emryological structures develop into the
fallopian tues, uterus and upper 1/3 of the vagina?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Paramesonephric (Mullerian) ducts}}</div>
1394420434703 1358629116480 Mullerian fusion defects will only present with
pain if there is an ostruction to&nsp;{{c1::menstrual lood flow}}. <r /><d
1394420491939 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::septate uterus}} is a pathological
form of the uterus that involves a large septum down the center of the uterus an
d a <>unified uterine fundus</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17300128
268402.jpg" /></div>
1394420640136 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Bicornuate uterus}} is a pathologic
al form of the uterus that involves a large septum, <>separate uterine fundi</
>&nsp;and commonly&nsp;<>one cervix</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-17351667875957.jpg" /></div>
1394420713153 1358629116480 {{c1::Uterine Didelphus}} is a pathological form
of the uterus that involves 2 entirely separate uteruses. Two separate vaginal
canals may or may not e present.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-173946175
48897.jpg" /><img src="paste-17407502450960.jpg" /><img src="paste-1742038735278
2.jpg" /></div>
1394420859926 1358629116480 {{c1::Secondary Amenorrhea}} is a type of amenor
rhea that involves cessation of menses for the length of time of 3 normal menstr
ual cycles or for a six month duration.
1394421232654 1358629116480 {{c1::Primary Amenorrhea}} is a type of amenorrh
ea that is defined as a lack of period y age 14 in the asence of development o
f secondary sexual characteristics.
1394421304419 1358629116480 {{c1::Primary Amenorrhea}} is a type of amenorrh
ea that is defined as a lack of period y age 16 regardless of the presence or a
sence of normal growth or secondary sexual characteristics.
1394561161293 1358629116480 What hormone does the Hypothalamus release that
influences the genitals?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GnRH}}</div>
1394561812328 1358629116480 {{c1::FSH}} and&nsp;{{c2::LH}} are hormones rel
eased from the anterior pituitary that stimulate the ovaries to release estrogen
and progesterone.
1394561855551 1358629116480 {{c1::Kallmann's Syndrome}} is a genetic disorde
r that results in <>hypogonadotropic hypogonadism</> due to an asence of GnRH
. There is also anosmia/hyposmia.
<r /><div><i>Can hense cause Primary Am
enorrhea, infantile sexual development, low gonadotropins and anosmia.</i></div>
1394561968822 1358629116480 {{c1::Kallmann's Syndrome}} is a genetic disorde
r that involves a <>failure of migration of oth olfactory axons and GnRH neuro
ns from the olfactory placode to the hypothalamus</>. <r /><div><i>Hence ther
e is <>hypogonadism, primary amenorrhea, low sperm count, infertility and anosm
ia/hyposmia</>&nsp;due to decreased synthesis of GnRH and the olfactory ul.<
/i></div>
1394562034511 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Kalmann's Syndrome?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estrogen/Progesterone replacement}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>The gonads are <>normal</>, there is simply a lack of GnRH</i></div>
1394562076037 1358629116480 {{c1::Exercise Induced Hypothalamic Amenorrhea}}
is a gynecological disorder that involves suppression of the hypothalamus due t
o a critical amount of ody fat (~22%) and physical/mental stress.
1394562190464 1358629116480 What are the FSH and LH levels in&nsp;Exercise
Induced Hypothalamic Amenorrhea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Prolactin is normal as the pituitary is normal, there is simply hypothalam
ic suppression and hence low GnRH.</i></div>
1394562224083 1358629116480 {{c1::Endorphins}} are endogenous opiates that c
an suppress GnRH secretion at the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus and hence
contriute to&nsp;Exercise Induced Hypothalamic Amenorrhea.
1394562250155 1358629116480 {{c1::CRH}} is a hypothalamic hormone that is el
evated in athletes and can oth directly and indirectly inhiit GnRH release, th
erey contriuting to&nsp;Exercise Induced Hypothalamic Amenorrhea.
1394562777629 1358629116480 What is the estrogen level in patient with&nsp;
Hypothalamic Suppression?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Markedly low}}</div>
1394562887105 1358629116480 Patient with a deficiency of the sex hormone {{c
1::Estrogen}} are at increased risk of osteoporosis and one fracture if left un
treated.
1394562925333 1358629116480 What is Prolactin's effects on GnRH levels?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1394562960735 1358629116480 What are the level of Gonadotropins (FSH & L
H) in a patient with a Prolactinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence there is also downstream Estrogen deficiency and susequent
risk of osteoporosis, CVD and vaginal atrophy.</i></div>
1394563004408 1358629116480 {{c1::Primary Ovarian Failure/Insufficiency}} is
defined as ovarian failure occuring efore age 40.
1394563115719 1358629116480 {{c1::Autoimmune Adrenal Insufficiency}} is a po
tentially fatal disorder that may e seen in young women that fall victim to spo
ntaneous primary ovarian insufficiency.
1394563159896 1358629116480 {{c1::Adrenal Isufficiency}} is a hormonal syndr
ome commonly associated with Premature Ovarian Failure and involves orthostatic
hypotension, hyperpigmentation, salt craving and decreased puic hair.
1394563435130 1358629116480 What gene is involved in Fragile X Syndrome?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::FMR1}}</div>
1394563477221 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Fragile X Syn
drome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked}}</div>
1394563494328 1358629116480 How many CGG repeats are associated with patient
s <>affected</>&nsp;y Fragile X Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 20
0}}</div>
1394563577248 1358629116480 What nucleotide repeat is associated with Fragil
e X Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CGG}}</div>
1394563592897 1358629116480 {{c1::Imperforate Hymen}} is a gynecological dis
order that involves distal ostruction of the genital outflow tract that commonl
y presents at puerty as a ulging hymen, cyclic pelvic pain and amenorrhea.<div
1394563702485 1358629116480 {{c1::Mullerian Agenesis}} is a congenital gynec
ological disorder that presents with primary amenorrhea and an asent/hypoplasti
c vagina due to no development of the Mullerian system. <div><r /></div><i>aka
Mayer-Rokitanksy-Kuster-Hauser Syndrome</i><r /><div><i>Ovarian function and gr
owth/development of the patient are <>oth normal</>.</i></div>
1394563896557 1358629116480 What is the karyotype of a patient with Complete
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::46X}}</div>
1394563931504 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Androgen Inse
nsitivity Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X-Linked}}</div>
1394563954597 1358629116480 {{c1::Mullerian Inhiiting Factor}} is a hormone
produced y the Sertoli Cells of the testes in emryological development that p
revents the formation of the uterus, fallopian tues and upper 1/3 of the vagina
.
1394563991159 1358629116480 {{c1::Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome}} is a gen
etic disorder that causes pseudohermaphroditism due to X-linked mutations in gen
es that reduce the function of the intracellular androgen receptor.
1394564092917 1358629116480 In Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome, {{c1::Estrog
en}} is produced y the peripheral conversion of Testosterone and is adequate fo
r the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
1394564203622 1358629116480 When must gonadectomy e performed in a patient
with Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Post-puertal}}
</div>
1394564261006 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Primary Amenorr
hea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gonadal Dysgenesis}}</div>
1394564283996 1358629116480 What is the 2nd most common cause of Primary Ame
norrhea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mullerian Agenesis}}</div>
1394564296310 1358629116480 What is the 3rd most common cause of Primary Ame
norrhea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome}}</div>
1394564310377 1358629116480 What amount of puic/sexual hair is seen in pati
ents with Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Asent or
sparse}}</div>
1394564358941 1358629116480 How frequent are other anomalies in Androgen Ins
ensitivity Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rare}}</div>
1394564377097 1358629116480 How frequent are other anomalies in Mullerian Ag
enesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Frequent}}</div>
1394564387443 1358629116480 What is the karyotype for a patient with Mulleri
an Agenesis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::46XX}}</div>
1394564404493 1358629116480 Which enzyme converts Testosterone to DHT?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::5-alpha Reductase}}</div>
1394564447067 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of 5-alpha Reduc
tase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1394564563961 1358629116480 What gene is involved in 5-Alpha Reductase defic
iency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::SRD5A2}}</div>
1394564602824 1358629116480 {{c1::5-alpha Reductase deficiency}} &nsp;is a
genetic disorder that presents with an <>amiguous, small hypospadiac phallu</
>s and <>lind vaginal pouch</> due to an inaility to convert Testosterone in
to DHT.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3577707757711.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Until puerty.</i></div><div><i>Internal genitalia are normal (rem
emer, that only requires testosterone)</i></div>
1394564682112 1358629116480 What is the Testosterone:DHT ratio in 5-Alpha Re
ductase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1394564716346 1358629116480 {{c1::Leiomyoma}} is a enign uterine tumour tha
t originates from the smooth muscle of the uterus.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-3723736646062.jpg" /></div>
<img src="paste-3736621547952.jpg" />
1394565062459 1358629116480 Which type of uterine firoid has the greatest a
ssociation with infertility and recurrent loss of pregnancy?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Sumucosal}}</div>
1394565097655 1358629116480 Which uterine firoid has the lowest moridity a
nd postoperative risk as it can e removed hysteropically?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Sumucosal}}</div>
1394565137522 1358629116480 {{c1::Dysmenorrhea}} can e a complication of ut
erine firoids due to an increase in prostaglandin production.
1394565171995 1358629116480 {{c1::Fitz-Hugh-Curtis Syndrome}} is a gynecolog
ical syndrome that involves perihepatitis secondary to Pelvic Inflammatory Disea
se.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4307852198006.jpg" /></div>
1394565335874 1358629116480 Which acteria is the most common cause of FitzHugh-Curtis Syndrome secondary to PID?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia t
rachomatis</i>}}</div>
1394565384526 1358629116480
oung women with lower pelvic pain are either pr
egnant, anormally pregnant or have&nsp;{{c1::Pelvic Inflammatory Disease}} unt
il proven otherwise.
1394565541028 1358629116480 {{c1::Fluoroquinolones}} are a type of antiioti

c that are no longer recommended for the treatment of Gonorrhea due to increased
resistance rates.
1394565604828 1358629116480 {{c1::Endometrioma}} is a complication of Stage
IV endometriosis that presents with a "ground glass" appearance on ultrasound.<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4449586118828.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Pr
esents with <>pelvic pain, dysmenorrhea</>&nsp;and <>dyspareunia</>.</i></d
iv>
1394748944828 1358629116480 {{c1::Ectopic Pregnancy}} is a gestational patho
logy that involves implantation of a fertilized ovum at a site other than the ut
erine wall.
1394749561864 1358629116480 What is the most common site of Ectopic Pregnanc
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fallopian Tue}}</div>
1394749577209 1358629116480 What is the key risk factor for Ectopic Pregnanc
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Scarring; typically secondary to PID or Endometrio
sis}}</div>
1394752670983 1358629116480 {{c1::Hematosalpinx}} is a reproductive disorder
that involves leeding into the fallopian tue and is a major complication of e
ctopic pregnancy.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6949257085128.jpg" /></di
v>
1394752719784 1358629116480 Before which week of gestation is an aortion sp
ontaneous?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::20th week}}</div>
1394752756919 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of spontaneous ao
rtion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chromosomal anormalities}}</div>
1394753340063 1358629116480 What is the most common chromosomal anormality?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Trisomy 16}}</div>
1394753355113 1358629116480 {{c1::Antiphospholipid Antiody Syndrome}} is a
hypercoagulale state commonly seen in SLE that commonly causes spontaneous aor
tion.
1394753396967 1358629116480 In which period in gestation will teratogen expo
sure result in spontaneous aortion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::First 2 weeks}}<
/div>
sure lead to a risk of organ malformation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Weeks 3-8
(1st trimester)}}</div>
sure result in an increased risk of organ hypoplasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Months 3-9 (2nd and 3rd trimesters)}}</div>
1394753535325 1358629116480 {{c1::Placenta Previa}} is a gestational patholo
gy that involves implantation of the placenta in the lower uterine segment, typi
cally overlying the cervical os.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7597797147
028.jpg" /></div>
1394753912110 1358629116480 In which trimester will Placenta Previa present
as leeding?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1394753930804 1358629116480 {{c1::Placental Aruption (Aruptio Placentae)}}
is a gestational pathology that involves separation of the placenta from the de
cidua prior to delivery of the fetus. <r /><div><i>The maternal surface of th
e placenta is very loody and has clots.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-910275
36871968.jpg" /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-7499012899015.jpg" /></i></div
>
1394753981414 1358629116480 In which trimester will Placental Aruption pres
ent as leeding?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1394754002647 1358629116480 {{c1::Placenta Accreta}} is a gestational pathol
ogy that involves improper implantation of the placenta into the myometrium with
little or no intervening decidua.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-75591424
41353.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. the placenta is stuck</i></div><div><
i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-91362544321025.jpg" /></i></div>
1394754050660 1358629116480 {{c1::Placenta Accreta}} is a gestational pathol
ogy that will present with a difficulty in delivering the placenta.
<r /><d
iv><r /></div>
1394754068982 1358629116480 Which teratogen is the most common cause of ment
al retardation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alcohol}}</div>
1394754733396 1358629116480 What are the teratogenic effects of Alcohol?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mental retardation, facial anormalities and microcephal
y}}</div>
1394754779667 1358629116480 What are the teratogenic effects of&nsp;Cocaine
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Growth retardation, placental aruption}}</div>
1394754793992 1358629116480 What are the teratogenic effects of&nsp;Thalido
mide?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lim defects}}</div>
1394754803737 1358629116480 What are the teratogenic effects of&nsp;Cigaret
te Smoke?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Growth retardation}}</div>
1394754815172 1358629116480 What are the teratogenic effects of&nsp;Isoreti
noin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spontaneous aortion, hearing/visual impairment
}}</div>
1394754831293 1358629116480 What are the teratogenic effects of&nsp;Tetracy
cline?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Discolored Teeth}}</div>
1394754858237 1358629116480 What are the teratogenic effects of&nsp;Warfari
n?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fetal leeding}}</div>
1394754864382 1358629116480 What are the teratogenic effects of&nsp;Phenyto
in?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Digit hypoplasia, cleft lip/palate}}</div>
1394754880804 1358629116480 {{c1::Preeclampsia}} is a gestational disorder t
hat involves pregnancy-induced HTN, proteinuria and edema.
<r /><div><i>&g
t; 140/90 mmHg</i></div><div><i>> 300 mg/day proteinuria</i></div>
1394755054631 1358629116480 In which trimester does Preeclampsia typically a
rise?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1394755066740 1358629116480 {{c1::Severe Preeclampsia}} is a gestational pat
hology that is essentially preeclampsia with <>systemic disorders</>&nsp;such
as headache and visual anormalities.
1394755111124 1358629116480 {{c1::Eclampsia}} is a gestational pathology tha
t is essentially preeclampsia with <>seizures</>.
<r /><div><i>Maternal d
eath is typically due to <>stroke</>&nsp;and resultant <>intracranial hemorr
hage</>&nsp;or <>ARDS</>.</i></div>
1394755195305 1358629116480 {{c1::Preeclampsia}} is a gestational pathology
that results from an anormality of the maternal-fetal vascular interface in the
placenta.
<r /><div><i>Specifically involves anormal placental spiral ar
teries, therey resulting in maternal endothelial dysfunction, vasoconstriction
or hyperreflexia.</i></div>
1394755286169 1358629116480 In Preeclampsia, the fetal tropholast cells hav
e failed to convert the maternal high-resistance&nsp;{{c1::Spiral}} arteries in
to high-capacitance uteroplacental vessels.
1394755349929 1358629116480 Normal hypoxia in pregnancy triggers the release
of anti-angiogenic factors {{c1::sFlt-1}} and&nsp;{{c2::Endoglin}}, which ther
ey reduce placental vascular development and cause Preeclampsia.
1394755408828 1358629116480 Angiogenic hormones&nsp;{{c1::VEGF}} and&nsp;{
{c2::TGF-eta}} are inhiited y the anti-angiogenics sFLt-1 and Endoglin in Pre
eclampsia.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, TGF-eta = Transforming Growth Factor e
ta</i></div>
1394755791276 1358629116480 {{c1::HELLP Syndrome}} is a gestational patholog
y that involves Preeclampsia with Thromotic Microangiopathy involving the liver
.
<r /><div><i><>H</>emolysis,</i></div><div><i><>E</>levated <>L</
>iver enzymes,</i></div><div><i><>L</>ow <>P</>latelets</i></div>
1394756382326 1358629116480 {{c1::Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)}} is a
gestational pathology that involves death of a healthy infant without ovious c
ause.
1394756413031 1358629116480 How old is an infant?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:1 month to 1 year}}</div>
1394756421849 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydatidiform Mole}} is a gestational patho
logy that involves anormal conception characterized y swollen and edematous vi
lli with proliferation of tropholasts. <r /><div><i>i.e. Hydatidiform moles ar
e simply anormal chorionic villi with tropholastic proliferation</i></div>

1394756499108 1358629116480 How many chromosomes are found in a Partial Mole
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::69 chromosomes}}</div>
1394756526751 1358629116480 How many chromosomes are found in a Complete Mol
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::46}}</div>
1394756538436 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole involves fetal t
issue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Partial Mole}}</div> <r /><div><><i>Nucleat
ed RBCs are typically the common feature looked for.</i></></div>
1394756560645 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole involves <>only
some</>&nsp;villi eing hydropic?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Partial}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The rest are normal.</i></div>
1394756583215 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole involves <>most
villi</>&nsp;eing hydropic (swollen)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Complete mo
le}}</div>
1394756599994 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole involves <>foca
l</>&nsp;tropholastic proliferation around hydropic villi?<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-6047313953010.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Partia
l}}</div></div>
1394756633551 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole involves <>diff
use</>&nsp;and <>circumferential</>&nsp;tropholastic proliferation around
hydropic villi?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5948529705227.jpg" /><r />
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Complete}}</div></div>
1394756925786 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole involves <>mini
mal</>&nsp;risk for Choriocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Partial}}</div
>
1394756948142 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole involves 2-3% ri
sk for Choriocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Complete}}</div>
1394756958718 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole involves a <>ma
rkedly</>&nsp;increased level of -hCG?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Complete}}<
/div>
logy that involves much larger uterine expansion and much higher -hCG levels th
an expected for a normal pregnancy.
1394757251835 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole is formed y a <
>normal</> ovum fertilized y 2 sperm (or 1 sperm with duplicate chromosomes)?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Partial}}</div>
59247335.jpg" /></div>
1394757378388 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform Mole is formed y an
<>empty</>&nsp;<>ovum</>&nsp;fertilized y 2 sperm (or 1 sperm with duplic
ate chromosomes)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Complete}}</div> <div><r /></div
><img src="paste-5789615915406.jpg" />
logy that involves passage of a <>grape-like mass</> through the vaginal canal
, typically in the 2nd trimester.
6.jpg" /></div>
1394757524334 1358629116480 {{c1::Complete Hydatidiform Mole}} is a gestatio
nal pathology that typically involves a 'snowstorm' appearance on ultrasound/ima
ging.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5901285065088.jpg" /><img src="paste89713276879127.jpg" /></div>
1394757567511 1358629116480 Which type of Choriocarcinoma responds well to c
hemotherapy?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6846177870215.jpg" /><r /><di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gestational (i.e. from spontaneous aortion, normal pre
gnancy or hydatidiform mole)}}</div></div>
1394757629826 1358629116480 Which type of Choriocarcinoma <>does not</>&n
sp;respond well to chemotherapy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Germ Cell Choriocarc
inoma}}</div>
1394757654013 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Decidua Basalis}} is the maternal
portion of the placenta that is modified endometrium.
1394758485224 1358629116480 What is the major structural difference etween
fetal and adult RBCs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fetal RBCs have nuclei}}</div>
1394758530894 1358629116480 What is the level of proteinuria in Preeclampsia

?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:: 300 mg/day}}</div>
1394758605024 1358629116480 Which type of Hydatidiform mole <>does not</>&
nsp;have expression of p57?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Complete; p57 is materna
lly transcried and paternally imprinted}}</div>
<>complete moles involve an </><u style="font-weight: old; ">empty ovum</u>&n
sp;while <>partial moles involve a </><u style="font-weight: old; ">normal o
vum</u>.</i></div>
1394759037396 1358629116480 {{c1::p57}} is a protein implicated in Complete
Hydatidiform Moles as it is maternally transcried and paternally imprinted.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, hydatidiform moles are Dad's fault.</i></div>
1394759259644 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::Invasive Hydatidiform Mole}} is a
type of hydatidiform mole that invades into the myometrium.<div><r /></div><div
1394759434036 1358629116480 {{c1::Chorioamnionitis}} is a gestational disord
er that is defined as infection of the placenta.<div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-7219840024848.jpg" /></div>
1394933932813 1358629116480 How old is a neonate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:1-4 weeks}}</div>
1394934587713 1358629116480 A {{c1::malformation}} is a <>type</>&nsp;of
congenital anomaly that involves primary errors of morphogenesis of organs and a
re usually multifactorial.
1394934729852 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::disruption}} is a <>type</>&nsp;
of congenital anomaly that is due to secondary destruction <i>in utero</i>&nsp;
after normal development.
1394934757155 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::deformation}} is a <>type</>&nsp
;of congenital anomaly that is due to secondary changes as a result of generaliz
ed compression.
1394934790931 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::sequence}} is a <>type</>&nsp;of
congenital anomaly that is due to a cascade of anormalities triggered y one i
nitiating aerration. <r /><div><i>e.g. Potter's sequence</i></div>
1394934829460 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::syndrome}} is a <>type</>&nsp;of
congenital anomaly that involves a constellation of anomalies with a related et
iologic pathology.
1394934872027 1358629116480 {{c1::Agenesis}} is a type of congenital malform
ation that involves the complete asence of an organ and its promordium.
1394935137559 1358629116480 {{c1::Aplasia}} is a congenital malformation whe
re an organ's primordium exhiits an asence of development, ut is still presen
t.
1394935178906 1358629116480 {{c1::Atresia}} is a congenital malformation tha
t involves a structure with either a narrow or asent lumen.
1394935207499 1358629116480 {{c1::Dysraphia}} is a congenital malformation t
hat involves the failure of apposed structures to fuse. <r /><div><i>e.g. spina
ifida, rachischisis, epispadias, hypospadias</i></div>
1394935261107 1358629116480 {{c1::Dysplasia}} is a congenital malformation t
hat involves anormal organization of normal cells into tissues. There is no ass
ociated neoplasia.
1394935309693 1358629116480 What is the most common Congenital Disruption?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amniotic Bands}}</div>
1394935349413 1358629116480 {{c1::Amniotic Bands}} are a Congenital Disrupti
on that involves firous ands that form after partial ruptures of the amniotic
sac and cause damage after normal development has occurred.<div><r /></div><div
1394935860560 1358629116480 Which weeks of gestation are associated with an
<u>extreme susceptiility</u>&nsp;to teratogens due to the organogenesis that o
ccurs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Week 3-8}}</div>
1394936402986 1358629116480 {{c1::Acetaldehyde}} is a metaolite of ethanol
that can freely cross the placenta and act as a toxin.
1394936506516 1358629116480 What congenital <>cardiac</>&nsp;defects are
associated with Alcohol?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atrial and Ventricular Septa
l Defects}}</div>
1394936537010 1358629116480 {{c1::Fetal Alcohol Syndrome}} is a congenital s
yndrome caused y alcohol use during pregnancy and presents with characteristic
facial anomalies, especially a smooth philtrum and thin upper lip.<div><r /></d
iv><div><img src="paste-8495445311652.jpg" /><img src="paste-8516920148116.jpg"
/></div>
1394936629456 1358629116480 {{c1::Fetal Macrosomia}} is a congenital disorde
r that results from Diaetic Emryopathy and involves a ay with increased fat,
muscle mass and organomegaly.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-859422955948
7.jpg" /></div>
1394936683666 1358629116480 What irth weight is associated with Fetal Macro
somia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:: 4 kg}}</div>
1394937077053 1358629116480 {{c1::Caudal Regression}} is a rare feature of D
iaetic Emryopathy and involves agenesis of the lumar spine and sacrum with ac
companying leg hypoplasia.
1394937153643 1358629116480 Which CNS symptom is unique to Fetal Toxoplasmos
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hydrocephalus}}</div>
1394937305461 1358629116480 Which 2 congenital defects are a key feature of
Congenital Ruella Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cataracts & Cardiac
Defects}}</div>
1394937353516 1358629116480 Which CNS symptom is a key feature of Congenital
CMV?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intracranial (Periventricular) Calcifications}}
</div>
1394937440817 1358629116480 Which maternal serum marker is associated with N
eural Tue Defects?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AFP}}</div>
1394937486155 1358629116480 {{c1::Rachischisis}} is a neural tue defect tha
t involves failure of the spinal cord to close.<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-9298604196264.jpg" /></div>
1394937759384 1358629116480 {{c1::Retinoic Acid}} is a teratogen that down-r
egulates TGF-eta signalling and influences the expression of HOX genes.
<r><div><i>TGF-eta = Transforming Growth Factor Beta</i></div>
1395007349228 1358629116480 What gestational age is associated with Preterm
aies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::< 37 weeks}}</div>
1395007694856 1358629116480 What gestational age is associated with Post-ter
m aies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 42 weeks}}</div>
1395007724398 1358629116480 What irth weight is considered to e low?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::< 2.5 kg}}</div>
1395007937703 1358629116480 What irth weight is considered to e very low?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::< 1.5 kg}}</div>
1395007948702 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Preterm Deliver
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Preterm Premature Rupture of Placental Memranes (
PPROM)}}</div>
1395008570875 1358629116480 {{c1::Preterm Premature Rupture of Placental Mem
ranes (PPROM)}} is a cause of preterm delivery that is due to inflammation of p
lacental memranes (chorioamnionitis) and an increase in matrix metalloproteinas
es (MMPs).
1395008627000 1358629116480 {{c1::Smoking}} is a risk factor for Preterm Pre
mature Rupture of Placental Memranes (PPROM) as it causes anoxemia that then pr
epares the uterus for delivery.
1395008697120 1358629116480 {{c1::Funisitis}} is defined as inflammation of
the umilical cord.
1395008719603 1358629116480 Which placental toll-like receptors are upregula
ted and activated in Intrauterine Infections?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TLR-4}}
</div>
1395008768520 1358629116480 Activation and upregulation of TLR4 in Intrauter
ine Infections leads to deregulation of&nsp;{{c1::prostaglandin}} expression an
d hence uterine smooth muscle contraction is favoured.
1395009448525 1358629116480 What type of cell makes lung surfactant?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Type II pneumocytes}}</div>
1395009465852 1358629116480 Which 2 phospholipids are aundant in Surfactant
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Phosphatidylcholine (Lechitin) and Sphingomyelin}}<

/div>
1395009492078 1358629116480 What ratio of Lecithin:Sphingomyelin is indicati
ve of <>mature</>&nsp;lungs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 2}}</div>
1395009520632 1358629116480 {{c1::Respiratory Distress Syndrome}} is a conge
nital disorder associated with prematurity that is also referred to as Hyaline M
emrane Disease.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2658584756418.jpg" /></div
>
1395009602457 1358629116480 {{c1::Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome}} i
s a disease associated with premature irth that involves <>hyaline memranes</
>&nsp;at the lungs due to endothelial damage and firin deposition.<div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-2654289789122.jpg" /><img src="paste-3096671420595.jp
g" /></div>
1395012529157 1358629116480 {{c1::Respiratory Distress Syndrome}} is a disor
der associated with prematurity that presents with a <>"ground-glass" appearanc
e of the lungs&nsp;</>on x-ray.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-350039834
6482.jpg" /></div>
1395012958270 1358629116480 {{c1::Glucocorticoids}} are a type of drug that
can e administered antenatally to drive the synthesis of surfactant. <r /><d
iv><i>DOC's are Dexamethasone and Betamethasone.</i></div>
1395013008153 1358629116480 {{c1::Maternal Diaetes}} is a risk factor for N
eonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome as fetal insulin levels suppress the synth
esis of lung surfactant.
1395013085617 1358629116480 {{c1::Nectrotizing Enterocolitis}} is a possile
complication of Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome where the GI tract rapid
ly ecomes hypoxemic due to impaired respiratory function.
1395013371691 1358629116480 {{c1::Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia}} is a complica
tion of treatment in Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome due to the high-oxyg
en tension of administered oxygen causing free radical injury and arresting alve
olar septation.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4131758538960.jpg" /></div>
1395013673814 1358629116480 {{c1::Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia}} is a complica
tion of treatment in Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome that involves inters
titial alveolar firosis and large haphazard alveoli due to decreased septation.
1395013714338 1358629116480 {{c1::Retinopathy of Prematurity}} is a complica
tion of treatment in Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome due to the high-oxyg
en tension of administrated oxygen causing excessive proliferation of retinal ca
pillaries/connective tissue and free radical damage.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-4286377361593.jpg" /></div>
1395013791211 1358629116480 {{c1::Retinopathy of Prematurity}} is a complica
tion of treatment in Neonatal Respiratory Distress Syndrome that involves prolif
eration of retinal capillaries, retinal detachment, leukocoria and lindness.<di
1395013826813 1358629116480 Necrotizing Enterocolitis affects the&nsp;{{c1:
:terminal ileum}},&nsp;{{c2::cecum}}, and&nsp;{{c3::right colon}}.
1395013874257 1358629116480 {{c1::Necrotizing Enterocolitis}} is a disease o
f premature irth that involves mucosal/transmural coagulative necrosis of the G
I mucosa and sumucosal gas ule due to systemic hypoxemia.<div><r /></div><d
iv>
1395013945005 1358629116480 {{c1::Necrotizing Enterocolitis}} is a disease o
f premature irth that yields <>pneumatosis intestinalis</> on an adominal xr
ay.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4604204941708.jpg" /></div>
1395013999944 1358629116480 What disorder of premature irth is associated w
ith Pneumatosis Intestinalis on an adominal xray?<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-4599909974412.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Necrotizing Enter
ocolitis}}</div>
1395014034259 1358629116480 What is the most common type of Fetal Growth Res
triction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Maternal}}</div>
1395014447183 1358629116480 Which type of Fetal Growth Restriction (FGR) inv
olves a <u>symmetrical growth restriction</u>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fetal

(aka Proportionate FGR)}}&nsp;</div>
1395014520352 1358629116480 {{c1::Maternal}} Fetal Growth Restriction is a t
ype of FGR that occurs due to decreased placental lood flow and is asymmetric.
1395014706515 1358629116480 {{c1::Placental}} Fetal Growth Restriction is a
type of FGR that is due to limited availaility of nutrients and oxygen in the t
hird trimester and is asymmetric.
1395014738718 1358629116480 {{c1::Fetal}} Fetal Growth Restriction is a type
of FGR that is due to an intrinsic reduction of growth potential despite good n
utrition and is symmetric.
1395015002703 1358629116480 Which organ is typically spared in <>asymmetric
al</>&nsp;Fetal Growth Restriction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Brain}}</div>
1395015034342 1358629116480 {{c1::Neonatal Asphyxia}} is a complication of F
etal Growth Restriction that involves neonatal hypoxemia, hypercapnia and an inc
reased risk of coma and death.
1395015243933 1358629116480 What APGAR score is normal?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::7-10}}</div>
1395015339907 1358629116480 How long after irth is an APGAR score recorded?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1 min and 5 min}}</div>
1395015364281 1358629116480 What APGAR score is indicative of prematurity an
d/or neonatal asphyxia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:: 6}}</div>
1395015390927 1358629116480 What does the first&nsp;<>A</>&nsp;in APGAR
score indicate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Appearance (skin colour)}}</div>
1395015540170 1358629116480 What does the <>P</>&nsp;in APGAR score indic
ate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pulse (HR)}}</div>
1395015550184 1358629116480 What does the <>G</>&nsp;in APGAR score indic
ate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Grimace (Reflex Response to catheter insertion i
nto the nostril)}}</div>
1395015573345 1358629116480 What does the second <>A</>&nsp;in APGAR indi
cate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Muscle <>A</>ctivity}}</div>
1395015592610 1358629116480 What does the <>R</>&nsp;in APGAR score indic
ate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Respiration (effort, depth, frequency)}}</div>
1395015624083 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydrops Fetalis}} is a fetal disorder that
involves aormal accumulation of fluid <i>in utero</i>&nsp;within <>2 or more
</>&nsp;fetal compartments or tissues.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-67
08738916531.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. a comination of ascites, ple
ural effusion, pericardial effusion, skin edema, generalized edema</i></div>
1395015960096 1358629116480 What is the most common type of Fetal Hydrops?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non-immune (80%)}}</div>
1395015974700 1358629116480 {{c1::Alpha-Thalassemia}} is a genetic disorder
that can result in lethal Hydrops Fetalis due to tetramers of hemogloin gamma c
hains (H Barts) damaging fetal RBCs.
1395016209556 1358629116480 What is a common <>viral</>&nsp;cause of Hydr
ops Fetalis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Parvovirus B19}}</div>
1395016255068 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemolytic Disease of the Neworn}} is an <
>immunological</>&nsp;cause of Hydrops Fetalis that develops due to severe, s
udden anaemia that causes heart failure.
<r /><div><i>Likely also causes
<>Erythrolastosis Fetalis</>.</i></div>
1395016404873 1358629116480 {{c1::Sudden and Unexpected Infant Death (SUID)}
} is a a cause of infantile death that is identified only following investigatio
n post-mortem.
1395016515227 1358629116480 {{c1::Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)}} is a
cause of infantile death that <>cannot e identified</>.
<r /><div><i>A
diagnosis of exclusion.</i></div>
1395016566535 1358629116480 What is the leading hypothesis for the etiology
of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lack of the "
arousal response"}}</div>
<img src="paste-7297149436236.jpg" /><div><r />
</div><div><i>Causes a prolonged period of apnea, hypoxia and sudden death.</i><
/div>
1395016757709 1358629116480 {{c1::Suserosal Petechiae}} are a gross anatomi
cal finding in infants that die of SIDS, commonly seen at the lungs, thymus and
heart.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7348689043774.jpg" /></div>
1395016867693 1358629116480 What is the cause of Cystic Firosis?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive mutation in the <>CFTR</>&nsp;gene on ch
romosome 7q}}</div>
<r /><div><i>CFTR = Cystic Firosis Transmemrane Condu
ctance Regulator</i></div>
1395016966576 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Cystic Firos
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1395016980089 1358629116480 {{c1::Cystic Firosis}} is an autosomal recessiv
e disorder that yields salty, hypertonic sweat with high Cl content due to decre
ased Cl-conductance secondary to a CFTR defect. <r /><div><img src="paste-79027
39824879.jpg" /></div>
1395017096781 1358629116480 Which respiratory pathogen is commonly associate
d with Cystic Firosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>
}}</div>
1395017223744 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemangioma}} is a enign childhood tumour
located at the skin and involves the proliferation of lood vessels (cavernous o
r capillary).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7962869367011.jpg" /></div>
1395017334987 1358629116480 {{c1::Lymphangioma}} is a enign childhood tumou
r that is characterized y cystic, cavernous spaces typically at the neck, axill
a and mediastinum.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8005819039991.jpg" /></d
iv>
1395017384319 1358629116480 What is the most common teratoma of childhood?<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8040178778365.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Congenital Sacrococcygeal Teratoma}}</div></div>
1395017409277 1358629116480 {{c1::Congenital Sacrococcygeal Teratoma}} is a
common enign tumour of childhood that consists of multiple emryological tissue
layers and is found at the sacral/coccygeal area.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-8035883811069.jpg" /></div>
1395017610855 1358629116480 Which kind of rosettes are seen in neurolastoma
iv><div>{{c1::Homer-Wright Pseudorosettes}}</div></div>
1395017808432 1358629116480 What is found in the center of Homer-Wright Pseu
dorosettes in Neurolastoma?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8336531521853.
jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuropils}}</div>
<r /><div><i>He
nce it is associated with neurological tumours</i></div>
1395017832917 1358629116480 What type of rosettes are seen in retinolastoma
iv><div>{{c1::Flexner-Wintersteiner Rosettes}}</div></div>
1395017934126 1358629116480 {{c1::Flexner-Wintersteiner Rosettes}} are a typ
e of <>true</>&nsp;rosettes seen in Retinolastoma.
1395018024613 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::true}} rosette is a rosette that ha
s a lumen that is part of the tumour cells.
1395018054794 1358629116480 {{c1::Ependymoma/Perivascular Pseudorosettes}} a
re a type of rosettes commonly seen in Ependymoma and Medullolastoma and has a
lood vessel in its central lumen.
1395018111532 1358629116480 What gene amplification is associated with <>po
or</>&nsp;prognosis neurolastoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>N-Myc</i>}}</
div>
1395018143026 1358629116480 What serum tumour marker is associated with <>p
oor</>&nsp;prognosis Neurolastoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuron Specific
Enolase (NSE)}}</div>
1395018173135 1358629116480 What is the most common pediatric renal malignan
t tumour?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wilms' Tumour (Nephrolastoma)}}</div>
1395018203857 1358629116480 Which Wilms tumour syndrome is associated with a
&nsp;<>deletion</>&nsp;of the&nsp;<i>WT1</i>&nsp;tumour suppressor gene??<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::WAGR Syndrome}}</div>
1395018505484 1358629116480 {{c1::Denys-Drash Syndrome}} is a tumour syndrom
e that involves Wilms tumour, progressive renal failure and male pseudohermaphro
ditism..
1395018517875 1358629116480 {{c1::WAGR Syndrome}} is a form of tumour syndro

me that involves Wilms tumour, Aniridia, Genital anormalitis and mental/motor R
etardation.
1395018524553 1358629116480 {{c1::Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome}} is a tumour
syndrome that involves Wilms tumour, neonatal hypoglycemia, muscular hemihypertr
ophy and organomegaly (esp. the tongue)..
1395018530057 1358629116480 Which Wilms tumour syndrome is associated with&n
sp;<>mutations in&nsp;</><i><>WT2</>,&nsp;</i>especially IGF-2?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Beckwith-Wiedemann}}</div>
1395018537652 1358629116480 Which Wilms tumour syndrome is associated with&n
sp;<>mutations</>&nsp;of&nsp;<i>WT1</i>?? <div><r></div><div>{{c1::Denys-D
rash Syndrome}}</div>
1395018547776 1358629116480 {{c1::Wilms Tumour}} is a malignant renal tumour
that has a triphasic nature involving&nsp;<>E</>pithelial elements that surr
ound nodules of&nsp;<>B</>lastema amongst a Myxoid&nsp;<>S</>troma..<div><
1405353482821 1395802358422 What is the karyotype in Klinefelter Syndrome?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::XX}}</div> <r /><div><i>Male.</i></div>
1405353998854 1395802358422 {{c1::Kleinfelter Syndrome}} is a sex chromosome
disorder that presents with <>testicular atrophy, eunuchoid ody shape, tall a
nd long extremities, gynecomastia</>&nsp;and <>female hair distriution</>.<
1405354087414 1395802358422 How do <>Inhiin</>&nsp;levels change in Klin
efelter Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <div><i><r /></
i></div><i>Due to dysgenesis of the seminiferous tuules.<r /></i><div><i>Hence
there is increased FSH.</i></div>
1405354127154 1395802358422 How do <>testosterone</>&nsp;levels change in
Klinefelter Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Due to dysfunction of Leydig cells.</i></div><div><i>This also causes an i
ncrease in LH and susequent increases in estrogen.</i></div>
1405354160194 1395802358422 How do Estrogen levels change in Klinefelter Syn
drome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to Ley
dig cell dysfunction and a decrease in testosterone levels which ring aout an
increase in LH and susequent estrogen increase.</i></div>
1405354235596 1395802358422 What is the karyotype in Turner Syndrome?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::XO}}</div> <r /><div><i>Female.</i></div><div><i>"<>Hugs
and kisses (xo)</>&nsp;from Tina <>Turner</>."</i></div>
1405354250314 1395802358422 {{c1::Turner Syndrome}} is a sex chromosomal dis
order that presents with <>ovarian dysgenesis (streak ovary), shield chest, ic
uspid aortic valve and horsehoe kidney</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-86440511799705.jpg" /></div>
1405354326585 1395802358422 Which sex chromosomal disorder is associated wit
h a <>icuspid aortic valve</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Turner Syndrome (XO
)}}</div>
h <>preductal coarctation of the aorta</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Turner S
yndrome (XO)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>femoral < rachial pul
se</>&nsp;and <>notched ris</>.</i></div>
h <>lymphatic defects</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Turner Syndrome (XO)}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Examples include <>weed neck, cystic hygroma, lymphedem
a in the feet/hands</></i></div>
h <>horseshoe kidney</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Turner Syndrome (XO)}}</di
v>
1405354435162 1395802358422 Which chromosomal disorder is the most common ca
use of primary amenorrhea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Turner Syndrome (XO)}}</di
v>
1405354447351 1395802358422 How do LH and FSH levels change in Turner Syndro
me (XO)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to a d
ecrease in Estrogen.</i></div>
1405354758328 1395802358422 {{c1::Doule Male}} is a sex chromosomal disor
der that presents as a phenotypically normal, yet very tall male with <>severe
acne</>&nsp;and the possiility of <>antisocial ehaviour</>.
<r /><d
iv><i>X.</i></div><div><i>Some are diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders.</
i></div>
1405354836448 1395802358422 What is the karyotype in True Hermaphroditism?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::46,XX or 47,XX}}</div>
1405354874160 1395802358422 {{c1::True Hermaphroditism}} is a sex chromosoma
l disorder that presents with <>oth ovarian and testicular tissue</>&nsp;wit
h <>amiguous genitalia</>. <r /><div><i>Very rare.</i></div>
1405354906786 1395802358422 {{c1::Defective Androgen Receptor}} is a disorde
r of sex hormones that presents with <>increased testosterone</>&nsp;and <>i
ncreased LH</>.
<r /><div><i>e.g. Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome</i></
div>
1405354966390 1395802358422 {{c1::Testosterone secreting tumour}} or&nsp;{{
c2::exogenous steroid use}} are 2 sex hormone disorders that presents with <>in
creased testosterone</>&nsp;and <>decreased LH</>.
1405354997743 1395802358422 {{c1::Primary Hypogonadism}} is a sex hormone di
sorder that presents with <>decreased testosterone</>&nsp;and <>increased LH
</>.
1405355018719 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism}} is a sex h
ormone disorder that presents with <>decreased testosterone</>&nsp;and <>dec
reased LH</>.
1405355046408 1395802358422 What is the karyotype in Female Pseudohermaphrod
itism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::XX}}</div>
1405355251739 1395802358422 What is the karyotype in Male Pseudohermaphrodit
ism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X}}</div>
1405355267136 1395802358422 {{c1::Female Pseudohermaphroditism}} is a type o
f pseudohermaphroditism that involves the <>presence of ovaries</>&nsp;ut <
>virilized or amiguous external genitalia</>. <r /><div><i>Typically due to <
>excessive and inappropriate exposure to androgenic steroids during early gesta
tion</>.</i></div><div><i>e.g. congenital adrenal hyperplasia; exogenous androg
en use during pregnancy</i></div>
1405355373630 1395802358422 {{c1::Male Pseudohermaphroditism}} is a type of
pseudohermaphroditism that involves the <>presence of testes</>&nsp;ut <>fe
male or amiguous external genitalia</>.
<r /><div><i>Typically due to <
>androgen insensitivity syndrome</></i></div>
1405355440285 1395802358422 {{c1::Aromatase Deficiency}} is a reproductive d
isorder characterized y the inaility to synthesize enstrogen from androgens.
<r /><div><i>Presents with masculinzation of females with amiguous genitalia.<
/i></div>
1405355567195 1395802358422 How do serum testosterone and androstenedione le
vels change in Aromatase Deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Androgens cannot e converted to estrogens.</i></div>
1405355591662 1395802358422 {{c1::Aromatase Deficiency}} is a congenital enz
ymatic reproductive disorder that can present with <>maternal virilization</>&
nsp;as excess fetal androgens can cross the placenta.
1405355629152 1395802358422 What is the karyotype of a <>Complete</>&nsp;
Hydatidiform Mole?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::46,XX; 46,X}}</div>
1405356364960 1395802358422 What is the karyotype of a <>Partial</>&nsp;H
ydatidiform Mole?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::69,XXX; 69,XX; 69,X}}</div>
1405356417071 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Hydatidiform Moles?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Methotrexate; Dilation & curettage}}</div>
1405356444523 1395802358422 {{c1::Gestational Hypertension}} is a hypertensi
ve disorder of pregnancy that presents with a BP <>> 140/90 mmHg</>&nsp;af
ter the 20th week of gestation. <r /><div><i>There is <>no pre-existing hypert
ension, end organ damage or proteinuria</>.</i></div>
1405356574724 1395802358422 Which drug is used to treat/prevent the seizures
seen in Eclampsia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::IV Magnesium Sulfate}}</div>
1405356753674 1395802358422 {{c1::Placenta Accreta}} is a placental complica

tion in pregnancy that is descried as <>attachment of the placenta to the myom
etrium without penetration</>. <r /><div><img src="paste-91358249353729.jpg" /
></div>
1405357984356 1395802358422 {{c1::Placenta Increta}} is a placental disorder
of pregnancy that is descried as <>penetration of the placenta <u>into</u>&n
sp;the myometrium.</> <r /><div><img src="paste-91358249353729.jpg" /></div>
1405358012402 1395802358422 {{c1::Placenta percreta}} is a placental disorde
r of pregnancy that is descried as <>penetration of the placenta <u>through</u
>&nsp;the myometrium and into the uterine serosa</>. <r /><div><i>Can result
in placental attachment to the rectum or ladder.</i></div><div><i><img src="pa
ste-91358249353729.jpg" /></i></div>
1405358074679 1395802358422 {{c1::Polyhydramnios}} is an amniotic fluid ano
rmality that is associated with fetal disorders that result in the inaility to
swallow.
<r /><div><i>e.g. anencephaly, esophageal atresia, duodenal atr
esia</i></div>
1405358284534 1395802358422 What volume of amniotic fluid is associated with
Polyhydramnios?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 1.5-2 L}}</div>
1405358310792 1395802358422 Which volume of amniotic fluid is diagnostic of
Oligohydramnios?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::< 0.5 L}}</div>
1405358352626 1395802358422 Which disorder of amniotic fluid is associated w
ith Potter sequence?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oligohydramnios}}</div>
1405358376173 1395802358422 {{c1::Oligohydramnios}} is an amniotic fluid dis
order that is associated with fetal disorders that yield an inaility to excrete
urine. <r /><div><i>e.g. ilateral renal agenesis, posterior urethral valves i
n males</i></div><div><i>Also associated with placental insufficiency.</i></div>
<div><i>Also associated with Potter sequence.</i></div>
1405375421095 1395802358422 Which strains of HPV are associated with cervica
l dysplasia or carcinoma <i>in situ</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HPV16; HPV18
}}</div>
1405375723585 1395802358422 What is the #1 risk factor for cervical dysplasi
a or cervical carcinoma <i>in situ</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Multiple sexu
al partners}}</div>
1405375774786 1395802358422 What is the treatment for infective endometritis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gentamicin + Clindamycin Ampicillin}}</div>
1405376176347 1395802358422 {{c1::Endometriosis}} is an endometrial disorder
involving ectopic endometrial glands that presents with a <>normal-sized</>&n
sp;uterus.
1405377329007 1395802358422 {{c1::Adenomyosis}} is an endometrial disorder i
nvolving ectopic endometrial tissue that presents with a uniformly <>enlarged,
soft, </>gloular uterus.
1405377368062 1395802358422 {{c1::Premature Ovarian Failure}} is a gynecolog
ical disorder descried as <>premature atresia of ovarian follicles in women of
reproductive age</>. <r /><div><i>Patients present with signs of menopause a
fter puerty ut efore age 40.</i></div>
1405378666393 1395802358422 {{c1::Polycystic Ovarian Disease}} is a gynecolo
gical disorder that is also referred to as Stein-Leventhal Syndrome.
1405378815703 1395802358422 {{c1::Polycystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD)}} is an
ovarian disorder that presents with <>amenorrhea/oligomenorrhea, hirsutism, acn
e</>&nsp;and <>infertility</>&nsp;due to an imalance etween LH and FSH.
<r /><div><i>LH:FSH ratio is > 2:1.</i></div>
1405379610298 1395802358422 How does the risk of endometrial carcinoma chang
e in Polycystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Due to an increase in estrogen levels from the aromatizati
on of testosterone and asence of progesterone.</i></div>
1405379679371 1395802358422 {{c1::OCPs}} are a type of hormonal supplementat
ion that treat the <>hirsutism</>&nsp;and <>acne</>&nsp;in Polycystic Ovar
ian Disease (PCOD) y inducing an <>increase in steroid hormone-inding glouli
n (SHBG)</>&nsp;and a <>decrease in LH</>. <r /><div><i>Therey causing a
decrease in free testosterone.</i></div>
1405379763039 1395802358422 {{c1::Clomiphene}} is a drug used to treat the <

>infertility</>&nsp;in Polycystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD) y <>locking the n
egative feedack of circulating estrogen</>, therey <>increasing FSH and LH l
evels</>.
1405379813894 1395802358422 {{c1::Metformin}} is a drug used to treat the <
>infertility</>&nsp;in Polycystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD) y <>increasing insu
lin sensitivity</>, which then reduces insulin and testosterone levels, therey
allowing for an <>LH surge</>.
1405379877294 1395802358422 What drug can e used to antagonize endometrial
proliferation in Polycystic Ovarian Disease (PCOD), therey protecting the endom
etrium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cycling progesterones}}</div>
1405379919721 1395802358422 {{c1::Corpus Luteum cyst}} is an ovarian cyst th
at forms due to <>hemorrhage into a persistent corpus luteum</>.
<r /><d
iv><i>Commonly regresses spontaneously.</i></div>
1405381429652 1395802358422 {{c1::Theca-lutein cyst}} is an ovarian cyst tha
t is due to <>gonadotropin stimulation</>&nsp;and is associated with <>chori
ocarcinoma</>&nsp;and <>moles</>. <r /><div><i>Often ilaterl and multipl
e.</i></div>
1405381469202 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemorrhagic cyst}} is an ovarian cyst that
is due to <>lood vessel rupture in the cyst wall</>&nsp;and one that grows
with increased lood retention.
1405381508568 1395802358422 {{c1::Dermoid Cyst}} is an ovarian cyst that is
descried as a <>mature teratoma</>&nsp;(i.e. cystic growths with various tis
sue types such as fat, hair, teeth, one and cartilage).
1405381548888 1395802358422 {{c1::Endometrioid Cyst}} is an ovarian cyst tha
t form due to endometriosis.
<r /><div><i>Called a <>chocolate cyst</>&ns
p;when it is filled with dark, reddish-rown lood.</i></div>
1405381586178 1395802358422 Which quadrant of the reast is the most common
location of malignant reast tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Upper outer qua
drant}}</div>
1405382816469 1395802358422 {{c1::Paget Cells}} are a histological feature o
f Paget Disease of the Breast that are descried as <>large cells in the epider
mis with a clear halo</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-102125732364518.
jpg" /></div>
1405382976189 1395802358422 Which type of malignant reast cancer is associa
ted with a <>Peau d'orange</>&nsp;appearance?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infl
ammatory Carcinoma of the reast}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. reast skin r
esemles an orange peel as neoplastic cells lock dermal lymphatics</i></div>
1405383151681 1395802358422 {{c1::Gynecomastia}} is a disorder of the reast
that occurs in males due to <>hyperestrogenism</>, <>Kleinfelter syndrome</
>&nsp;or <>drug use</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-102808632164768.
jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img src="paste-102821517066449.jpg" /></div>
1405383316619 1395802358422 Which type of cryptorchidism is associated with
<>decreased</>&nsp;testosterone levels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bilateral}
}</div>
1405383654189 1395802358422 Which type of cryptorchidism is associated with
<>normal</>&nsp;testosterone levels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Unilateral}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>This is ecause Leydig cells are not influenced y tempera
ture.</i></div>
1405383679788 1395802358422 How does the level of Inhiin change in cryptorc
hidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>FSH and LH
increase.</i></div>
1383788065388 1358629116480 Which type of arteries are involved with lood p
ressure control?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arterioles}}</div>
1383789000770 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::intima}} is the internal layer of
lood vessels containing a single layer of endothelium, suendothelial CT and a
n internal elastic lamina.
1383789049951 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::media}} is the middle layer of l
ood vessels that contains smooth muscle, elastic fiers and an external elastic
lamina.
1383789072311 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::adventitia}} is the outer layer o

f lood vessels that contains connective tissue with nerve fiers and vasa vasor
um.
1383789101134 1358629116480 How much does a normal female heart weigh?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::250 g}}</div>
1383789120855 1358629116480 How much does a normal male heart weigh?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::300 g}}</div>
1383789131367 1358629116480 How thick is a normal Left Ventricle wall?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::1.3 to 1.5 cm}}</div>
1383789149223 1358629116480 How thick is a normal Right Ventricle wall?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::0.3 to 0.5 cm}}</div>
1383789161702 1358629116480 What is the normal cardiothoracic ratio on a che
st x-ray?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1:2}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Cardiac di
ameter:chest width</i></div>
1383789191501 1358629116480 What <>vascular</> pathology shown elow is se
en in Primary Benign HTN?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2461016261007.jpg
" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyaline Arteriolosclerosis}}</div>
1383789776763 1358629116480 What are "Boxcar" nuclei on a iopsy of cardiac
tissue indicative of?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3186865733874.jpg" />
</div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Ventricular Hypertrophy}}</div>
1383790801746 1358629116480 How thick must the Left Ventricle wall e in ord
er for a Dx of LV Hypertrophy to e made?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 1.5 cm
}}</div>
1383790840402 1358629116480 What is the most common renal pathology (shown
elow) that results from enign HTN?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3655017
169046.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Benign nephrosclerosis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The resultant proteinuria will lead to renal failure.</i></div>
1383790910882 1358629116480 What is Hyperplastic Arteriolosclerosis commonly
indicative of?<div><img src="paste-4389456576689.jpg" /></div><div><r />{{c1::
Malignant HTN; Hypertensive Emergency}}</div> <r /><div><i>Onion-skin appeara
nce</i></div>
1383791528287 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperplastic Arteriolosclerosis}} is a vas
cular pathology seen following Malignant HTN/Hypertensive Emergency. It is chara
cterized y an <>onion-skin</>&nsp;appearance.
1383791560337 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant Nephrosclerosis}} is a renal pat
hology seen in Malignant HTN/Hypertensive Emergency. It is characterized y a <
>'flea-itten' </>kidney.
1383791712602 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypertensive Encephalopathy}} is a cerera
l pathology seen in Malignant HTN/Hypertensive Emergency characterized y an inc
rease in intracranial pressure.
1383791820332 1358629116480 {{c1::Systolic}} lood pressure is a function of
&nsp;{{c2::SV and CO}}.
1383791925113 1358629116480 {{c1::Diastolic}} lood pressure is a function o
f&nsp;{{c2::TPR}}
1383791933329 1358629116480 {{c1::Primary}} HTN is defined as HTN with unkno
wn etiology.
<r /><div><i>Accounts for 95% of cases</i></div>
1383791950901 1358629116480 {{c1::Secondary}} HTN is defined as HTN with ide
ntifiale etiology.
<r /><div><i>Accounts for 5% of cases.</i></div>
1383791979570 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Renal Artery St
enosis in elderly males?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atherosclerosis}}</div>
enosis in younger females?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Firomuscular dysplasia}}<
/div>
1383792029443 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Secondary Syste
mic HTN?<div><r />{{c1::Renal Artery Stenosis}}</div>
1383792041671 1358629116480 {{c1::Firomuscular Dysplasia}} is a development
al defect of the BV wall characterized y an irregular thickening of large and m
edium arteries, especially the renal artery.
<r /><div><i>Classically causes
Renal Artery Stenosis in younger females.</i></div>
1383792102776 1358629116480 What tissue secretes Renin?<div><r />{{c1::Juxt
aglomerular Apparatus (JGA) at the kidney}}</div>

1383792129475 1358629116480 {{c1::Renin}} converts Angiotensinogen to Angiot
ensin I.
1383792145644 1358629116480 {{c1::Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE)}} at t
he lungs converts Angiotensin I into Angiotensin II (ATII).
1383792295593 1358629116480 What is Hyaline Arteriolosclerosis commonly indi
cative of?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Primary Benign HTN; Essential HTN}}</div>
1383792318337 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Hypertensive Emergency}} is a malig
nant form of HTN characterized y a severe elevation in BP (> 200/120 mmHg) <
>and</>&nsp;acute end target-organ damage.
1383792666087 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Hypertensive Urgency}} is a form of
malignant HTN characterized y a severe elevation in BP <>without</>&nsp;acu
te end target-organ damage.
1383879050321 1358629116480 Atherosclerotic plaque has a core made mostly of
lipids that contain characteristic&nsp;{{c1::cholesterol}} crystals.<div><r /
1383879137593 1358629116480 {{c1::Atherosclerosis}} is a vascular pathology
characterized y the thickening of the intima of medium to large-sized arteries.
1383879892955 1358629116480 {{c1::Arteriolosclerosis}} is a vascular patholo
gy involving the thickening of smaller arteries.
1383879910476 1358629116480 {{c1::Monckeerg Medial Calcific Sclerosis}} is
a <>enign</> vascular pathology involving calcification of the media of muscu
lar, medium-sized arteries.
1383879964847 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::shoulder}} of atherosclerotic pla
que is the attaching point of the firous capsule to the vessel wall. It is also
the weakest part of the plaque.
1383880068412 1358629116480 What are foam cells?<div><r />{{c1::Macrophages
that have taken up and oxidized lipids}}</div> <r /><div><i>Lipids are taken u
p via Scavenger Receptors</i></div>
1383880131882 1358629116480 Atherosclerosis can cause stenosis of medium-siz
ed vessels. What pathology occurs if this happens at the lower extremities?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Peipheral Vascular Disease}}</div>
ed vessels. What pathology occurs if this happens at Coronary Arteries?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Angina}}</div>
ed vessels. What pathology occurs if this happens at the Mesenteric Arteries?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ischemic Bowel Disease (IBD)}}</div>
1383880234794 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyaline}} Arteriolosclerosis is vascular t
hickening due to proteins leaking into the vessel wall.
1383880279292 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperplastic }} Arteriolosclerosis is vasc
ular thickening due to hyperplasia of smooth muscle in the BV wall.
1383880305560 1358629116480 What are the 2 major causes of Hyaline Arteriolo
sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Long-Standing Benign Primary HTN & Dia
etes}}</div>
1383880335343 1358629116480 How does Long-Standing Benign Primary HTN cause
Hyaline Arteriolosclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The increase in BP forces
proteins into the BV wall}}</div>
1383880364018 1358629116480 How does Diaetes cause Hyaline Arterioloscleros
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non-enzymatic glycosylation weakens the asement
memrane of BV's, making them leaky}}</div>
1383880412493 1358629116480 What is the major cause of Hyperplastic Arteriol
osclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Malignant HTN}}</div>
1383935224928 1358629116480 Despite what the name suggests, Mycotic Aneurysm
s are actually more commonly due to&nsp;{{c1::acteria}} instead of fungi.
1383935489545 1358629116480 What type of aneurysm is shown elow?<div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-1322849927533.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Adominal Aortic Aneurysm (AAA)}}</div>
1383935546064 1358629116480 Aortic Dissection commonly presents as a sharp,
tearing chest pain that radiates to the&nsp;{{c1::ack}}.
1383936046481 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Thoracic Aneury

sm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atherosclerosis}}</div> <i>Thoracic aneurysm is
also classically associated with tertiary syphilis (</i><i>Syphilitic/Luetic Ane
urysm) ut it's not the most common cause.</i>
1383936146757 1358629116480 {{c1::Thoracic}} Aneurysm due to tertiary syphil
is yields a characteristic 'tree-ark' appearance of the aorta.
1383936177680 1358629116480 Where does an Adominal Aortic Aneurysm (AAA) ty
pically occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Below the renal arteries ut aove the
aortic ifurcation}}</div>
1383936232181 1358629116480 What receptor on macrophages inds to oxidized L
DL to ring it into the macrophage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Scavenger Recepto
r (SR-A)}}</div>
1384035265189 1358629116480 {{c1::Localized}} suendocardial MI is due to a
coronary artery ostruction with susequent thromolysis.
<r><div><i>Can
progress to a transmural MI.</i></div>
1384035370282 1358629116480 {{c1::Circular}} suendocardial MI is seen in se
vere systemic hypotension involving collapse and shock.
1384035404197 1358629116480 What type of Myocardial Infarction is shown elo
w?<div><img src="paste-1039382085870.jpg" /></div><div><r />{{c1::Suendocardia
l MI}}</div>
1384035452139 1358629116480 What type of Myocardial Infarction is shown elo
w?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1065151889648.jpg" /></div><div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Transmural MI}}</div>
1384035478333 1358629116480 How long does it take for Coagulative Necrosis t
o appear following a MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4 hours}}</div>
1384037429398 1358629116480 What <>microscopic</>&nsp;changes are seen at
cardiac tissue 1-3 days after a MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neutrophil infil
tration}}</div>
cardiac tissue 4-7 days after a MI?<div><r />{{c1::Macrophage infiltration}}</
div>
1384037526764 1358629116480 What <>microscopic </>changes are seen at card
iac tissue <>1-3 weeks</> following a MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Granulati
on tissue}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, granulation tissue has 3 things:
firolasts, collagen and new lood vessels</i></div>
cardiac tissue 3 weeks - 2 months following a MI?<div><r />{{c1::Firosis; sca
r}}</div>
1384037761060 1358629116480 What <>gross</>&nsp;changes are seen at cardi
ac tissue 1-3 days following a MI?<div><r />{{c1::ellow pallour indicative of
necrosis}}</div>
1384037824355 1358629116480 What <>gross </>changes will you see at cardia
c tissue 4-7 days following a MI?<div><r />{{c1::ellow pallour with <i>hyperem
ic orders</i> indicative of necrosis}}</div>
ac tissue 1-3 weeks after a MI?<div><r />{{c1::Reddish margins; indicating gran
ulation tissue has now entered the infarct}}</div>
ac tissue 3 weeks - 2 months following a MI?<div><r />{{c1::Grey-white scar}}</
div>
1384038350866 1358629116480 {{c1::Stale}} angina is defined as chest pain t
hat arises with exertion or emotional stress.
1384039770715 1358629116480 How much stenosis must e present in order for s
ymptoms of angina to manifest?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 70%}}</div>
1384039806486 1358629116480 Angina is defined as chest pain that lasts for&n
sp;{{c1::< 20}} minutes.
1384039841726 1358629116480 Where does angina radiate to?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Left arm and/or jaw}}</div>
1384039855084 1358629116480 What EKG findings will e seen in suendocardial
ischemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST-segment depression}}</div>
1384039880234 1358629116480 What EKG findings will e seen in transmural isc

hemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST-segment elevation}}</div>
1384039896550 1358629116480 {{c1::Unstale}} angina is defined as chest pain
that arises <>during rest</>.
1384039920802 1358629116480 {{c1::Prinzmetal}} Angina is defined as episodic
chest pain unrelated to exertion.
1384039947727 1358629116480 What is the cause of Prinzmetal Angina?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Coronary Artery Vasospasm}}</div>
1384039963529 1358629116480 What EKG findings will e seen in Prinzmetal Ang
ina?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST-segment elevation due to transmural ischemia}
}</div>
1384039993680 1358629116480 What EKG findings will e seen in oth stale or
unstale angina?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST-segment depression due to suend
ocardial ischemia}}</div>
1384040014073 1358629116480 Myocardial Infarction will present with severe,
crushing chest pain that lasts for&nsp;{{c1::> 20}} minutes.
1384040054618 1358629116480 Occlusion of the&nsp;{{c1::Left Anterior Descen
ding (LAD)}} artery will result in infarction of the anterio cardiac wall and th
e anterior 2/3 of the septum. <r /><div><i>As well as some of the apex.</i></
div>
1384040277815 1358629116480 Occlusion of the&nsp;{{c1::Posterior Descending
Artery (PDA)}} artery will result in infarction of the posterior cardiac wall,
posterior 1/3 of the septum and papillary muscles of the LV.
The PDA arises f
rom the RCA in ~80% of people and LCA in 15% of people.
1384040321828 1358629116480 Occlusion of the&nsp;{{c1::Left Circumflex (LCX
)}} artery will result in infarction of the lateral wall of the LV.
1384040345826 1358629116480 When do Troponin I levels rise post MI?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::2-4 hrs}}</div>
1384040398271 1358629116480 When do Troponin I levels peak post MI?<div><r>
</div><div>{{c1::24 hrs}}</div>
1384040413555 1358629116480 When do Troponin I levels normalize post MI?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::7-10 days}}</div>
1384040428704 1358629116480 When do CK-MB levels rise post MI?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::4-6 hrs}}</div>
1384040442101 1358629116480 When do CK-MB levels peak post MI?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::24 hrs}}</div>
1384040453191 1358629116480 When do CK-MB levels normalize post MI?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::72 hours}}</div>
1384040466858 1358629116480 What cardiac enzyme is the gold standard for det
ection and Dx of MI?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Troponin I; it is the most sensiti
ve and specific marker}}</div>
1384040493789 1358629116480 What cardiac enzyme is useful for detecting rein
farction after an initial MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CK-MB}}</div>
1384040516859 1358629116480 {{c1::Arrhythmia}} is a major complication of MI
that can arise 4-24 hrs after MI.
<r /><div><i>It is commonly V-fi</i></
div>
1384040597516 1358629116480 {{c1::Firinous Pericarditis}} is a complication
of MI that typically arises 1-3 days after.
1384040641378 1358629116480 {{c1::Myocardial Rupture}} is a complication of
MI that typically arises 4-7 days after.
1384040660018 1358629116480 What can result following myocardial rupture of
the ventricular free wall?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cardiac Tamponade}}</div>
1384040688757 1358629116480 Which valvular disorder can result following myo
cardial rupture of the papillary muscle?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral Valve
insufficiency; typically after RCA occlusion}}</div>
1384040717674 1358629116480 {{c1::Dressler Syndrome}} is an autoimmune peric
arditis seen 6-8 weeks after MI.
1384040764197 1358629116480 {{c1::Dressler Syndrome}} is an autoimmune peric
arditis due to pericardial antigen exposure and susequent A formation followin
g a MI.
1384040788265 1358629116480 Sudden Cardiac Death typically occurs without sy

mptoms or within&nsp;{{c1::1}} hour(s) of symptoms.
1384040830971 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of death in Sudden
Cardiac Death?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular Tachyarrhythmia}}</div>
1384474781322 1358629116480 Calcific aortic stenosis involves calcified nodu
les at the {{c1::annulus}} of the aortic valve.<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-876173328599.jpg" /></div>
1384474851404 1358629116480 What valvular pathology is shown elow?<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-901943132382.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Calcific Stenosis of a Bicuspid Aortic Valve}}</div>
1384474888281 1358629116480 A valvular {{c1::prolapse}} involves the hooding
/folding/alloning of valve leaflets into the chamer ehind it.<div><r /></div
1384475484891 1358629116480 What is shown elow on a histological sample of
Mitral Valve Prolapse?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1602022801714.jpg" /
></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myxomatous Degeneration}}</div>
1384475533328 1358629116480 What cells shown elow are found in the <>Ascho
ff Bodies</> of myocarditis seen in <>Acute Rheumatic Fever</>?<div><r /></d
iv><div><img src="paste-1919850381518.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A
nitschhow cells}}</div>
1384476106254 1358629116480 {{c1::Anitschkow cells}} are seen in Aschoff od
ies of myocarditis in Acute Rheumatic Fever. They have characteristic&nsp;{{c2:
:caterpillar}} nuclei.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1915555414222.jpg" /
></div>
1384476149806 1358629116480 The septic vegetations depicted elow are typica
lly seen in&nsp;{{c1::infectious endocarditis}}.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-2478196130014.jpg" /></div>
1384477184787 1358629116480 {{c1::Splinter hemorrhaging}} is a complication
seen in infectious endocarditis due to septic emoli. It is characterized y spl
inter shaped hemorrhaging at naileds.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2675
764625568.jpg" /></div>
1384477424242 1358629116480 {{c1::Janeway lesions}} are <>non-painful</>&n
sp;lesions on the palms and soles of the feet that manifest in infectious endoc
arditis due to septic emoli.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3027951943875
.jpg" /></div>
1384477470787 1358629116480 {{c1::Osler lesions}} are <>painful</>&nsp;le
sions that manifest at the fingers and toes (or hands and feet) in infectious en
docarditis due to septic emoli.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3100966388
099.jpg" /></div>
1384477514434 1358629116480 {{c1::Nonacterial/Aseptic Thromotic Endocardit
is}} is characterized y <>sterile</> vegetations on the mitral valve, typical
ly due to a hypercoagulale state or mucous secreting adenocarcinoma.<div><r />
1384478316130 1358629116480 {{c1::Lieman-Sacks Endocarditis}} is a form of
endocarditis seen in SLE. It is characterized y s<>terile</>&nsp;vegetations
on <>oth</>&nsp;sides of the mitral valve.<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-3685081940185.jpg" /></div>
1384478358561 1358629116480 Which viruses are the most common cause of myoca
rditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coxsackie A and B}}</div>
1384478574206 1358629116480 Which is the most common <>parasitic</>&nsp;c
ause of myocarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Trypanosoma cruzi</i>; Chagas
Disease}}</div>
1384478715476 1358629116480 {{c1::Viral}} myocarditis typically has a flay
myocardium characterized y pale foci of ischemia and fatty change.<div><r /><
1384478794587 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypersensitivity}} myocarditis involves a
mixture of eosinophils and interstitial infiltrate.<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-5802500817134.jpg" /></div>
1384478827174 1358629116480 {{c1::Giant cell}} myocarditis involves giant ma
crophage cells and extensive necrosis of cardiomyocytes.<div><r /></div><div><i
1384478871775 1358629116480 Cardiac tamponade typically manifests when there
is&nsp;{{c1::> 150 mL}} (volume) of fluid that has accumulated in the peri
cardium.
1384479101834 1358629116480 {{c1::Firinous}} pericarditis is typically seen
following an MI and involves a loud friction ru.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-6902012445026.jpg" /></div>
1384479167426 1358629116480 {{c1::Purulent/suppurative}} pericarditis is cau
sed y acteria from local and/or distant sources.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-6850472837476.jpg" /></div>
1384479222294 1358629116480 {{c1::Adhesive}} pericarditis is an asymptomatic
form of pericarditis characterized y firous stands that cross the pericardial
cavity.
1384479263686 1358629116480 {{c1::Constrictive}} pericarditis is characteriz
ed y a concentric firous/firocalcific scar in the pericardium.<div><r /></di
<r /><div><i>Can cause
heart failure y limiting diastolic filling and reducing preload.</i></div>
1384479336430 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::cardiomyopathy}} is a myocardial di
sorder resulting in heart failure.
1384479364687 1358629116480 {{c1::Dilated Cardiomyopathy}} is a cardiomyopat
hy characterized y dilation of <>all 4</>&nsp;chamers of the heart.<div><r
1384479420869 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}} is cardiomyo
pathy defined as massive hypertrophy of the LV, rendering it into a anana-like
shape.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-7962869367002.jpg" /></div>
1384480044634 1358629116480 {{c1::Restricive}} Cardiomyopathy is defined as
a decreased compliance of the ventricular endomyocardium that restricts filling
during diastole.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8083128451289.jpg" /></div
>
1384480102560 1358629116480 What histological finding shown elow is seen in
a cardiac tissue iopsy in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div><i
mg src="paste-8379481194865.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myofiril h
ypertrophy and disarray}}</div>
1384480257086 1358629116480 What is an Amyloid?<div><r />{{c1::An anormall
y folded protein}}</div>
1384480361276 1358629116480 What tissue stain is commonly used to reveal amy
loids?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9801115369717.jpg" /><r /><div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Congo red}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Amyloids will e
right pink/red on weak pink ackground</i></div>
1384480405949 1358629116480 What colour do Amyloids show on polarized micros
copy of Congo-Red stained tissue slides?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Apple-green
Birefringence}}</div> <img src="paste-9749575762174.jpg" />
1384558728166 1358629116480 What is the most common <>overall</>&nsp;caus
e of infectious endocarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Viridans <i>Streptococc
i</i>}}</div>
1384558864000 1358629116480 Viridans <i>Streptococci</i>&nsp;cause&nsp;{{c
1::suacute}} endocarditis as they are low virulence pathogens.
1384558899969 1358629116480 <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>&nsp;is a high viru
lence organism that causes&nsp;{{c1::acute}} endocarditis.
1384559046508 1358629116480 Which species of acteria is involved with suac
ute endocarditis in patients with underlying colorectal carcinoma?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus ovis</i>}}</div>
1384559086048 1358629116480 How are serum ferritin levels changed in Anaemia
of Chronic Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Elevated}}</div>
1384559253994 1358629116480 {{c1::Lieman-Sacks}} endocarditis is due to ste
rile vegetations that arise on <>oth</>&nsp;sides of the mitral valve.
1384559288544 1358629116480 What form of Endocarditis is associated with Sys
temic Lupus Erythematosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Liman-Sacks endocarditis}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Sterile vegetations on oth sides of the mitral valve</i><
/div>
1384559324125 1358629116480 {{c1::Nonacterial/Aseptic Thromotic}} Endocard

itis is due to sterile vegetations that arise in a hypercoagulale state or with
an underlying mucous secreting adenocarcinoma.
1384559363431 1358629116480 Which virus can cause secondary dilated cardiomy
opathy via myocarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coxsackie A or B}}</div>
1384559439478 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Dilated Cardiomyopathy
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Heart transplant}}</div>
1384559488695 1358629116480 What is the genetic etiology of <>Hypertrophic<
/>&nsp;Cardiomyopathy?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Gene mutations in sarcomere pr
oteins}}</div>
1384559521884 1358629116480 {{c1::Loeffler Syndrome}} is defined as endomyoc
ardial firosis with <>eosinophilic infiltrate and eosinophilia</>. It can cau
se <>restrictive cardiomyopathy</>.
1384559702466 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Arrhythmogenic Right Ven
tricular Cardiomyopathy (ARVC)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal dominant mu
tations in desmosome proteins}}</div>
1384559740495 1358629116480 {{c2::Acute Rheumatic Fever}} is an autoimmune c
omplication of pharyngitis caused y Group&nsp;{{c1::A}} <i>Streptococcus</i>
1384566138651 1358629116480 Bacterial&nsp;{{c1::M proteins}} cause the path
ology seen in Acute Rheumatic Fever through <>molecular mimicry.</>
1384566168273 1358629116480 Elevation of which 2 antiody titers are indicat
ive of Group A <i>Streptococcus</i>&nsp;infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A
ntistreptolysin O (ASO); Anti-DNAse}}</div>
1384566238641 1358629116480 {{c1::Migratory Polyarthritis}} is a complicatio
n of Acute Rheumatic Fever characterized y swelling and pain at large joints th
at resolves and then migrates to other large joints.
1384566284258 1358629116480 What type of valvular pathology is seen with <>
acute</>&nsp;rheumatic fever?<div><r />{{c1::Regurgitation; typically of the
mitral valve or mitral + aortic}}</div>
1384566355360 1358629116480 Which valve is most commonly involved in Acute R
heumatic Fever?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral}}</div>
1384566378195 1358629116480 {{c1::Aschoff Bodies}} are foci of chronic infla
mmation seen in the myocarditis of Acute Rheumatic Fever.
1384566414596 1358629116480 {{c1::Anitschkow Cells}} are reactive histiocyte
s with wavy, slender, caterpillar-like nuclei seen in Aschoff Bodies of Acute Rh
eumatic Fever.
1384566450964 1358629116480 {{c1::Erythema marginatum}} is an annular, non-p
ruritic rash with erythematous orders seen in Acute Rheumatic Fever. It is typi
cally found at the trunk and lims.
1384566515913 1358629116480 {{c1::Sydenham chorea}} is a neurological disord
er that appears in Acute Rheumatic Fever. It is characterized y rapid, involunt
ary movements of the face, hands and feet.
1384566548726 1358629116480 What type of valvular pathology is seen in Chron
ic Rheumatic Heart Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stenosis; almost always o
f the mitral valve}}</div>
<r /><div><i>If the aortic valve is involved, t
he <>commissures are fused</></i></div>
1384566601155 1358629116480 What kind of murmur is heard in Aortic Stenosis?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Systolic ejection click with crescendo-decrescendo m
urmur}}</div>
1384567463850 1358629116480 What happens to coronary lood flow in Aortic St
enosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreases}}</div>
1384567520187 1358629116480 What happens to ejection time in Aortic Stenosis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prolonged}}</div>
1384567532405 1358629116480 What happens to Left Ventricular pressure in aor
tic stenosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increases}}</div>
1384567548339 1358629116480 What happens to aortic pressure in Aortic Stenos
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreases}}</div>
1384567560228 1358629116480 Where is the murmur in Aortic Stenosis est hear
d?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aortic valve area; 2nd right intercostal space}}</
div>
1384567604067 1358629116480 What happens to Aortic Systolic Pressure in Aort

ic Regurgitation?<div><r />{{c1::Increases}}</div>
1384567665540 1358629116480 What happens to Aortic Diastolic Pressure in Aor
tic Regurgitation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreases}}</div> <r /><div><i>Th
e lower the diastolic pressure, the more severe the regurgitation</i></div>
1384567732442 1358629116480 What kind of murmur is heard in Aortic Regurgita
tion?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Early, lowing, decrescendo diastolic murmur just
after S2}}</div>
1384567767761 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::Austin Flint}} murmur is due to pr
emature closure of the mitral valve caused y aortic regurgitant jet causing an
apical diastolic rumle.
1384567821873 1358629116480 What is the Quincke pulse?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Pulsating nail ed}}</div>
1384567846248 1358629116480 What murmur is heard in Mitral Valve Prolapse?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mid-systolic click followed y a late systolic regurgi
tation murmur}}</div>
1384567925696 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Mitral Stenosis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rheumatic Fever; Rheumatic Heart Disease}}</div>
1384567981817 1358629116480 What kind of murmur is heard in Mitral Stenosis?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Opening snap followed y a diastolic rumle}}</div>
1384568255551 1358629116480 What type of murmur is heard in Mitral Regurgita
tion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pansystolic 'lowing' murmur}}</div>
1384621789516 1358629116480 What is the Cardiac Output in a normal adult?<di
v><r />{{c1::~5 L/min}}</div>
1384622020459 1358629116480 What is the equation for Ejection Fraction?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::EF = SV / EDV}}</div>
1384622050083 1358629116480 Cardiac {{c1::preload}} is the stretch that myoc
ardial fiers feel <>efore </>contraction. It is commonly estimated y EDV.
1384622098731 1358629116480 Cardiac&nsp;{{c1::afterload}} is the resistance
that the ventricles must overcome to empty its contents. It is estimated y art
erial pressure.
1384622123843 1358629116480 Cardiac&nsp;{{c1::contractility/inotropy}} refe
rs to the heart's aility to change the force of contraction independent of the
preload or afterload.
1384622160285 1358629116480 What happens to ventricular wall thickness in ve
ntricular <>dilation</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::It gets thinner}}</div>
1384640532076 1358629116480 What cardiomyocyte histological change is shown
elow in cardiac hypertrophy?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2658584756469
.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hiernating myocardium}}</div>
1384640604295 1358629116480 What morphological change in alveolar macrophage
s is seen in chronic left sided heart failure?<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-3105261355256.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hemosiderin-laden mac
rophages aka 'heart-failure' cells}}</div>
1384642645011 1358629116480 What cardiac pathology is commonly associated wi
th edema of the peripheral lims, esp the shins and ankles?<div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-3551937954077.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Si
ded Heart Failure}}</div>
1384643012294 1358629116480 What cardiac pathology is commonly associated wi
th ascites?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3663607103768.jpg" /></div><div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Sided heart failure}}</div>
1384643040464 1358629116480 What cardiac pathology is a nutmeg liver associa
ted with?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3689376907635.jpg" /></div><div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Sided Heart Failure}}</div>
1384643069507 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Right Sided Hea
rt Failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Sided Heart Failure}}</div>
1384643597164 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Cor Pulmonale</i>}} is defined as right
-sided heart failure due to chronic lung disease.
1384643641700 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Cor Pulmonale</i>}} is right-sided hear
t failure that manifests due to the hypoxia caused y chronic lung disease. The
hypoxia greatly constricts pulmonary capillaries, leading to RV failure.
1384643685180 1358629116480 How does the A-wave of the JVP change with jugul
ar venous distension?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increases}}</div>
1384643805178 1358629116480 {{c1::Systolic}} heart failure is defined as hea
rt failure with < 50% of normal Ejection Fraction and increased EDV.
1384643846269 1358629116480 {{c1::Diastolic}} heart failure is defined as he
art failure with > 50% of normal Ejection Fraction with unchanged, normal EDV
.
1384643870134 1358629116480 {{c1::Systolic}} heart failure results from the
ventricles eing unale to eject lood.
1384643890027 1358629116480 {{c1::Diastolic}} heart failure results from the
ventricles eing unale to fill with lood.
1384643901583 1358629116480 {{c1::Systolic}} heart failure presents as forwa
rd heart failure.
1384643919198 1358629116480 {{c1::Diastolic}} heart failure presents as ack
wards heart failure due to the increase in atrial pressure and atrial hypertroph
y.
1384643940755 1358629116480 {{c1::Concentric}} cardiac hypertrophy is seen i
n pressure overload.
1384643987964 1358629116480 {{c1::Eccentric}} cardiac hypertrophy is seen fo
llowing volume overload.
1384644002682 1358629116480 How does the thickness of the ventricle wall cha
nge in Concentric Hypertrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thickened}}</div>
1384644045734 1358629116480 How does the volume of the ventricles change in
Concentric Hypertrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Unchanged}}</div>
1384644066404 1358629116480 How does the thickness of the ventricular wall c
hange during Eccentric Hypertrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Unchanged}}</div>
1384644122694 1358629116480 How does the volume of the ventricles change in
Eccentric Hypertrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increases}}</div>
1384644146508 1358629116480 Which hormone secreted y the ventricles can e
used as a screening test for heart failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Brain Nat
riuretic Peptide}}</div>
1384645114379 1358629116480 Class {{c1::1}} NHA heart failure involves no l
imitations of physical activity.
1384645223336 1358629116480 Class&nsp;{{c1::2}} NHA heart failure involves
slight limitations to physical activity, with fatigue and SOB during ordinary a
ctivity.
1384645263122 1358629116480 Class&nsp;{{c1::3}} NHA heart failure involves
marked limitation. Ordinary activity produces fatigue, SOB and palpitations.
1384645292024 1358629116480 Class {{c1::4}} NHA heart faliure involves symp
toms of heart failure at rest.
1384645307007 1358629116480 Stage&nsp;{{c1::A}} heart failure denotes an <
>at risk individual</>&nsp;that does not actually have prolems with heart fun
ction.
1384645337376 1358629116480 What Framingham Criteria need to e fulfilled fo
r a diagnosis of congestive heart failure to e made?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:2 major or (1 major + 1 minor)}}</div>
1384645583276 1358629116480 What type of heart failure does an S3 heart soun
d on <>inspiration</>&nsp;most likely indicate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ri
ght sided heart failure}}</div>
1384645636970 1358629116480 What does an S3 heart sound on <>expiration</>
&nsp;point towards?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left sided heart failure}}</div>
1384645653157 1358629116480 Which cause of Congestive Heart Failure must alw
ays e actively excluded?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pericardial effusion}}</div
>
1384892564376 1358629116480 The muscular portion of the interventricular sep
tum is derived form&nsp;{{c1::myocardium}}
1384893456394 1358629116480 The memranous portion of the interventricular s
eptum is derived from&nsp;{{c1::endocardial cushions}} and the {{c2::aortico-pu
lmonary septum}}.
1384893503009 1358629116480 80% of ventricular septal defects (VSDs) are def
ects of the&nsp;{{c1::memranous}} portion of the interventricular septum.

1384893552525 1358629116480 The reversal of a L to R shunt due to increased
pulmonary resistance into a R to L shunt gives rise to {{c1::Eisenmenger's}} Syn
drome.
1384908206829 1358629116480 R to L shunting of lood can cause Polycythemia
as the hypoxemia triggers the release of&nsp;{{c1::Erythropoietin (EPO)}}.
1384908248878 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::R to L}} shunt will result in <>ea
rly</>&nsp;cyanosis.
1384908454524 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Ventricular Septal Defect}} is a de
fect in the interventricular septum.
1384908506943 1358629116480 What is the most common Congenital Heart Defect?
<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD)}}</div>
1384908525085 1358629116480 Ventricular Septal Defects are commonly associat
ed with&nsp;{{c1::Fetal Alcohol}} Syndrome.
1384908546005 1358629116480 What kind of shunt is involved in a Ventricular
Septal Defect?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L to R; from LV to RV; then R to L due
to Eisenmenger's}}</div>
1384908614094 1358629116480 What murmur is heard in a Ventricular Septal Def
ect?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Pansystolic murmur along the left parasternal line
}}</div>
1384908655136 1358629116480 A(n)&nsp;{{c1::Atrial Septal Defect (ASD)}} is
defined as a defect in the septum that divides the atria.
1384908693592 1358629116480 What is the most common type of Atrial Septal De
fect?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ostium Secundum}}</div>
1384908713460 1358629116480 What type of Atrial Septal Defect is associated
with Down's Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ostium Primum}}</div>
1384908744797 1358629116480 What type of shunt is involved in an Atrial Sept
al Defect?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L to R}}</div>
1384908759568 1358629116480 What congenital heart defect is associated with
a fixed splitting of S2?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atrial Septal Defect}}</div>
1384908794094 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::paradoxical emolus}} is a complica
tion of atrial septal defects where a DVT can cross over from R to L via the sep
tal defect.
<r /><div><i>There is hence possiility of stroke or rain asc
ess if the emolus is septic.</i></div>
1384909041939 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Patent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA)}} is
defined as the failure of the ductus arteriosus to close.
1384909067746 1358629116480 What congenital infection is a Patent Ductus Art
eriosus associated with?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congenital Ruella}}</div>
1384909087810 1358629116480 What type of shunt is involved in a Patent Ductu
s Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L to R}}</div>
1384909178424 1358629116480 {{c1::Prostaglandin E}} is a prostaglandin that
maintains the patency of the Ductus Arteriosus.
1384909237760 1358629116480 What type of murmur is heard in a Patent Ductus
Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Continuous, 'machine-like', holosystolic
murmur}}</div>
1384909297526 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Patent Ductus Arterios
us?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Indomethacin; decreases production of PGE}}</div>
1384909359981 1358629116480 Which ventricle is hypertrophied in Tetralogy of
Fallot?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RV}}</div> <r /><div><i>The tetrad include
s:</i></div><div><i>1. Hypoplastic RV Outflow Tract</i></div><div><i>2. RVH</i><
/div><div><i>3. VSD</i></div><div><i>4. Overriding Aortic Arch</i></div>
1384909387575 1358629116480 What type of shunt is found in the Tetralogy of
Fallot?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::R to L; causing early cyanosis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Severity is due to pulmonic valve stenosis.</i></div>
1384909472557 1358629116480 Children with Tetralogy of Fallot will often&ns
p;{{c1::squat}} in response to a cyanotic episode as it increases arterial resis
tance and decreases R to L shunting.
1384909758961 1358629116480 In Tetralogy of Fallot, there is no&nsp;{{c1::p
ulmonic}} component to the S2 heart sound.
1384909781275 1358629116480 What congenital heart disease will yield a&nsp;
<>'oot-shaped' heart</>&nsp;on a chest x-ray?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tet

ralogy of Fallot}}</div>
1384909827260 1358629116480 What congenital heart defect is associated with
Maternal Diaetes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Transposition of the Great Vessels
}}</div>
1384909917012 1358629116480 Which ventricle is atrophied in Transposition of
the Great Vessels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LV}}</div>
1384909944269 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Transposition of the G
reat Vessels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Creation of a shunt; PGE}}</div>
1384909974228 1358629116480 In Transposition of the Greast Vessels,&nsp;{{c
1::PGE}} is administered to maintain patency of the Ductus Arteriosus which then
acts as a shunt.
1384910001344 1358629116480 {{c1::Truncus Arteriosis}} is a congenital heart
defect characterized y a single, large outflow vessel from oth ventricles tha
t allows for oxy/deoxy lood to mix.
1384910040952 1358629116480 What congenital heart defect is associated along
side Tricuspid Atresia?<div><r />{{c1::Atrial Septal Defect}}</div>
1384910085112 1358629116480 What shunt is found in Tricuspid Atresia?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::R to L due to the ASD}}</div>
1384910105773 1358629116480 What ventricle is hypoplastic in Tricuspid Atres
ia?<div><r />{{c1::RV}}</div>
1384910123527 1358629116480 {{c1::Coarctation of the Aorta}} is a congenital
heart defect defined as a narrowing of the aorta.
1384910738631 1358629116480 Infantile Coarctation of the Aorta is associated
with&nsp;{{c1::Patent Ductus Arteriosus}} and&nsp;{{c2::Turner's Syndrome}}
1384910766314 1358629116480 Where is the coarctation located in Infantile Co
arctation of the Aorta?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Distal to the aortic arch ut
proximal to the PDA}}</div>
1384910794845 1358629116480 Where is the coarctation found in Adult Coarctat
ion of the Aorta?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Distal to the Aortic Arch}}</div>
1384910814521 1358629116480 There will e cyanosis at the&nsp;{{c1::lower}}
extremities in Infantile Coarctation of the Aorta.
1384910837160 1358629116480 There is a&nsp;{{c1::R to L}} shunting of lood
through the PDA in Infantile Coarctation of the Aorta. <r /><div><i>Due to low
lood pressure distal to the coarctation.</i></div>
1384910881659 1358629116480 Adult Coarctation of the Aorta is associated wit
h a&nsp;{{c1::icuspid aortic}} valve.
1384910904030 1358629116480 There will e <>hyper</>tension at the&nsp;{{
c1::upper}} extremities in Adult Coarctation of the Aorta.
1384910929664 1358629116480 There will e <>hypo</>tension and weak pulses
at the&nsp;{{c1::lower}} extremities in Adult Coarctation of the Aorta.
1384910952579 1358629116480 {{c1::Adult Coarctation of the Aorta}} is a cong
enital heart defect that is associated with 'notching' of the ris on an x-ray d
ue to collateral circulation.
1384910995552 1358629116480 {{c1::Adult Coarctation of the Aorta}} can e di
agnosed through rachial and femoral pulse delay.
1384911061865 1358629116480 Which form of ANCA is found near the nucleus tha
t yields fluourescent nuclei.?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-945322301870
6.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div><div>{{c1::p-ANCA}}</div></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>aka Perinuclear ANCA; MPO-ANCA</i></div>
1384916799628 1358629116480 What form of ANCA is located in the cytoplasm an
d yields fluorescent cytoplasm?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-97538707294
25.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::c-ANCA}}</div>
<r /><div><i>ak
a cytoplasmic ANCA; PR3-ANCA</i></div>
1384916845302 1358629116480 ANCA associated vasculitis involves the degranul
ation of&nsp;{{c1::neutrophils}} that is triggered y ANCAs inding to either M
yeloperoxidase near the nucleus or PR-3 on the surface.
1384916907848 1358629116480 What does ANCA stand for?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Anti-Neutrophilic Cytoplasmic Antiodies}}</div>
1384916921829 1358629116480 What is haemoptysis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Coughing of lood}}</div>
1384916999530 1358629116480 {{c1::Churg-Strauss Syndrome}} is a type of necr
otizing granulomatous Vasculitis that involves firinoid necrosis and <>eosinop
hilia</>.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-10617159156088.jpg" /></div>
1384917282600 1358629116480 {{c1::Wegener's Granulomatosis}} is a form of ne
crotizing, granulomatous Vasculitis that involves ulceration at the upper respir
atory tract or palate.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10904921964806.jpg"
/></div>
1384917407899 1358629116480 {{c1::Henoch-Schonlein Purpura}} is a type of va
sculitis that involves the deposition of IgA immune complexes at the glomerular
mesangium.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11012296147268.jpg" /></div>
1384917483279 1358629116480 Which type of vasculitis involves Renal Artery a
neurysms?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11355893531035.jpg" /></div><div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Polyarteritis Nodosa}}</div>
1384917654964 1358629116480 Which type of vasculitis involves aneurysm of th
e Coronary Artery?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11656541241523.jpg" /></
div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Kawasaki's Disease}}</div>
1384917727063 1358629116480 Which type of Vasculitis is associated with a 'S
trawerry Tongue'?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11798275162470.jpg" /></
div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Kawasaki's Disease}}</div>
1384917774215 1358629116480 What type of vasculitis is associated with Rayna
ud's Phenomenon at the digits due to smoking?<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-12240656793823.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Buerger's Disease}}</
div>
1384917908205 1358629116480 {{c1::Buerger's Disease}} is a type of vasculiti
s that involes thromus and <>microascesses</>&nsp;at the digits of the hand
1384917948794 1358629116480 What type of vasculitis is involves the Temporal
Artery, causing it to dilate and ecome inflamed?<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-13060995547404.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Temporal Giant C
ell Arteritis}}</div>
1384918147976 1358629116480 What type of vasculitis involves granulomas with
very large Giant Cells?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13344463388972.jpg
" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Temporal Giant Cell Arteritis}}</div>
1384918181057 1358629116480 Primary {{c1::Raynaud's Phenomenon}} is a vascul
ar disorder characterized y paroxysmal pallor or cyanosis of the digits of the
hands and feet due to cold-induced vasospasm of small arteries/arterioles.<div><
<r /><div><i>Co
lour change progresses from white --> lue --> red</i></div>
1384918395633 1358629116480 {{c1::Primary}} Raynaud's Phenomenon is triggere
d y the cold.
1384918421612 1358629116480 {{c1::Secondary}} Raynaud's Phenomenon is second
ary to another disease and involves more severe complications such as necrosis a
nd ulceration.
1384918446121 1358629116480 {{c1::Thromophleitis}} is defined as <>primar
y inflammation</>&nsp;of veins with susequent thromosis.
1384918495367 1358629116480 {{c1::Phleothromosis}} is defined as <>primar
y thromosis</>&nsp;with possile susequent inflammation.
<r /><div><i>Mo
st common example is DVT</i></div>
1384918537066 1358629116480 {{c1::Temporal Giant Cell Arteritis}} is a granu
lomatous vasculitis that classically involves the ranches of the carotid artery
.
1384918966519 1358629116480 What age group is most commonly affected y Temp
oral Giant Cell Arteritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 50 y/o}}</div>
1384918990636 1358629116480 Temporal Giant Cell Arteritis involves headaches
due to involvement of the&nsp;{{c1::temporal}} artery.
1384919028582 1358629116480 Temporal Giant Cell Arteritis involves visual di
sturances due to involvement of the&nsp;{{c1::ophthalmic}} artery.
1384919047702 1358629116480 {{c1::Temporal Giant Cell Arteritis}} is a type
of vasculitis that involves <>segmental lesions</>, therey requiring iopsy o
f a long segment of the lood vessel.

1384919115237 1358629116480 {{c1::Takayasu's Arteritis}} is a type of vascul
itis that is also called "Pulseless Disease".
1384919163705 1358629116480 {{c1::Takayasu's Arteritis}} is a granulomatous
vasculitis that involves the aortic arch at its ranch points.
1384919413217 1358629116480 What age group is most commonly affected y&nsp
;Takayasu's Arteritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::< 50 y/o}}</div>
1384919425180 1358629116480 {{c1::Takayasu's Arteritis}} is a type of vascul
itis that involves a weak or asent pulse at the upper extremities.
1384919462173 1358629116480 {{c1::Polyarteritis Nodosa}} is a medium-vessel
necrotizing vasculitis that affects multiple organs ut <>spares the lungs</>.
1384919519722 1358629116480 {{c1::Polyarteritis Nodosa}} is a necrotizing va
sculitis that involves a <>string-of-pearls</>&nsp;appearance on imaging.
1384919551452 1358629116480 Polyarteritis Nodosa involves adominal pain and
melena due to involvement of the&nsp;{{c1::mesenteric}} artery.
1384919592337 1358629116480 Which antigen is associated with&nsp;Polyarteri
tis Nodosa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatitis B Surface Antigen (HBsAg)}}</di
v>
1384919621751 1358629116480 {{c1::Kawasaki's Disease}} is a type of vasculit
is that involves the coronary artery.
1384919687281 1358629116480 What age group is commonly affected y&nsp;Kawa
saki's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Asian children < 4 y/o}}</div>
1384919703455 1358629116480 What is the Tx for&nsp;Kawasaki's Disease?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Aspirin}}</div> <r /><div><i>Inhiits the production of
Thromoxane A2, therey inhiiting thromosis.</i></div>
1384919731621 1358629116480 {{c1::Buerger's Disease}} is a necrotizing vascu
litis that involves the digits.
1384919761703 1358629116480 What is the etiology of&nsp;Buerger's Disease?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smoking}}</div>
1384919771044 1358629116480 {{c1::Buerger's Disease}} is a type of vasculiti
s that presents with ulceration, gangrene and autoamputation of the digits.
1384919793251 1358629116480 {{c1::Wegener's Granulomatosis}} is a necrotizin
g, granulomatous vasculitis that classically involves the upper respiratory trac
t, lungs and kidneys.
1384919889290 1358629116480 {{c1::Wegener's Granulomatosis}} is a small-vess
el vasculitis that commonly involves ulceration of the nasopharynx or palate.
1384919919188 1358629116480 What ANCA sutype is involved with&nsp;Wegener'
s Granulomatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::cytoplasmic-ANCA (PR3-ANCA)}}</div>
1384919969033 1358629116480 {{c1::Microscopic Polyangiitis}} is a necrotizin
g vasculitis that classically involves the lungs and kidneys only.
<r /><d
iv><i>Presents similar to Wegener's Granulomatosis ut lacks nasopharyngeal invo
lvement and granulomas.</i></div>
1384920052653 1358629116480 What ANCA sutype is associated with&nsp;Micros
copic Polyangiitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::perinuclear-ANCA (MPO-ANCA)}}</di
v>
1384920085966 1358629116480 {{c1::Churg-Strauss Syndrome}} is a necrotizing,
granulomatous vasculitis/inflammation involving <>eosinophils</>&nsp;at many
organs, especially the <>lungs and heart</>.
1384920137998 1358629116480 {{c1::Churg-Strauss Syndrome}} is a type of vasc
ulitis that presents with asthma, peripheral eosinophilia, and vascular/extravas
cular granulomas.
1384920195535 1358629116480 What ANCA sutype is associated with&nsp;ChurgStrauss Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::perinuclear-ANCA (MPO-ANCA)}}</div>
sculitis that results from {{c2::IgA}} immune complex deposition at the lood ve
ssel wall.
sculitis associated with IgA immune complex deposition and presents with <>palp
ale purpura</>.
<i>Palpale pupura implies leukocytoclastic vasculitis,
a histopathologic term commonly used to denote a small-vessel vasculitis (all th
e small vessel vasculitides can present with palpale pupura).</i>

1384920301974 1358629116480 Henoch-Schonlein Purpura presents with hematuria
due to&nsp;{{c1::IgA}} nephropathy.
1384972933399 1358629116480 Which morphology of Hemangioma is shown elow?<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2765958938823.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Capillary Hemangioma}}</div>
1384976023646 1358629116480 Upon iopsy, the&nsp;{{c1::capillary}} form of
Hemangioma will show closely packed thin-walled capillaries.<div><r /></div><di
1384976072454 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::pyogenic granuloma}} is a type of h
emangioma that is inflamed and commonly presents at the gums in pregnant women.<
1384976170024 1358629116480 Which morphology of Hemangioma is shown elow?<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3023656976571.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Cavernous Hemangioma}}</div>
1384976305754 1358629116480 {{c1::Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL)}} Syndrome is a pr
ecancerous, autosomal dominant disorder involving cavernous hemangiomas at the c
ereellum and retina (hemangiolastoma).
1384976375575 1358629116480 What malignant cancer is commonly associated wit
h Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL) Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renal Cell Carcin
oma (increased risk)}}</div>
1384976426349 1358629116480 Which gene is affected in Von Hippel-Lindau (VHL
) Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VHL Tumour Suppressor; via the 'two-hit'
mechanism}}</div>
1384976467753 1358629116480 {{c1::Lymphangioma}} is a lymphatic analog of He
mangioma seen in children.
1384976639048 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Glomus Tumour (Glomangioma)}} is a
enign tumour of the glomus ody located at arteriovenous anastamoses. <r><div
><i>The glomus ody is involved with thermoregulation.</i></div>
1384976711250 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Glomus tumour}} is a enign vascula
r tumour commonly found at the distal digits under the fingernails.<div><r /></
<r /><div><i>Very painf
ul</i></div>
1384976846675 1358629116480 What is a Vascular Ectasia?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::A <>localized </>dilation of <><u>pre-existing lood vessels</u></>}}
</div> <r /><div><i>Is not a neoplasm</i></div>
1384976905111 1358629116480 {{c1::Telangiectasia}} is a dilation of single,
small lood vessels at the skin or mucosa.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste4565550235950.jpg" /></div>
1384976939522 1358629116480 {{c1::Spider Telangiectasia}} &nsp;is a form of
vascular ectasia defined as a radial array of dilated sucutaneous arteries/art
erioles around a central core.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-459132003968
8.jpg" /></div>
1384977008159 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Spider Telangiectasia?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperestrinism in pregnancy or liver cirrhosis}}</div>
1384993100060 1358629116480 {{c1::Nevus Flammeus}} is a congenital deformity
in capillaries that presents as a irthmark.
1384993153595 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::salmon patch}} form of Nevus Flam
mus is also known as 'stork ite' and 'angel kiss'.
1384993191612 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Salmon patch}} form of Nevus Flam
mus is pink and flat. It is the form that regresses.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-5819680686483.jpg" /></div>
1384993238282 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Port Wine Stain}} form of Nevus F
lammeus does not regress. It is rough, thickens with the skin surface and is a g
olden-rown to ruy colour.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6283537154400.j
pg" /></div>
1384993298369 1358629116480 {{c1::Sturge-Weer}} Syndrome involves the PortWine form of Nevus Flammeus in the trigeminal nerve distriution.<div><r /></di
<r /><div><i>It also in
volves Leptomeningeal angiomas.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-45569603010654.
jpg" /></i></div>
1384993417743 1358629116480 {{c1::Bacillary Angiomatosis}} is a vascular pro
liferation that is associated with&nsp;<i>Bartonella</i>&nsp;infections.<div><
1384993913664 1358629116480 What stain can e used to identify <i>Bartonella
</i>&nsp;<i>spp</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wartin-Starry (silver) stain}}<
/div>
1384993949053 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemangiopericytoma}} is a neoplastic proli
feration originating from pericytes. It is enign 2/3 and metastatis 1/3 of the
time.
1384994023474 1358629116480 {{c1::Kaposi's Sarcoma}} is a malignant vascular
tumour that consists of cords of pleomorphic <>spindle-shaped</>&nsp;cells t
hat resemle firolasts ut do not produce collagen.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-6536940224761.jpg" /></div>
1384994150655 1358629116480 Which endothelial surface marker is expressed in
Hemangiosarcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD31+}}</div>
1384994531953 1358629116480 {{c1::Lymphangiosarcoma}} is a malignant vascula
r tumour that develops following chronic lymphedema.
<r /><div><i>The lymphe
dema can e a result of radical mastectomy that involves removal of lymph nodes.
</i></div>
1384994609654 1358629116480 A Cardiac&nsp;{{c1::Myxoma}} is a enign cardia
c tumour that involves stellate or spindle-shaped cells emedded in a myxoid str
oma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6854767804754.jpg" /></div>
1384994696844 1358629116480 Cardiac&nsp;{{c1::Rhadomyoma}} is a enign car
diac tumour that involves <>spider cells</> on iopsy.<div><img src="paste-700
0796692767.jpg" /></div>
1384995065570 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemangioma}} is a enign tumour comprised
of lood vessels.
1384995817880 1358629116480 {{c1::Capillary Hemangioma}} is the form of hema
ngioma that involves closely packed thin-walled capillaries filled with lood an
d lined with endothelium.
1384995870547 1358629116480 {{c1::Cavernous Hemangioma}} is the form of Hema
ngioma that involves large cavernous channels lined with endothelium and filled
with RBCs.
1384995906155 1358629116480 {{c1::Angiosarcoma}} is a malignant proliferatio
n of endothelial cells. It is very invasive.
1384996186234 1358629116480 What vascular tumour is associated with Thorotra
st exposure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Angiosarcoma of the Liver}}</div>
1384996214526 1358629116480 What vascular tumour is associated with Polyviny
l Chloride (PVC)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Angiosarcoma of the liver}}</div>
1384996230998 1358629116480 What vascular tumour is associated with Arsenic
exposure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Angiosarcoma of the liver}}</div>
1384996248720 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Kaposi's Sarcoma?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::HHV8}}</div>
1384996263123 1358629116480 {{c1::Kaposi's Sarcoma}} is a vascular tumour th
at presents as purple patches, plaques and nodules on the skin.
1384996290089 1358629116480 A cardiac&nsp;{{c1::myxoma}} is a enign mesenc
hymal tumour of the heart that has a gelatinous appearance and aundant ground s
ustance.
1384996320823 1358629116480 A cardiac&nsp;{{c1::myxoma}} is a cardiac tumou
r that presents as a pedunculated mass in the <>left atrium</>, therey causin
g syncope through ostruction of the mitral valve.
1384996363374 1358629116480 Which cardiac chamer is involved with a cardiac
myxoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Atrium}}</div>
1384996516967 1358629116480 A cardiac&nsp;{{c1::myxoma}} is a cardiac tumou
r that is associated with adults.
1384996537939 1358629116480 A cardiac&nsp;{{c1::rhadomyoma}} is a enign h
amartoma of cardiac muscle.
1384996556389 1358629116480 A cardiac&nsp;{{c1::rhadomyoma}} is a cardiac
tumour that is more common in children.
1384996576937 1358629116480 Which heart chamer is associated with cardiac r

hadomyoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricles}}</div>
1384996592313 1358629116480 Cancer metastasis typically involves the&nsp;{{
c1::pericardium}}, therey resulting in pericardial effusion.
1397524597276 1395802358422 Which <>direction</>&nsp;of lood shunt is as
sociated with early cyanosis ("lue aies")?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right t
o left shunts}}</div> <r /><div><i>These type of shunts are either diagnosed
prenatally or evident immediately after irth. They require urgent surgical corr
ection or maintenance of a PDA (via Prostaglandin E<su>1</su>/E<su>2</su>).<
/i></div><div><i>The 5 most common R to L congenital heart disease shunts:</i></
div><div><i><img src="paste-1438814044336.jpg" /></i></div>
1397526124398 1395802358422 {{c1::Persistent Truncus Arteriosus}} is a conge
nital heart disease that involves failure of the truncus arteriosus to divide in
to the pulmonary trunk and aorta.
<r /><div><i>Most patients have an acco
mpanying VSD.</i></div>
1397526172248 1395802358422 Which congenital heart disease is associated wit
h a Persistent Truncus Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular Septal
Defect (VSD)}}</div>
1397526208430 1395802358422 What kind of shunt is involved in a Persistent T
runcus Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::R to L}}</div>
1397573243388 1395802358422 {{c1::Transposition of Great Vessels}} is a cong
enital heart disease that involves the Aorta leaving the RV and Pulmonary Trunk
leading the LV.<div><r /></div><div><i><img src="paste-858993459521.jpg" /></i>
</div> <r /><div><i>Hence the systemic and pulmonary circuits are entirely sep
arate as the SVC/IVC still enter the RA, and Pulmonary Vein still enters the LA.
</i></div><div><i>Not compatile with life unless a shunt is present that allows
for mixing of lood (PDA, VSD, PFO).</i></div><div><i>Surgery is needed to corr
ect this.</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div>
1397573693378 1395802358422 {{c1::Transposition of the Great Vessels}} is a
congenital heart disease that results from a failure of the aorticopulmonary sep
tum to spiral as it descends. <r /><div><i><img src="paste-858993459521.jpg"
/></i></div>
1397573829441 1395802358422 {{c1::Prostaglandin E<su>1</su>/E<su>2</su>}
} is a prostaglandin that can e given to patients with Transposition of Great V
essels in order to maintain a Patent Ductus Arteriosus until a surgical shunt/co
rrection can e estalished.
1397573887233 1395802358422 {{c1::Tricuspid Atresia}} is a congenital heart
disease that involves the asence of a tricuspid valve and a hypoplastic RV as a
result.
<r /><div><i><>Both</>&nsp;an ASD and VSD are required for v
iaility.</i></div>
1397574119875 1395802358422 {{c1::Tetralogy of Fallot}} is a congenital hear
t disease that is caused y <>anterosuperior displacement of the infundiular s
eptum</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3886945403158.jpg" /></div>
1397574158615 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of early childhood
cyanosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tetralogy of Fallot}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>The pulmonary stenosis forces lood from R to L through the VSD, therey c
ausing stenosis.</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div>
h <>"oot-shaped"</>&nsp;heart on chest x-ray?<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-4058744095294.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tetralogy of Fallo
t}}</div></div>
1397574333592 1395802358422 What is the tetrad of cardiac defects seen in Te
tralogy of Fallot?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary infundiular stenosis; R
VH; Overriding Aorta; VSD}}</div>
<div><r /></div><img src="paste-3891240
370454.jpg" /><r /><div><i><>PROV</>e:</i></div><div><i><>P</>ulmonary infu
ndiular stenosis</i></div><div><i><>R</>VH</i></div><div><i><>O</>verriding
Aorta</i></div><div><i><>V</>SD</i></div>
1397574616548 1395802358422 How does squatting affect the cyanosis seen in T
etralogy of Fallot?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Improves the cyanosis; squatting
= increased Systemic Vascular Resistance (SVR) = decreased R to L shunt}}</div>
1397574959184 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Tetralogy of Fallot?<d

iv><r></div><div>{{c1::Surgical correction}}</div>
1397574976029 1395802358422 {{c1::Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Return (T
APVR)}} is a congenital heart disease that involves pulmonary veins that drain i
nto right heart circulation.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, the pulmonary vein usual
ly drains into the LA.</i></div>
1397575048157 1395802358422 Which congenital heart defects are associated wi
th Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Return (TAPVR)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A
SD and sometimes PDA; oth would allow for R to L shunting which would maintain
CO}}</div>
1397575101265 1395802358422 Which congenital heart disease involves pulmonar
y veins that drain into the right heart circulation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Return (TAPVR)}}</div>
1397575131063 1395802358422 What type of shunt is seen in Tetralogy of Fallo
t?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::R to L}}</div>
95330224.jpg" /></div>
1397575187239 1395802358422 What type of shunt is seen in Total Anomalous Pu
lmonary Venous Return (TAPVR) through its associated ASD or PDA?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::R to L}}</div>
</div>
1397575244513 1395802358422 What type of shunt is seen in Transposition of G
reat Vessels, if there is one present?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::R to L}}</div>
1397575273990 1395802358422 Which type of shunt is seen in a Persistent Trun
cus Arteriosus through the associated VSD?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::R to L}}</
div>
1397575297586 1395802358422 What type of shunt is seen in Tricuspid Atresia
through the associated ASD and VSD?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::R to L}}</div>
1397575328743 1395802358422 What type of cardiac shunt causes <>early cyano
sis </>("lue aies")?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::R to L}}</div>
1397575606308 1395802358422 What type of cardiac shunt causes <>late cyanos
is </>("lue kids")?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L to R}}</div>
1397575643277 1395802358422 What is the most common L to R congenital heart
shunt?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VSD}}</div>
1397575663378 1395802358422 What is the most common congenital cardiac defec
t?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD)}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Asymptomatic at irth. Many stay asymptomatic throughout life.</i></div><d
iv><i>Larger defects can cause LV overload and eventual heart failure.</i></div>
1397575813243 1395802358422 What type of shunt is seen in Ventricular Septal
Defects (VSD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L to R}}</div>
1397575837110 1395802358422 {{c1::Ventricular Septal Defect (VSD)}} is a con
genital heart disease that involves a defect in the interventricular septum.
1397575884569 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrial Septal Defect (ASD)}} is a congenit
al heart disease that involves a defect in the interatrial septum.
h a <>loud S1</> heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atrial Septal Defect}
}</div>
h a <>wide, fixed split S2</>&nsp;heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atr
ial Septal Defect}}</div>
1397576134725 1395802358422 {{c1::Atrial Septal Defect}} is a congenital hea
rt disease that usually occurs in septum secundum.
<r /><div><i>Septum pri
mum defects usually occur with other anomalies.</i></div>
1397576194842 1395802358422 What is the structural difference etween an Atr
ial Septal Defect and a Patent Foramen Ovale?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The sep
tal defect in ASD is due to <>missing tissue</>; PFO simply has <>unfused</>
&nsp;septa}}</div>
1397576259646 1395802358422 What type of shunt is seen through a Ductus Arte
riosus <>in a fetus</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::R to L (normal)}}</div>
1397577513048 1395802358422 What type of shunt is seen in a <>Patent</>&n

sp;Ductus Arteriosus in <>neonatal</>&nsp;life?<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-8207682502881.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L to R; due to th
e decrease in lung resistance}}</div></div>
1397577553690 1395802358422 Which cardiac ventricle is commonly hypertrophie
d in a Patent Ductus Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8203387535
585.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Ventricle (LVH may also e se
en)}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, this is a L to R shunt.</i></div
>
1397577611015 1395802358422 Which congenital heart defect is associated with
a <>continuous, "machine-like"</>&nsp;murmur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pat
ent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA)}}</div>
.jpg" /></div>
1397577736950 1395802358422 What type of murmur is associated with Patent Du
ctus Arteriosus (PDA)?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8203387535585.jpg" /
></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Continuous, "machine-like" murmur}}</div>
1397577763704 1395802358422 Which Prostaglandin can e used to maintain pate
ncy of a Patent Ductus Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prostaglandin E<su
>1</su>/E<su>2</su>}}</div> <r /><div><i>Lol, this is like the 5th card cov
ering this fact, FA really likes mentioning this.</i></div><div><i><r /></i></d
iv><div><i>It is important though. Rememer, PGE can e life-saving in a ay th
at has Transposition of the Great Vessels as a shunt is needed to sustain life.<
/i></div>
1397577823126 1395802358422 How does <>low O<su>2</su>&nsp;tension</>&n
sp;influence a Patent Ductus Arteriosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Maintains p
atency}}</div> <r /><div><i>High O<su>2</su>&nsp;tension does the opposite
and closes the Ductus Arteriosus and is in fact one of the driving factors that
achieves closure.</i></div>
1397577938833 1395802358422 Which NSAID is used to facilitate closure of a P
atent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA)?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-820338753558
5.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Indomethacin}}</div> <r /><div><i>Re
memer, NSAIDs decrease Prostaglandin synthesis (PGE keeps the PDA open)</i></di
v>
1397578011030 1395802358422 {{c1::Eisenmenger Syndrome}} is a congenital car
diac syndrome that results from <>uncorrected L to R cardiac shunts</>.<div><
<r /><div><i>Th
e concept here is that the uncorrected L to R shunt eventually causes an increas
e in pulmonary lood flow that drives a pathological remodeling of pulmonary vas
culature. Eventually, pulmonary hypertension sets in and RVH occurs to compensat
e. As a result of all this, the shunt changes direction to R to L, therey causi
ng late cyanosis, cluing and polycythemia.</i></div>
1397578278361 1395802358422 What type of congenital cardiac shunt gives rise
to Eisenmenger Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9281424326916.jpg
" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::L to R}}</div></div>
<div><r /></div
><i>Did the picture trick you, rah?</i><r /><div><i>Rememer, Eisenmenger Phen
omonen involves the <>shift of a L to R shunt to a R to L shunt</> as a result
of increased pulmonary lood flow --> remodelling of pulmonary vasculature -> pulmonary HTN --> RVH. This then causes late cyanosis, cluing and pol
ycythemia.</i></div>
1397578690313 1395802358422 Which cardiac valve defect is associated with Co
arctation of the Aorta?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bicuspid Aortic Valve}}</div>
1397578740540 1395802358422 Which type of Coarctation of the Aorta involves
aortic narrowing <>proximal to the insertion of the Ductus Ateriosus</>&nsp;(
i.e. Preductal)?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12244951761112.jpg" /><r
/><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infantile type}}</div></div>
1397579085727 1395802358422 Which chromosomal disorder is associated with th
e <>Infantile type</>&nsp;of Coarctation of the Aorta?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Turner Syndrome (XO)}}</div>
1397579137696 1395802358422 Which type of Coarctation of the Aorta involves
aortic narrowing <>distal to the ligamentum arteriosum</>&nsp;(i.e. Postducta
l)?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12240656793816.jpg" /><r /><div><r />

</div><div>{{c1::Adult type}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Ligamentum arterio
sum = remnant of the DA</i></div>
1397579185437 1395802358422 Which type of Coarctation of the Aorta is associ
ated with <>notching of the ris</>, <>HTN in the upper extremities</>&nsp;
and a <>radiofemoral pulse delay</>&nsp;(delayed pulse in the lower extremiti
es)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adult type}}</div>
1397579259287 1395802358422 {{c1::Adult type Coarctation of the Aorta}} is a
type of Coarctation of the aorta that involves <>notching of the ris</>&nsp
;due to the collateral circulation that occurs.
type of Coarctation of the Aorta that involves <>HTN in the upper extremities<
/>&nsp;due to the coarctation eing <>distal</>&nsp;to the ligamentum arter
iosum.
type of Coarctation of the Aorta that involves a <>weak, delayed pulse in the
lower extremities</>&nsp;(a radiofemoral delay) due to the coarctation eing <
>distal</>&nsp;to the ligamentum arteriosum.
1397579597332 1395802358422 {{c1::Truncus Ateriosus}} and&nsp;{{c2::Tetralo
gy of Fallot}} are congenital heart diseases that are associated with 22q11 synd
romes.
1397584559560 1395802358422 Which chromosomal disorder is associated with At
rial Septal Defects (ASD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Down Syndrome}}</div>
1397584587383 1395802358422 Which chromosomal disorder is associated with Ve
ntricular Septal Defects (VSD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Down syndrome}}</div>
1397584600165 1395802358422 Which chromosomal disorder is associated with AV
septal defects (endocardial cushion defect)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Down Sy
ndrome}}</div>
1397584616034 1395802358422 Which congenital infection is associated with ca
rdiac septal defects?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congenital Ruella}}</div>
1397584638126 1395802358422 Which congenital infection is associated with Pa
tent Ductus Arteriosus (PDA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congenital Ruella}}</d
iv>
1397584655750 1395802358422 Which congenital infection is associated with Pu
lmonary Artery Stenosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congenital Ruella}}</div>
1397584666477 1395802358422 Which chromosomal disorder is associated with a
Bicuspid Aortic Valve?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Turner Syndrome}}</div>
1397584803725 1395802358422 Which chromosomal disorder is associated with <
>Preductal</>&nsp;(Infantile)&nsp;Coarctation of the Aorta?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Turner Syndrome}}</div>
1397584835768 1395802358422 Which connective tissue disorder is associated w
ith Mitral Valve Prolapse?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Marfan Syndrome}}</div>
ith Thoracic Aortic Aneurysms?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Marfan Syndrome}}</div
>
ith Aortic Dissection?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-20542828577074.jpg"
/><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Marfan Syndrome}}</div></div>
ith Aortic Regurgitation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Marfan Syndrome}}</div>
1397584899058 1395802358422 Which gestational disorder is associated with Tr
ansposition of the Great Vessels?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Maternal Diaetes}}</
div>
1397584923010 1395802358422 What systolic lood pressure is diagnostic of Hy
pertension?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:: 140 mmHg}}</div>
1397585844525 1395802358422 What diastolic lood pressure is diagnostic of H
ypertension?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:: 90 mmHg}}</div>
1397585863645 1395802358422 What lood pressure is diagnostic of Hypertensio
n?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:: 140/90 mmHg}}</div>
1397585888562 1395802358422 Which race is more commonly affected y Hyperten
sion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Blacks > whites > asians}}</div>

1397586933195 1395802358422 {{c1::Primary (Essential) Hypertension}} is a cl
ass of Hypertension that is the most common (90%) and is related to an increase
in CO or TPR.
1397587015464 1395802358422 {{c1::Firomuscular Dysplasia}} is a cause of <
>Hypertension in young patients</> that often involves a <>"string of eads" <
/>appearance of the renal artery.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13932873
908524.jpg" /></div>
1397587230775 1395802358422 {{c1::Secondary Hypertension}} is a type of Hype
rtension that is less common (10%) and is often secondary to renal disease.
<r /><div><i>Renal Artery Stenosis is the most common cause.</i></div>
1397587271806 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertensive Emergency}} is a hypertensive
disorer that involves severe hypertension of <> 180/120 mmHg</>&nsp;with evid
ence of acute, ongoing target organ damage.
<r /><div><i>Papilledema and Me
ntal Status Changes are the most common.</i></div>
1397587345416 1395802358422 {{c1::Renal Failure}} is a complication of Hyper
tension that typically involves <>renal arterial hyalinosis</>&nsp;on a PAS s
tain.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-14886356648239.jpg" /></div>
1397587412475 1395802358422 {{c1::Xanthomas}} are a feature of hyperlipidemi
a and are descried as plaques or nodules composed of lipid-laden histiocytes in
the skin.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15105399980336.jpg" /></div>
1397589155500 1395802358422 {{c1::Xanthelasma}} are Xanthomas that are found
at the eyelids.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15169824489766.jpg" /></di
v>
1397589176414 1395802358422 {{c1::Tendinous Xanthoma}} is a type of xanthoma
that involves lipid deposition at tendons, especially the Achilles tendon.<div>
1397589214040 1395802358422 {{c1::Corneal Arcus}} is a sign of hyperlipidemi
a that involves lipid deposition at the cornea and is common in the elderly.<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15380277887274.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Ap
pears early in life with hypercholesterolemia.</i></div><div><i>aka Conreal Arcu
s Senilis</i></div>
1397589324381 1395802358422 Which type of Arteriosclerosis involves calcific
ation of the media of the arteries?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Monckeerg (Media
l Calcific Sclerosis)}}</div>
1397589415981 1395802358422 {{c1::Monckeerg (Medial Calcific Sclerosis)}} i
s an <u>uncommon</u>&nsp;type of Arteriosclerosis that involves calcification o
f the media of arteries, especially the radial or ulnar arteries.
1397589597123 1395802358422 Which arteries are commonly affected with Moncke
erg Medial Calcific Sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Radial and Ulnar Arte
ries}}</div>
1397589637331 1395802358422 Which type of Arteriosclerosis yields a <>"pipe
stem"</>&nsp;appearance on x-ray?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1650555
9318843.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Monckeerg (Medial Calcific Scl
erosis)}}</div>
1397589693315 1395802358422 {{c1::Monckeerg (Medial Calcific Sclerosis)}} i
s a <>enign</>&nsp;form of Arteriosclerosis that involves <>"pipestem"</>&
nsp;arteries on x-ray.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16505559318843.jpg"
/></div>
1397589782561 1395802358422 What is the most common type of Arteriosclerosis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arterio<u style="font-weight: old; ">lo</u>scleros
is}}</div>
1397589800320 1395802358422 Which type of Arteriosclerosis is usually enign
and does not ostruct lood flow as the intima is not involved?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Monckeerg (Medial Calcific Sclerosis)}}</div>
1397589835212 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyaline Arteriolosclerosis}} is a type of
Arteriolosclerosis that involves the <>thickening of small arteries</>&nsp;in
essential HTN or diaetes mellitus.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-172915
38334014.jpg" /></div>
1397589949841 1395802358422 Which type of Arteriolosclerosis is seen in esse
ntial hypertension or diaetes mellitus?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17

287243366718.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyaline arteriolosclerosis
}}</div>
1397589979798 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperplastic Arteriolosclerosis}} is a typ
e of Arteriolosclerosis that involves an <>"onion skinning"</>&nsp;appearance
and is seen in severe HTN.<div><r /><div><img src="paste-17437567222068.jpg" /
></div></div>
1397590054732 1395802358422 Which type of Arteriolosclerosis is seen in <>s
evere</>&nsp;hypertension?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17433272254772
.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperplastic Arteriolosclerosis}}</div
>
1397590080324 1395802358422 Which type of Arteriolosclerosis involves an <>
"onion skinning</>" appearance?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1743327225
4772.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperplastic Arteriolosclerosis}}<
/div>
1397590121128 1395802358422 Which lood vessel layer is thickened in Arterio
losclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Media}}</div>
1397590602964 1395802358422 Which lood vessel layer is thickened in Atheros
clerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intima}}</div>
1397590613307 1395802358422 Which <>type</>&nsp;of arteries are affected
y Atherosclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Elastic; Large/Medium Muscular}}<
/div>
1397591098899 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y Atheroscl
erosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Men}}</div>
1397591120404 1395802358422 Which demographic of women is more commonly affe
cted y Atherosclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Postmenopausal}}</div>
1397591134386 1395802358422 {{c1::Foam Cells}} are a form of Macrophage comm
only seen in atherosclerosis that have taken up and accumlated LDL molecules.
1397591722039 1395802358422 {{c1::PDGF}} and&nsp;{{c2::FGF}} are 2 growth f
actors involved with the smooth muscle cell migration that occurs in the pathoge
nesis of atherosclerosis.
1397591757336 1395802358422 What makes up the crystals commonly seen in Athe
rosclerotic plaque?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-19271518257455.jpg" /><
/div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cholesterol}}</div>
1397591820352 1395802358422 What is the most common location for atheroscler
osis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Adominal aorta</>&nsp;> coronary arter
y > popliteal artery > carotid artery}}</div>
1397591870539 1395802358422 Which receptor does oxidized LDL ind to when it
is taken up into Macrophages in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::SR-A (Scavenger Receptor A)}}</div>
1397591998402 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortic Aneurysm}} is a vascular disorder d
efined as a localized pathological dilation of the aorta.
<r /><div><i>Pa
in is a sign of leaking, dissection or imminent rupture.</i></div>
1397592212619 1395802358422 What type of Aortic Aneurysm is associated with
atherosclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adominal Aortic Aneurysm}}</div>
1397592263166 1395802358422 {{c1::Adominal Aortic Aneurysm}} is a type of a
ortic aneurysm that is associated with atherosclerosis.<div><r /></div><div><im
1397592287626 1395802358422 {{c1::Adominal Aortic Aneurysm}} is a type of a
ortic aneurysm that occur more frequently in <u>hypertensive male smokers > 5
0 y/o</u>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-19868518711604.jpg" /></div>
1397592323471 1395802358422 What type of Aortic Aneurysm is associated with
Cystic Medial Degeneration due to HTN?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thoracic Aorti
c Aneurysm}}</div>
1397592988363 1395802358422 What type of aortic aneurysm is associated with
Marfan's Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm}}</div>
1397593009394 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Thoracic Aortic
Aneurysm in <>older patients</>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2054282
8577074.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cystic Medial Degeneration due

to HTN}}</div></div>
1397593050225 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Thoracic Aortic
Aneurysm in <>younger patients</>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-20542
828577074.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Marfan Syndrome}}</div></div>
1397593069585 1395802358422 What type of aortic aneurysm is associated with
3<sup>o</sup>&nsp;Syphilis (oliterative endarteritis of the vasa vasorum)?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thoracic Aortic Aneurysm (Luetic Aneurysm)}}</div>
1397593121030 1395802358422 {{c1::Luetic Aneurysm}} is a type of Thoracic Ao
rtic Aneurysm that occurs due to 3<sup>o</sup>&nsp;syphilis and the associated
oliterative endarteritis of the vasa vasorum. <r /><div><img src="paste-20547
123544370.jpg" /></div>
1397593317004 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortic Dissection}} is a vascular disorder
of the aorta that involves a longitudinal intraluminal tear that forms a false
lumen.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21367462297903.jpg" /></div>
1397593512090 1395802358422 Which systemic vascular disorder is associated w
ith Aortic Dissection?<div><r /><img src="paste-21363167330607.jpg" /></div><di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertension}}</div>
1397593539573 1395802358422 Which cardiac valve disorder is associated with
Aortic Dissection?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21363167330607.jpg" /><d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bicuspid Aortic Valve}}</div></div>
1397593623806 1395802358422 Which inherited connective tissue disorder is mo
st commonly associated with Aortic Dissection?<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-21363167330607.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Marfan Syndrome}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>Despite my 6'6" frame, 6'11" wing span, flat feet and long
legs. I indeed do <>not</>&nsp;have Marfan Syndrome.</i></div>
1397593701692 1395802358422 {{c1::Aortic Dissection}} is an acute vascular d
isorder of the aorta that presents with sudden&nsp;<>tearing chest pain that r
adiates to the ack</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21363167330607.jpg
" /></div>
<r /><div><i>There may or may not e unequal BP in the upper li
ms.</i></div><div><i>Chest x-ray will show mediastinal widening.</i></div>
1397593812686 1395802358422 {{c1::Angina}} is a cardiac pathology that is de
scried as chest pain due to ischemic myocardium secondary to coronary artery na
rrowing or spasm.
1397594199459 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Stale Angina?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atherosclerosis}}</div>
1397594407480 1395802358422 How does the ST segment shift in Stale Angina?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST segment depression}}</div>
1397594469497 1395802358422 What is the cause of Variant (Prinzmetal) Angina
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coronary Artery Spasm}}</div>
1397594589444 1395802358422 How does the ST segment shift in Variant (Prinzm
etal) Angina?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Transient ST elevation}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Due to <>transmural</>&nsp;ischemia</i></div>
1397594610451 1395802358422 {{c1::Unstale/Crescendo Angina}} is a type of a
ngina that occurs at rest.
1397594676720 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Unstale/Cresce
ndo Angina?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thromosis that causes <>incomplete</>&
nsp;coronary artery occlusion}}</div> <r /><div><i>Complete occlusion would c
ause an MI.</i></div>
1397594716154 1395802358422 How does the ST segment shift in Unstale/Cresce
ndo Angina?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST segment depression}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Due to suendocardial ischemia</i></div>
1397594762777 1395802358422 Which type of angina involves ST segment <>elev
ation</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Variant (Prinzmetal) Angina}}</div>
1397594783797 1395802358422 {{c1::Coronary Steal Syndrome}} is a cardiac pat
hology that involves decreased flow and ischemia in post-stenotic regions of cor
onary vasculature.
<r /><div><i>This is ecause <>lood vessels are maxim
ally dilated distal to coronary stenosis at aseline</>. Hence when vasodilator
s are administrated, <>these post-stenotic vessels do not dilate</>&nsp;and i
nstead, <u>lood is shunted into already well-perfused areas as those vessels ar

e ale to dilate</u>.</i></div>
1397596552317 1395802358422 How does the ST segment shift in <>transmural</
> Myocardial Infarction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST elevation}}</div>
1397596739200 1395802358422 How does the ST segment shift in <>suendocardi
al</>&nsp;Myocardial Infarction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST depression}}</d
iv>
1397596758495 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Myocardial Infa
rction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute thromosis due to coronary artery ather
osclerosis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Typically involves complete coronary arter
y occlusion and myocyte necrosis.</i></div>
1397596828438 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Sudden Cardiac
Death?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lethal arrhythmia (esp. ventricular firillati
on)}}</div>
1397597031574 1395802358422 {{c1::Sudden Cardiac Death}} is a cause of death
that arises within 1 hour of cardiac symptoms.
1397597069665 1395802358422 What percentage of the coronary artery lumen mus
t e stenotic in order for ischemic heart symptoms to e present?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::> 70%}}</div>
1397597219614 1395802358422 {{c1::Long QT Syndrome}} is a hereditary ion cha
nnelopathy that is associated with Sudden Cardiac Death.
1397597247691 1395802358422 Which hereditary ion channelopathy is associated
with Sudden Cardiac Death?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Long QT Syndrome}}</div>
1397597268417 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Ischemic Heart Disease}} is an isc
hemic heart disease that involves the progressive onset of Congestive Heart Fail
ure <u>over many years</u>&nsp;due to chronic ischemic myocardial damage.
1397597332013 1395802358422 Which coronary artery is most commonly occluded
in Myocardial Infarction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>LAD</>&nsp;> RCA &g
t; LCX}}</div>
1397597601648 1395802358422 What gross morphological changes are seen at the
heart&nsp;0-4 hrs post MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::None}}</div>
heart 4-12 hrs post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dark mottling; infarcted tis
sue}}</div>
heart&nsp;12-24 hrs post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dark mottling; infarct
ed tissue}}</div>
heart 1-3 days post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperemia}}</div> <r /><d
heart&nsp;3-14 days post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperemic order; cent
ral yellow-rown pallor and softening}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-26104
811225342.jpg" /></div>
heart 2 weeks to several months post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gray-white
scar; recanalized artery}}</div>
4.jpg" /></div>
1397598012995 1395802358422 What microscopic changes are seen at the heart 0
-4 hrs post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::None}}</div>
-12 hrs post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Early coagulative necrosis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Involves the realse of necrostic cell contents into lood, edema,
hemorrhaging and wavy fiers.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-27599459844281.jp
g" /></i></div>
2-24 hrs post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coagulative necrosis; early neutrop
hil migration}}</div>
1397598155271 1395802358422 {{c1::Contraction Bands}} are a microscopic chan
ge that can manifest 12-24 hrs post-MI due to reperfusion injury and free radica
l damage.
-3 days post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Extensive coagulative necrosis; acut
e inflammation with <>neutrophils</>}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-27672
474288309.jpg" /></div>
-14 days post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Macrophages</>; granulation tis
sue at margins}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-27517855465654.jpg" /></div>
weeks to several months post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Firosis; scar form
ation}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-28144920690872.jpg" /></div>
1397598886824 1395802358422 What cardiac complications are commonly seen <>
0-24</> hrs post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arrhythmia; Heart Failure; Card
iogenic Shock; Death}}</div>
1397598961503 1395802358422 What is the <>most common</>&nsp;cardiac comp
lication seen 0-24 hrs post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arrhythmia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The cardiac conduction tissue is not only damaged quickly followin
g an MI, ut it is very vulnerale during this first 24 hour period.</i></div>
1397599101692 1395802358422 What cardiac complications are commonly seen 1-3
days post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Firinous Pericarditis}}</div>
1397599134778 1395802358422 {{c1::Firinous Pericarditis}} is a cardiac comp
lication seen 1-3 days post-MI and involves chest pain with a <>friction ru</
>.
1397599164874 1395802358422 {{c1::Cardiac Tamponade}} is a cardiac complicat
ion seen 3-14 days post-MI and occurs due to <>rupture of the ventricular free
wall</>.
1397599214946 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitral Regurgitation/Insufficiency}} is a
cardiac complication seen 3-14 days post-MI that occurs due to <>papillary musc
le rupture</>.
1397599251275 1395802358422 {{c1::Interventricular Septal Rupture}} is a car
diac complication that is seen 3-14 days post-MI and occurs due to macrophage-me
diated structural degradation and results in a L to R shunt.
<r /><div><i>A
VSD is formed, ut that would have given away the answer too easily.</i></div>
1397599331468 1395802358422 {{c1::Left Ventricular Pseudoaneurysm}} is a car
diac complication that is seen 3-14 days post-MI and involves a <>mural thromu
s</>&nsp;that plugs a hole in the myocardium, acting as a time om. <r /><d
iv><i>Peak risk is ~1 week post MI</i></div>
1397599441618 1395802358422 {{c1::Dressler Syndrome}} is a cardiac complicat
ion seen 2 weeks to several months post-MI and is descried as an autoimmune per
icarditis due to myocardial antigen exposure and susequent antiody formation.
<r /><div><i>Makes sense how this occurs a few weeks later, as the exposure and
antiody formation take some time.</i></div>
1397599533420 1395802358422 {{c1::True Ventricular Aneurysm}}&nsp;is a card
iac complication seen 2 weeks to several months post-MI and involves outward ul
ging of the ventricles during contraction.
1397599557956 1395802358422 How long after a Myocardial Infarction will an a
rrhythmia occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::0-24 hrs}}</div>
1397600089021 1395802358422 How long after a Myocardial Infarction will Fir
inous Pericarditis occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1-3 days}}</div>
1397600102832 1395802358422 How long after a Myocardial Infarction will Card
iac Tamponade (via ventricular free wall rupture) occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::3-14 days}}</div>
1397600122427 1395802358422 How long after a Myocardial Infarction will Mitr
al Regurgitation present?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3-14 days}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Only if there is papillary muscle rupture, which is typically seen with an
RCA infarct.</i></div>
1397600152184 1395802358422 How long after a Myocardial Infarction will Inte
rventricular Septal Rupture (with VSD) occur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3-14 da
ys}}</div>
1397600167485 1395802358422 How long after a Myocardial Infarction will Dres
sler Syndrome manifest?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2 weeks to several months}}</

div>
1397600185069 1395802358422 How long after a Myocardial Infarction will True
Ventricular Aneurysm present?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::2 weeks to several mon
ths}}</div>
1397600206462 1395802358422 What is the gold standard for diagnosing Myocard
ial Infarction <>in the first 6 hours</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ECG}}</di
v>
1397605888530 1395802358422 Which cardiac enzyme is more specific for diagno
sing Myocardial Infarction than other protein markers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Troponin I}}</div>
1397605934001 1395802358422 What are the 2 cardiac enzymes measured to diagn
ose a Myocardial Infarction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Troponin I; CK-MB}}</div
>
1397605964472 1395802358422 {{c1::Troponin I}} is a cardiac enzyme that <>r
ises 4 hours</>&nsp;after Myocardial Infarction and <>remains elevated for 710 days</>.
1397606013226 1395802358422 {{c1::CK-MB}} is a cardiac enzyme that is elevat
ed in Myocardial Infarction as it is predominantly found in myocardium, <u>ut c
an also e released from skeletal muscle</u>.
1397606066321 1395802358422 Which cardiac enzyme is a useful marker to diagn
ose <>reinfarction following acute MI</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CK-MB}}</
div>
<r /><div><i>This is ecause CK-MB levels return to normal 48 hours pos
t-MI</i></div>
1397606087103 1395802358422 Which cardiac enzyme <>returns to normal levels
48 hours</>&nsp;post-MI?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CK-MB}}</div>
1397606105842 1395802358422 Which cardiac enzyme <>rises 4 hours</>&nsp;p
ost-MI and <>remains elevated for 7-10 days</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tro
ponin I}}</div>
1397606475287 1395802358422 How does the ST segment shift on an ECG in a STE
MI or Acute Transmural Cardiac Infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST elevation}
}</div>
1397606515510 1395802358422 How does the ST segment shift on an ECG in a Su
endocardial Infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ST depression}}</div>
1397606530154 1395802358422 {{c1::Pathological Q waves}} are a pathological
ECG wave that manifests following an <>evolving</>&nsp;or <>old transmural i
nfarct</>.
<div><r /></div><div><i>Q waves are key! They help differentiat
e an MI from angina. They will e a Q wave that is > 1/3 of the amplitude of
the associated R-wave:</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-33135672689239.jpg" /></
i></div>
1397606570252 1395802358422 {{c1::Suendocardial Infarct}} is a type of card
iac infarct that involves ischemic necrosis of <>< 50% of the ventricle wall
</>.
1397606677607 1395802358422 Which type of cardiac infarct involves <>ST ele
vation</>&nsp;and <>pathological Q waves</>&nsp;on an ECG?<div><div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Transmural infarct}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Pathologic
al Q wave:</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-33135672689239.jpg" /></i></div>
1397606720126 1395802358422 Which type of cardiac infarct involves <>ST dep
ression</>&nsp;on an ECG?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suendocardial infarct}}<
/div>
1397606735499 1395802358422 Which type of cardiac infarct affects the entire
wall?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Transmural infarct}}</div>
1397606750873 1395802358422 Which type of cardiac infarct affects <>< 50
% of the ventricle wall</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suendocardial infarct}}
</div> <r /><div><i>The suendocardium is especially vulnerale to infarct.</i
></div>
1397606998118 1395802358422 Where is the location of the Myocardial Infarct
if there are pathological Q-waves in ECG leads V1-V4 (Anterior Precordial Leads)
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anterior wall infarct (of the LAD)}}</div>
if there are pathological Q-waves in ECG leads V1-V2?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:

:Anteroseptal (LAD)}}</div>
if there are pathological Q-waves in ECG leads V4-V6 (Left Leads)?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Anterolateral Wall (LAD or LCX)}}</div>
if there are pathological Q-waves in ECG leads I and aVL (Left Leads)?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Lateral Wall (LCX)}}</div>
if there are pathological Q-waves in ECG leads II, III and aVF (Inferior Leads)?
<div><r />{{c1::Inferior Wall (RCA)}}</div>
if there are <><u>reciprocal</u></> pathological Q-waves in ECG leads V1-V4 &n
sp;(Anterior Precordial Leads)?<div><r />{{c1::Posterior wall infarct (RCA)}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>The Q waves will e <u style="font-weight: old; ">recipro
cal</u>&nsp;if the posterior side of the heart is infarcted.</i></div>
1397607439942 1395802358422 Which coronary artery is commonly occluded in an
Anterior Wall infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LAD}}&nsp;</div>
1397607471480 1395802358422 Which coronary artery is commonly occluded in&n
sp;an Anteroseptal Infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LAD}}</div>
1397607479129 1395802358422 Which coronary artery is commonly occluded in an
Anterolateral Infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LCX}}</div>
sp;a Lateral Wall infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LCX}}</div>
sp;an Inferior Wall infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RCA}}</div>
sp;a Posterior Wall infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RCA}}</div>
1397607531503 1395802358422 Which ECG leads will show pathological Q-waves i
n an anterior wall (LAD) infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V1-V4 (Anterior pre
cordial leads)}}</div>
n an Anteroseptal (LAD) infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V1-V2}}</div>
n an Anterolateral (LCX) infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::V4-V6 (left leads)}
}</div>
n a Lateral Wall (LCX) infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::I, aVL; (left leads)}
}</div>
n an inferior wall (RCA) infarct?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::II, III, aVF; (infe
rior leads)}}</div>
1397607734483 1395802358422 Which ECG leads will show <><u>reciprocal</u></
>&nsp;pathological Q-waves in a posterior wall (RCA) infarct?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::V1-V4 (anterior precordial leads)}}</div>
1397607962559 1395802358422 How long after a Myocardial Infarction is there
the <>greatest risk</>&nsp;for Ventricular Pseudoaneurysm formation?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Approximately 1 week}}</div>
1397608021491 1395802358422 What is the most common cardiomyopathy?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Dilated cardiomyopathy (90% of cases)}}</div>
1397609670289 1395802358422 Which drug(s) of ause can cause Dilate Cardiomy
opathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic alcohol and cocaine use}}</div>
1397609699931 1395802358422 Which vitamin deficiency can cause Dilated Cardi
omyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Wet</>&nsp;Berieri&nsp;(Vitamin B1
[Thiamine])}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>Wet </>erieri = <>edema</>&nsp;=
heart prolems</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-37357625540815.jpg" /></i></div>
1397609871658 1395802358422 What viral myocarditis can cause Dilated Cardiom
yopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Coxsackie B virus myocarditis}}</div>
1397610151670 1395802358422 What antineoplastic drug can cause Dilated Cardi

omyopathy as an adverse effect?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Doxoruicin}}</div>
1397610182755 1395802358422 What protozoan infection is commonly associated
with Dilated Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chagas Disease (caused
y <i>Trypanosoma cruzi</i>)}}</div>
5.jpg" /></div>
1397610302334 1395802358422 Which cardiomyopathy is associated with an <>S3
</>&nsp;heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dilated cardiomyopathy}}</div>
1397610514995 1395802358422 Which cardiomyopathy is associated with a <>al
loon appearance</>&nsp;of the heart on chest x-ray?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Dilated cardiomyopathy}}</div>
1397610545999 1395802358422 What <>type</>&nsp;of cardiac hypertrophy is
seen in Dilated Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Eccentric hypertrophy
}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Eccentric hypertrophy = increased volume = no chan
ge in vesicle thickness</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>I rememer that
y thinking aout this one really eccentric kid I knew in undergrad when i live
d on residence. Dude was mad skinny (<>no change in ventricle thickness</>) u
t was crazy smart (<>had a ig head i.e. volume</>). Stupid, ut I will never
forget this now. Concentric is just the opposite.</i></div>
1397611624300 1395802358422 {{c1::Eccentric Hypertrophy}} is a <>type</>&n
sp;of cardiac hypertrophy that involves the addition of sarcomeres in <>series
</>.
1397611796966 1395802358422 How does ventricular volume change in <>Eccentr
ic</>&nsp;Hypertrophy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397611815720 1395802358422 How does ventricular thickness change in <>Ecce
ntric </>Hypertrophy?<div><r />{{c1::No change}}</div>
1397611834088 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Hypertrophic Ca
rdiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant mutations in -myosin
heavy chains (60-70% of cases)}}</div>
1397612011940 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of <>familial <
/>Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}<
/div>
1397612034081 1395802358422 Which gene is mutated in <>familial</>&nsp;Hy
pertrophic Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::-myosin heavy chain}}</div>
1397612153820 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}} is
an <>autosomal dominant</>&nsp;cardiomyopathy that involves mutations in the&
nsp;<>-myosin heavy-chain gene</>.
1397612198636 1395802358422 What neurological disorder is associated with Hy
pertrophic Cardiomyopathy?<div><r />{{c1::Friedreich Ataxia}}</div>
1397612286302 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}} is a cardiom
yopathy that is often the cause of sudden cardiac death in young athletes due to
ventricular arrhythmia.
1397612330175 1395802358422 Which cardiomyopathy is associated with an <>S4
</>&nsp;heart sound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Same concept as in HTN, LVH, etc</i></div>
1397612346525 1395802358422 Which cardiomyopathy is associated with a systol
ic murmur?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Same exact idea as in LVH</i></div>
1397612392728 1395802358422 What pathological heart sound is associated with
Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S4}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Due to decreased ventricular compliance (as a result of ventricular hypert
rophy)</i></div>
1397612483921 1395802358422 What pathological heart sound is associated with
Dilated Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S3}}</div> <r /><div><i>Du
e to dilated ventricles and increased ventricular filling</i></div>
1397612536188 1395802358422 What <>type</>&nsp;of heart murmur is heard i
n Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Systolic Murmur}}</div
>
<r /><div><i>Due to the ventricular hypertrophy that can ostruct the o
utflow tract</i></div>
1397612564773 1395802358422 {{c1::Verapamil}} and {{c2::Diltiazem}} are nondihydropyridine calcium channel locker that can e used to treat Hypertrophic C
ardiomyopathy. <r /><div><i>The dihydropyridine Ca channel lockers are Nifedi
pine and Nicardipine.</i></div>
1397612941514 1395802358422 Which <>phase</>&nsp;of the cardiac cycle ec
omes dysfunctional in Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Di
astole}}</div>
1397612987272 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}} is a <u>majo
r</u> type of cardiomyopathy that involves <>diastolic</>&nsp;dysfunction.
<r /><div><i>Restrictive/Infiltrative Cardiomyopathy causes diastolic dysfuncti
on as well.</i></div>
1397613008096 1395802358422 Which <>phase</>&nsp;of the cardiac cycle ec
omes dysfunctional in Dilated Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Systole
}}</div>
1397613028131 1395802358422 {{c1::Dilated Cardiomyopathy}} is a type of card
iomyopathy that involves <>systolic</>&nsp;dysfunction.
1397613045883 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}} is a type of
cardiomyopathy that involves marked ventricular hypertrophy, typically with sep
tal predominance.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-40737764802852.jpg" /></d
iv>
1397613119871 1395802358422 Which type of cardiomyopathy involves marked ven
tricular wall hypertrophy, typically with septal predominance?<div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-40733469835556.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hype
rtrophic Cardiomyopathy}}</div>
1397613145978 1395802358422 Which type of cardiomyopathy involves <>myofir
illar disarray</>&nsp;and <>firosis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypertro
phic Cardiomyopathy}}</div>
1397613252106 1395802358422 {{c1::Ostructive Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}}
is a type of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy that involves a <>hypertrophied interv
entricular septum</>&nsp;that is too close to the anterior mitral leaflet, the
rey causing outflow ostruction and possile syncope. <r /><div><i>Essentiall
y, there is functional aortic stenosis, this is also contriutes to the systolic
murmur heard.</i></div>
1397613343684 1395802358422 Which type of Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy involv
es a <>hypertrophied interventricular septum</>&nsp;that is too close to the
anterior mitral leaflet and hence causes outflow ostruction?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Ostructive Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy}}</div>
1397613386770 1395802358422 {{c1::Endocardial Firoelastosis}} is a cause of
Restrictive/Infiltrative Cardiomyopathy that involves <>thick firoelastic tis
sue in the endocardium of young children</>.
1397613492829 1395802358422 {{c1::Restrictive/Infiltrative Cardiomyopathy}}
is a type of cardiomyopathy that can e caused y Sarcoidosis, Amyloidosis, Post
radiation Firosis, Loffler Syndrome, Hemochromatosis and Endocardial Firoelast
osis.
1397613577743 1395802358422 {{c1::Loffler Syndrome}} is a cause of Restricti
ve/Infiltrative Cardiomyopathy and is descried as endomyocardial firosis with
a <>prominent eosinophilic infiltrate</>.
1397613616165 1395802358422 What type of cardiomyopathy is associated with H
emochromatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dilated Cardiomyopathy; Restrictive/I
nfiltrative Cardiomyopathy}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Both can occur at the same
time in Hemochromatosis patients</i></div>
1397613726276 1395802358422 What <>phase</>&nsp;of the cardiac cycle is d
ysfunctional in Restrictive/Infiltrative Cardiomyopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Diastole}}</div>
1397613753293 1395802358422 {{c1::Restrictive/Infiltrative Cardiomyopathy}}
is a cardiomyopathy that can have <>low-voltage ECG</>&nsp;despite having a t
hick myocardium.
<r /><div><i>This is especially so with cardiomyopathy
caused y amyloidosis.</i></div>
1397613798195 1395802358422 Which cardiomyopathy is assocaited with <>low-v
oltage ECG</>&nsp;despite having a think myocardium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Restrictive/Infiltrative Cardiomyopathy}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Especially
when caused y amyloidosis.</i></div>
1397613834469 1395802358422 {{c1::Congestive Heart Failure (CHF)}} is a card
iac syndrome of cardiac pump dysfunction and involves dyspnea, orthopnea and fat
igue.
1397614540407 1395802358422 {{c1::Pitting Edema}} is a sign of congestive he
art failure that is commonly seen at the extremities.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-43061342109905.jpg" /></div>
1397614573761 1395802358422 How does Ejection Fraction (EF) change in Systol
ic Dysfunction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased (low EF)}}</div>
1397614648446 1395802358422 How does contractility change in Systolic Dysfun
ction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased (poor contractility)}}</div>
1397614682112 1395802358422 {{c1::Systolic Dysfunction}} is a type of conges
tive heart failure that is commonly secondary to ischemic heart disease or dilat
ed cardiomyopathy.
1397614758333 1395802358422 How does Ejection Fraction (EF) change in Diasto
lic dysfunction?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change (normal EF)}}</div>
1397614779586 1395802358422 How does cardiac contractility change in Diastol
ic dysfunction?<div><r />{{c1::No change (normal contractility)}}&nsp;</div>
1397614813437 1395802358422 How does ventricular compliance change in Diasto
lic dysfunction?<div><r />{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1397614849424 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Right-sided Hea
rt Failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left-sided Heart Failure}}</div>
1397614890825 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>isolated</>
&nsp;right heart failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Cor pulmonale</i>}}</di
v>
1397615160981 1395802358422 {{c1::Cardiac Dilation}} is a cardiac pathology
that occurs as a result of greater ventricular EDV.
1397615262742 1395802358422 {{c1::Pulmonary Edema}} is a complication of lef
t heart failure that involves the presence of <>hemosiderin-laden macrophages</
>&nsp;("heart failure" cells) in the lungs. <r /><div><img src="paste-45359
149613585.jpg" /></div>
1397615354697 1395802358422 {{c1::Pulmonary Edema}} is a complication of lef
t heart failure that occurs due to an increase in pulmonary venous pressure and
resultant pulmonary venous distention and transudation of fluid.
<r /><d
1397615433134 1395802358422 {{c1::Orthopnea}} is a complication of left hear
t failure that involves a <>shortness of reath when supine</>.&nsp; <r /><d
iv><i>The increased venous return from redistriution of lood (due to the immed
iate gravity effect) exacerates pulmonary vascular congestion, causing shortnes
s of reath.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-45354854646289.jpg" /></i></div>
1397615583993 1395802358422 {{c1::Paroxysmal Nocturnal Dyspnea}} is a compli
cation of left heart failure that involves <>reathless awakening from sleep</
>.
<r /><div><i>The increased venous return from redistriution of lood a
nd reasorption of pulmonary edema causes nocturnal dyspnea.</i></div><div><i><i
1397615645167 1395802358422 {{c1::Hepatomegaly (Nutmeg Liver)}} is a complic
ation of right heart failure that results due to an increase in central venous p
ressure and resultant increases in hepatic portal resistance. <r /><div><i>Ra
rely leads to cardiac cirrhosis.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-45354854646289
.jpg" /></i></div>
1397615697967 1395802358422 {{c1::Peripheral Edema}} is a complication of ri
ght heart failure that results due to an increase in venous pressure that drives
fluid transudation.
1397615740869 1395802358422 {{c1::Jugular Venous Distention}} is a complicat
ion of right heart failure that results due to an increase in venous pressure th
at then uilds up into the Jugular Vein.
1397615779350 1395802358422 What type of heart failure is associated with Pu
lmonary Edema?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left heart failure}}</div>
1397615807071 1395802358422 What type of heart failure is associated with&n
sp;Orthopnea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left heart failure}}</div>

sp;Paroxysmal Nocturnal Dyspnea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left heart failure}}
</div>
sp;Hepatomegaly (Nutmeg Liver)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right heart failure}}
</div>
sp;Peripheral edema?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right heart failure}}</div>
sp;Jugular Venous Distention?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right heart failure}}</
div>
1397658521684 1395802358422 What is the most common symptom of Bacterial End
ocarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fever}}</div>
te-4922032521498.jpg" /></div>
1397658576386 1395802358422 {{c1::Roth Spots}} are a feature of acterial en
docarditis and are descried as <>round white sports on the retina surrounded
y hemorrhage</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-717259538694.jpg" /></div
>
1397658707800 1395802358422 {{c1::Osler Nodes}} are a feature of Bacterial E
ndocarditis and are descried as <>painful, raised lesions</>&nsp;on the fing
er or toe pads. <r /><div><i>In the words of Dr. Sattar: "<>O</>uch, <>o</>
uch, <>O</>sler."</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-4917737554202.jpg" /></i></
div>
1397658761489 1395802358422 {{c1::Janeway lesions}} are a feature of Bacteri
al Endocarditis and are descried as <>small, <u>painless</u>, erythematous les
ions</>&nsp;on the palm or sole.
.jpg" /></div>
1397658831830 1395802358422 {{c1::Splinter Hemorrhages}} are a feature of Ba
cterial Endoarditis that appears at the nail eds due to emolization of septic
vegetations that make their way to the extremities.<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-1584842932432.jpg" /></div>
1397659254506 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>Acute</>&n
sp;Bacterial Endocarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus <
/i>(high virulence)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rapid onset</i></div>
1397659308677 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}} is the most
common cause of <>Acute</>&nsp;Bacterial Endocarditis and commonly causes la
rge vegetations on previously normal cardiac valves.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-1808181231828.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Rapid onset</i></div>
1397659376391 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of <>Suacute</>
&nsp;Bacterial Endocarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Viridans Streptococci (
low virulence)}}</div>
1397659440157 1395802358422 {{c1::Viridans Streptococci}} are the most commo
n cause of <>Suacute</>&nsp;Bacterial Endocarditis and form <u>smaller veget
ations on congenitally anormal or diseased valves</u>.
1397659624275 1395802358422 {{c1::Viridans Streptococci}} are the most commo
n cause of <>Suacute</>&nsp;Bacterial Endocarditis, which commonly occurs as
a sequela of dental procedures.
1397659653598 1395802358422 Which acterial cause of endocarditis is associa
ted with the sequelae of dental procedures?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Viridans
Streptococci}}</div>
1397659680475 1395802358422 What are the 2 most common causes of <>CultureNegative</>&nsp;Bacterial Endocarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Coxiella
urnetti</i>; <i>Bartonella spp</i>.}}</div>
1397659751909 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Coxiella urnetti</i>}} and&nsp;{{c2::
<i>Bartonella spp.</i>}} are the 2 most common causes of <>culture-negative</>
&nsp;acterial endocarditis.
1397659786049 1395802358422 {{c1::Nonacterial Thromotis Endocarditis (NBTE
)}} is a type of endocarditis that involves <>sterile vegetations</>&nsp;that
arise due to a hypercoagulale state or underlying adenocarcinoma.
1397661081360 1395802358422 {{c1::Lieman-Sacks Endocarditis}} is a type of

Nonacterial Thromotic Endocarditis (NBTE) that occurs in Systemic Lupus Erythe
matosus (SLE) and involves sterile vegetations on <>oth sides</>&nsp;of the
mitral valve.
ted with underlying <>colon cancer</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptoco
ccus ovis</i>}}</div>
1397661177559 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Streptococcus ovis</i>}} is a acteria
l cause of endocarditis that is associated with underlying colon cancer.
1397661203086 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Staphylococcus epidermidis</i>}} is a
acterial cause of endocarditis that is associated with <>prosthetic heart valve
s</>.
ted <>prosthetic heart valves</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus
epidermidis</i>}}</div>
1397661271578 1395802358422 Which heart valve is most frequently involved in
endocarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral valve}}</div>
1397661291247 1395802358422 Which heart valve is associated with <>endocard
itis in IV drug ause</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tricuspid valve}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"Don't <>tri</>&nsp;<>drugs</>."</i></div>
1397661319963 1395802358422 Which <>gram-positive</>&nsp;acteria is asso
ciated with endocarditis in <>IV drug ause</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>
Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}</div>
1397661472582 1395802358422 Which <>gram-negative</>&nsp;acteria is asso
ciated with endocarditis in <>IV drug ause</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>
Pseudomonas sp.</i>}}</div>
1397661499925 1395802358422 Which <>fungal</> cause of endocarditis is ass
ociated with <>IV drug ause </>(esp. Heroin)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>C
andida spp.</i>}}</div>
1397661534817 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of endocarditis in
<>IV drug ause</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}
</div>
1397662074535 1395802358422 {{c1::Rheumatic Fever}} is a cardiac disorder th
at occurs as a consequence of pharyngeal infection with Group A&nsp;-hemolytic s
treptococci.
1397662296716 1395802358422 What <>group</>&nsp;of acteria is associated
with Rheumatic Fever?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Group A -hemolytic Streptococci
}}</div>
1397662319674 1395802358422 Which heart valve is more commonly affected in R
heumatic Heart Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Mitral</>&nsp;> aorti
c >> tricuspid}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The high-pressure valves are affec
ted the most (i.e. left side valves).</i></div>
1397662587906 1395802358422 Which valvular disorder is seen in <>early/acut
e</>&nsp;Rheumatic Fever?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral <>regurgitation</
<r /><div><i>"<>ARCS</>":&nsp;<>A</>cute =&nsp;<>R</>eg
>}}</div>
urge;&nsp;<>C</>hronic =&nsp;<>S</>tenosis</i></div>
1397662697368 1395802358422 Which valvular disorder is seen in <>late/chron
ic</>&nsp;Rheumatic Heart Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mitral <>stenos
is</>}}</div> <r /><div><i>"<>ARCS</>": <>A</>cute = <>R</>egurge; <>C
</>hronic = <>S</>tenosis</i></div>
1397662717273 1395802358422 {{c1::Aschoff Bodies}} are a feature of the myoc
arditis seen in Rheumatic Fever and are descried as granulomas with giant cells
<r /><d
iv><i>Red arrow is an Anitschkow Cell</i></div>
1397662806164 1395802358422 {{c1::Anitschkow Cells}} are a feature of the my
ocarditis seen in Rheumatic Fever and are descried as <>enlarged macrophages w
ith ovoid, wavy, rod-like nuclei</>&nsp;("caterpillar nuclei").<div><r /></di
<r /><div><i>Found in A
schoff Bodies (lue arrows).</i></div>
1397662881894 1395802358422 Which antiody titers are characteristically ele
vated in Rheumatic Fever?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Elevated ASO}}</div>

<r /><div><i>These titers stand as evidence for prior Group A, eta-hemolytic S
trep infection.</i></div>
1397662947542 1395802358422 What type of hypersensitivity causes Rheumatic F
ever?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The diseas
e is not due to the acterial infection itself, it is due to antiodies against
Strep M protein that cross-reacts with self antigens.</i></div>
1397663004757 1395802358422 {{c1::Rheumatic Fever}} is a cardiac disorder th
at is caused y molecular mimicry y acterial M protein which resemles self an
tigens. <r /><div><i>Antiodies against M protein cross-react with self antigen
s at the heart.</i></div>
1397663118127 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythema Marginatum}} is a feature of Rheu
matic fever that is descried as an annular, nonpruritic rash with erythematous
orders.
1397663169755 1395802358422 How does ESR change in Rheumatic Fever?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Elevated ESR}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-6816113099017
.jpg" /></div>
1397663185233 1395802358422 {{c1::Migratory Polyarthritis}} is a feature of
Rheumatic Fever that is descried as swelling, redness and pain at a large joint
that then migrates to another large joint.
13099017.jpg" /></div>
1397663236453 1395802358422 {{c1::Sucutaneous Nodules}} are a cutaneous com
plication of Rheumatic Fever. <r /><div><img src="paste-6816113099017.jpg" />
</div>
1397663271467 1395802358422 {{c1::Sydenham Chorea (St. Vitus' Dance)}} is a
neurological movement disorder that is associated with Rheumatic Fever. <r /><d
1397663383488 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Pericarditis}} is an inflammatory di
sorder of the heart that commonly presents with sharp pain, is <u>aggravated y
inspiration</u>,&nsp;<u>relieved y sitting up and leaning forward</u>&nsp;and
commonly <>presents with a friction ru</>.
1397663689451 1395802358422 How does the ST segment shift on an ECG in Acute
Pericarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Widespread ST-segment elevation}}</div
>
1397663710165 1395802358422 How does the PR interval shift on an ECG in Acut
e Pericarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PR depression}}</div>
1397663743878 1395802358422 {{c1::Firinous Pericarditis}} is a type of peri
carditis that presents with a <>loud friction ru</>. <r /><div><i>Causes inc
lude Dressler syndrome, uremia and radiation.</i></div>
1397663789737 1395802358422 {{c1::Serous Pericarditis}} is a type of Pericar
ditis that is seen with viral infections or noninfectious inflammatory diseases
(such as SLE, RA).
<r /><div><i>Viral pericarditis typically resolves spon
taneously</i></div>
1397663851714 1395802358422 {{c1::Suppurative/Purulent Pericarditis}} is a t
ype of pericarditis that is usually caused y acterial infections.
<r /><d
iv><i>Especially Pneumococcus and Streptococcus</i></div>
1397663892009 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Suppurative/Pur
ulent Pericarditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumoniae; Stre
ptococcus sp.</i>}}</div>
1397664292182 1395802358422 {{c1::Cardiac Tamponade}} is a cardiac disorder
that is descried as compression of the heart y fluid in the pericardium, there
y causing a decrease in CO.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-8654359101650.jp
g" /></div>
<r><div><i>The fluid is typically lood or pericardial effusion
.</i></div>
1397664359995 1395802358422 {{c1::Beck triad}} is a triad of symptoms seen i
n Cardiac Tamponade that involves <>hypotension, distended neck veins </>and <
>muffled heart sounds</>.
1397664462755 1395802358422 How does heart rate change in Cardiac Tamponade?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>SV decreases due t
o the compression, as a result HR rises as compensation.</i></div>
1397664491996 1395802358422 <div>Which type of pulse is seen in Cardiac Tamp

onade?</div><div><r /></div>{{c1::Pulsus Paradoxus}} <r /><div><i>Systolic p
ressure decreases 10 mmHg.</i></div>
1397664577999 1395802358422 {{c1::Cardiac Tamponade}} is a cardiac disorder
that involves <>low-voltage QRS complexes</>&nsp;and <>electrical alternans<
/>&nsp;on an ECG due to the swinging movement of the heart. <r /><div><i>Th
e heart "swings" in the large effusion that it sits in.</i></div>
1397664644203 1395802358422 {{c1::Pulsus Paradoxus}} is a pathological pulse
that involves a <>decrease in amplitude of systolic lood pressure y 10 mmHg
during inspiration</>. <r /><div><i>Seen in cardiac tamponade, arthma, ostruc
tive sleep apnea, pericarditis and croup.</i></div>
1397664835098 1395802358422 {{c1::Syphilitic Heart Disease}} is a cardiac di
sorder that arises due to tertiary syphilis that <>disrupts the vasa vasorum of
the aorta</>, therey causing atrophy of the vessel wall and dilation of the a
orta/aortic valve ring. <r /><div><i>Can hence result in aneursm of the ascendi
ng aorta or aortic arch or aortic insufficiency (regurge).</i></div>
sorder that arises due to tertiary syphilis that may lead to a <>"tree ark" ap
pearance</>&nsp;of the aorta.
sorder that arises due to tertiary syphilis that may involves <>calcification o
f the aortic root and ascending aortic arch</>.
1397665052194 1395802358422 What is the most common <>primary</>&nsp;card
iac tumour in <>adults</>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10149007720753
.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myxoma}}</div>
1397673511604 1395802358422 Which cardiac chamer is most commonly affected
y Myxoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atria (90%); typically the LA}}</div>
1397673532196 1395802358422 {{c1::Myxoma}} is a <>primary</>&nsp;cardiac
tumour found in <>adults</>&nsp;that is descried as a <>"all valve"</>&n
sp;ostruction in the LA.
1397673563754 1395802358422 Which <>primary</>&nsp;cardiac tumour is asso
ciated with multiple syncopal episodes?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myxoma}}</div
>
<r /><div><i>Common in adults</i></div>
1397673587116 1395802358422 {{c1::Myxoma}} is a primary cardiac tumour that
is most common in <>adults</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1014471275
3457.jpg" /></div>
1397673811116 1395802358422 What is the most common <>primary</>&nsp;card
iac tumour in <>children</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rhadomyoma}}</div>
1397673825443 1395802358422 Which primary cardiac tumour is associated with
Tuerous Sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rhadomyoma}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Common in children</i></div>
1397673845676 1395802358422 Which heart chamer is commonly affected y Rha
domyoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ventricles}}</div>
1397673884764 1395802358422 What is the most common cardiac tumour?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Metastasis from melanoma, lymphoma}}</div>
1397673909685 1395802358422 What is Kussmaul Sign?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::An increase in JVP on inspiration (instead of a normal decrease in JVP)}}</div
>
<div><r /></div><div><div><i>Normally inspiration will increase RV fill
ing and hence decrease JVP, as venous return has increased.</i></div><div><i>Wit
h Kussmaul's Sign, there is an&nsp;<>increase in JVP due to impaired filling o
f the RV</>. This impairment of filling causes a acklog of pressure and result
ant JVD.</i></div><div><i>Impaired filling can e due to: constrictive pericardi
tis, restrictive cardiomyopathies or RA or RV tumour.</i></div></div>
1397673938801 1395802358422 {{c1::Kussmaul Sign}} is a cardiac disorder that
is descried as an <>increase in JVP on inspiration</>&nsp;instead of a norm
al decrease.
<r /><div><i>Normally inspiration will increase RV filling and
hence decrease JVP, as venous return has increased.</i></div><div><i>With Kussma
ul's Sign, there is an <>increase in JVP due to impaired filling of the RV</>.
This impairment of filling causes a acklog of pressure and resultant JVD.</i><
/div><div><i>Impaired filling can e due to: constrictive pericarditis, restrict
ive cardiomyopathies or RA or RV tumour.</i></div>

1397674148390 1395802358422 {{c1::Raynaud Phenomenon}} is a vascular disorde
r that is descried as a <u>decrease in lood flow to the skin due to arteriolar
vasospasm</u>, typically in response to cold temperature or emotional stress.<d
<r /><d
iv><i>Commonly seen at the fingers and toes.</i></div><div><i><>Raynaud Disease
</>&nsp;= primary = idiopathic, typically cold induced</i></div><div><i><>Ray
naud syndrome</>&nsp;= secondary to another disease process such as SLE, CREST
Syndrome or a mixed connective tissue disorder</i></div>
1397675627033 1395802358422 {{c1::Strawerry Hemangioma}} is a vascular tumo
ur descried as a enign capillary hemangioma of infancy that appears in the fir
st few weeks of life (1/200 irths).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-135291
46982701.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Strawerry = infants/children</i></div><di
v><i>Cherry = elderly</i></div>
1397675735048 1395802358422 {{c1::Strawerry Hemangioma}} is a enign capill
ary hemangioma of infancy that grows rapidly and regresses spontaneously at 5-8
y/o.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13524852015405.jpg" /></div> <r /><d
iv><div><i>Strawerry = infants/children</i></div><div><i>Cherry = elderly</i></
div></div>
1397675778894 1395802358422 {{c1::Cherry Hemangioma}} is a enign capillary
hemangioma that is common in the <>elderly</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-13769665151285.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><div><i>Strawerry = infants/
children</i></div><div><i>Cherry = elderly</i></div></div>
1397675815943 1395802358422 Which enign capillary hemangioma is common in t
he <>elderly</>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13765370183989.jpg" /></
div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cherry Hemangioma}}</div>
<r /><div><div>
<i>Strawerry = infants/children</i></div><div><i>Cherry = elderly</i></div></di
v>
1397675912149 1395802358422 Which enign capillary hemangioma is common in <
>infants</>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-14443975016754.jpg" /></div>
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Strawerry Hemangioma}}</div>
1397675943836 1395802358422 Which enign capillary hemangioma appears in the
first few weeks of life and regresses spontaneously at 5-8 y/o?<div><r /></div
><div><img src="paste-14439680049458.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::St
rawerry hemangioma}}</div>
1397675994872 1395802358422 Which enign capillary hemangioma <>does not re
gress</>&nsp;and exhiits a higher frequency with age?<div><r /></div><div><i
mg src="paste-14529874362676.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cherry Hem
angioma}}</div></div>
1397676026661 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyogenic Granuloma}} is a polypoid capilla
ry hemangioma that can ulcerate and leed.&nsp;
1397676064507 1395802358422 {{c1::Pyogenic Granuloma}} is a polypoid capilla
ry hemangioma that is associated with trauma and pregnancy.
1397676085123 1395802358422 {{c1::Cystic Hygroma}} is a vascular tumour defi
ned as a <>cavernous lymphangioma of the neck</>.
1397676114706 1395802358422 Which chromosomal disorder is associated with Cy
stic Hygroma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Turner Syndrome (XO)}}</div>
1397676506774 1395802358422 {{c1::Cystic Hygroma}} is a cavernous lymphangio
ma of the neck that is associated with Turner Syndrome.
1397676539128 1395802358422 {{c1::Glomus Tumour}} is a vascular tumour descr
ied as a <>enign, painful, red-lue tumour</>&nsp;found under the fingernai
ls.
1397676580867 1395802358422 {{c1::Glomus Tumour}} is a vascular tumour that
arises from <>modified smooth muscle cells</>&nsp;of the Glomus ody.
1397676601462 1395802358422 {{c1::Bacillary Angiomatosis}} is a vascular tum
our descried as a <><u>enign capillary skin papule</u></>&nsp;commonly foun
d in AIDS patients.
1397676681042 1395802358422 What is the cause of Bacillary Angiomatosis?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Bartonella henselae</i>}}</div>
1397676697255 1395802358422 {{c1::Bacillary Angiomatosis}} is a <>enign ca
pillary skin papule</>&nsp;that is commonly mistaken for Kaposi Sarcoma.

1397676718701 1395802358422 {{c1::Angiosarcoma}} is a rare <>malignant</>&
nsp;vascular tumour that typically occurs in the head, neck and reast areas du
e to <>radiation therapy</>&nsp;or <>arsenic exposure</>. <r /><div><i>Ty
pically seen in the elderly or in sun-exposed areas.</i></div><div><i>Very diffi
cult to treat as it is aggressive and diagnosis is typically delayed.</i></div>
1397676930284 1395802358422 Which metalloid element is associated with Angio
sarcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Arsenic}}</div>
1397677190196 1395802358422 {{c1::Lymphangiosarcoma}} is a lymphatic vascula
r malignancy associated with persistent lymphedema such as post-radical mastecto
my.
1397677842567 1395802358422 {{c1::Kaposi Sarcoma}} is an endothelial maligna
ncy associated with HHV-8 and HIV.
1397677865795 1395802358422 What cells are proliferating in Kaposi Sarcoma?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endothelium}}</div>
1397677876286 1395802358422 What is the cause of Kaposi Sarcoma?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::HHV-8 (associated with HIV)}}</div>
1397677890976 1395802358422 {{c1::Kaposi Sarcoma}} is a malignant endothelia
l tumour that is commonly mistaken for Bacillary Angiomatosis.
1397677910711 1395802358422 What demographic is classically affected y Temp
oral Giant Cell Arteritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Elderly females (> 50 y
/o)}}</div>
<r /><div><div><i>Temporal Arteritis > 50 y/o</i></div><div>
<i>Takayasu Arteritis < 50 y/o</i></div></div>
1397678563039 1395802358422 What type of vasculitis is Temporal (Giant Cell)
Arteritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Large-vessel vasculitis}}</div>
1397678618088 1395802358422 What type of vasculitis is Takayasu Arteritis?<d
iv><r></div><div>{{c1::Large-vessel vasculitis}}</div>
1397678637564 1395802358422 What type of vasculitis is Polyarteritis Nodosa?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medium-vessel vasculitis}}</div>
1397678649767 1395802358422 What type of vasculitis is Kawasaki Disease?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medium-vessel vasculitis}}</div>
1397678661341 1395802358422 What type of vasculitis is Buerger Disease (Thro
moangiitis Oliterans)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Medium-vessel vasculitis}}</
div>
1397678695951 1395802358422 What type of vasculitis is Microscopic Polyangii
tis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small vessel vasculitis}}</div>
1397678712389 1395802358422 What type of vasculitis is Wegener's Granulomato
sis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small vessel vasculitis}}</div>
1397678728616 1395802358422 What type of vasculitis is Churg-Strauss Syndrom
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small vessel vasculitis}}</div>
1397678746224 1395802358422 What type of vasculitis is Henoch-Schonlein Purp
ura?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small vessel vasculitis}}</div>
1397678771764 1395802358422 {{c1::Temporal Giant Cell Arteritis}} is a large
-vessel vasculitis that typically involves <>unilateral headache</>&nsp;(due
to Temporal Artery involvement) and <>jaw claudication.</>
-vessel arteritis that may lead to <>irreversile lindness due to involvement
of the Ophthalmic Artery</>. <div><i><r /></i></div>
1397679154397 1395802358422 Which large-vessel vasculitis is associated with
Polymyalgia Rheumatica?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Temporal Giant Cell Arteriti
s}}</div>
-vessel arteritis that most commonly affected the ranches of the carotid artery
(ophthalmic, temporal).
-vessel vasculitis that involves focal granulomatous inflammation.<div><r /></d
1397679248899 1395802358422 How does ESR change in&nsp;Temporal Giant Cell
Arteritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Elevated ESR}}</div>
vessel vasculitis that must e treated with high-dose corticosteroids prior to

temporal artery iopsy in order to prevent vision loss.
1397679348365 1395802358422 What demographic is classically affected y Taka
yasu Arteritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Asian women < 40 y/o}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Temporal Arteritis > 50 y/o</i></div><div><i>Takayasu Arteritis
< 50 y/o</i></div>
1397679399066 1395802358422 Which large-vessel vasculitis is also referred t
o as "Pulseless Disease"?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Takayasu Arteritis}}</div>
1397679449904 1395802358422 {{c1::Takayasu Arteritis}} is a large-vessel vas
culitis that is also known as <>"Pulseless Disease"</>&nsp;as it involves <>
weak upper extremity pulses</>.
<r /><div><i>The weak pulses are due to
granulomatous thickening of the <>aortic arch ranches</>.</i></div>
1397679812368 1395802358422 {{c1::Takayasu Arteritis}} is a large-vessel art
eritis that involves granulomatous thickening and narrowing of the aortic arch a
nd its proximal ranches.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-19958713024758.jp
g" /></div>
1397679929625 1395802358422 How does ESR change in Takayasu Arteritis?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Elevated ESR}}</div>
1397679939287 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Takayasu Arteritis?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Corticosteroids}}</div>
vasculitis that typically involves <>renal</>&nsp;and <>visceral</>&nsp;ve
ssels, <u style="font-weight: old; ">ut not pulmonary vessels</u>.
1397680267585 1395802358422 What demographic is classically affected y&nsp
;Polyarteritis Nodosa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::oung adults}}</div>
1397680299938 1395802358422 Which <>Hepatitis antigen</>&nsp;is seroposit
ive in 30% of patients with&nsp;Polyarteritis Nodosa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::HBsAg}}</div>
vasculitis that is associated with HBsAg seropositivity.
1397680371082 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypertension}} is a complication of&nsp;P
olyarteritis Nodosa due to Renal Artery involvement.
vasculitis that involves hypertension, neurological dysfunction, cutaneous erupt
ion and renal damage.
vasculitis that is immune complex mediated.
vasculitis that involves transmural inflammation of the arterial wall with firi
noid necrosis.
1397680514474 1395802358422 Which medium-vessel vasculitis is immune complex
mediated?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Polyarteritis Nodosa}}</div>
vasculitis that involves innumerale microaneurysms and vasospasm on arteriogram
vasculitis that is treated with corticosteroids and cyclophosphamide.
1397680732865 1395802358422 Which medium-vessel vasculitis is treated with C
orticosteroids and Cyclophosphamide?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Polyarteritis No
dosa}}</div>
1397680752704 1395802358422 What demographic is classically affected y Kawa
saki Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Asian children < 4 y/o}}</div>
1397680773535 1395802358422 Which medium-vessel vasculitis involves a <>"St
rawerry Tongue"</>&nsp;due to changes in lips/oral mucosa?<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-21534966022386.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Kawas
aki Disease}}</div>
1397680860815 1395802358422 Which medium-vessel vasculitis involves <>handfoot erythema</>&nsp;(especially at the palms and soles)?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Kawasaki Disease}}</div>
1397680936728 1395802358422 Which medium-vessel vasculitis may involve the d
evelopment of <>coronary artery aneurysms</>/rupture or <>thromosis with MI<

/>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21766894256371.jpg" /></div><div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Kawasaki Disease}}</div>
1397681019403 1395802358422 Which medium-vessel vasculitis is treated with I
VIG and Aspirin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Kawasaki Disease}}</div>
1397681071008 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Kawasaki Disease?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::IVIG; Aspirin (as a lood thinner to prevent thromosis/M
I)}}</div>
1397681092515 1395802358422 Which medium-vessel vasculitis is associated wit
h <>heavy smokers</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Buerger Disease (Thromoangii
tis Oliterans)}}</div>
1397682851767 1395802358422 Which demographic is commonly affected y&nsp;B
uerger Disease (Thromoangiitis Oliterans)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Males &l
t; 40 y/o}}</div>
1397682867528 1395802358422 {{c1::Buerger Disease (Thromoangiitis Oliteran
s)}} is a medium-vessel vasculitis that involves <>intermittent claudication</
>&nsp;at the digits. <r /><div><i>And can hence involves gangrene, autoamput
ation of digits and superficial nodular phleitis.</i></div>
1397683952294 1395802358422 Which vasculitis is commonly associated with Ray
naud Phenomenon?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Buerger Disease (Thromoangiitis Ol
iterans)}}</div>
1397683971819 1395802358422 Which vasculitis may lead to gangrene, autoamput
ation of digits and superficial nodular phleitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bu
erger Disease (Thromoangiitis Oliterans)}}</div>
1397684000857 1395802358422 {{c1::Buerger Disease (Thromoangiitis Oliteran
s)}} is a segmental thromosing vasculitis associated with heavy smokers.
1397684023334 1395802358422 What is the treatment for&nsp;Buerger Disease (
Thromoangiitis Oliterans)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smoking cessation}}</div
>
1397684031629 1395802358422 Which small-vessel vasculitis affects the upper
respiratory tract, lower respiratory tract <>and</>&nsp;kidneys?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Wegener Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis}}</div>
1397685057099 1395802358422 {{c1::Wegener Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis}}
is a necrotizing, granulomatous vasculitis involving the nasopharynx, lungs <>
and</>&nsp;kidneys.
1397685168766 1395802358422 Which small-vessel vasculitis involves a triad o
f <>focal necrotising vasculitis</>, <>necrotizing granulomas at the lung and
nasopharynx</>&nsp;and <>necrotizing glomerulonephritis</>?<div><r></div><
div>{{c1::Wegener Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis}}</div>
1397685229086 1395802358422 Which ANCA antiodies are associated with&nsp;W
egener Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23
437636534515.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PR3-ANCA (anti-proteinase
3 ANCA; c-ANCA)}}</div></div>
1397685333899 1395802358422 Which type of ANCA antiodies are cytoplasmic?<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23510650978550.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::c-ANCA (PR3-ANCA)}}</div></div>
1397685384033 1395802358422 What is the treatment for&nsp;Wegener Granuloma
tosis with Polyangiitis?<div><r />{{c1::Cyclophosphamide; Corticosteroids}}</di
v>
1397685409147 1395802358422 Which small-vessel vasculitis is associated with
<>large, nodular densities</>&nsp;on chest x-ray?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::W
egener Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis}}</div>
1397685436722 1395802358422 {{c1::Microscopic Polyangiitis}} is a small vess
el vasculitis that presents similarly to Wegener Granulomatosis, ut <>lacks na
sopharyngeal involvement and granulomas</>.
1397685782360 1395802358422 {{c1::Microscopic Polyangiitis}} is a small-vess
el necrotizing vasculitis that typically involves the <>lungs, kidneys</>&nsp
;and <>skin.</>
1397685839024 1395802358422 {{c1::Microscopic polyangiitis}} is a small vess
el&nsp;<>necrotizing</>&nsp;vasculitis that involves <>pauci-immune glomeru
lonephritis</>&nsp;and <>palpale purpura</>.

1397685892957 1395802358422 Which ANCA antiodies are involved in Microscopi
c Polyangiitis?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-24502788423926.jpg" /><r /
><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MPO-ANCA (Anti-Myeloperoxidase; p-ANCA)}}</div></di
v>
1397685940078 1395802358422 Which type of ANCA antiodies are <>perinuclear
</>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-24498493456630.jpg" /><r /><div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::MPO-ANCA (p-ANCA)}}</div></div>
1397685959395 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Microscopic Polyangiit
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclophosphamide; Corticosteroids}}</div>
Asthma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Churg-Strauss Syndrome}}</div>
1397686668806 1395802358422 {{c1::Churg-Strauss Syndrome}} is a small-vessel
<>granulomatous, necrotizing</>&nsp;vasculitis that involves <>eosinophilia
</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-24790551232766.jpg" /></div>
1397686708135 1395802358422 {{c1::Churg-Strauss Syndrome}} is a small-vessel
<>granulomatous, necrotizing</>&nsp;vasculitis, <u>with eosinophilia</u>, th
at involves <>sinusitis</>, <>palpale purpura</>&nsp;and <>pauci-immune g
lomerulonephritis</>.
Peripheral Neuropathy (wrist/foot drop)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Churg-Strau
ss Syndrome}}</div>
1397686854767 1395802358422 What ANCA antiodies are associated with&nsp;Ch
urg-Strauss Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-25129853649144.jpg" /
><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MPO-ANCA (anti-myeloperoxidase ANCA; p-ANCA)}
}</div></div>
<>elevated IgE</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Churg-Strauss Syndrome}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Churg-Strauss involves eosinophilia.</i></div>
1397687198031 1395802358422 What is the most common childhood systemic vascu
litis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Henoch-Schonlein Purpura}}</div>
1397687263723 1395802358422 Which type of vasculitis commonly manifests foll
owing an upper respiratory tract infection?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Henoch-Scho
nlein Purpura}}</div>
1397687300190 1395802358422 Which vasculitis is associated with <>IgA nephr
opathy</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Henoch-Schonlein Purpura}}</div>
1397687340575 1395802358422 Which vasculitis is often secondary to IgA immun
e complex deposition?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Henoch-Schonlein Purpura}}</div
>
1397687362548 1395802358422 {{c1::Henoch-Schonlein Purpura}} is a <>type II
I hypersensitivity&nsp;</>small-vessel vasculitis that involves a classic tria
d of <>palpale purpura</>, <>arthralgia</>&nsp;and <>GI pain/melena</>.<
1395161948041 1358629116480 {{c1::Stratum Basalis}} is the epidermal layer t
hat is the regenerative, stem cell layer of the skin.
1395162032282 1358629116480 {{c1::Stratum Spinosum}} is the epidermal layer
that is characterized y desmosomes etween keratinocytes that form noticeale s
pinous processes.
1395162084364 1358629116480 {{c1::Stratum Granulosum}} is the epidermal laye
r that is characterized y granules in keratinocytes.
1395162103498 1358629116480 {{c1::Stratum Corneum}} is the epidermal layer t
hat is characterized y keratin diffusely dispersed in anucleate cells.
1395162139411 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Dermis}} is the layer of the skin
that holds nerve endings, lood vessels, lymphatics and adnexal structures such
as hair follicles and glands.
1395162211173 1358629116480 {{c1::Atopic Dermatitis (Eczema)}} is an infamma
tory skin disorder that involves a <>pruritic</>, erythematous, oozing rash wi
th vesicles and edema due to a <>Type I Hypersensitivity</>&nsp;reaction.<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-25348896981412.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Ro
ins says Type IV</i></div>
1395162294246 1358629116480 {{c1::Atopic Dermatitis (Eczema)}} is an inflamm

atory skin disorder that is associated with asthma and allergic rhinitis.
<r /><div><i>i.e. other atopic diseases</i></div>
Atopic Dermatitis (Eczema)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1395162338858 1358629116480 Where on the ody is Atopic Dermatitis (Eczema)
commonly found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Face and flexor surfaces}}</div>
1395162374208 1358629116480 {{c1::Contact Dermatitis}} is an inflammatory sk
in disorder that involves a pruritic, erythematous, oozing rash with vesicles an
d edema due to a <>Type IV hypersensitivity</>&nsp;response.<div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-24859270709459.jpg" /><img src="paste-24902220382411.jpg" /
1395162757587 1358629116480 {{c1::Contact Dermatitis}} is an inflammatory sk
in disorder that arises due to exposure to an allergen.<div><r /></div><div><im
1395162782597 1358629116480 What type of hypersensitivity is involved in Con
tact Dermatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1395162796377 1358629116480 Which metal commonly found in jewelry is a commo
n cause of Contact Dermatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nickel}}</div>
1395163006302 1358629116480 Which plant is commonly a cause of Contact Derma
titis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Poison Ivy}}</div>
1395163042945 1358629116480 Which drug is a common cause of Contact Dermatit
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillin}}</div>
te-14585708937440.jpg" /></div>
1395163417450 1358629116480 {{c1::Acne Vulgaris}} is an inflammatory skin di
sorder that involves comedones (white/lack heads), pustules (pimples) and nodul
es.
1395163480985 1358629116480 {{c1::Acne Vulgaris}} is an inflammatory skin di
sorder that involves chronic inflammation of hair follicles and associated seac
eous glands.
1395163550707 1358629116480 Which hormone is associated with increases in se
um production from skin seaceous glands?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Androgens}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Hence, increased testosterone can cause acne.</i></div>
1395163578068 1358629116480 {{c1::Comedones}} are a morphological feature of
Acne Vulgaris that occur due to hormone-associated increases in seum productio
n and excess keratin production, oth of which lock hair follicles.
<r /><d
iv><i>aka Black and White heads</i></div>
1395163651480 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Propionoacterium acnes</i>}} is a act
eria that infects comedones and leads to formation of pustules or nodules.
1395163705656 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Propionoacterium acnes</i>}} is a act
eria that infects comedones and produces lipases that reakdown the surrounding
seum into <u>proinflammatory</u>&nsp;fatty acids.
1395163757396 1358629116480 Which acteria is ale to form pustules (pimples
) y infecting comedones and releasing proinflammatory fatty acids through acte
rial lipase action on surrounding seum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Propiono
acterium acnes</i>}}</div>
1395163795355 1358629116480 {{c1::Psoriasis}} is an inflammatory skin disord
er that involves well-circumscried, salmon-coloured plaques with silvery scales
.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17355962843520.jpg" /><img src="paste-187
1395164306063 1358629116480 {{c1::Psoriasis}} is an inflammatory skin disord
er that may e associated with pitting of the nails.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-25881472925864.jpg" /></div>
1395164321339 1358629116480 What is the cause of Psoriasis?<div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-17351667876224.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Exc
essive keratinocyte production}}</div></div>
<r /><div><i>Involves thickenin
g of the stratum spinosum and thinning of stratum granulosum.</i></div>
1395164331063 1358629116480 Which HLA sutype is associated with Psoriasis?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-C}}</div>
1395164482755 1358629116480 {{c1::Acanthosis}} is a histological feature of
psoriasis that involves epidermal hyperplasia.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pa
ste-21706764714260.jpg" /><img src="paste-26779121090993.jpg" /><img src="paste26706106646792.jpg" /></div>
1395164526456 1358629116480 {{c1::Parakeratosis}} is a histological feature
of psoriasis that involves hyperkeratosis with retention of keratinocyte nuclei
in the stratum corneum.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21290152886505.jpg"
/></div>
<r /><div><i>Normal at mucous memranes.</i></div><div><i>Remem
er, normally the keratinocytes of the stratum corneum are anucleate.</i></div>
1395164572623 1358629116480 {{c1::Munro Microascesses}} are a histological
feature of Psoriasis that involves collections of neutrophils in the stratum cor
neum.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-26804890894582.jpg" /></div>
1395164638437 1358629116480 {{c1::Auspitz Sign}} is a gross feature of Psori
asis that involves leeding when scales are picked off due to thinning of the ep
idermis aove elongated dermal papillae.
658610400.jpg" /></div>
1395164702720 1358629116480 {{c1::UVA light}} is a type of UV light used to
treat Psoriasis as is damages the proliferating keratinocytes, therey limiting
scale formation.
1395164736763 1358629116480 {{c1::Psoralen}} is a drug that is administered
alongside UVA light in Psoriasis as it increases the amount of UVA light asore
d.
<r /><div><i>Together, Psoralen and UVA are called PUVA.</i></div>
1395164770936 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichen Planus}} is an inflammatory skin di
sorder that involves <><u>p</u>ruritic, <u>p</u>lanar, <u>p</u>olygonal, <u>p</
u>urple <u>p</u>apules.</><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16518444220586.
jpg" /><img src="paste-27831388078305.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-20431159
427485.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Look at all dem p's.</i></div>
1395164837664 1358629116480 {{c1::Wickham Striae}} is a gross feature of Lic
hen Planus if there is <>mucosal involvement</> and is descried as <>reticul
ar white lines</> on the surface of mucosal papules.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="Lichen_planusWickham's.jpg" /></div>
1395165211885 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichen Planus}} is an inflammatory skin di
sorder that involves inflammation of the <>dermal-epidermal junction</>&nsp;w
ith a <>'saw-tooth'</>&nsp;appearance due to lymphocyte infiltration.<div><r
1395165263890 1358629116480 Which viral infection is associated with Lichen
Planus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HCV}}</div>
1395165274578 1358629116480 {{c1::Pemphigus vulgaris}} is an autoimmune diso
rder of the skin that involves autoimmune destruction of <>desmosomes</>&nsp;
<u>etween keratinocytes</u>.
1395165363201 1358629116480 Which autoimmune skin disorder involves destruct
ion of <>desmosomes</>&nsp;<u>etween keratinocytes</u>?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Pemphigus vulgaris}}</div>
1395165390336 1358629116480 What is the cause of Pemphigus Vulgaris?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::IgG auto-antiodies against the Desmoglein protein of desmos
omes}}</div>
1395165414181 1358629116480 {{c1::Pemphigus Vulgaris}} is a Type II hypersen
sitivity skin disorder that involves IgG antiodies against the desmoglein prote
in of desmosomes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-28136330756287.jpg" /><im
1395165441369 1358629116480 Where are the ullae of Pemphigus Vulgaris found
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Skin and oral mucosa}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-28140625723583.jpg" /></div>
1395165461537 1358629116480 {{c1::Pemphigus Vulgaris}} is an autoimmune skin
disorder that involves a <>'tomstone'</>&nsp;appearance of the asal layer
of the epidermis as the asalis layer remains attached to the asement memrane
via hemidesmosomes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-28441273434337.jpg" /><
/div>
1395166107797 1358629116480 {{c1::Nikolsky sign}} is a gross feature of Pemp

higus Vulgaris and involves <><u>easy</u> rupture of thin-walled ullae upon st
roking of the skin</>, leading to shallow erosions with dried crust.<div><r />
</div><div><img src="paste-28187870363861.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Bullae in
Pemphigus Vulgaris rupture easily due to the separation eing at the Stratum Spi
nosum, i.e. close to the top of the skin.</i></div>
1395166150632 1358629116480 {{c1::Pemphigus Vulgaris}} is an autoimmune skin
disorder that involves a <>'fish net'</>&nsp;immunofluorescence pattern with
IgG surrounding keratinocytes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-28887950033
1395166202405 1358629116480 {{c1::Bullous Pemphigoid}} is an autoimmune diso
rder of the skin that involves destruction of <>hemidesmosomes</>&nsp;<u>etw
een the asal cells and underlying asement memrane</u>.<div><r /></div><div><
1395166305143 1358629116480 What is the cause of Bullous Pemphigoid?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::IgG auto-antiodies against <>hemidesmosome component BP180
</>&nsp;of the asement memrane}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"Antiodies are '<
>ullo'</>&nsp;the epidermis (i.e. asement memrane)."</i></div>
1395166348416 1358629116480 Which autoimmune disorder of the skin involves d
estruction of <>hemidesmosome component &nsp;BP180 (BPAG)</>&nsp;of the ase
ment memrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bullous Pemphigoid}}</div>
rder of the skin that presents as listers on the skin, ut <><u>spares the ora
l mucosa</u></>.
<r /><div><i>Pemphigus vulgaris involves the oral mucos
a.</i></div>
rder of the skin that involves <>tense ullae</> that do not rupture easily.<d
79504031.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>This is ecause the separation is UNDER th
e asement memrane.</i></div>
rder of the skin that involves a <>linear</>&nsp;pattern of IgG immunofluores
cence along the asement memrane.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-29128468
1395166694588 1358629116480 {{c1::Dermatitis Herpetiformis}} is an autoimmun
e disorder of the skin that involves <>IgA deposition at the tips of the dermal
papillae</> with susequent microascesses at these tips.<div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-29295971926258.jpg" /><img src="paste-29317446762808.jpg" /></d
iv>
e disorder of the skin that involves <>pruritic vesicles, papuls and ullae</>
that are grouped together over an <>erythematous ase</> and resemle the ves
icles of Herpes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-29171417874796.jpg" /></di
1395166761535 1358629116480 Which autoimmune disorder of the skin has a clos
e association with Celiac's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dermatitis Herpe
tiformis}}</div>
1395166784659 1358629116480 What is the cause of Dermatitis Herpetiformis?<d
iv><r /></div><div><div>{{c1::IgA auto-antiodies against Glutin that cross-rea
ct with reticular fires at the dermal papillae}}</div></div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-29261612187907.jpg" /></div>
1395166830251 1358629116480 {{c1::Erythema Multiforme}} is a Hypersensitivit
y reaction of the skin that involves a targetoid rash and ullae.<div><r /></di
/><img src="paste-25486335934883.jpg" /></div>
1395166878597 1358629116480 {{c1::Erythema Multiforme}} is a hypersensitivit
y disorder of the skin that involves a targetoid appearance due to a central are
a of epidermal necrosis, surrounded y erythema.<div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-25391846654131.jpg" /><img src="paste-25417616457901.jpg" /><img src="past
e-25490630902179.jpg" /></div>
1395166910754 1358629116480 What viral infection is associated with Erythema

Multiforme?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HSV}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Also assoc
iated with Mycoplasma pneumoniae</i></div>
1395166924356 1358629116480 {{c1::Stevens-Johnson Syndrome}} is a hypersensi
tivity skin disorder that involves Erythema Multiforme with oral mucosa and lip
involvement. There may e ullae and vesicles as well.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-17806934409429.jpg" /><img src="paste-25529285607651.jpg" /><img src
="paste-25550760444130.jpg" /></div>
1395166963043 1358629116480 {{c1::Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis}} is a hypersen
sitivity disorder of the skin that is a s<>evere form of Steve-Johnson Syndrome
</>, involving sloughing of the skin with large, flaccid ullae.<div><r /></di
/><img src="paste-25589415149756.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-194347270148
17.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Typically due to an adverse drug reaction
and is a medical emergency.</i></div>
1395167028216 1358629116480 {{c1::Seorrheic Keratosis}} is a enign squamou
s proliferation of the skin that presents as a raised, discoloured plaque with a
coin-like, waxy, <>stuck on</> appearance.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-27109833572511.jpg" /><img src="paste-17291538333884.jpg" /><img src="paste-2
1395167408185 1358629116480 {{c1::Seorrheic Keratosis}} is a enign squamou
s proliferation of the skin that is characterized y keratin pseudocysts (<>hor
n-cysts</>&nsp;and invagination cysts) on histology.<div><r /></div><div><img
/></div>
1395167447646 1358629116480 {{c1::Leser-Trelat Sign}} is a skin disorder def
ined as the sudden appearance of multiple Seorrheic Keratoses.<div><r /></div>
1395167486805 1358629116480 Which cancer is associated with Leser-Trelat Sig
n?<div><r />{{c1::GI carcinoma; Gastric carcinoma}}</div>
1395167504996 1358629116480 {{c1::Acanthosis Nigricans}} is a skin disorder
that involves hyperplasia of the epidermis with darkening of the skin, typically
seen at the axilla or groin.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2745772592364
8.jpg" /><img src="paste-27165668147515.jpg" /><img src="paste-27191437951153.jp
g" /></div>
1395167553512 1358629116480 What type of diaetes is associated with Acantho
sis Nigricans?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non-insulin dependent diaetes (insuli
n resistance)}}</div>
1395167586846 1358629116480 What type of cancer is commonly associated with
Acanthosis Nigricans?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gastric carcinoma}}</div>
1395167607707 1358629116480 What is the most common cutaneous malignancy?<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-31718333481267.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Basal Cell Carcinoma of the Skin}}</div></div>
1395167717367 1358629116480 {{c1::Xeroderma Pigmentosum}} is an autosomal re
cessive disorder that involves an increased risk of skin cancer due to mutations
in enzymes needed for nucleotide ase excision repair. <r /><div><i>Hence, the
pyrimidine dimers made y UV light exposure are not corrected.</i></div>
1395167783308 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Xeroderma Pig
mentosum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1395167797635 1358629116480 Which lip is classically affected y Basal Cell
Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Upper Lip}}</div>
1395167856201 1358629116480 {{c1::Basal Cell Carcinoma}} is a type of skin c
ancer that presents as an elevated <>'pink, pearl-like'</>&nsp;papule/nodule
with a central, <>ulcerated crater</> surrounded y telangiectatic vessels.<di
1395167931482 1358629116480 {{c1::Basal Cell Carcinoma}} is a type of skin c
ancer that shows <>nodules of asal cells</> with <>peripheral palisading</>
on histology.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-31666793873642.jpg" /></div>

></div>
1395168340288 1358629116480 {{c1::Squamous Cell Carcinoma}} is a type of ski
n cancer that involves the formation of <>keratin pearls</> amongst proliferat
ing cells.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-30103425777902.jpg" /><img src="
paste-30691836297614.jpg" /><img src="paste-30129195581703.jpg" /><img src="past
e-22454089023776.jpg" /></div>
1395168405699 1358629116480 Which lip is classically affected y squamous ce
ll carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lower}}</div> <r /><div><i>B</i></div
><div><i>S</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-22385369547039.jpg" /></i></div>
1395168448510 1358629116480 {{c1::Actinic Keratosis}} is a precursor lesion
of squamous cell carcinoma of the skin and presents as a <>hyperkeratotic, scal
y, sandpaper-like plaque</> on the face, ack or neck.<div><r /></div><div><im
g src="paste-29566554865807.jpg" /><img src="paste-20057497272737.jpg" /></div>
1395168493225 1358629116480 {{c1::Keratoacanthoma}} is a well-differentiated
squamous cell carcinoma of the skin that develops rapidly, regresses spontaneou
sly and presents as a <>cup-shaped tumour</>&nsp;filled with <>keratin deri
s</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-31421980737751.jpg" /><img src="past
e-22518513533215.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-31447750541540.jpg" /><img sr
c="paste-31469225378128.jpg" /></div>
1395168552163 1358629116480 Which amino acid is used as a precursor to melan
in?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosine}}</div>
1395169044800 1358629116480 Which protein marker is positive in Melanocytes
as it is a derivative of the neural crest?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::S100}}</di
v>
1395169064464 1358629116480 {{c1::Melanosomes}} are structurues <u>within me
lanocytes</u>&nsp;in which melanin is synthesized.
1395169093108 1358629116480 {{c1::Vitiligo}} is a pigmentation disorder of t
he skin that involves localized loss of skin pigmentation due to autoimmune dest
ruction of melanocytes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11407433138593.jpg"
/></div>
1395169148868 1358629116480 What is the cause of Vitiligo?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Autoimmune destruction of melanocytes}}</div>
1395169159890 1358629116480 {{c1::Alinism}} is a pigmentation disorder of t
he skin that involves a congenital lack of pigmentation due to enzyme defects in
melanin production.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11300058956193.jpg" />
</div> <r /><div><i>Can also e due to defective tyrosine transport (e.g. Ched
iak-Higashi Syndrome).</i></div><div><i>Can also e due to failure of the neural
crest cells to migrate during development.</i></div>
1395169192542 1358629116480 What is the most common enzyme affected in Alin
ism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tyrosinase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Can also
e due to defective tyrosine transport (e.g. Chediak-Higashi Syndrome).</i></div>
1395169206255 1358629116480 What is the risk of skin cancer in Alinism?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1395169220345 1358629116480 {{c1::Ephelis (Freckles)}} are a pigmentation di
sorder of the skin that presents as small, tan-rown macules that darken when ex
posed to sunlight.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22862110916774.jpg" /><i
1395169446469 1358629116480 What is the cause of Ephelis (Freckles)?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Increased numer of <>melanosomes</>&nsp;(<>not melanocy
tes</>)}}</div>
1395169467141 1358629116480 {{c1::Ephelis (Freckles)}} is a pigmentation dis
order of the skin that involves an increased numer of <>melanosomes</>, not m
elanocytes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22896470655134.jpg" /><img src=
"paste-13529146982620.jpg" /></div>
1395169506552 1358629116480 {{c1::Melasma}} is a pigmentation disorder of th
e skin that involves mask-like hyperpigmentation of the cheeks.<div><r /></div>
1395169536584 1358629116480 {{c1::Melasma}} is a pigmentation disorder of th
e skin that is associated with pregnancy and oral contraceptives.<div><r /></di

1395169554185 1358629116480 {{c1::Nevus (Mole)}} is a enign neoplasma of me
lanocytes.
1395169576866 1358629116480 {{c1::Congenital Nevus}} is a mole that is prese
nt at irth.
1395169601283 1358629116480 {{c1::Nevus (Mole)}} is a enign proliferation o
f melanocytes that is often associated with hair (melanoma is not).
1395169623309 1358629116480 What is the most common type of mole/nevus in ch
ildren?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Junctional Nevus}}</div><div><r /></div><div
1395169666370 1358629116480 {{c1::Junctional Nevus}} is a type of nevus that
egins as a nest of melanocytes at the <>dermal-epidermal</>&nsp;<>junction
</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23652384899193.jpg" /><img src="paste
-23673859735702.jpg" /><img src="paste-12717398163680.jpg" /></div>
1395169699927 1358629116480 {{c1::Compound Nevus}} is a type of nevus that g
rows y extension into the dermis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23880018
1395169715209 1358629116480 {{c1::Intradermal Nevus}} is a type of nevus tha
t is purely found in the dermis as the junctional component has een lost.<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-16458314678443.jpg" /><img src="paste-2396591751
1822.jpg" /></div>
1395169748537 1358629116480 What is the most common type of nevus in adults?
<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16462609645739.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Intradermal Nevus}}</div></div>
1395169771987 1358629116480 {{c1::Dysplastic Nevus}} is a type of nevus that
has undergone dysplasia and is a precurose to melanoma.<div><r /></div><div><i
<r /><div><i>Often appears asymmetrical or may have non-uniform colouration.</i
></div>
1395169796016 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of death from skin
cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Melanoma}}</div>
1395169811374 1358629116480 {{c1::Melanoma}} is a malignant neoplasm of mela
nocytes that presents as an <>asymmetical</>, <>irregularly shaped</> lesion
with <>non-uniform colour</> and a diameted of <>> 6 mm</><div><><r />
</></div><div><><img src="paste-25138443583706.jpg" /></><img src="paste-2519
667834.jpg" /><><img src="paste-25159918420099.jpg" /></></div>
1395169891227 1358629116480 {{c1::Dysplastic Nevus Syndrome}} is an autosoma
l dominant risk factor for Melanoma that involves the formation of dysplastic ne
vi that may progress to melanoma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-250826090
08948.jpg" /></div>
1395169935775 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Dysplastic Ne
vus Syndrome?<div><r />{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1395169952408 1358629116480 {{c1::Breslow Thickness}} is a measurement of ho
w deep melanoma has extended and is the most important prognostic factor in pred
icting metastasis.
1395170119560 1358629116480 {{c1::Superficial Spreading Melanoma}} is a sut
ype of melanoma that displays early radial growth and minimal vertical growth.<d
70655262.jpg" /></div>
1395170155566 1358629116480 What is the most common sutype of Melanoma?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Superficial Spreading Melanoma}}</div>
1395170172633 1358629116480 {{c1::Lentigo Maligna Melanoma}} is a sutype of
melanoma that involves lentiginous proliferation (a type of radial growth).<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-25288767439071.jpg" /><img src="paste-25310242
1395170203281 1358629116480 {{c1::Nodular Melanoma}} is a sutype of melanom
a that involves early vertical growth and hence poor prognosis.<div><r /></div>
></div>
1395170239758 1358629116480 {{c1::Nodular Melanoma}} is a sutype of melanom

a that involves nodules on the skin due to early vertical growth that raises the
epithelial layer.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-25688199397577.jpg" /></
div>
1395170295519 1358629116480 {{c1::Acral Lentiginous Melanoma}} is a sutype
of melanoma that arises on the palms or soles, typically in dark-skinned individ
uals. It is not related to UV exposure.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-253
9412515.jpg" /></div>
1395170895711 1358629116480 {{c1::Excoriation}} is a macroscopic skin lesion
that involves trauma that reaks the epidermis (e.g. a deep scratch).<div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-18283675779216.jpg" /><img src="paste-18309445583050
.jpg" /><img src="paste-18330920419496.jpg" /></div>
1395170921743 1358629116480 {{c1::Macule}} is a macroscopic skin lesion defi
ned as a <>flat</>&nsp;circumscried lesion <> 5 mm</> in diameter.<div><r
5.jpg" /></div>
1395171000251 1358629116480 {{c1::Cafe-au-lait Macules}} are a type of macul
e commonly seen in Neurofiromatosis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15891
378995483.jpg" /></div>
1395171028285 1358629116480 {{c1::Patch}} is a macroscopic skin lesion that
is <>flat</>&nsp;ut <>> 5 mm</>.&nsp;<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-15917148799129.jpg" /><img src="paste-15930033700995.jpg" /></div>
1395171069484 1358629116480 {{c1::Papule}} is a macroscopic skin lesion that
has an <>elevated, dome shape</>&nsp;or a <>elevated flat-top shape</>&ns
p;and is <> 5 mm</>&nsp;in diameter.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1597
177798.jpg" /></div>
1395171158129 1358629116480 {{c1::Nodule}} is a macroscopic skin lesion that
is dermal or suQ and is a <>raised</>&nsp;well defined <>> 5mm.</><div
><><r /></></div><div><><img src="paste-16857746637089.jpg" /><img src="past
e-16870631538812.jpg" /></></div>
1395171389318 1358629116480 {{c1::Plaque}} is a macroscopic skin lesion that
is an <>elevated, flat-topped </>lesion usually <>> 5 mm</><div><><r /
></></div><div><><img src="paste-17227113824400.jpg" /><img src="paste-1723999
8726310.jpg" /></></div>
1395171433654 1358629116480 {{c1::Vesicle}} is a macroscopic skin lesion tha
t involves <>fluid-filled raised</>&nsp;lesions <> 5 mm </>with surrounding
erythema.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17416092385425.jpg" /><img src="p
aste-17428977287340.jpg" /><img src="paste-17441862189220.jpg" /></div>
1395171533303 1358629116480 {{c1::Bulla}} are a macroscopic skin lesion that
are <>fluid-filled raised</>&nsp;lesions <> 5 mm</>.<div><r /></div><div><
>
1395171580876 1358629116480 {{c1::Pustule}} is a macroscopic skin lesion tha
t involves <>discrete, pus-filled nodular</>&nsp;or <>raised lesions</>.<di
7218256.jpg" /></div>
1395171670417 1358629116480 {{c1::Wheal}} is a macroscopic skin lesion that
involves <>itchy</>, transient, <>elevated</>&nsp;lesions with erythematous
orders. They are due to dermal edema.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-182
1395171721938 1358629116480 {{c1::Lichenification}} is a macroscopic skin le
sions that involves <>thickened and rough</>&nsp;skin with prominent markings
.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18360985190541.jpg" /><img src="paste-183
73870092518.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Resemles lichen on a tree; due to
chronic ruing</i></div>
1395171802176 1358629116480 {{c1::Scale}} is a macroscopic skin lesion that
is <>dry, horny</>&nsp;and <>plate-like</>&nsp;due to imperfect cornificat
ion.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18507014078589.jpg" /><img src="paste-
18519898980555.jpg" /></div>
1395171844291 1358629116480 {{c1::Onycholysis}} is a macroscopic skin lesion
defined as the separation of the nail plate from the nail ed.<div><r /></div>
></div>
1395176724220 1358629116480 {{c1::Erosion}} is a macroscopic skin lesion tha
t involves <>discontinuity of the skin</>&nsp;showing <>incomplete loss</>&
nsp;of the epidermis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-19868518711442.jpg"
/><img src="paste-19881403613390.jpg" /><img src="paste-20349555048889.jpg" /></
div>
1395176799298 1358629116480 {{c1::Ulceration}} is a macrocsopic skin lesion
that involves discontinuity of the skin showing <>complete</>&nsp;loss of the
epidermis, revealing the underlying dermis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-20371029885071.jpg" /><img src="paste-20383914787075.jpg" /></div>
1395176879131 1358629116480 {{c1::Telangiectasia}} is a macroscopic skin les
ion that involves small, dilated, superficial lood vessels that <u>lanch with
pressure</u>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-20495583936683.jpg" /></div>
1395176950865 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperkeratosis}} is a microscopic skin les
ion that involves thickening of the stratum corneum.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-21135534063831.jpg" /></div>
1395177290823 1358629116480 {{c1::Dyskeratosis}} is a microscopic skin lesio
n that involves anormal, premature keratinization within cells elow the stratu
m granulosum.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21419001905388.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Seen in Darier Disease.</i></div>
1395177437700 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypergranulosis}} is a microscopic skin le
sion that involves hyperplasia of the stratum granulosum, often due to intense r
uing.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22011707392289.jpg" /></div>
1395177624101 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydropic Swelling/Ballooning}} is a micros
copic skin lesion that involves intracellular edema of keratinocytes in the skin
. Typically seen in viral infections.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22136
261443794.jpg" /></div>
1395177665047 1358629116480 {{c1::Spongiosis}} is a microscopic skin lesion
that involves intercellular edema of the epidermis. The keratinocytes are still
attached via desmosomes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22226455757054.jpg
" /></div>
1395177744809 1358629116480 {{c1::Acantholysis}} is a microscopic skin lesio
n commonly seen in Pemphigus Vulgaris. It involves separation of the stratum spi
nosum keratinocytes, resulting in listers/ullae.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-22351009808649.jpg" /><img src="paste-22363894710437.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>This is ecause keratinocytes in the stratum spinosum are connecte
d y desmosomes, which are targeted in Pemphigus Vulgaris.</i></div>
1395177833919 1358629116480 {{c1::Lentiginous lesion}} is a microscopic skin
lesion that involves linear growth of melanocytes <u>within</u>&nsp;the epider
mal asal cell layer.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22488448762140.jpg" /
></div>
1395177898110 1358629116480 {{c1::Papillomatosis}} is a microscopic skin les
ion that involves elevation of the surface of the skin due to hyperplasia and en
largement of dermal papillae.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2261300281368
6.jpg" /></div>
1395177947134 1358629116480 What is the most common disorder of pigmentation
of childhood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ephelis (Freckles)}}</div>
<r /><d
1395177978130 1358629116480 {{c1::Lentigo}} is a pigmentation disorder of th
e skin that presents as small macules and patches and involves a localized, line
ar hyperplasia of melanocytes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-229394203280
21.jpg" /><img src="paste-23373212025051.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><img src="pas
te-22952305230022.jpg" /></div>
1395178123100 1358629116480 {{c1::Spitz Nevus}} is a type of nevus that is c
ommon in children and presents as a <>red-pink</>&nsp;nodule with fascicular
growth. Can e confused with hemangioma.
1395179374706 1358629116480 {{c1::Dysplastic nevus}} is a type of nevus that

involves cytological atypia and lentiginous hyperplasia of atypical melanocytes
1395179658782 1358629116480 What gene is mutated in Dysplastic Nevus Syndrom
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>CDKN2A</i>&nsp;on chr 9p21}}</div>
1395179690231 1358629116480 What is the prognosis of Acral Lentiginous Melan
oma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Poor}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, this is
unrelated to UV exposure.</i></div>
1395180034271 1358629116480 {{c1::Melanoma}} is a malignant skin cancer that
involves malignant melanocytes that have large nuclei with irregular contours,
clumped chromatin and prominent eosinophilic nuclei.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-26036091748612.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Positive for HMB45 and S10
0.</i></div>
1395180602332 1358629116480 Which 2 genes are involved in <>sporadic</>&n
sp;melanoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::BRAF (60-70%) and NRAS (10-15%)}}</div>
1395180670264 1358629116480 Which gene is most commonly implicated in <>spo
radic</>&nsp;melanoma?<div><r />{{c1::BRAF Kinase}}</div>
1395180683991 1358629116480 {{c1::Clark Level of Invasion}} is a measure of
the depth of invasion of melanoma <u>in terms of the histological skin layers</u
>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-26371099197718.jpg" /></div>
1395180723396 1358629116480 Which Breslow thickness of melanoma is considere
d to have a <>favourale</>&nsp;prognosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::< 1.
7 mm}}</div>
1395180757531 1358629116480 What gene is commonly mutated in Seorrheic Kera
tosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::FGFR3}}</div>
1395180898064 1358629116480 {{c1::Acanthosis Nigricans}} is a hyperplastic c
ondition of the epidermis that involves <>hyperpigmented skin with "velvet-like
"</> <>texture</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-27187142983857.jpg" /
><img src="paste-19829864006045.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>May also involve m
any skin tags.</i></div>
1395181071702 1358629116480 {{c1::Firo-epithelial polyps}} are common cutan
eous lesions that present as soft, flesh coloured, ag-like tumours attached to
the skin y a slender stalk.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-27771258536161
.jpg" /></div>
1395181330610 1358629116480 {{c1::Firo-epithelial Polyps}} are a common epi
thelial tumour that involves a firovascular core covered y enign squamous epi
thelium.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-27895812587745.jpg" /></div>
1395181382746 1358629116480 {{c1::Epithelial cyst}} are enign tumours of th
e skin that involve an invagination or cystic expansion of the epidermis or hair
follicle.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-28101971017896.jpg" /></div>
1395181673989 1358629116480 {{c1::Epithelial Cysts}} are enign tumours of t
he skin and involve cysts filled with keratin and lipid-containing deris from s
eaceous secretions.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-28097676050600.jpg" />
1395181768110 1358629116480 {{c1::Epithelial Inclusion Cyst}} is a type of E
pithelial Cyst that involves a simple cyst with keratin.<div><r /></div><div><i
1395181795574 1358629116480 {{c1::Syringoma}} are enign skin lesions near t
he <>lower eyelid/upper cheek</> with an eccrine differentiation and intra-epi
dermal inclusions of eccrine sweat ducts.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2
8385438859436.jpg" /></div>
1395181875559 1358629116480 {{c1::Cylindroma}} is a enign skin tumour that
involves ductal differentiation and is commonly located around the forehead/scal
p with hat-like growth (<i>aka Turan Tumour</i>).<div><r /></div><div><img src
1395182053823 1358629116480 {{c1::Muir-Torre Syndrome}} is a suset syndrome
of heriditary non-polyposis colorectal carcinoma that involves Seaceous Adenom
as of the skin. <r /><div><i>Hence this also involves mutations/defects in DNA
mismatch repair.</i></div>
1395182118006 1358629116480 {{c1::Seaceous Adenoma}} is a enign skin tumou
r that involves loular proliferation of seocytes with a frothy or uly cytop

lasm due to lipid vesicle content.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-28797755
720031.jpg" /></div>
1395182160606 1358629116480 {{c1::Pilomatricoma}} is a enign skin tumour th
at involves follicular differentiation and involves <>asaloid cells with trich
ilemmal/hairlike differentiation</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-28870
770163993.jpg" /></div>
1395182207787 1358629116480 {{c1::Trichoepithelioma}} is a enign skin tumou
r that involves proliferation of asaloid cells that form primitive structures t
hat resemle <>hair follicles</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2926161
2187930.jpg" /></div>
1395182426759 1358629116480 {{c1::Apocrine Carcinoma}} is a skin cancer that
shows ductal differentiation with prominent decapitation secretion similar to t
hose seen in normal apocrine glands.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-293861
66239506.jpg" /></div>
1395182463451 1358629116480 {{c1::Actinic Keratosis}} is a pre-malignant les
ion to squamous cell carcinoma that can produce an aundant amount of keratin to
the point where <>cutaneous horns</>&nsp;are seen.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-29596619636967.jpg" /></div>
1395182579013 1358629116480 {{c1::Actinic Keratosis}} is a pre-malignant les
ion to squamous cell carcinoma that involves focal areas of parakeratosis and cy
tological atypia in asal keratinocytes.<div><div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-29781303230663.jpg" /></div></div>
1395182627599 1358629116480 {{c1::Squamous Cell Carcinoma}} is a type of ski
n cancer that grossly presents as a large, sharply demarcated, scaly erythematou
s plaque with possile keratin nodules/ulceration.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-30167850287317.jpg" /><img src="paste-30597347016923.jpg" /><img src="pa
ste-30618821853317.jpg" /></div>
1395182887021 1358629116480 {{c1::Poorly}} differentiated squamous cell carc
inoma has a high level of anaplastic cells with only occasional keratinization/k
eratin nodules.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-31035433681177.jpg" /></div
>
<r /><div><i>Well differentiated tumours will have more keratin nodules
.</i></div>
1395183434196 1358629116480 {{c1::Immunosuppression}} is a major risk factor
for squamous cell carcinoma of the skin due to an increased susceptility of ke
ratinocytes to e infected y oncogenic viruses.
<r /><div><i><r /></i>
</div>
1395183481208 1358629116480 What gene mutation is common in Actinic Keratosi
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p53}}</div>
1395183516137 1358629116480 {{c1::Nevoid Basal Cell Carcinoma Syndrome (NBCC
S; Gorlin Syndrome)}} is an autosomal dominant disorder that involves an increas
ed risk of asal cell carcinoma.
1395183835285 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Nevoid Basal
Cell Carcinoma Syndrome (NBCCS)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal dominant}}
</div>
1395183863776 1358629116480 What gene is involved in&nsp;Nevoid Basal Cell
Carcinoma Syndrome (NBCCS)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PTCH}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Mutation leads to overactive upregulation of transcription factors.</i></d
iv><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-32074815766827.jpg" /></i></d
iv>
1395183910351 1358629116480 What gene is most commonly mutated in <>sporadi
c</>&nsp;Basal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p53}}</div>
1395183936650 1358629116480 What gene is most commonly mutated in Xeroderma
Pigmentosum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::PTCH}}</div>
1395183950312 1358629116480 {{c1::Dermatofiroma}} is a enign tumour of the
dermis that presents as a firm tan papule on the leg, usually < 1 cm in diam
eter.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-32268089295182.jpg" /></div>
dermis that exhiits a dimpling effect when pinched laterally.<div><r /></div>

dermis that is formed y spindle-shaped cells arranged in a well-defined, non-e
ncapsulated mass in the mid-dermis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3243559
3019667.jpg" /></div>
1395184122065 1358629116480 {{c1::Dermatofirosarcoma protuerans}} is a mal
ignant, well differentiated tumour of the dermis that presents as a firm, solid
nodule with indurated plaque. It is locally invasive.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-32474247725353.jpg" /></div>
1395184169754 1358629116480 {{c1::Dermatofirosarcoma protuerans}} is a mal
ignant tumour of the dermis that involves a s<>toriform pattern</>&nsp;in his
tology (firolasts arranged similarly to the lades of a pinwheel).<div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-32504312496386.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>There may
e a <>honeycom pattern</>&nsp;if there is deep extension from the dermis in
to suQ fat.</i></div>
1395184280912 1358629116480 {{c1::Mycosis Fungoides}} is a cutaneous T-cell
lymphoma that is typically seen in truncal areas and may spread to the extremiti
es, face and scalp. It involves ulcerated plaques and atypical lymphocytes.<div>
<r /></div><div><img src="paste-32731945763035.jpg" /><img src="paste-327534205
99514.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div><r /></div></div>
1395184438252 1358629116480 {{c1::Sezary Syndrome}} is a pre-malignant syndr
ome that involves seeding of the lood y malignant CD4+ cells, therey increasi
ng the risk of Mycosis Fungoides.
1395184483665 1358629116480 {{c1::Pautrier Microascesses}} are small microa
scesses of spongiosis and lymphocytes that are commonly seen in Mycosis Fungioi
des.<div><r /></div><div><img src="wWmXe2u.jpg" /></div>
1395184531725 1358629116480 {{c1::Mastocytosis}} is a group of disorders tha
t involves an increased numer of mast cells at the skin (dermis) or other organ
s.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-33539399614828.jpg" /></div>
1395184572125 1358629116480 {{c1::Urticaria Pigmentosum}} is a type of masto
cytosis that commonly affects children and involves round to oval, red-rown, no
n-scaling papules and plaques.
1395184634608 1358629116480 {{c1::Solitary Mastocytoma}} is a type of mastoc
ytosis that involves pink to tan-rown nodules that may e itchy or may lister.
1395184686253 1358629116480 {{c1::Systemic Mastocytosis}} is a type of masto
cytosis that usually affects adults and has a poor prognosis.
1395184717926 1358629116480 {{c1::Systemic Mastocytosis}} is a type of masto
cytosis that involves mast cell infiltration of the one marrow, liver, spleen a
nd lymph nodes.
1395184751861 1358629116480 {{c1::Darier Sign}} is a macroscopic skin lesion
seen in mastocytosis that involves a wheal that presents when the skin is rue
d.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-33569464385763.jpg" /><img src="paste-33
582349287618.jpg" /></div>
1395184825902 1358629116480 {{c1::Mastocytosis}} is a disorder that involves
increased numer of mast cells at the dermis and/or organs and may involve syst
emic pruritis, flushing, discharge, pain and/or leeding due to widespread mast
cell degranulation.
1395286628348 1358629116480 {{c1::Impetigo}} is a superficial acterial skin
infection typically caused y <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>&nsp;or <i>Streptoco
ccus pyogenes</i>.
1395338914590 1358629116480 {{c1::Impetigo}} is a superficial acterial infe
ction of the skin that can lead to pustules that rupture, resulting in dry, erod
ed, <>crusted, honey-coloured serum</> covering the skin.<div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-16544214024524.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i><>Highly contagio
us</>.</i></div>
1395339371327 1358629116480 {{c1::Cellulitis}} is a deep acterial skin infe
ction that presents as a red, tender, swollen and spreading rash with fever.<div
><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16776142258508.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Ty
pically starts from a reak in the skin from trauma or another infection.</i></d
iv>
1395339391538 1358629116480 What is the most common causes of oth Impetigo

and Cellulitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>&nsp;and
<i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>}}</div>
1395339423539 1358629116480 {{c1::Necrotizing Fasciitis}} is a acterial ski
n infection that involves necrosis of sucutaneous tissue due to anaeroic flesh
-eating acteria.
<r /><div><i>Also caused y Streptococcus pyogenes.</i>
</div><div><i>Presents with ullae and purple coloured skin.</i></div><div><i><i
1395339492167 1358629116480 {{c1::Crepitus}} is a complication of Necrotizin
g Fasciitis that involves gas in the skin/dermal tissue due to <>methane </>an
d&nsp;<>CO<su>2</su></>&nsp;production.
1395339526356 1358629116480 Which 2 toxins from <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>
&nsp;cause Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Exf
oliatin A and B}}</div>
1395339564783 1358629116480 Which layer of the epidermis is affected in Stap
hylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stratum granulosum}
}</div>
1395339592519 1358629116480 How is Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome is d
ifferentiated from Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis at the histological level?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::TEN shows separation at the dermal-epidermal junction; SSSS
yields destruction of keratinocyte attachments in the <u>stratum granulosum only
</u>}}</div>
<r /><div><img src="paste-25623774888186.jpg" /><img src="paste
-25645249724960.jpg" /></div>
1395340470032 1358629116480 {{c1::Verruca (Warts)}} are <>soft, flesh-colou
red, cauliflower-like papules</> that appear on the skin due to HPV infection o
f keratinocytes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12292196401378.jpg" /><img
src="paste-12313671237855.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>On the genitals it
is called <>Condyloma acuminatum</>.</i></div>
1395340559909 1358629116480 What is the cause of Verruca (Warts)?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::HPV infection of Keratinocytes}}</div>
1395340580963 1358629116480 {{c1::Molluscum Contagiosum}} is a viral exanthe
m that involves firm, pink, umilicated papules due to poxvirus infection.
1395340614274 1358629116480 {{c1::Molluscum Bodies}} are histological featur
es of Molluscum Contagiosum seen in the cytoplasm of infected keratinocytes.
1395340650395 1358629116480 {{c1::Urticaria (Hives)}} is a common inflammato
ry skin disorder that involves edema of superficial sections of the dermis due t
o localized mast cell degranulation and wheals.<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-24326694764759.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>superfici
al dermal edema</>&nsp;and <>lymphatic channel dilation</>.</i></div>
1395341160652 1358629116480 {{c1::IgE-Dependent Urticaria}} is a type of urt
icaria that is antigen-induced and involves IgE.
1395341267945 1358629116480 {{c2::Deficiency of C1 Inhiitor}} is a congenit
al form of urticaria that is complement-mediated and is due to uncontrolled acti
vation of early components of the compliment system and production of vasoactive
mediators.
1395341331187 1358629116480 {{c1::Pustular Psoriasis}} is a rare form of Pso
riasis that involves small pustules on top of the erythematous plaques that are
typically localized to the hands and feet.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste26104811225265.jpg" /></div>
1395342421475 1358629116480 {{c1::Koener Phenomenon}} is a feature of the p
athogenesis of Psoriasis and involves genesis of new Psoriatic lesions at sites
of trauma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-26985279520963.jpg" /></div>
1395342801906 1358629116480 {{c1::Seorrheic Dermatitis}} is a chronic infla
mmatory condition of the skin that involves flaky, <>dandruff</>&nsp;skin wit
h poorly demarcated, erythematous plaques of <>greasy, yellow scales</>.<div><
3621.jpg" /></div>
1395343253226 1358629116480 {{c1::Pemphigus Foliaceus}} is a ullous disorde
r of the skin that involves superficial listers that are much less erosive than
in Pemphigus Vulgaris.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-28316719382729.jpg"
/><img src="paste-28467043238134.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>IgG antiodies to

Desmoglein are found more superficially.</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><
i><img src="paste-28973849379051.jpg" /></i></div>
e disorder of the skin that involves <>IgA antiody deposition at the tips of d
ermal papillae</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-29480655520023.jpg" /><
/div>
1404684176867 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::macule}} is a skin lesion descried
as a flat lesion with cell-circumscried changes in skin color&nsp;that is <u
style="font-weight: old; ">< 1 cm</u>&nsp;in diameter.<div><r /></div><div
<r /><div><i>e.g. freckle; lai
al macule</i></div>
1404685073649 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::patch}} is a skin lesion descried
as a flat lesion with well-circumscried changes in skin colour that is <u style
="font-weight: old; ">> 1 cm</u>&nsp;in diameter.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-8761733284066.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>e.g. irthmark (congenital
nevus)</i></div>
1404685126606 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::papule}} is a skin lesion that is d
escried as an elevated solid lesion <u style="font-weight: old; ">< 1 cm</u
>&nsp;in diameter.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8804682957019.jpg" /></
div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. mole; nevus; acne</i></div>
1404685166206 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::plaque}} is a skin lesion descried
as an elevated solid skin lesion <u style="font-weight: old; ">> 1 cm</u>&n
sp;in diameter.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8839042695391.jpg" /></div
>
<r /><div><i>e.g. psoriasis</i></div>
1404685198189 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::vesicle}} is a skin lesion that is
descried as a small, fluid-containing lister <u style="font-weight: old; ">&l
t; 1 cm</u>&nsp;in diameter.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8899172237534
.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>e.g. Chickenpox/varicella; Shingles/zoster</i></di
v>
1404685307598 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::ulla}} is a skin lesion descried
as a large, fluid-containing lister <u style="font-weight: old; ">> 1 cm</u
>&nsp;in diameter.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8942121910497.jpg" /></
div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. ullous pemphigoid</i></div>
1404685351778 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::pustule}} is a skin lesion that is
descried as a <>vesicle containing pus</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-8976481648866.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>e.g. pustular psoriasis</i></div>
1404685382774 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::wheal}} is a skin lesion that is de
scried as a transient or smooth papule or plaque.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-9143985373410.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. hives/urticaria</i></
div>
1404685792438 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::scale}} is a skin lesion that is de
scried as <>flaking off of the stratum corneum</>&nsp;of the skin.<div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-9182640079073.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>e.g. eczem
a; psoriasis; SCC</i></div>
1404685845880 1395802358422 A&nsp;{{c1::crust}} is a skin lesion that is de
scried as <>dry exudate</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-100330436036
76.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. impetigo</i></div>
1404686390949 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperkeratosis}} is a dermatological micro
scopic term descried as an <>increased thickness of the stratum corneum</>.
<r /><div><i>e.g. Psoriasis; Callouses</i></div>
1404686617566 1395802358422 {{c1::Parakeratosis}} is a dermatological micros
copic term that is defined as <>hyperkeratosis with retention of nuclei in the
stratum corneum</>.
<r /><div><i>e.g. psoriasis</i></div>
1404686846399 1395802358422 {{c1::Spongiosis}} is a dermatological microscop
ic term that is defined as the <>epidermal accumulation of edematous fluid in i
ntercellular spaces</>.
<r /><div><i>e.g. eczematous dermatitis</i></di
v>
1404686881087 1395802358422 {{c1::Acantholysis}} is a dermatological microsc
opic term defined as the <>separation of epidermal cells</>. <r /><div><i>e.
g. pemphigus vulgaris</i></div>
1404686907874 1395802358422 {{c1::Acanthosis}} is a dermatological microscop
ic term that is defined as <>epidermal hyperplasia</>, especially at the strat
um spinosum.
<r /><div><i>e.g. Acanthosis nigricans</i></div>
1404704388509 1395802358422 Which acteria are the 2 most common causes of C
ellulitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pyogenes; Staphylococcus
aureus</i>}}</div>
1404704438453 1395802358422 {{c1::Bullous Impetigo}} is a type of impetigo t
hat has <>ullae</>&nsp;and is usually caused y <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>
1404704547842 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Bullous Impetig
o?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}</div><div><r /></d
1404704570043 1395802358422 What is the cause of Necrotizing Fasciitis?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Anaeroic actera; <i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>}}</div><
<r /><d
iv><i>Flesh-eating acteria.</i></div>
1404704789959 1395802358422 {{c1::Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS
)}} is an infectious skin disorder caused y Staphylococcal exotoxins that prese
nts with <>generalized erythematous rash</>&nsp;with <>sloughing of the uppe
r layers of the epidermis</>&nsp;that heals completely.<div><r /></div><div><
<r /><div><i>Neworns and child
ren most often affected.</i></div>
1404705676087 1395802358422 {{c1::Hairy Leukoplakia}} is an infectious disor
der that presents with <>white, painless plaques </>on the tongue that cannot
e scraped off.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17467631993172.jpg" /></div
>
1404705727511 1395802358422 Which herpesvirus is associated with Hairy Leuko
plakia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div> <r /><div><i>Typically seen in
HIV+ patients.</i></div>
1404705746571 1395802358422 {{c1::Pemphigous vulgaris}} is a listering skin
disorder that presents with <>flaccid intraepidermal ullae</>&nsp;due to ac
antholysis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17815524344224.jpg" /></div>
1404705954692 1395802358422 {{c1::Pemphigous vulgaris}} is a listering skin
disorder that often presents with <>multiple crusty and weepy erythematous ero
sions</>&nsp;on the skin <>where listers have roken</>.<div><r /></div><d
1404706126894 1395802358422 Which autoimmune disorder of the small owel is
associated with Dermatitis Herpetiformis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac Dise
ase}}</div>
1404706466998 1395802358422 {{c1::Stevens-Johnson Syndrome}} is a listering
skin disorder associated with <>adverse drug reactions</> that involves fever
, <>ulla formation</>, necrosis, <>sloughing of the skin</>&nsp;and a <>h
igh mortality rate</>.
1404707520656 1395802358422 {{c1::Stevens-Johnson Syndrome}} is a listering
skin disorder that is associated with adverse drug reaactions and <>typically
involves 2 mucous memranes</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1935741760
3488.jpg" /></div>
1404707566546 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis}} is a severe f
orm of Stevens-Johnson Syndrome that affects > 30% of the ody surface area a
nd involves <>depigmentation of the skin due to epidermal sloughing</>.<div><
1404707663356 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxic Epidermal Necrolysis}} is a severe f
orm of Stevens-Johnson Syndrome that presents with <>large ullae with skin slo
ughing in sheets</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-19430432047521.jpg" /
></div>
1404707691536 1395802358422 {{c1::Acanthosis Nigricans}} is a disorder of th
e skin that is associated with <>hyperinsulinemia</>&nsp;and <>gastric adeno
carcinoma</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-19825569038749.jpg" /></div>
1404708186464 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythema Nodosum}} is an inflammatory skin
disorder that presents as <>inflammatory lesions of sucutaneous fat</>, espe

cially on the anterior shins.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2009615197840
0.jpg" /></div>
1404708294088 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythema Nodosum}} is an inflammatory diso
rder of the skin that is often idiopathic ut can e associated with sarcoidosis
, coccidioidomycosis, histoplasmosis, TB, streptococcal infections, leprosy and
Crohn Disease.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-20091857011104.jpg" /></div>
1404708348969 1395802358422 {{c1::Pityriasis Rosea}} is a skin disorder that
presents with <>multiple plaques</>&nsp;in a <>"herald patch</>" shape fol
lowed days later y a "<>christmas tree</>" distriution.<div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-20706037334433.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Self resolving in
6-8 weeks.</i></div>
1404708945546 1395802358422 {{c1::Sunurn}} is an <>acute</>&nsp;skin dis
order caused y excessive <>UVB</> radiation that can lead to impetigo and ski
n cancer.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-20834886353313.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Damage is caused y UV-radiation induced apoptosis of keratinocyte
s via DNA mutations.</i></div>
1404709002018 1395802358422 Which type of UV radiation is dominant in Sunur
ns?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::UVB}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Tanning and photoa
ging uses UVA light.</i></div>
1404709060185 1395802358422 {{c1::Sunurn}} is an <>acute</>&nsp;skin dis
order that presents with an inflammatory reaction due to <>excess UV irradiatio
n</>.
1404709386951 1395802358422 What is the most common skin cancer?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Basal Cell Carcinoma}}</div>
1404709453377 1395802358422 What is the second most common skin cancer?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous Cell Carcinoma}}</div>
1404709558486 1395802358422 Which skin cancer is occasionally associated wit
h Arsenic exposure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous Cell carcinoma}}</div>
1404709922013 1395802358422 Which skin cancer is associated with <>chronic
draining sinuses</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous Cell Carcinoma}}</div>
1404710064579 1395802358422 {{c1::Vemurafeni}} is an anticancer drug that f
unctions as a <>BRAF Kinase inhiitor</>&nsp;and hence may enefit patients w
ith metastatic or unresectale melanoma with <i><>BRAF V600E</>&nsp;mutations
.</i>
1404710308531 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Vemurafeni in the treatment
of Melanoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::BRAF Kinase inhiitor}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Effective in patients with BRAF V600E mutations.</i></div>
1392496103077 1358629116480 {{c1::Tracheoesophageal Fistula}} is a congenita
l defect of the esophagus that results in a connection etween the esophagus and
trachea that commonly presents with an esophageal atresia.
1392497481115 1358629116480 A Tracheoesophageal Fistula will present with vo
miting and polyhydramnios due to the associated&nsp;{{c1::esophageal atresia}}
that commonly occurs with it.
1392498508491 1358629116480 What is an Esophageal We?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::A thin protrusion of the esophageal mucosa}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Ty
pically seen in the upper esopagus</i></div>
1392498547973 1358629116480 {{c1::Esophageal We}} is an esophageal disorder
that presents with dysphagia&nsp;and an increased risk for esophageal squamous
cell carcinoma due to a thin protrusion of esophageal mucosa.
1392498598519 1358629116480 {{c1::Plummer-Vinson Syndrome}} is a form of Iro
n Deficiency Anaemia that presents with <>esophageal we</> and a <>eefy-red
tongue</> due to atrophic glossitis. <r /><div><i>Involves triad of <>dysph
agia, iron deficiency anaemia, glossitis</>.</i></div>
1392498651728 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::diverticulum}} is defined as an out
pouching of the GI wall.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-29042568855780.jpg
" /></div>
1392499300338 1358629116480 What is the cause of Esophageal Diverticuli?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Esophageal motility anormalities and spasms; Acquired d
efect in muscular wall}}</div>
1392499347716 1358629116480 {{c1::Halitosis (Bad Breath)}} is a feature of Z

enker's Diverticulum due to food getting trapped in the diverticulum and rotting
.
1392500213876 1358629116480 {{c1::Mallory-Weiss Syndrome}} is an esophageal
disorder that involves longitudinal <>lacerations</> of the <>mucosa</> at t
he <>gastroesophageal junction</> due to <>severe vomiting</>.
<r /><d
iv><i>Typically seen in <>alcholics</> or <>ulimics</>.</i></div><div><i>Co
mpare this to Beorhaave Syndrome which involves <>transmural</>&nsp;laceratio
ns/tearing.</i></div>
1392500295246 1358629116480 {{c1::Boerhaave's Syndrome}} is an esophageal di
sorder involving <>transmural tear</>&nsp;and&nsp;<>rupture</>&nsp;of the
esophagus due to <>violent retching</>, leading to air entering the mediastin
um and sucutaneous emphysema. <r /><div><i>Is a surgical emergency.</i></div>
1392500346778 1358629116480 {{c2::Mallory-Weiss Syndrome}} is an esophageal
disorder that presents with <>painful</>&nsp;hematemesis.
<img src="paste3719441678637.jpg" />
1392500711368 1358629116480 {{c1::Achalasia}} is an esophageal disorder char
acterized y aperistalsis, partial/incomplete relaxation of the LES upon swallow
ing and increased resting tone of the LES.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste2637109920092.jpg" /><img src="paste-17940078395620.jpg" /></div>
1392500788809 1358629116480 What is the most common <>primary</>&nsp;etio
logy of Achalasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Idiopathic degeneration or damage
to Ganglion Cells in the Myenteric Plexus}}</div>
1392501068571 1358629116480 {{c1::Chagas Disease}} is a common secondary cau
se of Achalasia due to infection y <i>Trypanosoma cruzi</i>.
1392501149276 1358629116480 {{c1::Zenker's Diverticulum}} is a type of esoph
ageal <>false</>&nsp;diverticulum that is found aove the upper esophageal sp
hincter at the esophagopharyngeal junction and involves <>herniation of mucosal
tissue at the Killian triangle</>.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-28776280
88551.jpg" /></div>
1392501719467 1358629116480 {{c1::Traction Diverticulum}} is a type of esoph
ageal diverticulum that is located in the middle of the esophagus and is associa
ted with mediastinal adhesions or anormal esophageal motility.
1392501777079 1358629116480 {{c1::Epiphrenic Diverticulum}} is a type of eso
phageal diverticulum located aove the LES near the diaphragm.
1392501950818 1358629116480 {{c1::Mediastinitis}} is a serious complication
of Mallory-Weiss/Boerhaave's Syndrome that occurs when the stomach wall is penet
rated.
1392502023197 1358629116480 {{c1::Esophageal Varices}} is an esophageal diso
rder that involves varicose veins of the esophagus.<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-3843995730359.jpg" /></div>
1392502605046 1358629116480 {{c1::Hiatal Hernia}} is an esophageal disorder
defined as the upward protrustion of the cardia of the stomach through the diaph
ragm.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3929895076150.jpg" /></div> <r /><d
iv><i>Unknown cause; can e congenital; complications include reflux esophagitis
, ulcers, leeding and perforation</i></div>
1392502719692 1358629116480 What is the most common etiology of GERD?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased LES Tone due to alcohol, cigarette smoking}}</div
>
1392502992453 1358629116480 What is the etiology of GERD in oese patients?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased adominal pressure}}</div>
1392503026799 1358629116480 Which immune cells are commonly found in the inf
lamed esophageal mucosa in GERD?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neutrophils}}</div>
1392503119182 1358629116480 {{c1::GERD}} is an esophageal disorder where ref
lux of gastric acid/contents causes enlargement of the esophageal mucosa and su
mucosa.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4990751998386.jpg" /></div>
1392503200050 1358629116480 {{c1::Barrett's Esophagus}} is a complication of
GERD that involves a metaplastic change of esophageal squamous epithelium to in
testinal glandular epithelium due to prolonged injurious stimuli.<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-5647881994663.jpg" /><img src="paste-5669356831111.jpg" /

1392503389320 1358629116480 {{c1::Golet Cells}} are a type of epithelial ce
ll that is required to e seen in metaplastic intestinal epithelium at the esoph
agus in order for Barrett's Esophagus to e diagnosed.<div><r /></div><div><img
1392503724139 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Viral Esophagit
is with ulcers?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6519760355742.jpg" /><r />
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HSV and CMV}}</div></div>
1392503976006 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Fungal Esophagi
tis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Candida}}</div> <div><r /></div><img src="paste
-6940667150753.jpg" /><div><r /><div><i>Common in immunosuppressed and diaetic
s.</i></div></div>
1392504029390 1358629116480 {{c1::HSV}} is a viral cause of esophagitis that
involves multinucleated giant cells, inclusion odies and fine chromatin.<div><
06.jpg" /></div>
1392504096906 1358629116480 {{c1::CMV}} is a viral cause of esophagitis that
involves Owl's Eye inclusions.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-65798898978
01.jpg" /></div>
1392504160271 1358629116480 {{c1::Eosinophilic Esophagitis}} is an esophagea
l disorder that involves <>esophageal rings</> due to <>contractions of the m
uscularis propria from proteins released y eosinophils</>.<div><r /></div><di
v><img src="paste-7073811136870.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Seen in atopic pat
ients.</i></div>
1392504652577 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Eosinophilic Es
ophagitis?<div><r />{{c1::Food allergies}}</div>
1392504667398 1358629116480 Which type of esophagitis is commonly associated
with aggregations of eosinophils?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-71425306
13621.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Eosinophilic Esophagitis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>This is <>suggestive</>&nsp;of Eosinophilic Esophagitis, not di
agnostic. GERD involves eosinophils as well, for example.</i></div>
rder that involves <>dilated sumucosal veins in the lower 1/3 of the esophagus
</>.
1392504802070 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Esophageal Vari
ces?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Portal Hypertension}}</div>
1392504837641 1358629116480 The distal Esophageal Veins normally drain into
the&nsp;{{c1::Portal}} vein via the&nsp;{{c2::Left Gastric}} vein.
rder that will present with <>painless</>&nsp;hematemesis.
1392504917364 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of death in Liver
Cirrhosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Esophageal Varices; due to the lood loss
and coagulopathy secondary to the cirrhosis}}</div>
te-1541893259811.jpg" /></div>
1392506405811 1358629116480 {{c1::Achalasia}} is an esophageal disorder defi
ned as impaired esophageal motility with inaility to relax the LES due to incre
ased resting LES tone.
1392506481182 1358629116480 {{c2::Achalasia}} is an esophageal disorder that
involves <>progressive dysphagia for solids and liquids</> and dilation of th
e distal esophagus due to an increase in&nsp;{{c1::LES}} tone. <r /><div><i>Co
mpared to ostruction which has dysphagia against solids only.</i></div>
1392506610343 1358629116480 How will LES pressure change in Achalasia during
esophageal manometry?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1392506648023 1358629116480 {{c1::Paraesophageal Hernia}} is a type of GI he
rnia that will present with audile owels sounds in the lung areas and potentia
l lung hypoplasia if the defect is congenital.
1392506965158 1358629116480 Acid reflux in GERD can lead to damage of&nsp;{
{c1::enamel}} of teeth.
1392506999692 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::stricture}} is a complication of an
ulcer that involves extensive damage to the mucosa that eliminates stem cells,
therey only allowing healing through firosis.

1392507055077 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Adenocarcinoma
of the Esophagus?<div><r />{{c1::Barrett's Esophagus via GERD}}</div> <r /><d
1392510678983 1358629116480 {{c1::Esophageal Adenocarcinoma}} is defined as
a malignant proliferation of glands at the esophageal mucosa.<div><r /></div><d
iv>
1392510766595 1358629116480 {{c1::Esophageal Adenocarcinoma}} is an esophage
al cancer that can manifest grossly as a single, discrete mass or as a multinodu
lar growth.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9483287789950.jpg" /><img src="
paste-9582072037764.jpg" /></div>
1392510824161 1358629116480 Which tumour suppressor genes are commonly lost
in Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Esophagus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p53 and
p16}}</div>
1392511285815 1358629116480 {{c1::Keratin}} nodules are a noticeale feature
of Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the esophagus.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-9775345566046.jpg" /></div>
1392511410739 1358629116480 Which segment of the esophagus is typically affe
cted y Esophageal Adenocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lower 1/3}}</div>
1392512977070 1358629116480 Which segment of the esophagus is commonly affec
ted y Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Esophagus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uppe
r or middle 1/3}}</div>
1392513015447 1358629116480 The asis of all etiologies of squamous cell car
cinoma of the esophagus is&nsp;{{c1::irritation}} of the mucosa.
1392513053739 1358629116480 {{c1::Hoarseness}} is a possile complication of
squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus due to impingement of the&nsp;{{c2::R
ecurrent Laryngeal}} nerve.
1392513372198 1358629116480 {{c1::Cough}} is a possile complication of squa
mous cell carcinoma of the esophagus due to invasion into or compression of the
trachea.
1392513403772 1358629116480 Which lymph nodes does cancer at the upper 1/3 o
f the esophagus spread to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cervical}}</div>
1392513451388 1358629116480 Which lymph nodes does cancer of the middle 1/3
of the esophagus spread to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mediastinal or Tracheoro
nchial}}</div>
1392513485267 1358629116480 Which lymph nodes does cancer at the lower 1/3 o
f the esophagus spread to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac and Gastric}}</div>
1392513503605 1358629116480 {{c1::Steatorrhea}} is defined as a ulky, greas
y, foul-smelling yellow stool that is a result of excess fecal fat.
1392513659765 1358629116480 Where in the GI tract are most malasorptive pro
lems found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small Intestine}}</div>
1392513693651 1358629116480 {{c1::Pancreatic Insufficiency}} causes {{c1::fa
t malasorption}} due to defective intraluminal digestion of food from a deficie
ncy of pancreatic enzymes.
1392513998015 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Pancreatic Insu
fficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Pancreatitis}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Cystic firosis and ostructing cancer are also possile causes.</i></div>
1392514012894 1358629116480 Which HLA sutypes are associated with Celiac's
Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DQ2 and HLA-DQ8}}</div>
1392514054339 1358629116480 {{c1::Celiac Disease}} is an immune mediated mal
asorptive disorder that involves IgA antiodies to Transglutaminase or IgA/IgG
antiodies to Gliadin.
1392514124277 1358629116480 Which intestinal <>enzyme</>&nsp;is targeted
y antiodies in Celiac Disease ?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Tissue Transglutamina
se (tTG)}}</div>
1392514158273 1358629116480 Which wheat protein is targeted y antiodies in
Celiac's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gliadin}}</div>
1392514192062 1358629116480 {{c1::Anti-endomysial Antiodies}} are antiodie
s found in Celiac's Disease that target Transglutaminase found in sheaths of mus
cle fiers.
<r /><div><i>Less sensitive, ut higly specific to Celiac's</i>
</div>
1392514230680 1358629116480 <div>{{c1::Celiac's Disease}} is an immune media
ted malasorptive disorder characterized y <>villous atrophy, crypt hyperplasi
a and an increased numer of intraepithelial lymphocytes</>.</div><div><r /></
div><img src="paste-10861972291927.jpg" /><img src="paste-10874857193808.jpg" />
1392514305928 1358629116480 {{c1::Tropical Sprue}} is a Celiac-like malasor
ptive syndrome <>seen in the tropics</>&nsp;(or recent visitors to the tropic
s) typically after an acute diarrheal enteric infection.
1392514698707 1358629116480 {{c1::Tropical Sprue}} is a malasorptive disord
er with unknown etiology that typically <>responds to road spectrum antiiotic
s</>.
1392514737215 1358629116480 Which acteria causes Whipple's Disease?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Tropheryma whippelii</i>}}</div> <r /><div><i>Gram-posit
ive</i></div>
1392514774887 1358629116480 {{c1::Whipple's Disease}} is a malasorptive dis
order caused y <i>Tropheryma whippelii</i>&nsp;and involves <>macrophages stu
ffed with organisms that ostruct the lymphatics</>, therey causing malasorpt
ion.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11875584573789.jpg" /><img src="paste11901354377528.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Hence there is steatorrhea.</i></d
iv>
1392514869113 1358629116480 Atypical mycoacterial infection of the intestin
es has similar histology to Whipple's Disease. The difference is that <i>Tropher
yma whippelii</i>&nsp;will not e seen through an&nsp;{{c1::acid-fast}} stain.
order that responds to a <>long course</>&nsp;of road spectrum antiiotics.
1392515696384 1358629116480 {{c1::Aetalipoproteinemia}} is a rare <>autoso
mal recessive</> malasorptive disorder with an inaility to secrete triglyceri
de rich lipoproteins.
1392516116816 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Aetalipoprot
einemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1392516129999 1358629116480 What gene is mutated in Aetalipoproteinemia?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microsomal Triglyceride Transfer Protein (MTP)}}</div>
1392516165364 1358629116480 {{c1::Aetalipoproteinemia}} is a malasorptive
disorder where intestinal lining cells are unale to transport lipoproteins and
free FAs, therey they accumulate triglycerides and ecome vacuolated.<div><r /
<r /><div><i>Th
ere is an inaility to make apolipoprotein B, hence the aility to generate chyl
omicrons decreases.</i></div><div><i>As a result, the secretion of cholesterol a
nd VLDL into the loodstream decreases, resulting in <>fat accumulation in ente
rocytes</>.</i></div>
1392516233812 1358629116480 {{c1::Acanthyocytes (Spur Cells)}} are anormal
RBCs seen in Aetalipoproteinemia due to a <>deficiency of fat solule vitamins
</> and resultant defective cell lipid memranes.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-12390980649323.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Vitamin E is req
uired in RBCs as an antioxidant. Decreased Vitamin E levels results in acanthocy
tes.</i></div>
1392516399259 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Gastritis}} is a form of gastritis
that will present with significant chronic inflammation in the lamina propria.<
1392517639232 1358629116480 {{c1::Antral G-Cell Hyperplasia}} is a feature o
f Chronic Gastritis that occurs in response to reduced acid production in parall
el to mucosal atrophy.
1392517724169 1358629116480 Chronic Gastritis presents with decreased levels
of serum {{c1::Pepsinogen I}} as Chief Cells are lost with Parietal Cells.
1392517953906 1358629116480 <div>{{c1::Chronic Gastritis}} is a form of gast
ritis that involves a loss of the folds of the stomach.</div><div><r /></div><i
mg src="paste-13073880449458.jpg" /><img src="paste-13112535155032.jpg" />
1392518044268 1358629116480 Which area of the stomach is affected in <i>Heli
coacter pylori</i>&nsp;Chronic Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Antrum}}<

/div>
1392518112752 1358629116480 What is the gastric acid level in&nsp;<i>Helico
acter pylori</i>&nsp;Chronic Gastritis?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Variale; usu
ally high}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The antrum is affected in Type B chronic g
astritis. Hence there is less Somatostatin release.</i></div>
1392518132871 1358629116480 What is the Gastrin level in&nsp;<i>Helicoacte
r pylori</i>&nsp;Chronic Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::High}}</div>
1392518146413 1358629116480 Which area of the stomach is affected in Autoimm
une Chronic Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Body and Fundus}}</div>
1392518172450 1358629116480 What is the gastric acid level in&nsp;Autoimmun
e Chronic Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Pa
rietal cells are destroyed.</i></div>
1392518180254 1358629116480 What is the Gastrin level in&nsp;Autoimmune Chr
onic Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::High}}</div>
1392518188618 1358629116480 Inflammatory polyps are a morphological feature
of&nsp;{{c1::<i>Helicoacter pylori</i>}} Chronic Gastritis.
1392518226990 1358629116480 Neuroendocrine Hyerplasia is a morphological fea
ture of&nsp;{{c1::Autoimmune}} Chronic Gastritis.
1392518246274 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperplastic Inflammatory Polyps}} are en
ign mucosal masses with enlarged foveolar glands and smooth muscle seen in most
patients with gastritis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13619341295914.jpg
" /><img src="paste-13640816132432.jpg" /></div>
1392519357740 1358629116480 {{c1::Fundic Gland Polyps}} are enign and commo
n polyps made of dilated fundic glands with Chief and Parietal Cells.<div><r />
jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Increased incidence in recent year due to use of p
roton pump inhiitors (low acid --> increased gastrin --> fundic gland sti
mulation)</i></div>
1392519493603 1358629116480 {{c1::Gastric Adenoma}} is a enign gastric lesi
on usually seen with atrophic gastritis with intestinal metaplasia or familial p
olyposis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-14555644166325.jpg" /><img src="p
aste-14568529068294.jpg" /></div>
1392519804587 1358629116480 What is the prognosis for Gastric Adenocarcinoma
that is confined to the mucosa and sumucosa?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Good (
> 90% 5 year survival)}}</div>
1392520003714 1358629116480 What is the prognosis for Gastric Adenocarcinoma
that has extended eyond the sumucosa?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Bad (< 10%
5 year survival)}}</div>
1392520035101 1358629116480 Which type of Gastric Adenocarcinoma involves a
glandular, expansile growth pattern?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intestinal}}<r
/><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15406047691025.jpg" /><img src="paste-15
427522527636.jpg" /></div></div>
1392520155632 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::diffuse}} type of Gastric Adenoca
rcinoma involves a <>signet ring</> infiltrating pattern.<div><r /></div><div
><img src="paste-15539191677242.jpg" /><img src="paste-15560666513658.jpg" /><im
<r /><div><i>Pale cells in the
lamina propria that don't elong there; this should automatically trigger the th
ought of diffuse type adenocarcinoma</i></div>
1392520174989 1358629116480 {{c1::Linitus Plastica}} is a gross morphologica
l pattern of late <>Diffuse&nsp;</>Gastric Carcinoma that shows diffuse infil
tration elow the sumucosa into the muscle.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-15333033246818.jpg" /></div>
1392520486729 1358629116480 {{c1::Benign}} ulcers are typically small, clean
"punched out" lesions.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15693810499918.jpg"
/></div>
1392520645428 1358629116480 {{c1::Krukenerg Tumour}} is a form of metastasi
s of Gastric Adenocarcinoma that spreads to the ovaries <>ilaterally</> and i
nvolves <>aundant mucous</>&nsp;and <>signet ring cells</>.
1392520728612 1358629116480 What is the most common types Gastric Lymphoma?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Marginal Zone and Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma}}</di

v>
1392520768078 1358629116480 {{c1::Gastric Marginal Zone (MALT) Lymphoma}} is
a low grade Gastric Lymphoma associated with <i>Helicoacter pylori</i>&nsp;in
fection.
1392520843625 1358629116480 {{c1::Gastric Marginal Zone (MALT) Lymphoma}} is
a gastric lymphoma that presents with small mature lymphocytes mixed with react
ive germinal centers.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15947213570460.jpg" /
></div>
1392520907512 1358629116480 Which antigen is expressed y Gastric Marginal Z
one (MALT) Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD20}}</div>
1392520946762 1358629116480 {{c1::Lymphoepithelial lesions}} are a feature o
f MALT Lymphoma and involve lymphocytic infiltration of mucosal glands.<div><r
1392521153021 1358629116480 {{c1::Plasmacytoid Cells}} are a feature of MALT
Lymphoma and are descried as differentiated plasma cells with increased pale c
ytoplasm.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16166256902373.jpg" /></div>
1392521213026 1358629116480 {{c1::Diffuse Large B Cell Lymphoma}} is a gastr
ic lymphoma involving large sheets of large lymphocytes and is aggressive and ra
pidly fatal if left untreated.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-166859479453
73.jpg" /></div>
1392521563440 1358629116480 Which immunostain is positive in Gastric Diffuse
Large B Cell Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Leukocyte Common Antigen (LCA
)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>It is also cytokeratin negative.</i></div>
1392521640131 1358629116480 {{c1::Gastric Carcinoid Tumour}} is a gastric ca
ncer of well differentiated neuroendocrine cells associated with endocrine cell
hyperplasia.
1392521723756 1358629116480 {{c1::Gastric Carcinoid Tumour}}&nsp;is a gastr
ic tumour involving sheets and tuules of uniform round cells with minimal atypi
a, finely clumped chromatin and aundant neurosecretory granules.<div><r /></di
1392521800812 1358629116480 Which stain is used to diagnose Gastric Carcinoi
d Tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chromogranin A}}</div>
1392521819990 1358629116480 What level of mitotic activity of a tumour is as
sociated with a high risk of metastasis and aggression?<div><r></div><div>{{c1:
:High}}</div>
1392522026841 1358629116480 {{c1::Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumours (GIST)}}
is a type of gastric cancer involving spindle shaped cells that arises in the wa
ll of the stomach.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17381732647270.jpg" /></
div>
1392522090350 1358629116480 What antigen is expressed in Gastrointestinal St
romal Tumours (GISTs)?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17879948853642.jpg"
/><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CD117}}</div></div>
1392522120742 1358629116480 What tyrosine kinase receptor is expressed in Ga
strointestinal Stromal Tumours (GISTs)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::c-KIT}}</div>
1392522151990 1358629116480 {{c1::Imatini Mesylate}} is an anticancer thera
py that may e useful in advanced Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumour (GIST) as it t
argets and inhiits tyrosine kinase receptors.
1392522221568 1358629116480 {{c1::Gastroschisis}} is a congenital malformati
on of the anterior adominal wall leading to exposure of adominal contents.
<r /><div><i>Adominal contents are <>are</></i></div>
1392522824558 1358629116480 {{c1::Omphalocele}} is defined as a persistent h
erniation of owel into the umilical cord.
<r /><div><i>Adominal contents
are covered y peritoneum and amnion.</i></div>
1392522854802 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Omphalocele?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Failure of the herniated intestines to return into the ody cavi
ty during development}}</div>
1392522901631 1358629116480 {{c1::Pyloric Stenosis}} is a congenital disorde
r involving hypertrophy of the pyloric smooth muscle.
1392522940192 1358629116480 Which sex is more commonly affected y Pyloric S
tenosis?<div><r />{{c1::Males}}</div>
1392522952902 1358629116480 The projectile vomiting in Pyloric Stenosis is&n
sp;{{c1::non-ilious}} as there is no ile in the stomach and duodenal contents
are unale to enter the stomach.
1392567853713 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Gastritis}} is a form of gastritis t
hat involves acidic damage to the stomach mucosa.
1392568641972 1358629116480 What is the cause of Acute Gastritis?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Imalance etween mucosal defenses and acidic environment of th
e stomach}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. there is increased acid or decreased
production</i></div>
1392568674696 1358629116480 Foveolar cells of the stomach secrete&nsp;{{c1:
:mucin}} which acts as a defense mechanism y creating a mucous layer aove the
mucosa.
1392568726883 1358629116480 Surface epithelial cells of the stomach secrete&
nsp;{{c1::icaronate}} that acts as a defense mechanism y neutralizing the ac
idic environment of the stomach.
1392568763142 1358629116480 {{c1::Blood supply}} is a key defense mechanism
at the stomach as it is what provides nutrients and picks up leaked excess acid
from the stomach.
1392568798161 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Curling ulcer}} is an ulcer that is
seen in Acute Gastritis caused y a severe urn and the hypovolemia/decreased
lood supply that follows.
1392569464708 1358629116480 {{c1::NSAIDs}} are a type of drug that can cause
acute gastritis through decreased levels of PGE<su>2.&nsp;</su>
1392569507434 1358629116480 {{c1::PGE<su>2</su>}} is a prostaglandin that
increases gastric mucous production and gastric lood supply.
1392569541665 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Cushing ulcer}} is an ulcer seen in
acute gastritis that results from increased ICP causing an <>increase in vagal
stimulation</>.
<r><div><i>Increased vagal stimulation = increased ACh
release = increased gastric acid production.</i></div>
1392569600845 1358629116480 Increased ICP leads to increased stimulation of
Cranial Nerve&nsp;{{c1::X}}, therey leading to ACh release onto parietal cells
and hence gastric acid production.
1392569697186 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Gastritis}} is a form of gastritis
that involves chronic inflammation.
1392570149388 1358629116480 Which stomach location is commonly affected y C
hronic Autoimmune Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Body and Fundus}}</div>
1392570202172 1358629116480 What cells are targeted and destroyed in Chronic
Autoimmune Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Parietal Cells}}</div>
1392570218482 1358629116480 <div>Which type of autoantiodies are associated
with chronic autoimmune gastritis (type A)??</div><div><r /></div>{{c1::Anti-P
arietal cells; Anti-Intrinsic factor}}.
1392570270783 1358629116480 What type of Hypersensitivity is Chronic Autoimm
une Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1392570291292 1358629116480 {{c1::Achlorhydria}} is a GI disorder defined as
a decrease in gastric acid production and is associated with <>intestinal</>&
nsp;gastric adenocarcinoma.
1392571378179 1358629116480 Which cells make Gastrin?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::G cells}}</div>
1392571403395 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Vit B12 deficie
ncy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Autoimmune Gastritis}}</div>
1392571447031 1358629116480 {{c1::Megalolastic (Pernicious) Anaemia}} is a
complication of Chronic Autoimmune Gastritis that manifests due to the lack of i
ntrinsic factor.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, parietal cells and intrinsic fac
tor can e targeted.</i></div>
1392571493860 1358629116480 Which type of gastric adenocarcinoma is associat
ed with Chronic Autoimmune Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intestinal}}</d
iv>
1392571615326 1358629116480 What is the most common cause and form of Gastri
tis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Helicoacter pylori</i>}}</div>
1392571638445 1358629116480 Which area of the stomach is most commonly affec

ted y <i>Helicoacter pylori</i>&nsp;Chronic Gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Antrum}}</div>
1392571683195 1358629116480 Which lymphoma is associated with <i>Helicoacte
r pylori</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MALT Lymphoma}}</div>
1392571725307 1358629116480 Where are most peptic ulcers found?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Proximal duodenum}}</div>
1392572277825 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Duodenal ulcers
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Helicoacter pylori</i>}}</div> <r /><div><i>Al
so seen in Zollinger-Ellison syndrome.</i></div>
1392572303925 1358629116480 {{c1::Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome}} is a rare GI
disorder that involves multiple peptic ulcers, typically at the duodenum, due to
Gastrin secretion from a Gastrinoma.
1392572345741 1358629116480 {{c1::Duodenal ulcers}} are a type of ulcer with
epigastric pain that&nsp;<>improves</>&nsp;with meals due to the production
of neutralizing sustances and protective mechanisms.
1392573246863 1358629116480 Hypertrophy of the {{c1::Brunner}} glands are a
key diagnostic endoscopic finding in duodenal ulcers.
1392573280318 1358629116480 Duodenal ulcers commonly present at the&nsp;{{c
1::anterior}} duodenum.
1392573310992 1358629116480 <div>Which artery is commonly affected following
rupture of a <>duodenal artery</>?</div><div><r /></div>{{c1::Gastroduodenal
artery}}
<r /><div><i>Acute pancreatitis may also occur.</i></div>
1392573351102 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Gastric ulcer?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Helicoacter pylori</i>}}</div> <r /><div><i>De
creases mucosal protection.</i></div><div><i>Other causes include NSAIDs.</i></d
iv>
1392573365580 1358629116480 {{c1::Gastric ulcers}} are a type of ulcer with
epigastric pain that <>worsens</>&nsp;with meals due to stimulation of acid s
ecretion.
1392573421231 1358629116480 Where in the stomach are Gastric ulcers commonly
found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lesser curvature}}</div>
1392573547688 1358629116480 Which artery is commonly affected y a ruptured
gastric ulcer, especially on the lesser curvature of the stomach?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Left Gastric Artery}}</div>
1392573571323 1358629116480 {{c1::Benign}} peptic ulcers are typically small
, sharply demarcated, punched out and surrounded y radiating folds of mucosa.<d
1392573756932 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant}} peptic ulcers are large with i
rregular shape and heaped up margins.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23218
593202282.jpg" /></div>
1392573787961 1358629116480 Which type of Gastric Adenocarcinoma is the most
common?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intestinal}}</div>
1392573817263 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::intestinal}} type of Gastric Aden
ocarcinoma presents as a <>large, irregular ulcer with heaped up margins</>, t
ypically at <>the lesser curvature of the antrum</>.
1392573883019 1358629116480 Where is <>intestinal</>&nsp;Gastric Adenocar
cinoma typically found in the stomach?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lesser curvatu
re of the antrum}}</div>
1392573902335 1358629116480 Which lood type is a risk factor for intestinal
Gastric Adenocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A}}</div>
1392573939658 1358629116480 {{c1::Nitrosamines}} are a chemical found in smo
ked foods that have an increased risk of causing <>intestinal</> Gastric Adeno
carcinoma.
1392573982166 1358629116480 The {{c1::diffuse}} type of Gastric Adenocarcino
ma involves <>signet ring</> cells that diffusely infiltrate the gastric wall.
1392574019310 1358629116480 {{c1::Acanthosis Nigricans}} is a rare feature o
f Gastric Carcinoma and involves darkening of the skin, typically at the axilla.
1392574055776 1358629116480 {{c1::Leser-Trelat sign}} is a rare feature of G
astric Carcinoma that involves a sudden appearance of dozens of severe keratoses

all over the skin.
1392574091182 1358629116480 Which lymph node is most commonly involved in th
e spread of Gastric Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left Supraclavicular N
ode (Virchow's Node)}}</div>
1392574128910 1358629116480 Which organ is most commonly the site of metasta
sis of Gastric Carcinoma?<div><r />{{c1::Liver}}</div>
1392574149589 1358629116480 {{c1::Sister Mary Joseph nodule}} is a feature o
f Gastric Carcinoma and involves metastasis to the periumilical region.&nsp;
<r /><div><i>Commonly seen with intestinal type.</i></div>
1392775453107 1358629116480 Which Zone of the Hepatic Acinus most commonly s
hows histological signs of viral hepatitis?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-10419590660458.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1 - adjacent to the por
tal tract}}</div>
1392775889101 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Hepatitis}} is a form of hepatitis t
hat involves swollen hepatocytes, cholestasis, Kupffer cell hyperplasia and port
al/periportal inflammation.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10634339025428.
jpg" /><img src="paste-10647223927254.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div>
<img src
="paste-10660108829111.jpg" />
1392776189941 1358629116480 {{c2::Acidophillic ody}} is a histological find
ing in Acute Hepatitis and is the remnant of dead hepatocytes.<div><r /></div><
1392776250750 1358629116480 {{c1::Interface Hepatitis}} is a histological fi
nding in Acute Hepatitis where portal inflammation spills over into periportal h
epatocytes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10840497455531.jpg" /></div>
1392776417247 1358629116480 {{c1::Fulminant Hepatitis}} is a severe form of
Acute Hepatitis that involves total liver failure and destruction within 2-3 wee
ks.
<r /><div><i>Mortality is very high.</i></div>
Acute Hepatitis that involves a small shrunken liver with extensive necrosis.<di
1392776502101 1358629116480 How long must hepatitis e present efore it is
considered to e chronic?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::6 months}}</div>
1392779965941 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Chronic Viral H
epatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HCV}}</div>
1392779984153 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatitis C}} is a type of viral Hepatitis
that involves lymphoid aggregates and steatosis.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-11742440587687.jpg" /></div>
1392780028477 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatitis B}} is a type of viral Hepatitis
that involves ground glass hepatocytes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11
776800326073.jpg" /></div>
1392780059456 1358629116480 Periportal/ridging firosis is a histological f
eature of&nsp;{{c1::chronic}} hepatitis and indicates that the liver is close t
o ecoming cirrhotic.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11931419148715.jpg" /
></div>
1392780601178 1358629116480 {{c1::Autoimmune Hepatitis}} is a form of hepati
tis that has a histology similar to chronic hepatitis, ut with increased numer
s of plasma cells.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12313671238077.jpg" /></
div>
1392780644456 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of acute liver fai
lure?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-12816182411685.jpg" /><r /><div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Acetaminophen overdose}}</div></div> <r /><div><i>Notice the
necrosis on the right, mild fatty change in the center and normal hepatocytes o
n the left.</i></div>
1392781003354 1358629116480 {{c1::Steatosis}} is a stage of fatty liver dise
ase that is descried as reversile fatty change that typically occurs with mode
rate alcohol intake.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13438952669718.jpg" />
<img src="paste-13460427506149.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-12781822673236.
jpg" /></div>
1392781383284 1358629116480 {{c1::Steatohepatitis}} is a stage of fatty live
r disease that involves liver cell injury and firosis.

1392781404056 1358629116480 {{c1::Cirrhosis}} is a stage of fatty liver dise
ase characterized y extensive firosis and hyperplastic nodules of hepatocytes.
It is irreversile.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13009455940009.jpg" />
1392781511408 1358629116480 {{c1::Mallory Bodies}} are non-specific histolog
ical findings of <>steatohepatitis</> and <>alcoholic hepatitis</>&nsp;that
consist of eosinophilic/pink cytoplasmic clumps of cytokeratin within hepatocyt
es.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13602161426872.jpg" /></div>
1392781711849 1358629116480 Firosis in the fatty liver disease {{c1::Steato
hepatitis}} starts around hepatocytes in the central acinar zone.<div><r /></di
1392781954080 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Hemochromatos
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive}}</div>
1392781968814 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemochromatosis}} is an autosomal recessiv
e disorder characterized y the deposition of hemosiderin in hepatocytes and il
e ducts.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13855564497325.jpg" /></div>
1392782054293 1358629116480 What stain is used to visualize intracellular ir
on?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13851269530029.jpg" /><r /><div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Prussian Blue}}</div></div>
1392782073543 1358629116480 {{c1::Kayser-Fleischer Rings}} are a morphologic
al feature of Wilson's Disease that appear due to copper accumulation in the cor
nea.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13941463843162.jpg" /><img src="paste16956530884948.jpg" /></div>
1392782248918 1358629116480 What pulmonary disease is involved in an Alpha1Antitrypsin Deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary Emphysema}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Occurs due to uninhiited inflammatory proteases at the lungs</i><
/div>
1392822635171 1358629116480 {{c1::Primary Biliary Cirrhosis}} is a chronic,
progressive liver disease characterized y <>autoimmune&nsp;</>destruction of
intrahepatic ile ducts, inflammation and scarring.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-481036337538.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Often fatal. Notice the <
>granulomatous, non-suppurative inflammation</>.</i></div>
1392822751823 1358629116480 What is the treatment for <>early</>&nsp;Prim
ary Biliary Cirrhosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ursodeoxycholic Acid}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Late treatment is liver transplantation</i></div>
1392822801227 1358629116480 {{c1::Secondary Biliary Cirrhosis}} is a type of
liver cirrhosis that arises from prolonged ostruction of the <>extrahepatic
iliary tree</> that causes damage and changes within the liver.<div><r /></div
<div><r /></div><i>Invo
lves an <>increase in pressure of the intrahepatic ducts</>&nsp;resulting in
<>injury/firosis and ile stasis</>.<r /></i><div><i>Complicated y <>ascen
ding cholangitis</>.</i></div><div><i>Cirrhosis with cholestasis typically alwa
ys manifest.</i></div>
1392822936359 1358629116480 {{c1::Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis}} is a live
r disease that involves strictures and intervening ductular dilations of the il
e ducts, yielding a <>"string of pearls"/eaded appearance on Cholangiogram</>
r disease that affects intrahepatic and extrahepatic ile ducts. It involves per
iductal firosis that yields an 'onion skin' appearance.<div><r></div><div><img
src="paste-1511828488627.jpg" /></div>
1392823750348 1358629116480 {{c1::Cirrhosis}} is an end stage chronic liver
disorder that has an architecture consisting of firosis with numerous regenerat
ive nodules.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1675037245685.jpg" /></div><di
1392823890472 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatic Encephalopathy}} is a complication
of liver failure that involves CNS deficits due to an <>elevation of ammonia i
n the lood</>.
1392823952325 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatorenal Syndrome}} is a complication o
f liver failure that involves decreased renal perfusion, activation of renal SNS
with vasoconstriction and increased synthesis of vasoactive mediators.
1392824018602 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatopulmonary Syndrome}} is a complicati
on of liver failure that involves hypoxemia and intra-pulmonary vascular dilatio
ns due to increased NO and VQ mismatch.
1392824068706 1358629116480 {{c1::Spider Angioma}} is a morphological featur
e of liver disease that appears on the skin due to a decrease in detoxification
y the failing liver.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2014339661980.jpg" />
</div>
1392824201315 1358629116480 {{c1::Nutmeg Liver}} is a form of passive hepati
c congestion that arises following right-sided heart failure or Budd-Chiari Synd
rome.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2091649073489.jpg" /></div>
1392824239194 1358629116480 {{c1::Budd-Chiari Syndrome}} is a hepatic circul
atory disorder that involves liver enlargement, pain and ascites due to ostruct
ion of 2 or more major hepatic veins.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22119
08157671.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Associated with myeloproliferative disorde
rs, hypercoagulaility and cancer (esp hepatocellular carcinoma)</i></div>
1392824364641 1358629116480 Which type of Hepatitis is associated with multi
nucleated giant hepatocytes?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2254857830828.
jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Idiopathic Neonatal}}&nsp;</div>
1392841476157 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatitis}} is defined as inflammation of
the liver parenchyma.
1392841755059 1358629116480 Which 2 non-hepatitis viruses are ale to cause
viral hepatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CMV; EBV}}</div>
1392841774727 1358629116480 Which liver transaminase is more elevated in <>
viral</>&nsp;hepatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ALT}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>A<>L</>T > AST with vira<>L </>hepatitis</i></div>
1392841832014 1358629116480 Which liver transaminase is more elevated in <>
alcohol-related</>&nsp;liver disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AST; it is a
mitochondrial enzyme and is preferentially increased via EtOH damage}}</div>
1392841878535 1358629116480 Symptoms of acute hepatitis last less than&nsp;
{{c1::6}} months.
1392841952233 1358629116480 Symptoms of chronic hepatitis last longer than&n
sp;{{c1::6}} months.
1392841963452 1358629116480 Which hepatitis virus is commonly acquired y tr
avelers?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HAV}}</div>
1392842016669 1358629116480 Which hepatitis virus is common acquired from co
ntaminated water or undercooked seafood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HEV}}</div>
acute hepatitis that is commonly seen following HEV infection in pregnant women.
1392842188226 1358629116480 Which serological HBV antigen is the first to ri
se and is the key marker of HBV infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HBsAg}}</d
iv>
1392842364282 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::window}} phase of HBV infection i
s the period where IgM antiodies have nearly resolved the infection. <r /><d
iv><i>From&nsp;this point, either chronic infection or immunity is yielded. If
protective Anti-HBsAg IgG is made in time and in enough quantity, immunity and r
esolution is achieved.</i></div>
1392843185586 1358629116480 Which mediator from Stellate Cells governs the f
irosis seen in cirrhosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TGF-eta}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Stellate cells are found eneath the endothelial cells that line the sinus
oids</i></div>
1392843412902 1358629116480 {{c1::Ascites}} is a complication of portal hype
rtension that involves fluid accumulation in the peritoneal cavity.
<r /><d
1392843509471 1358629116480 {{c1::Congestive Splenomegaly/Hypersplenism}} is
a complication of portal hypertension as lood acks up from the liver into the
spleen.
1392843552264 1358629116480 {{c1::Thromocytopenia}} is a complication of Co
ngestive Splenomegaly as lood acks up into the spleen and facilitates sequestr
ation of platelets in the spleen.

1392843586623 1358629116480 {{c1::Esophageal Varices}} is a form of portosys
temic shunt that presents at the esophagus in portal hypertension.
<r /><d
1392843635089 1358629116480 CNS deficits secondary to liver failure and decr
ease in detoxification manifest due to an increase in serum&nsp;{{c1::ammonia}}
levels.
1392843783848 1358629116480 Which hormone is elevated in cirrhosis due to de
creased detoxification and causes <>gynecomastia, spider angiomas and palmar er
ythema</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Estrogen (Hyperestrinism)}}</div>
1392843876925 1358629116480 How does PT change in cirrhosis?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Elevation; degree of liver damage is in line with the increase in PT
}}</div>
1392843930035 1358629116480 {{c1::Coagulopathy}} is a complication of cirrho
sis due to decreased synthesis of clotting factors.
1392843949732 1358629116480 Deficiency of which serum protein in cirrhosis c
auses edema?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alumin (Hypoaluminemia)}}</div>
1392843991706 1358629116480 Which metaolite of alcohol mediates the liver d
amage seen in Alcohol-related liver disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acetalde
hyde}}</div>
1392855475460 1358629116480 What cytokeratin elements are found in Mallory
odies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Damaged intermediate filaments}}</div>
1392855566948 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemochromatosis}} is an autosomal recessiv
e disorder involving excess ody iron and deposition of iron in tissue with orga
n damage.
<r /><div><i>Iron loss through menstruation slows the disease p
rogression in women.</i></div>
1392855680570 1358629116480 What is the difference etween Hemosiderosis and
Hemochromatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hemosiderosis is simply deposition
of iron at tissue; Hemochromatosis involves organ damage}}</div>
1392855716407 1358629116480 What mediates the tissue and organ damage in Hem
ochromatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Free radicals; made via Fenton reaction
}}</div>
>&nsp;Hemochromatosis?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Chronic lood transfusions}}</d
iv>
<r><div><i>There is no way to get rid of iron physiologically, hence ea
ch ag of lood is another ag of iron.</i></div><div><i>Commonly seen in eta-t
halassemia patients.</i></div>
1392856285803 1358629116480 What is the cause of <>primary</>&nsp;Hemochr
omatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive mutation in the <i>HFE<
/i>&nsp;gene}}</div>
1392856335588 1358629116480 Which gene is commonly mutated in Hemochromatosi
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>HFE</i>}}</div>
1392856357993 1358629116480 Which mutation in the <i>HFE</i>&nsp;gene is ty
pically seen in Hemochromatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C282 (Cysteine repl
aces Tyrosine at pos. 282); or H63D}}</div>
1392856393248 1358629116480 What change in skin colour is seen in Hemochroma
tosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bronze colouration}}</div>
1392856576016 1358629116480 How do Ferritin levels change in Hemochromatosis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1392856632019 1358629116480 How does TIBC change in Hemochromatosis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1392856657323 1358629116480 How does Serum Fe&nsp;change in Hemochromatosis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1392856667246 1358629116480 How does % Saturation&nsp;change in Hemochromat
osis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1392856679310 1358629116480 How do we distinguish etween rown coloured Fe
deposition at tissue and physiological rown-pigmented Lipofuscin?<div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Prussian lue stain distinguishes iron}}</div>
1392856728276 1358629116480 {{c1::Lipofuscin}} is a physiological rown pigm
ent that is a y-product from turnover of peroxidized lipids. <r /><div><i>It

is seen as a derivative of aging.</i></div>
1392856777737 1358629116480 Which cancer has an increased risk of manifestin
g in Hemochromatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC)}
}</div>
1392856803107 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Hemochromatosis?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Phleotomy}}</div>
1392856812536 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Wilson's Dise
ase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
<r /><div><i>AT
P7B gene on chromosome 13</i></div>
1392856946282 1358629116480 Which gene is mutated in Wilson's Disease?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>ATP7B</i>; an ATP-mediated Hepatocyte Copper transporte
r}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Autosomal recessive defect on chromosome 13.</i></
div>
1392856998835 1358629116480 {{c1::Wilson's Disease}} is an <>autosomal rece
ssive</>&nsp;disorder in <>ATP-mediated hepatocyte copper transport</>, ther
ey resulting in a lack of copper transport into the ile and a lack of copper i
ncorporation into Ceruloplasmin.
<r /><div><i>i.e. a failure in copper e
xcretion.</i></div><div><i>Involves copper deposition in the liver, rain, corne
a, kidneys and joints.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-17905718657331.jpg" /></
i></div>
1392857044212 1358629116480 What is the mechanism of tissue damage in Wilson
's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Copper mediated Hydroxyl free radical tis
sue damage}}</div>
1392857084780 1358629116480 Deposition of copper at the&nsp;{{c1::Basal Gan
glia}} in Wilson's Disease leads to ehavioural changes, dementia, chorea and Pa
rkinsonism.
1392857695204 1358629116480 Deposition of copper at the cornea in Wilson's D
isease leads to the formation of&nsp;{{c1::Kayser-Fleischer rings}}.
1392857718645 1358629116480 How do Ceruloplasmin levels change in Wilsons Di
sease?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Decreased; ceruloplasmin cannot e secreted with
out incorporated copper}}</div>
1392857758351 1358629116480 Which cancer has a higher risk of manifesting in
Wilson's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC)}}</
div>
1392857772509 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Wilson's Disease?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::D-Penicillamine, a copper chelater; or Trientene}}</div>
1392857794291 1358629116480 Which antiodies are present and are a key marke
r in Primary Biliary Cirrhosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-mitochondrial}}<
/div>
1392857833163 1358629116480 {{c1::Primary Biliary Cirrhosis}} is a liver dis
order descried as autoimmune granulomatous destruction of intrahepatic ile duc
ts.
r disorder that involves inflammation and <>"onion skin"</> firosis of intrah
epatic and extrahepatic ile ducts.
1392858513029 1358629116480 {{c1::Ulcerative Colitis}} is an IBD commonly as
sociated with Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis.
g in Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis?<div><r />{{c1::Cholangiocarcinoma}}</div>
1392858590233 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatic Adenoma}} is a enign tumour of he
patocytes associated with <>oral contraceptive use</>.
1392858653095 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC)}} is define
d as a malignant tumour of hepatocytes. <r /><div><img src="paste-1499373083068
1392858680574 1358629116480 Which toxin from <i>Aspergillus</i>&nsp;is ale
to cause Hepatocellular Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aflatoxins}}</div
>
1392858714611 1358629116480 Which microe grows in grains and nuts is associ
ated with Hepatocellular Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Aspergillus</i
>; via aflatoxins}}</div>

1392858763530 1358629116480 What is the mechanism through which Aflatoxins f
rom <i>Aspergillus</i>&nsp;induces Hepatocellular Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Induction of p53 mutations}}</div>
1392858805955 1358629116480 {{c1::Budd-Chiari Syndrome}} is a liver disorder
descried as liver infarction secondary to <>hepatic vein ostruction</>.
1392858865454 1358629116480 Which serum tumour marker is associated with Hep
atocellular Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha-Fetoprotein}}<r /><div>
<r /></div><div><r /></div></div>
1392858907861 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatocellular Carcinoma}} is a liver canc
er associated with <>elevated serum alpha-fetoprotein</> levels.
1392858933786 1358629116480 What is the most common type of Cholelithiasis (
Gallstones)?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9083855831362.jpg" /><img src=
"paste-20791936680163.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cholesterol}}</di
v>
1392861285752 1358629116480 {{c1::Biliruin stones}} are a type of gallstone
that have a dark pigmented appearance.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-920
4114915632.jpg" /></div>
1392861308963 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Cholecystitis}} is a gallladder dis
order involving acute inflammation of the gallladder wall, typically due to os
truction causing ischemia and downstream inflammation/necrosis.<div><r /></div>
<div><img src="paste-9444633084335.jpg" /><img src="paste-21650930139472.jpg" />
</div>
1392861835730 1358629116480 {{c1::Choledocholithiasis}} is a iliary disorde
r defined as the presence of stones in the ile ducts of the iliary tree.
1392862331649 1358629116480 Which gene is sometimes implicated in Acute Panc
reatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>PRSS1</i>}}</div>
1392862347914 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Hemorrhagic Pancreatitis}} is a form
of pancreatitis that involves hemorrhaging into the pancreatic acini.<div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-10183367459084.jpg" /><img src="paste-10196252360969
.jpg" /></div>
1392862457779 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Pancreatitis}} is a form of pancreat
itis that presents with yellow-white chalky foci of fat necrosis.<div><r /></di
/></div>
1392862514657 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Pancreatitis}} is a form of pancre
atitis that involves firosis, acinar loss and proliferation of ductules and isl
ets.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10436770529818.jpg" /></div>
1392863079572 1358629116480 {{c1::Congenital Pancreatic Cysts}} are a type o
f pancreatic cyst that arise from anomalous duct development. <r /><div><i>Ma
y e sporadic or associated with Polycystic Kidney Disease or von Hippel-Lindau
disease.</i></div>
1392863723732 1358629116480 {{c1::Pancreatic Pseudocyst}} is a type of pancr
eatic cyst that arises from pancreatitis or trauma. It has a <>firous, granula
tion tissue lining with no epithelium.</><div><><r></></div><div><><img src
="paste-11209864643019.jpg" /></></div>
1392863772076 1358629116480 What is the most common cystic lesion of the pan
creas?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11205569675723.jpg" /><r /><div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Pancreatic Pseudocyst}}</div></div>
1392863813946 1358629116480 {{c1::Pancreatic Serous Cystadenoma}} is a enig
n multicystic neoplasm of the pacnreas that is glycogen rich and has clear cuoi
dal epithelium.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11312943858072.jpg" /><img
src="paste-24313809862883.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Typically seen in the seve
nth decade of life; more common in females</i></div>
1392863872920 1358629116480 {{c1::Mucinous Cystadenoma}} are cystic lesions
of the pancreas that involve mucinous columnar epithelium. 66% are enign, 33% a
re malignant.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11347303596428.jpg" /></div>
1392863936650 1358629116480 Which sex is more commonly affected y Mucinous
Cystic Neoplasms of the pancreas?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Women}}</div>
1392863958245 1358629116480 {{c1::Mucinous Cystic Neoplasms}} are mucinous c
ystic lesions of the pancreas that need to e completely resected in order for c
arcinoma to e ruled out.
1392863999366 1358629116480 {{c1::Mucinous Cystadenocarcinoma}} is a maligna
nt form of mucinous cystic lesions.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1143320
2942375.jpg" /></div>
1392864028530 1358629116480 {{c1::Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome}} is a disorder tha
t presents with 130x increased risk of developing Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcino
ma.
1392864495199 1358629116480 Which gene mutation is most commonly implicated
in Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::K-RAS}}</div>
1392864522849 1358629116480 {{c1::Pancreatic Adenocarcinoma}} is a malignant
tumour of the pancreas that arises from the pancreatic ducts.<div><r /></div><
</div>
1392864574697 1358629116480 {{c1::Intraductal Papillary Mucinous Neoplasms}}
is a type of pancreatic neoplasm that is characterised as dilatation of existin
g pancreatic ducts with dysplastic mucinous epithelium.<div><r></div><div><img
1392924977086 1358629116480 {{c1::Gallladder adenocarcinoma}} is a cancer o
f the gallladder that is typically found in the gallladder wall at the fundus
or neck of the GB.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-717259538833.jpg" /></di
v>
<r /><div><i>The adenocarcinoma looks like your typical one with glands
and a firous stroma.</i></div>
1392925326100 1358629116480 {{c1::Bile Duct Hamartomas (Von Meyenurg Comple
xes)}} is a <>enign</> tumour-like lesion of the liver that involves multiple
small nodules of <>dilated irregular ile ducts</> in the liver near or withi
n the portal area.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-1606317769107.jpg" /></div
>
1392925549784 1358629116480 {{c1::Focal Nodular Hyperplasia}} is a focal liv
er mass that involves a central scar and all components of regular liver.<div><
1392925605377 1358629116480 What is the most common enign tumour of the liv
er?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1760936591812.jpg" /><r /><div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Hepatic Hemangioma; usually the cavernous type}}</div></div>
1392925645726 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatic Adenoma}} is a enign tumour of he
patocytes.
1392925761456 1358629116480 Which type of drug is commonly associated with H
epatic Adenoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Oral Contraceptives in women}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Regresses with drug withdrawal</i></div>
1392926020449 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatic Adenoma}} is a enign liver tumour
that is a different colour from the rest of the liver. It involves sheets of we
ll differentiated hepatocytes with no portal tracts or central veins.<div><r></
/></div>
1392926130606 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatocellular Carcinoma}} is a liver tumo
ur that involves ile production and a green colour due to hepatocellular differ
entiation.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2503965933964.jpg" /></div><div>
g" />
1392926337125 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatocellular Carcinoma}} is a liver canc
er that involves atypical hepatocytes in a t<>raecular or pseudoglandular patt
ern</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2538325672239.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Picture is traecular (similar to normal liver, ut with thicker c
ords)</i></div>
1392926410955 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Firolamellar}} variant of Hepato
cellular Carcinoma involves large eosinophilic hepatocytes within ands of colla
gen.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3015067042238.jpg" /></div>
1392926453997 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatolastoma}} is a liver tumour that co
mmonly affects children and is composed of epithelial cells resemling fetal hep
atocytes with small immature lue emryonic cell or mesenchymal differentiation.
<div><r /></div><div>&nsp;<img src="paste-3173980832131.jpg" /></div>

1392926715734 1358629116480 What is the most common liver tumour of young ch
ildhood?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatolastoma}}</div>
1392926737392 1358629116480 {{c1::Cholangiocarcinoma}} is defined as adenoca
rcinoma arising from the ile ducts.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-377527
6253614.jpg" /></div>
1392927170112 1358629116480 Which liver fluke infection is associated with C
holangiosarcoma, typically in SE Asia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Clonorchis sin
ensis}}</div>
1392927207745 1358629116480 {{c1::Klatskin tumour}} is the most common type
of Cholangiosarcoma that is found at the extrahepatic ducts of the liver hilum.
1392927274240 1358629116480 {{c1::Hepatic Angiosarcoma}} is a liver tumour t
hat is associated with exposure to <>Vinyl Chloride, Arsenic or Thorotrast</>.
1392927441282 1358629116480 {{c1::Annular Pancreas}} is a congenital malform
ation in which the head of the pancreas forms a rings around the duodenum, there
y posing a risk of duodenal ostruction.
1392940082834 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute pancreatitis}} is a form of pancreat
itis that is due to autodigestion of the pancreatic parenchyma y pancreatic enz
ymes. <div><r></div><i>This results in extensive fluid collections surroundin
g the pancreas that are visile on axial CT.</i><r><div><img src="paste-2263018
2682963.jpg" /></div>
1392940268798 1358629116480 Which pancreatic enzyme is typically prematurely
activated to trigger the activation of other pancreatic enzymes?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Trypsin}}</div>
1392940317062 1358629116480 What type of necrosis is seen <>at the pancreas
</> in Acute Pancreatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Liquefactive, hemorrhagic
necrosis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The hemorrhaging is due to high pancreatic
perfusion.</i></div>
1392940374433 1358629116480 What type of necrosis is seen at the <>peripanc
reatic fat</>&nsp;in Acute Pancreatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fat necros
is}}</div>
1392940399682 1358629116480 What are the 2 most common causes of Acute Pancr
eatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alcohol and Gallstones}}</div>
1392940426127 1358629116480 {{c1::Alcohol}} is a cause of Acute Pancreatitis
that acts through contraction of the Sphincter of Oddi at the pancreatic ampull
a, therey causing a decrease in pancreatic drainage.
1392940480149 1358629116480 {{c1::Trauma}} is a cause of Acute Pancreatitis
that is especially common in children in car accidents due to the seat elt push
ing into the adomen.
1392940516643 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypercalcemia}} is a cause of acute pancre
atitis that acts through increased levels of Ca which are ale to activate enzym
es.
1392940549958 1358629116480 Rupture of a&nsp;{{c2::Posterior Duodenal Ulcer
}} is a potential cause of acute pancreatitis due to the proximity of the pancre
as posterior due to the duodenum.
1392940917139 1358629116480 Where does the pain in Acute Pancreatitis radiat
e to?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epigastric pain that radiates to the ack}}</di
v>
1392941014372 1358629116480 Which pancreatic enzymes are elevated and diagno
stic in Acute Pancreatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amylase and Lipase}}</div
>
1392941050972 1358629116480 Which pancreatic enzyme is more specific for pan
creatic damage?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lipase}}</div>
1392941067785 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypocalcemia}} is a feature of acute pancr
eatitis as calcium is <>consumed during saponification in fat necrosis</>.
1392941096584 1358629116480 {{c1::Shock}} is a complication of acute pancrea
titis that manifests due to peripancreatic hemorrhage and fluid sequestration.
1392941461074 1358629116480 Which acteria commonly causes pancreatic asces
ses in acute pancreatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Escherichia coli</i>}}<
/div>
1392941497385 1358629116480 {{c1::DIC}} is a complication of acute pancreati
tis due to pancreatic enzymes entering the lood and acting on coagulation facto
rs, therey activating them.
1392941546248 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome}} is a
complication of acute pancreatitis due to pancreatic enzymes acting at the alve
olar surface.
1392941633424 1358629116480 {{c1::Pancreatic Pseudocyst}} is a complication
of acute pancreatitis formed y firous tissue surrounding liquefactive necrosis
and pancreatic enzymes.
1392941752705 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Chronic Pancrea
titis in adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alcohol}}</div>
1392941774432 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Chronic Pancrea
titis in children?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cystic Firosis; due to thickened
pancreatic secretions that lead to decreased drainage}}</div>
1392942049573 1358629116480 {{c1::Pancreatic Insufficiency}} is a complicati
on of chronic pancreatitis that results in malasorption with <>steatorrhea</>
and <>Vitamin ADEK deficiency</>.
1392942091734 1358629116480 Amylase and Lipase are useful serum markers only
in&nsp;{{c1::acute}} pancreatitis.
1392942104572 1358629116480 What type of calcification is seen at the pancre
atic parenchyma upon imaging in Pancreatitis?<div><r>{{c1::Dystrophic}}</div>
1392942142518 1358629116480 {{c1::Secondary Diaetes Mellitus}} is a late co
mplication of chronic pancreatitis due to destruction of islet cells.
1392942175890 1358629116480 What are the 2 major risk factors for developing
Pancreatic Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Smoking & Chronic Pancreat
itis}}</div>
1392942711341 1358629116480 Which area of the pancreas is most commonly affe
cted y Pancreatic Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Head}}</div>
1392942757620 1358629116480 {{c1::Secondary Diaetes Mellitus}} is a late co
mplication of pancreatic carcinoma when the tumour arises in the ody or tail
1392942789559 1358629116480 {{c1::Migratory Thromophleitis (Trousseau's Si
gn)}} is a feature of pancreatic carcinoma that presents with swelling, erythema
, and tenderness at the extremities.
1392942993689 1358629116480 Which serum tumour marker is associated with pan
creatic carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CA 19-9}}</div>
1392943021776 1358629116480 The {{c1::Whipple Procedure}} is a surgical proc
edure that involves en loc removal of the head and neck of the pancreas, proxim
al duodenum and gallladder.
1392943178587 1358629116480 {{c1::Biliary Atresia}} is a gallladder disorde
r defined as a failure to form or an early destruction of the extrahepatic ilia
ry tree.
<r /><div><i>Causes iliary ostruction in the first 2 months o
f life with jaundice and progressive cirrhosis.</i></div>
1392943278075 1358629116480 {{c1::Crohn's Disease}} is an inflammatory owel
disease that acts as a risk factor for cholesterol cholelithiasis due to damage
to the ileum causing decreased ile reuptake and hence decreased cholesterol so
luilization.
1392943373710 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Ascaris lumricoides</i>}} is a common
roundworm that infects the iliary tract, therey increasing the risk for gallst
ones.
1392943427451 1358629116480 How is the roundworm&nsp;<i>Ascaris lumricoide
s</i>&nsp;transmitted?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fecal-oral}}</div>
1392943444155 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Clonorchis sinensis</i>}} is a liver fl
uke that infects the iliary tract, increasing the risk of gallstones, cholangit
is and cholangiosarcoma.
<r /><div><i>Endemic in China, Korea and Vietna
m</i></div>
1392943499044 1358629116480 {{c1::Biliary Colic}} is a complication of galls
tones that presents as a <>waxing and waning RUQ pain</> due to the GB contrac
ting against a stone lodged in the cystic duct. <r /><div><i>Can present withou
t pain in diaetics.</i></div>
1392943550200 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Cholecystitis}} is a gallladder con

dition defined as acute inflammation of the gallladder wall.<div><r /></div><d
iv><img src="paste-21650930139472.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Most commonly due
to gallstone locking the cystic duct.</i></div>
1392943915794 1358629116480 Which acteria is associated with overgrowth in
the gallladder wall due to impacted stones in the cystic duct?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::<i>Escherichia coli</i>}}</div>
1392943983020 1358629116480 Which liver enzyme is elevated in Acute Cholecys
titis due to damage to the ile ducts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alkaline Phosp
hatase}}</div>
1392944022008 1358629116480 Where does the pain radiate to in Acute Cholecys
titis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RUQ to right scapula}}</div>
1392944113563 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Cholecystitis}} is defined as chro
nic inflammation of the gallladder due to chemical irritation from long standin
g cholelithiasis.
<r /><div><i>With or without superimposed outs of acut
e cholecystitis.</i></div>
1392944184175 1358629116480 {{c1::Rokitansky-Aschoff sinus}} is a characteri
stic of chronic cholecystitis due to herniation of the gallladder mucosa into t
he muscular wall.
1392944324761 1358629116480 {{c1::Porcelain Gallladder}} is a late complica
tion of <>chronic cholecystitis</> and is due to a shrunken, hard GB due to ch
ronic inflammation, firosis and dystrophic calcification.<div><r /></div><div>
1392944387000 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Chronic Cholecystitis?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cholecystectomy}}</div>
1392944412674 1358629116480 {{c1::Ascending Cholangitis}} is defined as act
erial infection of the ile duct, typically due to ascending infection with ente
ric gram-negative acteria.
1392944461081 1358629116480 {{c1::Galllader Adenocarcinoma}} is a gallladd
er cancer that arises from the glandular epithelium that lines the GB wall.
1392944513571 1358629116480 What is the major risk factor for Gallladder Ad
enocarcinoma?<div><r />{{c1::Gallstones, esp with porcelain gallladder}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Porcelain ladder must e excised prophylactically due to th
e risk of cancer.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-22200685953362.jpg" /></div>
1393210129664 1358629116480 {{c1::Jaundice}} is defined as yellow discolorat
ion of the skin.
1393210193267 1358629116480 What is the earliest sign of jaundice?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Scleral Icterus}}</div>
638079715.jpg" /></div>
1393210219718 1358629116480 What level of serum iliruin causes Jaundice?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 2.5 mg/dL}}</div>
1393210247235 1358629116480 In the normal metaolism of iliruin,&nsp;{{c1
::protoporphyrin}} from heme is converted into&nsp;{{c2::unconjugated iliruin
(UCB)}}.
1393210470382 1358629116480 What plasma protein carries unconjugated iliru
in to the liver?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alumin}}</div>
1393210722539 1358629116480 Which hepatic enzyme conjugates iliruine?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Uridine Glucuronyl Transferase (UGT)}}</div>
1393210747625 1358629116480 Intestinal flora convert conjugated ile to&nsp
;{{c1::uroilinogen}}, which is oxidized into&nsp;{{c2::Stercoilin}} and&nsp;
{{c3::Uroilin}}.
1393211790182 1358629116480 Which metaolite of uroilinogen makes stool ro
wn?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stercoilin}}</div>
1393211818199 1358629116480 Which metaolite of Uroilinogen makes urine yel
low?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uroilin}}</div>
1393211836594 1358629116480 {{c1::Uroilin}} is a metaolite of uroilinogen
that is partially reasored into the lood and filtered y the kidneys. It mak
es urine yellow.
1393211876907 1358629116480 {{c1::Extravascular Hemolysis (or poor Hematopoi
esis)}} is a cause of jaundice that involves an extremely high level of unconjug
ated iliruin that overwhelms the conjugating aility of the liver.

1393212237153 1358629116480 What type of iliruin will e elevated in jaund
ice due to Extravascular Hemolysis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::UCB}}</div>
ice due to Physiological Jaundice of the neworn?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::UCB
}}</div>
ice due to Gilert Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::UCB}}</div>
ice due to Criggler-Najjar Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::UCB}}</div>
ice due to Duin-Johnson Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CB}}</div>
ice due to Rotor Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CB}}</div>
ice due to a Biliary Tract Ostruction (Ostructive Jaundice)?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::CB}}</div>
ice due to Viral Hepatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CB and UCB}}</div>
1393212391652 1358629116480 {{c1::Extravascular Hemolysis}} is a cause of ja
undice that will involve dark urine due to an elevated level of urinary&nsp;<>
uroilinogen</>.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, uroilinogen is NOT UCB, it is a
metaolite of CB.</i></div>
1393212524888 1358629116480 {{c1::Extravascular Hemolysis}} is a haematologi
cal cause of jaundice that has an increased risk for pigmented iliruin gallsto
nes.
1393212560677 1358629116480 {{c1::Phyiological Jaundice of the neworn}} is
a cause of jaundice that occurs due to neworns having <>transiently low levels
of hepatic Uridine Glucuronyl Transferase activity</>, therey they are unale
to conjugate iliruin.
1393213064787 1358629116480 {{c1::Kernicterus}} is a complication of hyperi
liruinemia and involves deposition of ile at the asal ganglia, leading to neu
rological deficits and death. <r /><div><i>This is ecause UCB is fat solule
.</i></div>
1393213334334 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Kernicterus/Physiologi
cal Jaundice of the Neworn?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Phototherapy; reakdown
down UCB and makes it water solule; does not conjugate UCB, ut allows it to e
excreted via urine}}</div>
1393213378192 1358629116480 {{c1::Gilert Syndrome}} is a cause of jaundice
that involves <>mildly low</>&nsp;Glucuronyl Transferase activity, therey re
sulting in decreased iliruin uptake y hepatocytes. <r /><div><img src="pas
te-16355235463941.jpg" /></div>
1393213549706 1358629116480 {{c1::Gilert Syndrome}} is a cause of jaundice
that typically only presents following stress (e.g. infection) and is otherwise
not clinically significant.
></div>
1393213586842 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritence of Gilert Syndr
ome?<div><r />{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1393213604214 1358629116480 {{c1::Crigler-Najjar Syndrome}} is a cause of ja
undice that involves a <>total asence</>&nsp;of Glucuronyl Transferase, ther
ey causing death via kernicterus in a few years.
<div><r /></div><i>Pres
ents early in life.</i><r /><div><img src="paste-16355235463941.jpg" /></div>
1393213650012 1358629116480 {{c1::Duin-Johnson Syndrome}} is a cause of jau
ndice that involves a deficiency of iliruin canalicular transport proteins.
<r /><div><i>i.e. defective liver excretion.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-1
6355235463941.jpg" /></i></div>
1393213697150 1358629116480 {{c1::Duin-Johnson Syndrome}} is a cause of jau
ndice that involves a <>dark liver</> due to intrahepatic uildup of ile. It
is otherwise not clinically significant.
5463941.jpg" /></div>
1393213724320 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Duin-Johnson

Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Recessive}}</div>
1393213738564 1358629116480 {{c1::Rotor Syndrome}} is a cause of jaundice th
at is similar to Duin-Johnson syndrome, ut l<>acks the liver discolouration</
>.
1393213763193 1358629116480 Which liver fluke is associated with ostructive
jaundice?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Clonorchis sinensis</i>}}</div>
1393213799236 1358629116480 What liver enzyme is elevated in Ostructive Jau
ndice?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alkaline Phosphatase}}</div> <r /><div><i>Re
memer, AlkPhos is a ile canalicular enzyme.</i></div>
1393214192428 1358629116480 How does the level of <>urine uroilinogen</>&
nsp;change in ostructive jaundice?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased; CB ca
nnot get to the GI tract and hence uroilinogen cannot e made}}</div>
1393214253062 1358629116480 What causes the pruritis seen in Ostructive Jau
ndice?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased plasma ile acids}}</div>
1393214298941 1358629116480 {{c1::Steatorrhea}} is a feature of ostructive
jaundice due to decreased levels of ile at the GI tract.
<div><i><r /></
i></div>
1393214350167 1358629116480 Which vitamin deficiency/malasorption is common
ly seen in Ostructive Jaundice?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vit A, D, E, K}}</di
v>
1393214379561 1358629116480 How do cholesterol levels change in ostructive
jaundice?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypercholesterolemia; with xanthomas}}</div
>
1393214423772 1358629116480 Which form of Biliruin is water solule?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::CB}}</div>
1393618518019 1358629116480 What is the cause of Pseudomemranous Colitis?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Clostridium difficile</i>}}</div>
1393618899071 1358629116480 {{c1::Pseudomemranous Colitis}} is a type of en
terocolitis caused y <i>Clostridium difficile</i>&nsp;and involves pus and inf
lammatory deris scattered over the mucosa.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-1013612282302.jpg" /></div>
1393619012034 1358629116480 {{c1::Irritale Bowel Syndrome (IBS)}} is a GI d
isorder that involves adominal pain, loating and <>regular changes in owel h
aits</>&nsp;typically etween constipation or diarrhea due to irregular GI mo
tility. <r /><div><i>Bowel movements typically alleviate symptoms.</i></div>
1393619154834 1358629116480 {{c1::Microscopic Colitis}} is a form of enteroc
olitis that manifests at the microscopic level and yields chronic, watery nonlo
ody diarrhea. <r /><div><i>Pathogenesis is uncertain.</i></div>
1393619215021 1358629116480 {{c1::Lymphocytic Colitis}} is a type of Microsc
opic Colitis that involves an increased amount of surface intraepithelial lympho
cytes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1563368096099.jpg" /></div>
1393619257186 1358629116480 {{c1::Collagenous Colitis}} is a type of Microsc
opic Colitis that involves intraepithelial lymphocyte ut also a thickened suep
ithelial collagen tale.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1623497638247.jpg"
/></div>
1393619307518 1358629116480 {{c1::Colonic Angiodysplasia}} is a GI disorder
that involves dilation of malformed sumucosal and mucosal lood vessels in the
right colon, therey presenting with <>hematochezia</>.<div><r /></div><div><
1393619352417 1358629116480 Which area of the GI tract commonly involves Col
onic Angiodysplasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Right Colon}}</div>
1393619395605 1358629116480 {{c1::Crohn's Disease}} is an Inflammatory Bowel
Disease that involves <>transmural</>&nsp;inflammation.<div><r></div><div><
1393620030933 1358629116480 {{c1::Ulcerative Colitis}} is an Inflammatory Bo
wel Disease that involves only <>mucosal and sumucosal</>&nsp;inflammation.
1393620056087 1358629116480 Which inflammatory owel disease can affect <>a
ny portion of the GI tract?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Crohn Disease}
}</div>
1393620084061 1358629116480 {{c1::Ulcerative Colitis}} is an inflammatory o

wel disease that is limited to the colon and rectum.
1393620100903 1358629116480 Chronic colitis with distorted glands, often in
the shape of animals, is a common sign of&nsp;{{c1::Inflammatory Bowel Disease}
}.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2435246457208.jpg" /></div><div><img src
="paste-2456721293737.jpg" /></div>
1393620813357 1358629116480 {{c1::Crohn's Disease}} is an inflammatory owel
disease that shows <>segmental</>&nsp;<>transmural</>&nsp;inflammation at
any region of the owel.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2856153252062.jpg
" /><img src="paste-2881923055789.jpg" /></div>
1393620901440 1358629116480 The transmural inflammation of the IBD&nsp;{{c1
::Crohn's Disease}} can involve ulceration, fissures and granulomas (35%).<div><
1393620931973 1358629116480 Which IBD involves skip lesions or segmental inf
lammation?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2937757630674.jpg" /></div><div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Crohn's Disease}}</div>
1393620958077 1358629116480 Which IBD involves <>linear ulcers</>&nsp;and
a <>colestone appearance</>&nsp;from the linear ulcers if they intersect?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Crohn's Disease}}<r /><div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-2963527434655.jpg" /><img src="paste-2976412336461.jpg" /></div></div>
1393621049525 1358629116480 Which histological feature of Crohn's Disease (s
hown elow) is a key distinguishing feature from Ulcerative Colitis?<div><r /><
:Noncaseating Granulomas}}</div>
1393621083383 1358629116480 {{c1::Crohn's Disease}} is an IBD that can e tr
iggered y smoking.
1393621125574 1358629116480 {{c1::Pancolitis}} is a feature of Ulcerative Co
litis that results from extension of UC from the rectum to the entire colon.
1393621178040 1358629116480 Which sex is more commonly affected y Ulcerativ
e Colitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Women}}</div>
1393621214274 1358629116480 {{c1::Ulcerative Colitis}} is an IBD that involv
es <>continuous inflammation</>&nsp;that egins in the rectum and extends to
the cecum and even terminal ileum in very severe cases.<div><r></div><div><img
src="paste-3547642986695.jpg" /></div>
1393621287141 1358629116480 {{c1::Ulcerative Coliits}} is an IBD that only i
nvolves the <>mucosa and sumucosa only</>, therey yielding ulcers and <>pse
udopolyps</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3582002725045.jpg" /><img sr
c="paste-3612067496298.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-28157805592916.jpg" /><
/div>
1393621346958 1358629116480 Which IBD involves crypt ascesses that contain
neutrophils/pus in intestinal crypts?<div><r /><div><img src="paste-36550171692
59.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ulcerative Colitis}}</div></div></di
v>
1393621402654 1358629116480 {{c1::Toxic Megacolon}} is a complication of Ulc
erative Colitis where inflammatory mediators distur the neuromuscular function
of owel leading to massive dilation, ischemia and high risk of perforation.<div
1393621905371 1358629116480 Which IBD is more commonly associated with fistu
lae?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Crohn's Disease}}</div>
1393621969853 1358629116480 {{c1::Indeterminate Colitis}} is an IBD that can
not e definitely classified as either Crohn's Disease or Ulcerative Colitis.
<r><div><i>Aout 10% of cases.</i></div>
g in IBD?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Colonic Adenocarcinoma}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Especially after 8-10 years of disease</i></div>
1393622131505 1358629116480 {{c1::Diversion Colitis}} is a GI disorder that
looks like IBD that develops in a post-surgical lind pouch that lacks normal fe
cal flow.
1393622492099 1358629116480 {{c1::Adhesion}} is a cause of ischemic owel di
sease that results from inflammation, most commonly following surgery, and <>in
volves the twisting of owel loops around a firous peritoneal and</>.<div><r

.jpg" /></div>
1393622600825 1358629116480 {{c1::Intussusception}} is a cause of ischemic
owel that results from one segment of owel telescoping into a segment <>downst
ream</>&nsp;from it.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5235565134147.jpg" /
1393622657957 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Intussusception
in children?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lymphoid hyperplasia}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Is often idiopathic and is an emergency.</i></div>
1393622736310 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Intussusception
in adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tumour}}</div> <r /><div><i>The tumour
acts as a lead point that is pulled into the lumen of the distal owel segment.
</i></div>
1393622752543 1358629116480 {{c1::Volvulus}} is a cause of ischemic owel th
at involves the complete twisting of owel around its mesenteric ase, therey l
eading to <>infarction</>&nsp;and <>ostruction</>.<div><r /></div><div><i
<r /><div><i>Typically occurs in areas that have large redundant loops of sigmo
id colon and small intestine where there is a lot of mesentery.</i></div>
1393622818417 1358629116480 {{c1::Transmural Infarction}} is a pattern of Is
chemic Bowel that typically results from sudden occlusion of major vessels, espe
cially the Superior Mesenteric Artery of Mesenteric Vein.
1393622910464 1358629116480 {{c1::Mural/Mucosal Infarction}} is a pattern of
Ischemic Bowel that commonly occurs due to hypotension and hypoperfusion of wat
ershed areas.
1393622945412 1358629116480 {{c1::Colonic Diverticular Disease (Diverticulos
is)}} is a GI disorder that involves the outpouching of mucosa into or through t
he muscularis propria.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6073083757005.jpg" /
1393623053282 1358629116480 What is the cause of Colonic Diverticular Diseas
e (Diverticulosis)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Exaggerated muscle contractions a
nd a low fier diet}}</div>
1393623073923 1358629116480 What is Hematochezia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Rectal leeding}}</div>
1393623191862 1358629116480 Which morphological type of colonic polyp is fla
t and difficult to remove endoscopically?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6
244882448560.jpg" /><img src="paste-6657199309076.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Sessile}}</div></div>
1393623428067 1358629116480 Which morphological type of colonic polyp has a
stalky shape and is easy to remove?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6279242
186956.jpg" /><img src="paste-6717328851261.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Pedunculated}}</div></div>
1393623506384 1358629116480 What is the most common GI Hamartomatous polyp?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Juvenile Polyp}}</div>
1393623541130 1358629116480 {{c1::Juvenile polyps}} are a type of colonic po
lyp that are most common in the rectum of y<>oung children (< 5 y/o)</> and
are made of <>dilated glands in expanded inflamed lamina propria</>.<div><r
<r><div><i>Most
prolapse and present with hematochezia</i></div>
1393623666450 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Juvenile Poly
posis Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1393623821317 1358629116480 {{c1::Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome}} is a GI polyposis
syndrome that involves <>multiple GI hamartomatous polyps</> and <>mucocutan
eous hyperpigmentation</>&nsp;(esp. at the mouth, lips, hands and genitalia).<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7696581394834.jpg" /></div><div><img src="p
aste-7722351198474.jpg" /></div>
1393623874970 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Peutz-Jeghers
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal dominant}}</div>
1393623914587 1358629116480 What gene is mutated in Peutz-Jeghers Syndrome?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LKB1/STK11}}</div>
1393623974963 1358629116480 {{c1::Colonic Hyperplastic Polyps}} are a type o
f GI polyps that are <>enign</>&nsp;and involve a <>serrated architecture</
>&nsp;with golet cells.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8160437862835.jp
g" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Must e distinguished from sessile serrated adenom
as.</i></div>
1393624104826 1358629116480 {{c1::Sessile Serrated Adenoma}} is a colonic po
lyp that appears similar to hyperplastic polyps ut involves <u>serrated growth
extending to the crypts</u>, dilated crypts and <u>lateral crypt growth</u>.<div
1393624279668 1358629116480 {{c1::Sessile Serrated Adenoma}} is a colonic po
lyp that involves crypts with a golf clu or anchor shape.<div><r /></div><div>
1393624332845 1358629116480 {{c1::Tuular adenoma}} is a type of intestinal
adenoma that resemles the colonic mucosa and involves numerous tuules.<div><r
1393624605246 1358629116480 {{c1::Villous Adenoma}} is a type of intestinal
adenoma that resemles the SI mucosa and villi.<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-8486855377370.jpg" /><img src="paste-8499740279266.jpg" /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-31799937859924.jpg" /></div>
1393624655625 1358629116480 {{c1::Tuulovillous adenoma}} is a type of intes
tinal adenoma that incorporates oth tuules and villi.<div><r /></div><div><im
1393624686236 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritence of Familial Aden
omatous Polyposis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1393624770989 1358629116480 What gene is mutated in Familial Adenomatous Pol
yposis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adenomatous Polyposis Coli (APC)}}</div>
1393624793429 1358629116480 {{c1::Gardener's Syndrome}} is a variant of FAP
syndrome that involves FAP with <>osteomas and firomatosis</>.
1393624836326 1358629116480 {{c1::Turcot Syndrome}} is a variant FAP syndrom
e that involves <>FAP and CNS tumours.</>
1393624850269 1358629116480 What is the first gene mutated in the Adenoma-Ca
rcinoma sequence?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::APC}}</div>
<div><r /></div
><img src="paste-33474975105080.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-33440615366890
.jpg" /></div>
1393625525072 1358629116480 What is the second gene mutated in the Adenoma-C
arcinoma Sequence?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::K-Ras}}</div>
<r /><div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-33474975105080.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-334
40615366890.jpg" /></div></div>
1393625544151 1358629116480 What is the third gene mutated in the Adenoma-Ca
rcinoma Sequence?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p53}}</div>
<r /><div><r /
></div><div><img src="paste-33474975105080.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-334
40615366890.jpg" /></div></div>
1393625559125 1358629116480 Which genes are mutated in the Microsatellite In
staility Pathway, therey leading to a loss of DNA mismatch repair?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::MLH1 and MSH2}}</div>
1393625596841 1358629116480 Colonic Adenocarcinoma on the&nsp;{{c1::right}}
side of the ody typically involves polypoid structure and cause fatigue and ir
on deficiency anaemia.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9324373999966.jpg" /
></div>
1393625648867 1358629116480 Colonic Adenocarcinoma on the&nsp;{{c1::left}}
side of the ody are usually annular and stenosing. They cause leeding, owel d
ysfunction and cramping.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9375913607538.jpg"
/></div>
1393625703787 1358629116480 What does the T in TNM tumour staging signify?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Depth of tumour invasion}}</div>
1393626033570 1358629116480 What does the N in TNM tumour staging signify?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spread to regional lymph nodes}}</div>
1393626130059 1358629116480 What does the M in TNM tumour staging signify?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Distant metastasis}}</div>

1393626143342 1358629116480 {{c1::Appendiceal Mucinous Cystadenoma}} is a e
nign <>mucin-filled</>&nsp;cystic tumour of the appendix lined y dysplastic
epithelium.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9710921056532.jpg" /><img src="
paste-9723805958514.jpg" /></div>
1393626391837 1358629116480 {{c1::Appendiceal Mucinous Cystadenocarcinoma}}
is a mucin-filled tumour of the appendix that invades the appendiceal wall and c
an lead to widespread metastasis of mucinous carcinoma in the peritoneal cavity.
1393626493929 1358629116480 {{c1::Pseudomyxoma Peritonei}} is a complication
of Appendiceal Mucinous Cystadenocarcinoma that involves metastasis of mucinous
carcinoma into the peritoneal cavity.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1017
4777524552.jpg" /></div>
1393626532128 1358629116480 Where in the appendix is Appendiceal Carcinoid t
ypically found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::In the tip}}</div>
1405644641136 1395802358422 {{c1::Achalasia}} is an esophageal disorder that
involves a <>"ird's eak"</>&nsp;appearance of the esophagus on arium swal
low.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17935783428324.jpg" /></div>
1405646048386 1395802358422 Which infectious disease is a possile secondary
cause of Achalasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chagas Disease}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Caused y Trypanosoma cruzi.</i></div>
1405646096870 1395802358422 How does the risk of esophageal squamous cell ca
rcinoma change in Achalasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405646144985 1395802358422 Which esophageal pathology is associated with <
>lye ingestion</>&nsp;and <>acid reflux</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Esoph
ageal strictures}}</div>
1405646978608 1395802358422 Which herpesvirus is associated with esophagitis
in the immunocompromised that presents with <>punched-out ulcers</>?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::HSV-1}}</div>
1405647331002 1395802358422 Which herpesvirus is associated with esophagitis
in the immunocompromised that presents with&nsp;<>linear ulcers</>?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::CMV}}</div>
1405647354322 1395802358422 Which fungal species is associated with esophagi
tis in the immunocompromised that presents with&nsp;a <>white pseudomemrane</
>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Candida spp.</i>}}</div>
1405647452860 1395802358422 {{c1::Esophageal dysmotility}} is an esophageal
complication of CREST syndrome that involves <>esophageal smooth muscle atrophy
</>&nsp;and a resultant decrease in <>LES pressure and dysmotility</>.
<r /><div><i>Therey leads to acid reflux and dysphagia and <>eventual strictu
res, Barrett esophagus and apiration</>.</i></div>
1405653625420 1395802358422 What is the more common <>type</>&nsp;of esop
hageal carcinoma <>worldwide</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carc
inoma}}</div>
1405653820227 1395802358422 What is the most common <>type</>&nsp;of esop
hageal carcinoma <>in the united states</>?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Adenocarc
inoma}}</div>
1405653841896 1395802358422 Which type of gastritis is considered erosive?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute}}</div>
1405654395449 1395802358422 Which type of gastritis is considered nonerosive
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic}}</div>
1405654405124 1395802358422 Which type of chronic gastritis involves the fun
dus/ody of the stomach?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type A}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>A efore B.</i></div>
1405654433454 1395802358422 Which type of chronic gastritis involves the ant
rum of the stomach?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type B}}</div> <r /><div><i>A
efore B.</i></div>
1405654447131 1395802358422 Which type of chronic gastritis is associated wi
th pernicious anemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type A (autoimmune)}}</div>
1405654595756 1395802358422 Which type of chronic gastritis involves autoimm
une destruction of the parietal cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type A}}</div>
1405654616231 1395802358422 Which type of chronic gastritis is the most comm
on?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type B}}</div>

1405654624500 1395802358422 Which type of chronic gastritis is caused y <i>
Helicoacter pylori</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type B}}</div>
1405654640122 1395802358422 {{c1::Mntrier Disease}} is a gastric disorder desc
ried as <>gastric hypertrophy with protein loss, parietal cell atrophy and inc
rease in mucous cells</>.
<r /><div><i>Precancerous.</i></div>
1405654800870 1395802358422 {{c1::Mntrier Disease}} is disorder of the stomach
that involves <>hypertrophy of the rugae of the stomach</>&nsp;so severely t
hat they look like rain gyri.
1405654833913 1395802358422 Which acteria is associated with <>Intestinal<
/>&nsp;Gastric Adenocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Helicoacter pylo
ri</i>}}</div>
1405654993563 1395802358422 Which type of gastric carcinoma is associated wi
th Nitrosamines?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intestinal gastric adenocarcinoma}}<
/div>
1405655020235 1395802358422 Which type of gastric adenocarcinoma is associat
ed with achlorhydria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Intestinal}}</div>
1405655058539 1395802358422 Which type of peptic ulcer is associated with <
>weight loss</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gastric ulcer}}</div>
1405655237104 1395802358422 Which type of peptic ulcer is associated with <
>weight gain</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Duodenal}}</div>
1405655250501 1395802358422 Which type of peptic ulcer involves the hypertro
phy of Brunner glands?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Duodenal}}</div>
1405655313311 1395802358422 Perforation of which type of peptic ulcer is ass
ociated with <>air under the diaphragm</>&nsp;and <>referred pain to the sho
ulder?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Anterior duodenal ulcer}}</div>
1405655464187 1395802358422 Which demographic is most commonly affected y W
hipple's Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Older men}}</div>
order caused y <i>Tropheryma whipplei</i>&nsp;that involves <>cardiac symptom
s, arthralgias</>&nsp;and <>neurologic symptoms</>.
1405656097887 1395802358422 Which demographic is associated with Celiac Dise
ase?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Northern Europeans}}</div>
1405656158582 1395802358422 Which 3 autoantiodies are associated with Celia
c Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-endomysial; Anti-tissue transglutamin
ase; Anti-gliadin}}</div>
1405656210799 1395802358422 Which malasorptive disorder is associated with
<>Dermatitis herpetiformis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Celiac Disease}}</di
v>
1405656424466 1395802358422 What is the urinary excretion of D-xylose in pan
cretic insufficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal}}</div> <r /><div><i>Re
memer, <>D-xylose test gauges for intestinal mucosa defects or acterial overg
rowth.</></i></div><div><i>If mucosal function is normal, D-xylose excretion in
the urine will e normal.</i></div>
1405656647634 1395802358422 What is the most common disaccharidase deficienc
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lactase Deficiency}}</div>
1405656666574 1395802358422 What type of diarrhea is seen in Lactase Deficie
ncy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Watery, osmotic diarrhea}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Due to lactose staying in the lumen.</i></div>
1405656727623 1395802358422 Which inflammatory owel disease is associated w
ith <>"string sign"</>&nsp;on <>arium swallow</>&nsp;due to <>owel wall
thickening</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Crohn Disease}}</div><div><r /></di
1405656879698 1395802358422 Which inflammatory owel disease involves <>non
caseating granulomas</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Crohn Disease}}</div>
ith a Th<su>1</su>&nsp;mediated response?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Crohn Di
sease}}</div>
ith a Th<su>2</su>&nsp;mediated response (and hence no granulomas)?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Ulcerative Colitis}}</div>
ith <>loody diarrhea</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ulcerative Colitis}}</div
>
ith <>migratory polyarthritis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Crohn Disease}}</
div>
ith <>primary sclerosing cholangitis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ulcerative
Colitis}}</div>
ith <>kidney stones</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Crohn Disease}}</div>
ith a <>loss of haustra</>&nsp;and a resultant <>"lead pipe"</>&nsp;appear
ance on imaging?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ulcerative Colitis}}</div>
1405657198868 1395802358422 Which demographic is most commonly affected y I
rritale Bowel Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Middle-aged women}}</div>
1405657279586 1395802358422 What is the cause of appendicitis in adults?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ostruction y fecalith}}</div>
1405657602062 1395802358422 What is the cause of appendicitis in children?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lymphoid hyperplasia}}</div>
1405657618092 1395802358422 {{c1::McBurney Point}} is an anatomical landmark
found 1/3 of the distance from the ASIS to the umilicus.
<r /><div><i>Re
levant in appendicitis.</i></div>
1405657655620 1395802358422 Which type of diverticulum has <>all 3 gut laye
rs </>in the outpouch?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::True}}</div>
1405657841299 1395802358422 Which type of diverticulum has <>only the mucos
a and sumucosa </>outpouch?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::False}}</div>
1405657868091 1395802358422 Which area of the GI tract most commonly sees di
verticula?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sigmoid colon}}</div>
1405657886428 1395802358422 {{c1::Diverticulitis}} is a GI disorder descrie
d as <>inflammation of a diverticula</>&nsp;and classically presents with LLQ
pain, fever and leukocytosis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-292401373515
07.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>May perforate causing <>peritonitis, asc
ess formation or owel stenosis</>.</i></div>
1405657989403 1395802358422 {{c1::Colovesical Fistula}} is a fistula that ca
n appear as a complication of diverticulitis and is descried as a <>fistula e
tween the colon and ladder</>.
1405658080105 1395802358422 {{c1::Zenker's Diverticulum}} is a type of esoph
ageal&nsp;<>false</>&nsp;diverticulum that involves&nsp;<>herniation of mu
cosal tissue at the Killian triangle etween the thyropharyngeal and cricopharyn
geal parts of the inferior pharyngeal constrictor</>.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-29523605193044.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div></div>
1405658192187 1395802358422 Which demographic is most commonly affected y Z
enker diverticulum?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Elderly males}}</div>
1405658210922 1395802358422 {{c1::Intussusception}} is a GI disorder that in
volves the telescoping of owel segments and hence presents with <>compromised
lood supply</>&nsp;and <>intermittent aodminal pain with "currant jelly" st
ool</>.
1405658335977 1395802358422 {{c1::Meckel Diverticulum}} is a <>true</>&ns
p;diverticulum that occurs due to <>persistence of the vitelline duct</>&nsp;
and may present with <>ectopic acid-secreting gastric mucosa or pancreatic tiss
ue</>.<div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
<img src="paste-30021821399393.j
pg" /><r /><div><i>Presents with <>melena, RLQ pain, intussusception, volvulus
or ostruction</>.</i></div>
1405658479047 1395802358422 What type of diverticulum is Meckel Diverticulum
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::True}}</div>
526432097.jpg" /></div>
1405658493723 1395802358422 What type of diverticulum is Zenker Diverticulum
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::False}}</div>
1405658504707 1395802358422 What is the most common congenital anomaly of th

e GI tract?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Meckel Diverticulum}}</div>
<r /><d
1405658527985 1395802358422 {{c1::Meckel Diverticulum}} is a GI diverticulum
that is <>2 inches long</>&nsp;and found <>2 feet from the ileocecal valve<
/>&nsp;in <>2% of the population</>.
778521345.jpg" /></div>
1405658859725 1395802358422 {{c1::Hirschsprung Disease}} is a congenital GI
disorder characterized y <>megacolon due to a lack of ganglion/enteric nervous
plexuses</>&nsp;(oth Auerach and Meissner) as a result of <>failed neural
crest cell migration</>.
<r /><div><i>Typically involves the rectum.</i>
</div><div><i>Presents with <>ilious emesis, adominal distention, failure to
pass meconium in the first 48hrs of life</>&nsp;and <>chronic constipation</
>.</i></div>
1405659111789 1395802358422 Which gene mutation is associated with Hirschspr
ung Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>RET</i>}}</div>
1405659125384 1395802358422 Which chromosomal trisomy is associated with Hir
schsprung Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Down Syndrome}}</div>
1405659199123 1395802358422 {{c1::Duodenal Atresia}} is a congenital duodena
l malformation that results in <>early ilious vomiting</>&nsp;and <>proxima
l stomach distention</>&nsp;with <>"doule ule"</>&nsp;on x-ray due to <
>failure of the duodenum to recanalize</>.
1405659319688 1395802358422 Which chromosomal trisomy is associated with Duo
denal Atresia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Down Syndrome}}</div>
1405659332228 1395802358422 {{c1::Ileus}} is a GI disorder that involves <>
intestinal hypomotility without ostruction</>&nsp;therey resulting in <>con
stipation</>&nsp;and <>adominal distention</>.
<r /><div><i>Associated
with surgery, opiates, hypokalemia and sepsis.</i></div>
1405659417771 1395802358422 {{c1::Meconium Ileus}} is a GI disorder that inv
olves formation of a <>meconium plug</>&nsp;which ostructs the intestine, th
erey <>preventing stool passage at irth</>.
1405659455866 1395802358422 {{c1::Necrotizing Enterocolitis}} is a GI disord
er that involves <>necrosis of the intestinal mucosa and possile perforation</
<r /><div><i>The colon is usually involved ut the entire GI tract can
>.
e affected.</i></div><div><i>More common in premature aies due to decreased i
mmunity.</i></div>
1405659517239 1395802358422 Which type of polyp is more commonly associated
with malignancy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Villous}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-31795642892628.jpg" /></div>
1405659948793 1395802358422 What is the most common <>non-neoplastic polyp
in the colon</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperplastic Polyp}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>> 50% found in the rectosigmoid colon.</i></div>
1405659978837 1395802358422 {{c1::Juvenile Polyposis Syndrome}} is a polypos
is syndrome seen in children that presents with <>multiple juvenile polyps</>&
nsp;and an <>increased risk of adenocarcinoma</>.
1405660059605 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the <i>APC</i>&nsp;gene
found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5q}}</div>
1405660392120 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP)}} is
an autsomal dominant polyposis that causes colorectal cancer via the <>2-hit hy
pothesis</>&nsp;as thousands of polyps arise at a young age. <r /><div><i>Pa
ncolonic.</i></div><div><i>Always involves the rectum.</i></div>
1405660449320 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Hereditary No
npolyposis Colorectal Cancer (HNPCC; Lynch Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Autosomal dominant}}</div>
1405660539971 1395802358422 Which mechanism of DNA repair is defective in&n
sp;Hereditary Nonpolyposis Colorectal Cancer (HNPCC; Lynch Syndrome)?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Mismatch repair}}</div>
1405660558610 1395802358422 Colorectal cancer on the&nsp;{{c1::right}} side
of the ody typically presents with leeding.
1405660591541 1395802358422 Colorectal cancer on the<>&nsp;</>{{c1::left}
} side of the ody typically presents with ostruction.

1405660610438 1395802358422 In which section of the colon does colorectal ca
ncer present as an <>exophytic mass</>&nsp;with <>iron deficiency anaemia</
>&nsp;and <>weight loss</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ascending colon}}</div
>
1405660806704 1395802358422 In which section of the colon does colorectal ca
ncer present as an <>infiltrating mass</>&nsp;with <>partial colonic ostruc
tion, colicky pain</>&nsp;and <>hematochezia</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Descending colon}}</div>
1405660842608 1395802358422 Which type of GI cancer is associated with an <
>"apple core"</>&nsp;lesion on arium x-ray?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Colore
ctal cancer}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-33359010988351.jpg" /><
/div>
1405660903360 1395802358422 Which tumour marker is useful for monitoring the
recurrence of colorectal cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CEA}}</div>
1405660921990 1395802358422 What gene is implicated in the most common molec
ular pathogenesis pathway of sporadic colorectal cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::APC/eta-catenin (~85%)}}</div>
1405693131296 1395802358422 {{c1::Cirrhosis}} is a liver disorder that prese
nts with <>nodularity of the liver contour</>&nsp;on CT scan <>secondary to
regenerating macronodules</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-137868450235
4.jpg" /></div>
1405693547373 1395802358422 {{c1::Fetor Hepaticus}} is a feature of liver fa
ilure that involves a <>musty reath smell</>.
te-1537598292515.jpg" /></div>
1405693666624 1395802358422 {{c1::Asterixis}} is a CNS complication of liver
failure that is descried as a <>coarse hand tremor</>.
<r /><div><img
src="paste-1537598292515.jpg" /></div>
1405693705857 1395802358422 How does PT change in liver failure?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
.jpg" /></div>
1405693737013 1395802358422 Which liver aminotransferase is elevated in <>v
iral</>&nsp;hepatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ALT > AST}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"vir<>ALT"</></i></div>
1405693820082 1395802358422 Which liver aminotransferase is elevated in <>a
lcoholic</>&nsp;hepatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AST > ALT}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The ratio is usually > 1.5:1</i></div>
1405693839515 1395802358422 Which pancreatic enzyme is used as a diagnostic
serum marker in Mumps?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amylase}}</div>
1405693870043 1395802358422 How do Ceruloplasmin levels change in Wilson Dis
ease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1405693893625 1395802358422 How does gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) change
in alcohol use?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405694009178 1395802358422 {{c1::gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT)}} is a he
patic serum marker that is increased in various liver and iliary diseases, <>
ut not in one disease</>.
<r /><div><i><u>This is a very important distin
guishing factor from ALP which can e elevated in all 3: liver, iliary and one
disease.</u></i></div>
1405694084294 1395802358422 Which pancreatic enzyme is the <>most specific<
/>&nsp;diagnostic serum marker in acute pancreatitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Lipase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>vs. amylase</i></div>
1405694113123 1395802358422 {{c1::Alcoholic Cirrhosis}} is the final and irr
eversile form of alcoholic liver disease that presents with a <>micronodular,
irregularly shrunken liver </>with a <>"honail"</>&nsp;appearance.
1405694667384 1395802358422 Which liver aminotransferase is elevated in <>n
on-alcoholic fatty liver disease</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ALT > AST}}<
1405694804480 1395802358422 {{c1::Hepatic Encephalopathy}} is a CNS disorder
secondary to liver disease that involves <>disorientation/asterixis (mild)</>
&nsp;to <>difficult arousal/coma (severe)</>.
te-13915694039216.jpg" /></div>
1405694939866 1395802358422 Which osmotic laxative is used to treat Hepatic
Encephalopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lactulose}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-13915694039216.jpg" /></div>
1405694973279 1395802358422 {{c1::Rifaximin}} is an antiiotic used to treat
Hepatic Encephalopathy as it destroys <>ammonia-generating</>&nsp;acteria i
n the intestines.
1405695002189 1395802358422 {{c1::Reye Syndrome}} is a rare, fatal childhood
hepatoencephalopathy associated with <>aspirin use following viral infection</
>, especially VZV and Influenza B.
1405695055286 1395802358422 Which 2 viruses are associated Reye Syndrome due
to aspirin administration?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::VZV and Influenza B}}</di
v>
1405695079479 1395802358422 {{c1::Reye Syndrome}} is a rare, fatal childhood
hepatoencephalopathy that results due to <>aspirin metaolites decreasing eta
-oxidation y reversile inhiition of mitochondrial enzymes</>.
<r /><d
iv><i>Hence it presents with mitochondrial anormalities, fatty liver, hypoglyce
mia, vomiting, hepatomegaly, coma.</i></div>
1405695984428 1395802358422 What is the most common primary malignant tumour
of the liver in adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatocellular carcinoma}}</
div>
1405700240246 1395802358422 Which type of Crigler-Najjar Syndrome is more se
vere?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-16355
235463941.jpg" /></div>
1405704162364 1395802358422 Which type of Crigler-Najjar Syndrome is less se
vere and responds to phenoarital which drives liver enzyme synthesis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1.jpg" /></div>
1405704188595 1395802358422 Which anaemia disorder is associated with Wilson
Disease?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Hemolytic anaemia}}</div>
<r><div><img sr
c="paste-17901423690035.jpg" /></div>
1405704938290 1395802358422 Which liver disorder is also referred to as Hepa
tolenticular Degeneration?<div><r />{{c1::Wilson Disease}}</div>
<r /><d
1405705085703 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemochromatosis}} is a disorder of iron de
position that involves a classic triad of <>micronodular <u>c</u>irrhosis, <u>d
</u>iaetes mellitus</>&nsp;and <><u></u>ronze skin colourization</>.
<r /><div><i>"BCD"</i></div>
1405705220620 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Hemochromat
osis??<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-A3}}</div>
1405705430891 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <>hereditary</>&nsp
;hemochromatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Repeated phleotomy; Deferasirox; D
eferoxamine}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. phleotomy and iron chelators</i></di
v>
1405705627098 1395802358422 How do cholesterol levels change in Biliary Trac
t disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1405707862163 1395802358422 How do ALP levels change in iliary tract diseas
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405707889851 1395802358422 Which kind of iliruin is elevated in iliary t
ract disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Conjugated iliruin}}</div>
1405707939033 1395802358422 {{c1::Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis}} is a ili
ary tract disease that is associated with hypergammagloulinemia (esp. with IgM)
.
1405708696570 1395802358422 What are the 4 important risk factors for Cholel
ithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<img src="paste-21049634717867.jpg" />}}</d
iv>
1405709110175 1395802358422 What is the Charcot triad of cholangitis?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Jaundice; Fever; RUQ pain}}</div>
1405709140398 1395802358422 {{c1::Gallstone Ileus}} is a type of ileus that
results due to a gallstone ostructing the ileocecal valve.
<r /><div><i>Ty
pically results from cholelithiasis forming a fistula etween the gallladder an

d small intestine.</i></div>
1405709607970 1395802358422 {{c1::Murphy Sign}} is a clinical feature of cho
lecystitis that involves <>arupt inspiratory arrest</>&nsp;upon palpation of
the RUQ due to pain.
1405709651710 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Acute Pancreati
tis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alcohol; Gallstones}}</div>
<div><r /></div
><img src="paste-22973780066336.jpg" /><r /><div><img src="paste-22960895164583
.jpg" /></div>
1405717055334 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Pancreatitis}} is a type of pancre
atitis that involves <>near complete atrophy of the pancreas</>&nsp;with resi
dual coarse calcifications.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23785528885587.
jpg" /></div>
1405717728719 1395802358422 Which section of the pancreas is more commonly a
ffeted y pancreatic tumours?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Head of the pancreas}}<
/div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-24442658881876.jpg" /></div>
1405718019849 1395802358422 Which tumour marker is associated with pancreati
c adenocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CA-19-9}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Al
so CEA, which is less specific.</i></div>
1405718053345 1395802358422 Which demographic is more commonly affected with
pancreatic adenocarcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Jewish and African-Americ
an males}}</div>
1405718073186 1395802358422 {{c1::Courvoisier Sign}} is a complication of pa
ncreatic adenocarcinoma that involves ostructive jaundice with a palpale, nont
ender gallladder.
1381457583732 1358629116480 {{c1::Trousseau Syndrome}} or&nsp;{{c2::Migrato
ry Thromophleitis}} is an increased risk of thromoemolism in disseminated ca
ncers.
1391291307547 1358629116480 {{c1::C-Peptide}} is a protein that is used as a
surrogate marker to indicate the amount of insulin the ody is making.
1391292084464 1358629116480 {{c1::C-peptide}} is a protein that is cleaved o
ff proinsulin in the formation of insulin.
1391292122090 1358629116480 An&nsp;{{c1::Insulinoma}} is an endocrine tumou
r of the <>eta-cells of the pancreas</> that presents as a small circumscrie
d mass with uniform eta-cells in nests.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-71
1391292589655 1358629116480 What 3 endocrine glands are commonly implicated
in Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia 1 (MEN1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Parathyroid
hyperplasia, Pancreatic endocrine tumour, Pituitary adenoma}}</div>
<r /><d
31.jpg" /></div>
1391292643715 1358629116480 {{c1::Insulinitis}} is a common finding in T1DM
and involves T-cell infiltration of the Islets of Langerhans.<div><r /></div><d
1391293913209 1358629116480 {{c1::VNTRs}} in the Insulin gene promoter are a
ssociated with development of T1DM.
1391294036512 1358629116480 Polymorphism in&nsp;{{c1::CD25}}, a gene that c
odes for the IL-2R, is associated with T1DM.
1391294089616 1358629116480 {{c1::Acanthosis Nigricans}} is a complication o
f many endocrine disorders and involves thickening and darkening of the skin, ty
pically at the axilla, neck and areas of increased friction (elt line, medial t
high).<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1576252997780.jpg" /><img src="paste
-1602022801525.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Common in conditions involving ins
ulin resistance.</i></div>
1391294214510 1358629116480 {{c1::Vulvovaginal Candidiasis}} is a complicati
on of T2DM that involves vulvar pruritis and a white, cottage cheese-like vagina
l discharge with candidiasis involving non-septate hyphae.<div><r /></div><div>
1391294328520 1358629116480 {{c1::Incretins}} are a class of hormones from t
he GI tract that increase Insulin release from the pancreas.
1391300629662 1358629116480 {{c1::GLP-1}} is an incretin that stimulates isl

et cell proliferation and neogenesis at the pancreas.
1391300651419 1358629116480 {{c1::Islet Amyloid Polypeptide (IAPP)}} is a pe
ptide hormone that is cosecreted with insulin. In T2DM, it accumulates in islet
cells and prevents the release of insulin from eta-cells.
<r /><div><i>ak
a Amylin</i></div>
1391301077060 1358629116480 The deposition of&nsp;{{c1::Islet Amyloid Polyp
eptide (IAPP)}} in pancreatic eta-cells in T2DM causes death of the eta cells.
1391301166042 1358629116480 What histological stain is used to stain for Amy
loid?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congo red}}</div>
1391301179555 1358629116480 What colour does Amyloid show upon receiving pol
arized light?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Apple-green irefringence}}</div>
1391301199697 1358629116480 How many anormal values are required to make a
Dx of diaetes in a <>symptomatic</>&nsp;person?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1
}}</div>
1391302107259 1358629116480 How many anormal values are required to make a
diagnosis of diaetes in an <>asymptomatic</>&nsp;person?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::2}}</div>
1391302130566 1358629116480 {{c1::Gestational Diaetes Mellitus (GDM)}} is a
type of diaetes that affects pregnant women, typically in the later stages of
pregnancy where there is an increase in hormones that antagonize insulin functio
n.
1391302236435 1358629116480 What measurement of Fasting Glc is required to r
each a Dx of Gestational Diaetes Mellitus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 92 m
g/dL}}</div>
1391302473319 1358629116480 {{c1::Maturity Onset Diaetes of the oung (MOD
)}} is a type of diaetes that is due to monogenic mutations in the enzymes&nsp
;{{c2::Glucokinase}} or&nsp;{{c3::Hepatic Nuclear Factor 1 or 2 (HNF1, 2)}}, o
th of which are involved with insulin production.
<r /><div><i>Will e in
family Hx; presents as a mild T1DM</i></div>
1391302580384 1358629116480 {{c1::Cystic Firosis Related Diaetes (CFRD)}}
is a type of diaetes that is associated with cystic firosis and involves sever
e exocrine pancreas and eta-cell dysfunction.
1391302626912 1358629116480 {{c1::Drug-Induced Diaetes Mellitus}} is a type
of diaetes that occurs due to drugs that destroy eta-cells or drugs that anta
gonize insulin action.
1391302655337 1358629116480 Reduction in the level of the glycated hemogloi
n&nsp;{{c1::HA1c}} is associated with a reduction in complications of T1DM and
T2DM.
1391303181103 1358629116480 {{c1::Charcot's Joint}} is a complication of dia
etes and diaetic neuropathy characterized y destruction of the articular surf
ace of a joint and the disorganization/fragmentation of the joint.<div><r /></d
/></div>
1391303497463 1358629116480 Which change do lood vessels undergo in the set
ting of hyperglycemia in diaetes that makes them thicker yet leaky?<div><r /><
/div><div><img src="paste-4312147165443.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Non-enzymatic glycosylation}}</div></div>
1391304212867 1358629116480 Hyperglycemia can mildly suppress the immune sys
tem, leading to an increase in the risk of infection. However,&nsp;{{c1::antio
dy}} production is normal.
1391304285422 1358629116480 In rare cases, the skin and nares of diaetics c
an ecome infected with&nsp;{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}, a normal flor
a that lives in these areas.
1391304336083 1358629116480 {{c1::Furunculosis}} is an infection commonly se
en in diaetics that involves skin oils.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4
840428142872.jpg" /></div>
1391304362398 1358629116480 Which acteria commonly causes Furunculosis in d
iaetics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}</div>
1391304379627 1358629116480 Which fungi commonly causes vaginal thrush in di

aetics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Candida alicans</i>}}</div>
1391304398979 1358629116480 Which <>anaeroe</>&nsp;most commonly causes
foot infections in diaetics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Bacteroides fragilis
</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Rememer that other acteria also cause foot infec
tions.</i></div>
1391304431416 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteomyelitis}} is a complication of diae
tes where foot infections get severe and extend from soft tissue to the one.
1391304790554 1358629116480 Which cells make Insulin?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Beta-cells}}</div>
1391304835338 1358629116480 Which cells make Glucagon?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Alpha-cells}}</div>
1391304845140 1358629116480 What is the etiology of T1DM?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Autoimmune (T-cell) destruction of eta-cells}}</div>
1391304866567 1358629116480 Which HLA sutypes are associated with T1DM?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR3; HLA-DR4}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Potentiall
y HLA-B8</i></div>
1391304889550 1358629116480 Which islet cell antigens are targeted in T1DM?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GAD-65 and ICA512}}</div>
1391304929660 1358629116480 {{c1::Diaetic Ketoacidosis (DKA)}} is a severe
complication of T1DM characterized y an excess of serum ketones.
<r /><d
iv><i>An increased need for insulin due to stress (e.g. infection) results in ex
cess fat reakdown and <>increased ketogenesis</>&nsp;from those freed fatty
acids.</i></div>
1391304964622 1358629116480 Which type of diaetes is Diaetic Ketoacidosis
associated with?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T1DM}}</div>
1391304977454 1358629116480 {{c1::Kussmaul Breathing}} is a pattern of reat
hing seen in diaetic ketoacidosis that manifests as a response to the acidosis
and presents as <>rapid, deep reathing</>. <r /><div><i>Rapid, deep reath
ing</i></div>
1391305048397 1358629116480 Which type of diaetes involves Insulitis (infla
mmation of the islet cells)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T1DM}}</div>
1391305097069 1358629116480 Which type of diaetes involves IAPP amyloid dep
osition in islet cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T2DM}}</div>
1391305120616 1358629116480 What random Glc level is diagnostic of T2DM?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 200 mg/dL}}</div>
1391305140534 1358629116480 What Fasting Glc level is diagnostic of T2DM?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 126 mg/dL}}</div>
1391305153848 1358629116480 What HA1c level is diagnostic of T2DM?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::> 6.5%}}</div>
1391305165737 1358629116480 What Oral Glc Tolerance Test result is diagnosti
c of T2DM?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 200 mg/dL 2 hours after Glc loading}}
</div>
1391305190632 1358629116480 What is the normal range of Glc levels?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::70-120 mg/dL}}</div>
1391305209106 1358629116480 What type of diaetes is a Hyperosmolar Non-keto
tic Coma associated with?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T2DM}}</div>
1391305239854 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperosmolar non-ketotic coma}} is a sever
e, life threatening complication of T2DM that involves <>very high Glc</>&nsp
;and severe diuresis, hypotension and possily coma.
1391305275550 1358629116480 Non-enzymatic glycosylation of large and medium
sized vessels in diaetes leads to&nsp;{{c1::Atherosclerosis}}
1391305302711 1358629116480 Non-enzymatic Glycosylation of small vessels (ar
terioles) in diaetes leads to&nsp;{{c1::Hyaline Arteriolosclerosis}}.
1391305322539 1358629116480 {{c1::Kimmelstiel-Wilson Nodules}} are a feature
of diaetic nephropathy and are descried as small nodules at the glomeruli.
1391305381340 1358629116480 What is the result of Non-enzymatic Glycosylatio
n of the <>efferent</>&nsp;arteriole in diaetics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Nephrotic Syndrome}}</div>
1391305408908 1358629116480 What is the result of Non-Enzymatic Glycosylatio
n at the <>afferent</>&nsp;arteriole in diaetics?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:

:Chronic Renal Failure}}</div>
1391305434285 1358629116480 Non-Enzymatic Glycosylation of hemogloin in dia
etes leads to the formation of&nsp;{{c1::HA1c}}
1391305452466 1358629116480 Hyperglycemia allows Glc to freely enters cells
where the enzyme&nsp;{{c1::Aldose Reductase}} converts it into&nsp;{{c2::Sori
tol}}, leading to osmotic damage.
1391305489575 1358629116480 Which enzyme converts Glc to Soritol in cells?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aldose Reductase}}</div>
1391305506147 1358629116480 {{c1::Insulinoma}} is a pancreatic tumour that p
resents with <>"Whipple's Triad"</> involving <>episodic hypoglycemia, mental
status changes and dramatic reversal of CNS anormalities via Glc administratio
n</>. <r /><div><i>There will also e <>increased C-peptide levels</>.</i><
/div>
1391305567450 1358629116480 What is Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::Persistant and resistant ulcers due to a Gastrinoma}}</div>
1391305583718 1358629116480 {{c1::Gastrinoma}} is a pancreatic tumour that p
resents with treatment-resistant peptic ulcers due to excessive gastric acid sec
retion. <r /><div><i>aka Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome</i></div>
1391305632581 1358629116480 {{c1::Somatostatinoma}} is a pancreatic tumour t
hat involves achlorhydria (due to Gastrin inhiition) and cholelithiasis (due to
CCK inhiition)
1391305667985 1358629116480 {{c1::VIPoma}} is a pancreatic tumour that prese
nts with watery diarrhea, hypokalemia and achlorhydria (due to decreased gastric
acid secretion).
1391561296034 1358629116480 How do ACTH and Cortisol levels change in respon
se to hypoglycemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Both increase}}</div>
1391561340496 1358629116480 How do GH levels normally change in response to
hypoglycemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1391561377540 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Trans-sphenoidal}} approach is th
e most commonly used surgical approach towards gaining access to the pituitary.
1391561526486 1358629116480 {{c1::Pituitary Adenomas}} are a type of endocri
ne gland tumour that involves a uniformly monomorphic acinar cell population arr
anged in disorganized clusters amongst roken down reticulin.<div><r /></div><d
1391561730131 1358629116480 At least 40% of GH Somatotroph adenomas involve
a spontaneous mutation of the {{c2::alpha}}-suunit of the Gs stimulatory G prot
ein, which is encoded y the&nsp;{{c1::GNAS}} gene.
1391562125902 1358629116480 Which Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia is associated
with Pituitary Adenomas?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MEN 1}}</div>
1391562244301 1358629116480 Which gene is implicated in Multiple Endocrine N
eoplasia 1 (MEN1)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MEN1 gene encoding the tumour supp
ressor protein Menin}}</div>
1391562298319 1358629116480 {{c1::Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)}} is a
hypothalamic hormone that triggers the release of Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (
TSH) and&nsp;{{c2::Prolactin}} from the anterior pituitary.
1391562645544 1358629116480 {{c1::Prolactinoma}} is a type of pituitary aden
oma that is composed of mostly chromophoe cells with endocrine amyloid and psam
moma odies.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1700807049482.jpg" /></div>
1391562853002 1358629116480 Prolactin inhiits&nsp;{{c2::GnRH}} action, a g
onadotropin released from the hypothalamus.
1391562922628 1358629116480 The inhiition of&nsp;{{c1::GnRH}} in Hyperprol
actinemia results in decreased FSH and LH release and hence downstream amenorrhe
a and lack of ovulation.
1391562974691 1358629116480 If a patient has headaches, nausea and vomiting,
&nsp;{{c1::increased intracranial pressure}} should always e suspected.
1391563023791 1358629116480 {{c1::Prognathism}} is defined as prominence of
the lower jaw.
1391563159189 1358629116480 How do GH levels normally change in response to
hyperglycemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>A
lack of Glc-induced suppression of GH levels may e indicative of a Somatotroph

Adenoma.</i></div>
1391563205543 1358629116480 How do Glc levels change in response to increase
d GH levels?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased Glc levels}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Therefore, hyperglycemia is a secondary finding in Somatotroph Adenomas</i
></div>
1391563386257 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperlipidemia}} is a possile complicatio
n of a Somatotroph Adenoma as GH stimulates lipolysis.
1391563430584 1358629116480 {{c1::Sleep Apnea}} is a possile complication o
f Acromegaly due to the tongue enlarging and ostructing the airway.
1391563582032 1358629116480 How does insulin sensitivity change in Acromegal
y?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased; there is insulin resistance}}</div>
1391563641895 1358629116480 What is the treatment of choice in a Somatotroph
Adenoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Surgical removal; via the transphenoidal ap
proach}}</div>
1391563701803 1358629116480 Which neurotransmitter is increased in Carcinoid
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Serotonin}}</div>
1391563808525 1358629116480 GHRH stimulates the release of&nsp;{{c1::GH}} f
rom the anterior pituitary.
1391564396154 1358629116480 Somatostatin (GHIH) inhiits the release of&nsp
;{{c1::GH}} from the anterior pituitary.
1391564415867 1358629116480 {{c1::Scoliosis}} is an adverse effect of GH the
rapy due to uneven growth of the verterae.
1391564542686 1358629116480 {{c1::Craniopharyngioma}} is a suprasellar tumou
r that involves mutations of the glycogen synthase kinase 3-eta inding domain
of&nsp;{{c2::Beta-Catenin}}
r that is filled with cysts that contain a cholesterol-rich, yellow-rown, "mach
ine oil" fluid.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3560527888670.jpg" /></div>
r that involves cysts with a cholesterol-rich fluid. It is full of cholesterol-c
rystals that resemle the shape of the state Utah.<div><r /></div><div><img src
1391565407296 1358629116480 Which is classically the first hormone to ecome
deficient in Hypopituitarism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GH}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>First GH, then FSH/LH, then TSH and ACTH</i></div>
1391565537702 1358629116480 In high concentrations, Oxytocin can ind to ren
al {{c1::V2}} receptors, therey leading to fluid retention and hyponatremia.
1391565654057 1358629116480 In SIADH, the retained fluid is mostly found in
the&nsp;{{c1::intracellular}} space. This explains why there is no edema or hyp
ertension.
<r /><div><i>There is often cereral edema and seizures ecause
of this though.</i></div>
1391565877723 1358629116480 {{c1::Bitemporal Hemianopia}} is a visual defici
t that occurs if the optic chiasm is compressed, often y a pituitary adenoma.<d
1391566589348 1358629116480 What kind of visual deficits are seen in itempo
ral hemianopia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Loss of peripheral vision in oth eye
s}}</div>
<img src="paste-5115306049652.jpg" />
1391566664507 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperphagia and weight gain}} is a potenti
al complication of pituitary adenomas if there is compression of the central sat
iety center of the hypothalamus.
1391566686985 1358629116480 {{c1::Oculomotor palsy}} is a potential complica
tion of pituitary adenoma if CN III is compressed.
1391566718369 1358629116480 What is the result of compression of normal pitu
itary tissue due to a pituitary adenoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypopituitar
ism}}</div>
1391566741717 1358629116480 What is the most common pituitary adenoma?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Prolactinoma}}</div>
1391566786888 1358629116480 What is the typical presentation of Prolactinoma
in females?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Galactorrhea and Amenorrhea}}</div>
1391566804441 1358629116480 What is the typical persentation of Prolactinoma

in males?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased liido and headache}}</div>
1391566818618 1358629116480 {{c1::Gigantism}} is a complication of GH Adenom
a seen in children and involves increased longitudinal growth of one as epiphys
eal plates are not fused.
1391566876669 1358629116480 {{c1::Acromegaly}} is a complication of GH adeno
ma seen in <>adults</>&nsp;and involves enlarged ones, visceral organs and t
ongue.
1391566914746 1358629116480 {{c1::Secondary Diaetes Mellitus}} is a complic
ation of GH Adenoma due to GH-induced hepatic gluconeogenesis and GH-induced ins
ulin resistance.
1391566968087 1358629116480 How do GH levels change in response to oral Glc
loading <>in a patient with GH Adenoma?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::N
o change}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Normally, they would fall</i></div>
1391567008579 1358629116480 What is pituitary apoplexy?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Bleeding into a pituitary adenoma/mass, leading to necrosis of pituitary
tissue}}</div>
1391567213608 1358629116480 {{c1::Sheehan Syndrome}} is a cause of Hypopitui
tarism that is a pregnancy related infarction of the pituitary gland. <r /><d
iv><i>Pituitary doules in size during pregnancy without getting 2x more perfusi
on. Blood loss during parturition precipitates infarction of the pituitary.</i><
/div>
1391567307209 1358629116480 {{c1::Loss of Puic Hair}} is a very key sign of
hypopituitarism that results from a loss of LH and a susequent loss of Androge
ns.
1391567352968 1358629116480 {{c1::Empty Sella Syndrome}} is a cause of hypop
ituitarism descried as a congenital defect of the sella. Commonly due to hernia
tion of the arachnoid and CSF into the cella. <r /><div><i>Results in destruc
tion of the pituitary, which sits in the sella.</i></div>
1391567420576 1358629116480 {{c1::Central/Neurogenic Diaetes Insipidus}} is
a disorder of the posterior pituitary defined as a deficiency of ADH. <r /><d
iv><i>Commonly due to hypothalamic lesion or posterior pituitary pathology.</i><
/div>
1391567475929 1358629116480 {{c1::Central/Neurogenic Diaetes Insipidus}} is
a disorder of the posterior pituitary that involves hypernatremia, high serum o
smolality, low urine osmolality and symptoms due to water loss.
1391567551801 1358629116480 How does urine concentration normally change fol
lowing the Water Deprivation Test?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1391567586722 1358629116480 How does urine concenration change following the
Water Deprivation Test in a <>patient with Central Diaetes Insipidus</>?<div
><r></div><div>{{c1::No change or decrease}}</div>
<r><i>In a normal perso
n, water deprivation would increase urine concentration.</i>
1391567630544 1358629116480 {{c1::Nephrogenic Diaetes Insipidus}} is a diso
rder of the posterior pituitary that is due to an impaired renal response to ADH
.
1391567669740 1358629116480 {{c1::Nephrogenic Diaetes Insipidus}} is a diso
rder of the posterior pituitary that presents identically to CDI, ut lacks a re
sponse to Desmopressin.
1391567697390 1358629116480 {{c1::SIADH}} is a disorder of the posterior pit
uitary due to excessive ADH secretion, almost always from outside of the pituita
ry.
1391567737264 1358629116480 Which cancer is commonly assocaited with ectopic
ADH secretion and hence SIADH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small cell carcinoma
of the lung}}</div>
1391567778035 1358629116480 {{c1::SIADH}} is a disorder of the posterior pit
uitary that presents with hyponatremia, decreased BUN, low serum osmolality, hig
h urine osmolality and other symptoms of free water retention.
1391567832583 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyponatremia}} is a electrolyte complicati
on of SIADH that leads to neuronal swelling and cereral edema, therey causing
altered mental status and seizures.
<r /><div><i>This hyponatremia <>must
e corrected slowly</>&nsp;in order to avoid <>central pontine myelinolysis.<

/></i></div>
1391720313786 1358629116480 A {{c1::Thyroglossal Duct Cyst}} is a cystic rem
nant of the thryoglossal duct that presents as an <>anterior neck mass</>.
1391721680209 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Lingual Thyroid}} is persistant thy
roid tissue at the ase of the tongue that presents as a <>ase of the tongue</
>&nsp;mass.
1391721705818 1358629116480 How do increased levels of thyroid hormone affec
t asal metaolic rate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1391721743288 1358629116480 Thyroid hormone increases the synthesis of the m
emrane pump {{c1::Na/K ATPase}}, therey leading to an increase in asal metao
lic rate.
1391721774497 1358629116480 Thyroid hormone increases the expression of&nsp
;{{c1::Beta-1 Adrenergic}} receptors, therey leading to increased SNS activity.
1391721811816 1358629116480 How do cholesterol levels change in Hyperthyroid
ism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypocholesterolemia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Du
e to <>increased LDL receptor expression.</></i></div>
1391722443934 1358629116480 How do Glc levels change in Hyperthyroidism?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperglycemia}}</div>
1391722463119 1358629116480 {{c1::Graves Disease}} is a type of Hyperthyroid
ism that involves autoantiody IgG stimulation of the TSH receptor at the thyroi
d.
<r /><div><i>Type 2 Hypersensitivity</i></div>
1391730001009 1358629116480 What do the IgG autoantiodies target in Graves
Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TSH Receptor}}</div>
1391730020763 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Hyperthyroidism
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Graves Disease}}</div>
1391730035485 1358629116480 Which demographic is most commonly affected y G
raves Disease?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Women; childearing age (20-40)}}</div>
1391730060004 1358629116480 A {{c1::diffuse goiter}} is a feature of hypothy
roidism due to constant TSH stimulation leading to thyroid hyperplasia and hyper
trophy.
1391730102448 1358629116480 Firolasts ehind the orit and overlying the s
hin express the&nsp;{{c1::TSH}} receptor, hence making exopthalmos and pretiia
l myxedema 2 key signs of Graves Disease.
1391730162273 1358629116480 {{c1::Exopthalmos}} and&nsp;{{c2::Pretiial Myx
edema}} are 2 key features of Graves Disease due to <>TSH receptor activation o
n firolasts</> causing inflammation, firosis, edema and glycosaminoglycan ac
cumulation.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22986664968611.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Auto-IgG stimulates TSH receptors on retro-orital and dermal fir
olasts.</i></div>
1391730224562 1358629116480 Irregular follicles with a <>scalloped colloid<
/>&nsp;are characteristic pathological thyroid histology findings in&nsp;{{c1
::Graves Disease}} .
1391730697347 1358629116480 How are TSH levels altered in Graves Disease?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1391730738807 1358629116480 {{c1::Thyroid Storm}} is a potentially fatal com
plication of Graves Disease or Hyperthyroidism and involves elevated catecholami
nes alongside massive T3/T4 excess.
<r /><div><i>Typically occurs in respon
se to stress.</i></div><div><i>Presents with agitation, delirium, fever, diarrhe
a, coma and tachyarrhythmia (the common cause of death).</i></div><div><i>Treat
with the 3 <>P</>'s: <>Propylthiouracil, Propanolol, Prednisolone</>.</i></d
iv>
1391730796037 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Multinodular Goiter}} is defined as
an enlarged thyroid with multiple nodules that yields a euthyroid state.
<r /><div><i>Rarely, the goiter can ecome TSH independent and lead to T4 relea
se and hyperthyroidism.</i></div>
1391730855760 1358629116480 What is the etiology of a Multinodular Goiter?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Relative Iodine Deficiency}}</div>
1391732149803 1358629116480 {{c1::Cretinism}} is a form of hypothyroidism th
at occurs in neonates and infants.
1391732438542 1358629116480 {{c1::Dyshormonogenetic goiter}} is a cause of C

retinism that is due to a congenital defect in thyroid hormone production.
1391732534076 1358629116480 What is a Dyshormonogenetic Goiter?<div><r /></
div><div>{{c1::A congenital defect in thyroid hormone production}}</div>
1391732558187 1358629116480 Which enzyme is most commonly implicated in Dysh
ormonogenetic Goiter?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thyroid Peroxidase}}</div>
1391732576751 1358629116480 {{c1::Myxedema}} is defined as hypothyroidism in
older children and adults.
1391732794557 1358629116480 How does asal metaolic rate change in Hypothyr
oidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreases}}</div>
1391732833184 1358629116480 How does SNS activity change in Hypothyroidism?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreases}}</div>
1391732846242 1358629116480 The accumulation of&nsp;{{c1::glycoaminoglycans
}} in the skin and soft tissue causes myxedema.
1391732940608 1358629116480 How do cholesterol levels change in Hypothyroidi
sm?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypercholesterolemia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Du
e to </i><><i>decreased LDL receptor expression</i>.</></div>
1391732971010 1358629116480 What are the 2 most common causes of Hypothyroid
ism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Iodine Deficiency and Hashimoto's Thyroiditis}}<
/div>
1391733006047 1358629116480 {{c1::Hashimoto's Thyroiditis}} is cause of hypo
thyroidism descried as autoimmune destruction of the thyroid gland.
<r /><d
iv><i>There may e initial <>hyper</>thyroidism due to thyrotoxicosis during f
ollicular rupture.</i></div>
1391733038409 1358629116480 Which HLA sutypes are associated with Hashimoto
's Thyroiditis?&nsp;<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR5 and HLA-DR3}}</div>
1391733054357 1358629116480 How are TSH levels changed in Hypothyroidism?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1391733078486 1358629116480 {{c1::Anti-thyrogloulin}} and&nsp;{{c2::Anti-T
hyroid Peroxidase}} antiodies are commonly implicated in Hashimoto's Thyroiditi
s.
1391733121824 1358629116480 Hashimoto's Thyroiditis presents with an increas
ed risk for&nsp;{{c1::B-cell marginal zone}} lymphoma. <r /><div><i>It can pre
sent as an enlarging thyroid gland later in disease course.</i></div>
1391733176012 1358629116480 {{c1::Suacute Granulomatous De Quervian Thyroid
itis}} is a <>granulomatous</> thyroiditis that follows viral infection or flu
-like illness.
1391733217832 1358629116480 {{c1::Suacute Granulomatous De Quervian Thyroid
itis}}&nsp;is a type of thyroiditis that presents as a <>tender</>&nsp;thyro
id with transient episodes of hyperthyroidism. <r /><div><i>The tenderness is
very unique to De Quervian's.</i></div>
1391733262509 1358629116480 {{c1::Riedel's Firosing Thyroiditis}} is a type
of thyroiditis involving chronic inflammation of the thyroid with extensive fi
rosis. <r /><div><i>Firosis may extend to local structures</i>.</div>
1391733295074 1358629116480 {{c1::Riedel's Firosing Thyroiditis}}&nsp;is a
type of thyroiditis that presents with <>hypo</>thyroidism and a <>'hard as
wood'</>, <>nontender</>&nsp;thyroid gland. <r /><div><i>The firosis may e
xtend to local structures, esp. the airway.</i></div>
1391733352294 1358629116480 Which demographic is most commonly affected y R
iedel's Firosing Thyroiditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ounger & middle a
ged females (< 40 y/o)}}</div>
1391733424835 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::goiter}} is an enlarged thyroid tha
t appears independent of the thyroid's functional status.<div><r /></div><div><
<r /><div><i>Seen in oth hyper
- or hypothyroidism.</i></div>
1391733541070 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::hot}} nodule is a thyroid nodule th
at exhiits increased uptake of radioactive I-131 and are typically seen in Grav
es Disease.
1391734608029 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::cold}} nodule is a thyroid nodule t
hat exhiits decreased uptake of radioactive I-131 and are commonly seen in aden
oma and carcinomas.

<r /><div><i>Cold nodules always warrant iopsy.</i></d
iv>
1391734666900 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::follicular adenoma of the thyroid}}
is defined as a enign proliferation of the thyroid follicles surrounded y a f
irous capsule.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-10853382357358.jpg" /></div>
<r><div><i>Typically nonfunctional.</i></div>
1391734859453 1358629116480 What is the most common type of thyroid carcinom
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Papillary Carcinoma (80% of cases)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Excellent prognosis.</i></div>
1391734877537 1358629116480 {{c1::Papillary Carcinoma}} is a type of thyroid
cancer that involves papillae lined with cell that have clear, <>Orphan-Annie
eye</>&nsp;nuclei and nuclear groove (<>coffee ean</>) nuclei.<div><r /></
div><div><img src="paste-11261404250450.jpg" /><img src="paste-11274289152189.jp
g" /><img src="paste-11287174054067.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div>
1391735009733 1358629116480 Which thyroid cancer is commonly associated with
Psamomma Bodies?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11321533792511.jpg" /><r
/><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Papillary Carcinoma}}</div></div>
1391735038545 1358629116480 {{c1::Follicular Carcinoma}} is a thyroid cancer
that is characterized as a malignant proliferation of the thyroid follicle.
that involves a firous capsule and <>invasion through the capsule</>.
<r /><div><i>Invasion through the capsule is the hallmark of follicular carcino
ma.</i></div>
that metastasizes hematogenously.
1391735174690 1358629116480 Most carcinomas spread and metastasize via the {
{c1::lymphatics}}.
1391735206730 1358629116480 {{c1::Medullary Carcinoma}} is a thyroid cancer
that is defined as a malignant proliferation of <>parafollicular C-cells</>&n
sp;of the thyroid.
1391735242242 1358629116480 Which cells make Calcitonin?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Parafollicular C-cells of the Thyroid}}</div>
1391735261383 1358629116480 {{c1::Medullary Carcinoma}} is a thyroid cancer
that presents with <>localized amyloidosis due to polymerization of pro-calcito
nin into eta-sheets</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11699490914636.jp
1391735404325 1358629116480 Which gene is implicated in Multiple Endocrine N
eoplasia 2 (MEN2)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::RET}}</div>
1391735438436 1358629116480 MEN2A is associated with {{c2::medullary thyroid
carcinoma}}, {{c3::pheochromocytoma}} and {{c1::parathyroid adenomas}}.
<r /><div><i>RET mutation</i>.</div><div><img src="paste-33487860007235.jpg" />
1391736752721 1358629116480 MEN2B is associated with medullary carcinoma, ph
eochromocytoma and&nsp;{{c1::ganglioneuromas of the oral mucosa}}.
<r /><d
15.jpg" /></div>
1391736809010 1358629116480 {{c1::Anaplastic carcinoma}} is a <>very malign
ant</>, undifferentiated thyroid cancer typically seen in the elderly. <r /><d
iv><i>Invades local structures causing dysphagia or respiratory compromise. Prog
nosis is poor.</i></div>
1391736853666 1358629116480 Which demographic is associated with Anaplastic
Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Elderly}}</div>
1391736911681 1358629116480 {{c1::Riedel's Firosing Thyroiditis}} is a type
of thyroiditis that presents similarly to <>Anaplastic Carcinoma</> of the Th
yroid.
1391736951855 1358629116480 How do Thyroid Binding Gloulin levels change in
pregnancy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1391737542291 1358629116480 Which thyroid cancer has the worst prognosis?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anaplastic Carcinoma}}</div>
1391737893375 1358629116480 Which gene mutation is most commonly implicated
in Papillary Carcinoma of the Thyroid?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gain of functi

on mutation in <i>BRAF</i> (60% of cases)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>RET/PTC fu
sion is also seen in 40%</i></div>
1391738014506 1358629116480 {{c2::Papillary Carcinoma}} is a thyroid cancer
that involves cells with nuclear grooves and "coffee ean" nuclei.<div><r /></d
1391738093396 1358629116480 {{c1::Papillary Carcinoma}} is a thyroid cancer
that involves cells with <>Orphan Annie Nuclei</>.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-13391708029112.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-23626615095713.jpg" /
></div>
associated with gene mutations in Ras, PAX8 and PPAR-gamma.
1391738174830 1358629116480 Medullary Carcinoma is a thyroid cancer associat
ed with Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia type {{c1::2}}.
1391738232555 1358629116480 {{c1::Pendred Syndrome}} is a type of goitrous h
ypothyroidism due to deficient pendrin protein levels. It presents with sensorin
eural deafness.
1391738876262 1358629116480 {{c1::Hashimoto's Thyroiditis}} is a cause of hy
pothyroidism that involves lymphocytic infiltration of the thyroid and the forma
tion of <>Hurthle cells</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1395005377772
1391739090630 1358629116480 {{c1::Thyroid Hormone Resistance Syndrome}} is a
rare autosomal-dominant cause of hypothyroidism due to an inherited mutation in
the Thyroid hormone receptor (TR-eta).
<r /><div><i>T3 and T4 levels w
ill e elevated ut TSH is as well, as there is a lack of feedack due to the mu
tation.</i></div>
1391739233886 1358629116480 {{c1::Acropachy}} is an extreme complication of
Graves Disease and involves the swelling of soft tissue and cluing of the fing
ers and toes.
1391739304440 1358629116480 {{c1::Graves Disease}} or other forms of Hyperth
yroidism are associated with scalloping of the colloid at the Thyroid.<div><r /
<r /><div><i>Du
e to hyperactivity and endocytosis of the colloid.</i></div>
1391739407030 1358629116480 Which viral infection is most commonly associate
d with Suacute Granulomatous De Quervian's Thyroiditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Coxsackievirus}}</div>
1391807481911 1358629116480 Which layer of the adrenal cortex produces Miner
alocorticoids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Glomerulosa}}</div>
1391807547348 1358629116480 Which layer of the adrenal cortex produces Gluco
corticoids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fasciculata}}</div>
1391807564165 1358629116480 Which layer of the adrenal cortex produces Sex S
teroids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Reticularis}}</div>
1391807579275 1358629116480 {{c1::Cushing's Syndrome}} is an endocrine disor
der characterized y excess levels of cortisol.
1391807607724 1358629116480 {{c1::Muscle weakness}} is a feature of Cushing'
s Syndrome due to cortisol-mediated reak down of muscle to produce amino acids
for gluconeogenesis.
1391807646762 1358629116480 Cushing's Syndrome is characterized y increased
&nsp;{{c1::fat}} storage due to an increase in Insulin levels in response to th
e hyperglycemia.
1391807695613 1358629116480 {{c1::Adominal Striae}} are a feature of Cushin
g's Syndrome that appear on the skin due to <>impaired collagen synthesis</> a
nd <>thinning of the skin</>. They form due to ruptured BVs.<div><r /></div><
</div> <r /><div><i>They appear purple.</i></div><div><i>Rememer, Cortisol in
hiits firolast function.</i></div>
1391807756617 1358629116480 Cortisol yields an increase in the expression of
&nsp;{{c1::Alpha-1}} adrenergic receptors, hence HTN is a feature of Cushing's
Syndrome.
1391807796045 1358629116480 {{c1::Immunosuppression}} is a feature of Cushin
g's Syndrome as increased cortisol inhiits Phospholipase A2 function and IL2 an

d Histamine release.
1391808307991 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Cushing's Syndr
ome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Exogenous Corticosteroids}}</div>
1391808385872 1358629116480 Which adrenal glands are atrophied in Cushing's
Syndrome caused y Exogenous Corticosteroids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Both}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Due to exogenous suppression of ACTH.</i></div>
1391808459490 1358629116480 Cushing's Syndrome caused y&nsp;{{c1::Exogenou
s Corticosteroids}} is the only one that involves atrophy of oth adrenal glands
.
Syndrome caused y Primary Adrenal Adenoma/Hyperplasia/Carcinoma?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Only 1; The one that is not involved}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Th
e cancer or hyperplastic adrenal gland is going to e enlarged despite decrease
in ACTH.</i></div>
Syndrome caused y an ACTH-Secreting Pituitary Adenoma?<div><r />{{c1::None; th
ere is ilateral Adrenal Hyperplasia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to increased A
CTH.</i></div>
1391808584263 1358629116480 {{c1::ACTH}} is a hormone from the anterior pitu
itary that stimulates adrenal gland hyperplasia and function.
Syndrome caused y Paraneoplastic ACTH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Non
e; there is Bilateral Adrenal Hyperplasia}}</div>
1391808645363 1358629116480 Which cancer is commonly associated with Paraneo
plastic ACTH secretion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small cell carcinoma of the l
ung}}</div>
1391808662183 1358629116480 How will Cortisol levels change following a Dexa
methasone Suppression Test in a patient with an <>ACTH-secreting Pituitary Aden
oma</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The pituit
ary adenoma is still ale to respond to negative feedack from Corticosteroids.<
/i></div>
1391808983298 1358629116480 How will Cortisol levels change following a Dexa
methasone Suppression Test in a patient with <>ectopic ACTH secretion</>?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::No change; remains high}}</div> <r /><div><i>For exampl
e, small cell carcinoma of the lung which lacks an aility to respond to glucoco
rticoid feedack.</i></div>
1391809039789 1358629116480 {{c1::Conn Syndrome}} is an adrenal disorder cha
racterized y excess amounts of Aldosterone.
1391809069409 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypertension}} is the key feature of Hyper
aldosteronism due to the Na retention, hypokalemia and metaolic alkalosis.
1391809179735 1358629116480 How does Aldosterone influence Na levels?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Causes Na retention (Hypernatremia)}}</div>
1391809206706 1358629116480 How does Aldosterone influence K levels?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Causes K excretion; Hypokalemia}}</div>
1391809226537 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of <>primary</>&
nsp;hyperaldosteronism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sporadic Adrenal Hyperplasia
}}</div>
1391809261909 1358629116480 How do Renin levels change in Primary Hyperaldos
teronism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased; the HTN downregulates RAAS}}</di
v>
1391809309005 1358629116480 What is the cause of Secondary Hyperaldosteronis
m?<div><r />{{c1::Activation of the RAAS; typically y renal hypertension, CHF,
Renal A sclerosis}}</div>
1391809370195 1358629116480 How are Renin levels changed in <>Secondary</>
&nsp;Hyperaldosteronism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Due to activation of the RAAS</i></div>
1391809394251 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Congenital Adre
nal Hyperplasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::21-Hydroxylase deficiency}}</div>
<img src="paste-21058224652723.jpg" />
1391809501649 1358629116480 {{c1::Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia}} is an end

ocrine disorder characterized y an excess of sex steroids alongside ilateral a
drenal hyperplasia.
1391809544493 1358629116480 {{c1::21-Hydroxylase}} is a key enzyme at the ad
renal cortex required for the production of Aldosterone and Corticosteroids, ut
not sex steroids.
1391809585701 1358629116480 How do ACTH levels change in response to a defic
iency of Cortisol?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1391809612169 1358629116480 A lack of&nsp;{{c1::Aldosterone}} in a 21-Hydro
xylase deficiency results in hyponatremia, hyperkalemia and hypovolemia.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Aldosterone causes Na retention, consequent fluid retent
ion, and K excretion.</i></div>
1391809718165 1358629116480 A lack of&nsp;{{c1::Cortisol}} in a 21-Hydroxyl
ase deficiency leads to life threatening hypotension. <r /><div><i>Rememer,
Cortisol is needed to maintain vascular tone and increase the expression of alph
a-1 adrenoceptors.</i></div>
1391811223131 1358629116480 How does the excess amounts of Androgens in Cong
enital Adrenal Hyperplasia present in females?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Clitoral
enlargement and virilization}}</div>
1391811371381 1358629116480 How does the excess amounts of Androgens in Cong
enital Adrenal Hyperplasia present in males?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Precocious
puerty}}</div>
1391811379273 1358629116480 {{c1::11-Hydroxylase Deficiency}} is a cause of
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia that involves the production of weak mineralocort
icoids and hence no salt wasting.
<img src="paste-21827023798709.jpg" />
1391811428144 1358629116480 {{c1::17-Hydroxylase deficiency}} is a type of C
ongenital Adrenal Hyperplasia that involves an excess of mineralocorticoids with
no cortisol and no sex steroids.
<img src="paste-21831318766005.jpg" />
1391811497613 1358629116480 {{c1::Waterhouse-Friderichsen Syndrome}} is an <
><u>acute</u></> form of Adrenal Insufficiency characterized y hemorrhagic ne
crosis of the adrenal glands.
1391811631768 1358629116480 What acterial species is commonly associated wi
th Waterhouse-Friderichsen Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseria men
ingitidis</i>}}</div> <r /><div><i>Septicemia or endotoxic shock causes DIC a
nd hemorrhage into the adrenals.</i></div>
1391811668705 1358629116480 {{c1::Addison's Disease}} is a <>chronic</>&n
sp;form of Adrenal Insufficiency due to progressive destruction of the adrenals.
1391811919509 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Addison's Disea
se in the western world?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autoimmune destruction of th
e Adrenals}}</div>
1391811953031 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Addison's Disea
se in the developing world?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TB}}</div>
1391811966594 1358629116480 Metastatic carcinoma from the&nsp;{{c1::lung}}
can commonly cause Addison's Disease.
1391811992761 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperpigmentation}} of the skin is a key f
eature of Addison's Disease due to increased ACTH y-products that stimulate mel
anocytes, especially at mucosal surfaces.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1
6398185136405.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>MSH is a y-product of ACTH produc
tion from POMC.</i></div>
1391812038104 1358629116480 {{c1::Pheochromocytoma}} is an adrenal disorder
defined as a tumour of the <>chromaffin cells</> of the adrenal medulla.<div><
1391812062835 1358629116480 An increase in the level of serum metanephrines
is commonly diagnostic of&nsp;{{c1::Pheochromocytoma}}.
1391812123054 1358629116480 An increase in 14-hour urine levels of metanephr
ines and vanillylmandelic acid is commonly diagnostic of&nsp;{{c1::Pheochromocy
toma}}.
1391812153656 1358629116480 Which enzyme reaks down serum metanephrines (fr
om Epi) and normetanephrines (from NE) into Vanillylmandelic Acid (VMA)?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Monoamine Oxidase (MAO)}}</div>

1391812197275 1358629116480 {{c1::Phenoxyenzamine}} is an irreversile, non
-selective alpha-adrenergic locker that must e given pre-operatively to a pati
ent with Pheochromocytoma.
<r /><div><i>This is to prevent a hypertensive
crisis as the surgeon manipulates the tumour during the procedure.</i></div><div
><i><>Irreversile alpha-lockade must e achieved efore eta-lockers are giv
en.</></i></div>
1391812250805 1358629116480 {{c1::Pheochromocytoma}} is an adrenal tumour th
at is often said to follow the "Rule of 10's". <r /><div><img src="paste-18777
597018371.jpg" /></div>
1391812294963 1358629116480 Which type of Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia is as
sociated with Pheochromocytoma?<div><r />{{c1::MEN2 (oth 2A and 2B)}}</div>
1391812352425 1358629116480 Which type of Neurofiromatosis is associated wi
th Pheochromocytoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NF1}}</div>
1391812366190 1358629116480 Which gene mutation leads to a 21-Hydroxylase de
ficiency?<div><r />{{c1::Mutation in CP21A}}</div>
1391813127156 1358629116480 {{c1::Sephardic Jews}} are a specific demographi
c that have a high incidence of 11-Hydroxylase deficiency.
1391813275505 1358629116480 How do K levels change in a 21-Hydroxylase defic
iency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperkalemia}}</div>
1391813356445 1358629116480 How do K levels change in a 11-Hydroxylase defic
iency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypokalemia}}</div>
1391813369035 1358629116480 How do Na levels change in a 21-Hydroxylase defi
ciency?<div><r />{{c1::Hyponatremia}}</div>
1391813386815 1358629116480 How do Na levels change in a 11-Hydroxylase defi
ciency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypernatremia}}</div>
1391813424527 1358629116480 Which precursor in adrenal hormone synthesis is
used to diagnose a 21-Hydroxylase deficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::17-Hydr
oxyprogesterone}}</div> <img src="paste-25177098289591.jpg" />
1391813477229 1358629116480 Which precursor in adrenal hormone synthesis is
used to diagnose a 11-Hydroxylase deficiency?<div><r />{{c1::11-Deoxycorticoste
rone}}</div>
<img src="paste-25181393256887.jpg" />
1391813527202 1358629116480 {{c1::Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)}} is
a y-product of ACTH production that is formed when ACTH is cleaved off POMC. It
leads to melanocyte activation.
1391814010442 1358629116480 Administration of&nsp;{{c1::Cosyntropin}} in a
ACTH stimulation test allows us to diagnose Addison's Disease.
1391814089603 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>}} is a gram
negative, opportunistic acteria that is ale to cause Waterhouse-Friderichsen S
yndrome.
1391814461770 1358629116480 How are ACTH levels changed in ACTH Independent
Cushing's Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased}}</div>
1391814584749 1358629116480 How are ACTH levels changed in ACTH Dependent Cu
shing's Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1391814600300 1358629116480 {{c1::Cushing's Disease}} is a cause of Cushing'
s Syndrome due to a ACTH secreting pituitary adenoma.
1391814728212 1358629116480 {{c1::Neurolastoma}} is a childhood tumour that
presents with luish discoloration around the eyes.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-26547192856725.jpg" /></div>
1391814950035 1358629116480 {{c1::Neurolastoma}} is a childhood tumour that
commonly produces catecholamines. ielding elevated Homovanillic Acid (from DA)
and Vanillylmandelic Acid (from Epi/NE) in the urine.
1391815112924 1358629116480 Which pseudorosettes are seen in Neurolastoma?<
div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-26809185861981.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Homer-Wright Rosettes}}</div></div>
1391815177768 1358629116480 What is the most common childhood tumour that ap
pears efore 1 y/o?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neurolastoma}}</div>
1391815269423 1358629116480 Amplification of the gene {{c1::N-Myc}} is assoc
iated with a poor prognosis for Neurolastoma.
1391815320071 1358629116480 Elevated levels of the serum marker {{c1::NSE (N
euron Specific Enolase)}} is associated with a poor prognosis Neurolastoma.

1405128453136 1395802358422 What is the treatment for secondary hyperaldoste
ronism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spironolactone}}</div>
1405128507073 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypotension}} is a systemic feature of Add
ison Disease due to a lack of cortisol and hence decreased sympathetic tone.
1405129891040 1395802358422 How do K<sup>+</sup>&nsp;levels change in Addis
on Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperkalemia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Du
e to a lack of aldosterone.</i></div>
1405129956176 1395802358422 How does secondary adrenal insufficiency present
differently from primary adrenal insufficiency?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Seco
ndary adrenal insufficiency has <u>no skin/mucosal hyperpigmentation</u>&nsp;an
d <u>no hyperkalemia</u>}}</div>
1405131724552 1395802358422 Which emryological cell population does Neurol
astoma develop from?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neural crest cells}}</div>
1405131741465 1395802358422 {{c1::Neurolastoma}} is a tumour of the adrenal
medulla that presents with <>rosettes</>&nsp;and <>classic small, round, l
ue/purple nuclei</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17093969838497.jpg" /
></div> <r /><div><i>It is also <>Bomesin positive</>.</i></div>
1405131767717 1395802358422 {{c1::Neurolastoma}} is a tumour of the adrenal
medulla that most commonly presents as adominal distension and a firm, <>irre
gular mass that can cross the midline</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste17244293693719.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Compare this to <>Wilms' Tumour</
> which is <>smooth</>&nsp;and <>unilateral.</></i></div>
1405131839818 1395802358422 {{c1::Homovanillic acid}} is a reakdown product
of Dopamine that is elevated in the urine in Neurolastoma.
1405131916961 1395802358422 Which oncogene is associated with Neurolastoma?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>N-myc</i>&nsp;overexpression}}</div>
1405131939586 1395802358422
1405132504826 1395802358422 {{c1::Pheochromocytoma}} is a tumour of the adre
nal medulla that is associated with von Hippel-Lindau disease.
1405132672450 1395802358422 {{c1::Pheochromocytoma}} is a tumour of the adre
nal medulla that presents with episodic hyperadrenergic symptoms due to epinephr
ine, norepinephrine and dopamine secretion.
604467439.jpg" /></div>
1405132720950 1395802358422 {{c1::Vanillylmandelic Acid (VMA)}} is a reakdo
wn product of norepinephrine and epinephrine that is found in the urine in Pheoc
hromocytoma.
<r /><div><i>There is also an elevation of plasma catecholamine
s.</i></div>
1405133331886 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of hypothyroidism
in iodine-sufficient areas?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hashimoto's Thyroiditis}}
</div>
1405133759363 1395802358422 How does the risk of non-Hodgkin Lymphoma change
in Hashimoto Thyroiditis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405133799100 1395802358422 {{c1::Hurthle Cells}} are histological findings
in Hashimoto Thyroiditis that are descried as <>lymphoid aggregates</>&nsp;w
ith germinal centers.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-20482699035044.jpg" /
></div>
1405133916637 1395802358422 {{c1::Hashimoto Thyroiditis}} is an autoimmune c
ause of hypothyroidism that presents with a moderately enlarged, <>nontender</
>&nsp;thyroid.
1405134006773 1395802358422 {{c1::Cretinism}} is a type of congenital hypoth
yroidism that presents with <>pot-elly, pale skin, puffy face, protruding umi
licus, protuerant tongue</>&nsp;and <>poor rain development</>.<div><r />
jpg" /></div>
1405135261205 1395802358422 {{c1::Riedel Firosing Thyroiditis}} is a type o
f hypothyroidism that is considered a manifestation of <>IgG<su>4</su>-relate
d systemic disease</>.
1405135507248 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxic Multinodular Goiter}} is a type of m
ultinodular goiter that presents with <>focal patches of hyperfunctioning folli

cular cells</>&nsp;that are <>TSH-indepedent</>&nsp;due to a <>mutation in
the TSH receptor</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22144851378592.jpg"
/></div>
1405135633742 1395802358422 {{c1::Toxic Multinodular Goiter}} is a type of m
ultinodular goiter that presents with <>follicles of various sizes distended wi
th colloid</>&nsp;and <>lined y flattened epithelium</>&nsp;with <>areas
of firosis and hemorrhage</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-22140556411
296.jpg" /></div>
1405135679306 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Hyperthyroidism
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Graves Disease}}</div>
1405135705455 1395802358422 {{c1::Hoarseness}} is a possile complication of
thyroid surgery due to damage to the recurrent laryngeal nerve.
1405136775482 1395802358422 {{c1::Medullary Carcinoma of the Thyroid}} is a
type of thyroid cancer that presents with <>solid sheets of cells within an amy
loid stroma</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23789823852962.jpg" /></di
v>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, the amyloid is made of Calcitonin.</i></div>
1405136949141 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteitis Firosa Cystica}} is a complicati
on of primary hyperparathyroidism that presents with <>cystic one spaces fille
d with rown firous tissue</>&nsp;and one pain.<div><r /></div><div><img sr
c="paste-24378234372376.jpg" /></div>
1405137218925 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Primary Hyperpa
rathyroidism<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Parathyroid Adenoma}}</div>
1405137326471 1395802358422 Which type of nephrolithiasis can e seen in pri
mary hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcium oxalate stones}}</d
iv>
1405137362196 1395802358422 {{c1::Nephrocalcinosis}} is a complication of pr
imary hyperparathyroidism that involves <>metastatic calcification of the renal
tuules</>, potentially leading to renal insufficiency and polyuria.
1405137435570 1395802358422 How does serum Ca change in primary hyperparathy
roidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1405137471090 1395802358422 How does serum PO4 change in <>primary</>&nsp
;hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Rememer, PTH inhiits PO4 reasorption at the kidney.</i></div>
1405137521153 1395802358422 How does urinary cAMP change in <>primary</>&n
<r /><d
sp;hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
iv><i>PTH inding at the kidneys increases cAMP via G<su>s</su>&nsp;proteins
and Adenylate Cyclase activity.</i></div><div><i>The cAMP overproduction results
in leakage of cAMP into the urine.</i></div>
1405137577759 1395802358422 How does serum ALP change in <>primary</>&nsp
;hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>PTH activates osteolasts which results in increased ALP expression.</i></
div>
1405137633963 1395802358422 Which type of hyperparathyroidism is associated
with <>increased</>&nsp;cAMP in the urine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Primary
}}</div>
>&nsp;hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic renal failure}}</
div>
<r /><div><i>Renal failure leads to <>decreased phosphate excretion</
>.</i></div><div><i>Serum PO4 inds to free Ca, therey resulting in <>hypocalc
emia</>.</i></div><div><i>The <>decrease in free Ca</>&nsp;results in PTH se
cretion.</i></div><div><i><u>Chronic renal failure also may result in decrease V
itamin D and hence hypocalcemia</u>.</i></div>
1405137690074 1395802358422 How do Ca levels change in <>secondary</>&nsp
;hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Due to the inding of free Ca y elevated serum PO4.</i></div>
1405137786210 1395802358422 How do PO4 levels change in <>secondary</>&ns
p;hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Typically due to renal failure and decreased PO4 excretion.</i></div>
with <>hypo</>calcemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Secondary}}</div>

with <>hyper</>phosphatemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Secondary}}</div>
with <>hyper</>calcemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Primary}}</div>
with <>hypo</>phosphatemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Primary}}</div>
1405137868120 1395802358422 {{c1::Renal Osteodystrophy}} is a complication o
f secondary hyperparathyroidism that involves <>one lesions</>&nsp;due to re
nal disease.
1405137921759 1395802358422 How do Ca levels change in hypoparathyroidism?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><div><i>lol, duh</i></div>
1405137983530 1395802358422 {{c1::Chvostek Sign}} is a neurological feature
of hypoparathyroidism that involves <>contraction of the facial muscles upon ta
pping of the facial nerve.</>
1405138021924 1395802358422 {{c1::Trousseau Sign}} is a neurological feature
of hypoparathyroidism that presents as <>carpal spasm following occlusion of t
he rachial artery</>&nsp;(i.e. lood pressure cuff).
1405138081309 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudohypoparathyroidism}} is a type of hy
poparathyroidism that involves <>end-organ resistance to PTH</>&nsp;due to an
<>autosomal dominant </>defect.
<r /><div><i>Presents identically to hy
poparathyroidism except that <>PTH is elevated or normal</>.</i></div><div><i>
Mutation is often in the G<su>s</su>&nsp;protein of the signalling cascade.</
i></div>
1405138150165 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Pseudohypopar
athyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>The defect is often in the G<su>s</su>&nsp;protein of the signalling ca
scade.</i></div>
1405138161487 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudohypoparathyroidism}} is a type of hy
poparathyroidism that is associated with <>short stature</>&nsp;and <>shorte
ning of the 4th and 5th digits</>.
1405138255835 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of death in gigant
ism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cardiac failure}}</div>
1405138695834 1395802358422 {{c1::Acromegaly}} is an endocrine disorder due
to <>excess GH in adults</>&nsp;that presents with <>coarse facial features<
/>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-27784143438240.jpg" /></div>
1405138785074 1395802358422 {{c1::Octreotide}} is a somatostatin analog used
to treat Acromegaly.
1405138877970 1395802358422 {{c1::Pegvisomant}} is a GH receptor antagonist
used to treat acromegaly.
1405138914305 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Pegvisomant in the treatment
of Acromegaly?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Antagonism at the GH receptor}}</div>
1405138933868 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Octreotide in the treatment o
f Acromegaly?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Agonism at Somatostatin receptors, ther
ey inhiiting GH release}}</div>
1405138963602 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Central Diaetes Insip
idus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Desmopressin}}</div>
1405139183550 1395802358422 {{c1::Nephrogenic Diaetes Insipidus}} is a type
of Diaetes Insipidus that can e treated with <>hydrochlorothiazide, indometh
acin</>&nsp;and <>amiloride</>.
1405139230679 1395802358422 How do Aldosterone levels change in SIADH?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <i>Increased ADH activity effectively di
lutes the lood (decreasing the concentrations of solutes such as sodium), causi
ng hyponatremia; Response to water retention results in decreased aldosterone, c
ausing further sodium wasting. &nsp;This hyponatremia causes cereral edema and
seizures.</i>
1405139536961 1395802358422 {{c1::Conivaptan}} is an ADH antagonist used to
treat SIADH y <>non-selective antagonism at V<su>1</su>&nsp;and V<su>2</su
>&nsp;receptors.</>
1405139780299 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Conivaptan in the treatment o
f SIADH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Nonspecific</u>&nsp;antagonism at vasopr

essin V<su>1</su>&nsp;and V<su>2</su>&nsp;receptors}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>"<>Connie</>&nsp;gets around.... that hoe."</i></div>
1405139808279 1395802358422 {{c1::Tolvaptan}} is an ADH antagonist that is u
sed to treat SIADH via <>selective antagonism</>&nsp;at V<su>2</su>&nsp;re
ceptors.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, V<su>2</su>&nsp;receptors are at the
kidney.</i></div>
1405139840316 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Tolvaptan in the treatment of
SIADH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<u>Selective</u>&nsp;antagonism at V<su>2 <
/su>receptors}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, V<su>2</su>&nsp;receptors are
at the kidneys.</i></div>
1405139906585 1395802358422 Which type of Diaetes Mellitus is associated wi
th Diaetic Ketoacidosis (DKA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T1DM}}</div>
1405140265638 1395802358422 Which type of Diaetes Mellitus is associated wi
th Hyperosmolar Coma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T2DM}}</div>
1405140281607 1395802358422 {{c1::Diaetic Retinopathy}} is an ocular compli
cation of the nonenzymatic glycosylation seen in Diaetes Mellitus that involves
<>hemorrhaging, exudates, microaneurysms</>&nsp;and <>vessel proliferation<
/>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-31013958844697.jpg" /></div>
1405140366986 1395802358422 What type of reath odour is associated with Dia
etic Ketoacidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fruity}}</div> <r /><div><i>Du
e to the exhaled acetone.</i></div>
1405140852368 1395802358422 {{c1::Anion Gap Metaolic Acidosis}} is a type o
f acid-ase imalance seen in diaetic ketoacidosis due to a loss of HCO<su>3</
su>.
1405140984165 1395802358422 How do K levels change in Diaetic Ketoacidosis?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperkalemia}}</div>
Insulin drives K into cells.</i></div><div><i>Acidosis (i.e. ketoacidosis) will
drive K out of cells.</i></div><div><i>So <>not only is there hyperkalemia, the
re is depleted intracellular K as well</>.</i></div>
1405141047670 1395802358422 {{c1::Mucormycosis}} is a life-threatening infec
tion commonly caused y <i>Rhizopus sp.</i>&nsp;that is a complication of diae
tic ketoacidosis.
1405141102006 1395802358422 Which type of Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia (MEN)
commonly presents with kidney stones and stomach ulcers?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::MEN1 (Wermer Syndrome)}}</div>
is known as Wermer Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MEN1}}</div>
is known as Sipple Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MEN2A}}</div>
1405141439650 1395802358422 Which type of Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia is as
sociated with <>marfanoid haitus</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MEN2B}}</div>
1405141547871 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of all Multiple
Endocrine Neoplasias (MEN)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div
>
1381514842883 1358629116480 How many isoforms of G6PD or HUMARA will neoplas
tic tissue express?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::One}}</div>
<r /><div><i>HU
MARA refers to Human Androgen Receptor</i></div>
1381514894558 1358629116480 How many isoforms of G6PD will normal, polyclona
l tissue express?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Two; in a 1:1 ratio}}</div>
1381514925948 1358629116480 What is the kappa:lamda ratio of immunogloulin
light chains in neoplastic B cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 6:1 or 1:3}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Essentially, a greatly skewed ratio in favour of either ka
ppa or lamda light chains.</i></div>
1381515933039 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant}} tumours exhiit rapid growth.
1381516204486 1358629116480 Only&nsp;{{c1::malignant}} tumours have the pos
siility to exhiit associated fever and/or weight loss.
1381516244047 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant}} tumours are generally larger.
1381516279958 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant}} tumours have poorly defined o
undaries and are hence poorly differentiated on a gross scale.
1381516433448 1358629116480 {{c1::Benign}} tumours have well defined oundar

ies and are hence well differentiated on a gross scale.
1381516449635 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant}} tumours are generally hard.
1381516474644 1358629116480 {{c1::Benign}} tumours are freely moile.
<r /><div><i>e.g. Firoadenoma of the reast.</i></div>
1381516502410 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant}} tumours have the aility to e
fixed to surrounding tissue.
1381516534618 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant}} tumours have the aility to in
vade neary lymph nodes.
1381516762031 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant}} tumours often exhiit numerous
mitotic figures that are frequently anormal.
1381517072471 1358629116480 {{c1::Malignant}} tumours often invade lood ves
sels, lymphatics or peri-neural space.
1381517118843 1358629116480 How many doulings does it take for a tumour to
reach 1 g in mass?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::30}}</div>
1381518286006 1358629116480 How many doulings does it take for a tumour to
reach 1 kg in mass?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::40}}</div>
1381518308846 1358629116480 What is anaplastic tissue?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Anormal tissue/cells that lack differentiation.}}</div>
1381521984944 1358629116480 What is desmoplastic tissue?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Firous tissue made in response to neoplasm.}}</div>
1381522009450 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin of a neoplasm th
at tests positive keratin or cytokeratin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epithelium}
}</div>
1381523501142 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin for a neoplasm t
hat tests positive for epithelial memrane antigen (EMA)?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Epithelium.}}</div>
at tests positive for vimentin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesenchyme.}}</div>
at tests positive for desmin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Muscle.}}</div>
at tests positive for Leukocyte Common Antigen (LCA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:
:Leukocytes.}}</div>
hat tests positive for muscle specific antigen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Muscl
e.}}</div>
hat tests positive for chromogranin, omesin or synaptophysin?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Neuro-endocrine.}}</div>
hat tests positive for S-100 or HMB-45?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Melanocyte}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Would also test positive for&nsp;<>melanin</>, duh.</i>
</div>
hat tests positive for Glial Firillary Acidic Protein (GFAP)?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Glial cells}}</div>
hat tests positive for vWF or CD31?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Blood vessel}}</d
iv>
hat tests positive for thyrogloulin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thyroid follicl
e}}</div>
at tests positive for alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Germ c
ell tumour of the testes, ovaries or liver}}</div>
hat tests positive for placental alkaline phosphatase (PLAP) or eta-hCG?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Germ cell tumour of the testes}}</div>
at tests positive for CD10 (CALLA)?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::B cell lympholast}

}</div>
1381524666597 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin of a neoplasm wi
th visile neuro-secretory granules?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuro-endocrine}
}</div>
1381524761990 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin for a neoplasm w
ith visile Weiel Palade odies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endothelium}}</div>
1381524827493 1358629116480 What is the cell type of origin for a neoplasm w
ith visile <>Bireck granules</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Histiocyte}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>Bireck Granules have a tennis racket appearance; Seen in
Histiocytosis X</i></div>
1381524899831 1358629116480 What is the action of Hypoxia Inducile Factor (
HIF)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::It stimulates VEGF transcription.}}</div>
1381534496142 1358629116480 What are the 2 types of malignant tumours that d
o not exhiit metastasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Basal cell carcinoma and gl
ioma.}}</div>
1381535599276 1358629116480 Which method of spread do most carcinomas employ
for metastasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lymphatic}}</div>
1381537418400 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::sentinel}} lymph node(s) is the f
irst node or group of nodes to receive lymphatic drainage from a tumour in a reg
ional lymphatic asin.
1381538348479 1358629116480 Where does Stomach adenocarcinoma metastasize to
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Virchow's left supraclavicular node}}</div>
1381538523439 1358629116480 Where does reast cancer metastasize to?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Lung or one}}</div>
1381538542287 1358629116480 Where does prostate cancer metastasize to?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Bone}}</div>
1381538555006 1358629116480 Where do testicular tumours metastasize to?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Para-aortic lymph nodes}}</div>
1381538586982 1358629116480 Osteolastic radio-<>dense</>&nsp;loci are se
en with&nsp;{{c1::prostate}} cancer. It also involves increased serum ALP indic
ative of reactive one formation.
1381539034695 1358629116480 Osteolytic radio<>lucent</>&nsp;loci are seen
in&nsp;{{c1::reast}} cancer due to production of osteoclast activating factor
s y the tumour.
1381539067054 1358629116480 What is cancer cachexia?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::The loss of ody fat, wasting and profound weakness during cancer.}}</div>
1381539096272 1358629116480 Which cytokine typically promotes cancer cachexi
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::TNF-a}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>Cachexia</> is
also known as wasting syndrome: it is a general state of ill health involving m
arked weight loss and muscle loss.</i></div>
1381539112802 1358629116480 {{c1::Cushing's syndrome}} is a paraneoplastic s
yndrome associated with {{c2::small cell carcinoma}} of the lung and malignant A
CTH secretion.
1381539534030 1358629116480 {{c1::Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH secretion (S
IADH)}} is a paraneoplastic syndrome typically associated with {{c2::small cell}
} carcinoma of the lung and ADH secretion.
1381539623013 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypercalcemia}} is a paraneoplastic syndro
me associated with {{c2::squamous cell}} carcinoma of the lung and PTH-related p
rotein (PTHRP) secretion.
1381539689505 1358629116480 {{c1::Polycythemia}} is a paraneoplastic syndrom
e associated with {{c2::renal cell}} carcinoma and EPO secretion.
1381539717849 1358629116480 {{c1::Carcinoid syndrome}} is a paraneoplastic s
yndrome associated with the EECs of the small intestine and Serotonin secretion.
1381539763565 1358629116480 {{c1::Acanthosis nigricans}} is a paraneoplastic
syndrome associated with a visceral malignancy.
1381539801768 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypocalcemia}} is a paraneoplastic syndrom
e associated with a {{c2::medullary}} carcinoma of the thyroid and Calcitonin se
cretion.
1381539842323 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypertrophic osteoartropathy}} is a para-n
eoplastic syndrome associated with ronchogenic carcinoma and a periostal reacti

on of the distal phalanges (with cluing).
1381539890867 1358629116480 {{c1::Trousseau syndrome}} or Migratory Thromop
hleitis is a paraneoplastic syndrome associated with&nsp;{{c2::pancreatic}} ca
rcinoma and the activation of clotting factors.
1381539938252 1358629116480 What is characteristic of a Stage IV cancer?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Advanced stage with distant metastasis}}</div>
1381543838259 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::sarcoma}} is a malignant tumour ori
ginating from mesenchyme.
1381544169089 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::carcinoma}} is a malignant tumours
originating from epithelium.
1381544191313 1358629116480 Prostate specific antigen (PSA) is a tumour mark
er indicative of&nsp;{{c1::prostate}} cancer.
1381544248604 1358629116480 eta-hCG is a tumour marker indicative of&nsp;{
{c1::tropholastic}} cancer(s).<div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>e.g. {{c2::Hydati
diform mole, Chorio-carcinoma, Emryonal carcinoma::3}}</i></div>
<r /><d
iv><i><r /></i></div>
1381544302069 1358629116480 CA-125 is a tumour marker indicative of&nsp;{{c
1::ovarian}} carcinoma.
1381544599421 1358629116480 alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) is a tumour marker indic
ative of&nsp;{{c1::hepatocellular}} carcinoma or germ cell line tumours.
1381544638126 1358629116480 CA-15-3 is a tumour marker indicative of&nsp;{{
c1::reast}} carcinoma.
1381544666730 1358629116480 CA-19-9 is a tumour marker indicative of&nsp;{{
c1::colon}} cancer or&nsp;{{c2::pancreatic}} cancer.
1381544692645 1358629116480 Calcitonin is a tumour marker indicative of&nsp
;{{c1::medullary carcinoma of the thyroid}}.
1381544717130 1358629116480 Neuron specific enolase (NSE) is a tumour marker
indicative of&nsp;{{c1::small cell carcinoma of the lung}}.
1404259885994 1395802358422 {{c1::Monoclonality}} is a feature of neoplastic
cells that results due to all neoplastic cells eing derived from a single moth
er cell.
1404259997260 1395802358422 What is the normal ratio of active isoforms of G
6PD in cells of any tissue?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1:1}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>This stems from random inactivation of an isoform in each cell via lyoniza
tion.</i></div><div><i>This 1:1 ratio is maintained in hyperplasia.</i></div><di
v><i>In neoplasia, <>only one isoform is expressed in the entire tissue</>.</i
></div>
1404260256471 1395802358422 Which 2 proteins expressed on the X-chromosome a
re often used to determine the clonality of new tissue growth?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::G6PD; Androgen Receptor}}</div>
1404260317698 1395802358422 Which protein is used to determine the clonality
of B-cell proliferation?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Immunogloulin (Ig) light c
hain}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Each B cell expresses light chain that is either k
appa or lamda. We use the ratio of kappa to lamda to determine clonality.</i><
/div>
1404260697258 1395802358422 What is the ratio of <>kappa:lamda immunoglou
lin light chains</>&nsp;in <>normal</>&nsp;B-cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::3:1}}</div> <r /><div><i>This ratio is maintained in hyperplasia.</i></div>
1404262354017 1395802358422 What is the ratio of <>kappa:lamda immunoglou
lin light chains</>&nsp;in <>neoplastic</>&nsp;B-cells?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::> 6:1 or inversion (lamda:kappa 1:3)}}</div>
1404262405041 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of cancer <>morta
lity?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Lung cancer}}</div>
1404262499035 1395802358422 What is the most common cancer y cancer <>inci
dence</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Breast/prostate}}</div>
1404262521715 1395802358422 How many cellular division occurs in a neoplasti
c cell population efore the earliest clinical symptoms arise?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::30}}</div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. 30 doulings</i></div>
1404263102964 1395802358422 {{c1::Pap smear}} is a screening method that det
ects <>cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN)</>&nsp;efore it ecomes canc

erous.
1404263128761 1395802358422 {{c1::Mammography}} is a screening method that d
etects <i>in situ</i>< style="font-style: italic; ">&nsp;</>reast cancer ef
ore it invades.
1404263169385 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Aflatoxins?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatocellular carcinoma}}</div>
1404263618076 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Alkylating Agent
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Leukemia/lymphoma}}</div> <r /><div><i>Alkylating
agents are often used in chemotherapy. Hence Leukemia and lymphoma are possile
complications of chemotherapy.</i></div>
1404263659445 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Alcohol?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma of the oropharynx/upper esophagus; H
epatocellular carcinoma}}</div>
1404263685780 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Arsenic?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma of the skin; Lung cancer; Angiosarco
ma of the liver}}</div> <r /><div><i>Arsenic is present in cigarette smoke.</i>
</div>
1404263704322 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Asestos?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Lung cancer; Mesothelioma}}</div> <r /><div><i>Lung cance
r is more likely following asestos exposure than mesothelioma.</i></div>
1404263912416 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with cigarette smoke?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Carcinoma of the oropharynx, esophagus, lung, kidney
, ladder and pancreas}}</div> <r /><div><i>The chemicals from cigarette smoke
are asored, enter the lood and then are filtered y the kidneys after which
they sit in the ladder where they can cause cancer.</i></div>
1404263977922 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Nitrosamines?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gastric carcinoma}}</div>
<r /><div><i>There are
two types of Stomach carcinoma: <>Intestinal</> and <>Diffuse</>. Nitrosamin
es are associated with the Intestinal form.</i></div>
1404263990996 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Naphthylamine?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Urothelial carcinoma of the ladder}}</div>
1404264011265 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Vinyl Chloride?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Angiosarcoma of the liver}}</div>
1404264021779 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Nickel?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Lung carcinoma}}</div>
1404264031050 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Chromium?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Lung carcinoma}}</div>
1404264037507 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Beryllium?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Lung carcinoma}}</div>
1404264045072 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Silica?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Lung carcinoma}}</div>
1404264050722 1395802358422 Which fungus is known to make Aflatoxins?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Aspergillus</i>}}</div>
1404264261115 1395802358422 {{c1::Aflatoxin}} is a carcinogen derived from <
i>Aspergillus</i>, a fungus that often contaminates <>rice, grains and peanuts<
/>.
1404264286046 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Aspergillus</i>}} is a fungus that is a
ssociated with the carcinogen <>aflatoxin</>&nsp;and is often a contaminant o
f <>rice, grains</>&nsp;and <>peanuts</>.
1404264358135 1395802358422 What is the most common carcinogen worldwide?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cigarette smoke}}</div>
1404264371976 1395802358422 {{c1::Polycyclic hydrocarons}} are a chemical f
ound in cigarette smoke that is particularly carcinogenic.
1404264419941 1395802358422 {{c1::Nitrosamines}} are a type of carcinogen fo
und in <>smoked foods</>&nsp;that are responsile for the high rate of stomac
h cancer in Japan.
1404264450735 1395802358422 {{c1::Naphthylamines}} are a chemical derived fr
om cigarette smoke that is associated with&nsp;{{c2::<>urothelial carcinoma of
the ladder</>.}}
1404264480146 1395802358422 {{c1::Vinyl Chloride}} is a carcinogen associate

d with <>{{c2::angiosarcoma of the liver}}</> that is used to make <>PVC </>
for use in pipes.
1404264782284 1395802358422 Which oncogenic virus is associated with <>naso
pharyngeal carcinoma</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::EBV}}</div>
1404264819586 1395802358422 Which oncogenic virus is associated with <>Burk
itt Lymphoma</>&nsp;and <>CNS Lymphoma in AIDS</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::EBV}}</div>
1404265302591 1395802358422 Which oncogenic virus is associated with Kaposi
Sarcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HHV-8}}</div>
1404265311182 1395802358422 Which oncogenic virus is associated with hepatoc
ellular carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HCV; HBV}}</div>
1404265326907 1395802358422 Which oncogenic virus is associated with Adult T
-cell Leukemia/Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HTLV-1}}</div>
1404265339338 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with nucle
ar reactor accidents?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ionizing}}</div>
1404265399051 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with Radio
therapy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ionizing}}</div>
1404265405568 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with AML?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ionizing}}</div>
1404265412251 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with CML?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ionizing}}</div>
1404265419908 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with papil
lary carcinoma of the Thyroid?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ionizing}}</div>
1404265433313 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with UVB s
unlight?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nonionizing}}</div> <r /><div><i>UVB sunlig
ht is the most common source.</i></div>
1404265453216 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with asal
cell carcinoma of the skin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nonionizing}}</div>
1404265473098 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with squam
ous cell carcinoma of the skin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nonionizing}}</div>
1404265485992 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with melan
oma of the skin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nonionizing}}</div> <div><i><r /></
i></div><div><i>The most common source is UVB sunlight</i></div>
1404265493982 1395802358422 Which type of radiation is associated with the f
ormation of <>pyrimidine dimers in DNA</>, which are normally excised y restr
iction endonucleases?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nonionizing}}</div>
1404270826909 1395802358422 Which transition point in the cell cycle is regu
lated y p53?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G1 to S}}</div>
1404271649971 1395802358422 {{c1::p53}} is a tumour suppressor gene that upr
egulates <>BAX</>&nsp;if DNA damage cannot e repaired.
1404271705809 1395802358422 {{c1::BAX}} is a protein upregulated y the tumo
ur suppressor p53 that functions to disrupt <>Bcl2</>, therey causing apoptos
is.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, decreased Bcl2 activity leads to Cytochrome C le
akage from the mitochondria and susequent activation of caspases.</i></div>
1404271820642 1395802358422 {{c1::Li-Fraumeni Syndrome}} is a tumour syndrom
e that involves a germline mutation in p53 and a somatic mutation in p53 as the
second hit.
1404271852248 1395802358422 {{c1::Li-Fraumeni syndrome}} is a tumour syndrom
e due to p53 mutation that is characterized y the propensity to develop multipl
e types of carcinomas and sarcomas.
1404271885957 1395802358422 Which tumour suppressor gene is mutated in Li-Fr
aumeni Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p53}}</div>
1404271898828 1395802358422 Which transition point in the cell cycle is regu
lated y R (retinolastoma protein)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::G1 to S}}</div>
1404271927100 1395802358422 {{c1::R}} is a tumour suppressor protein that "
holds" the <>E2F</>&nsp;transcription factor needed for the transition into S
-phase. <r /><div><i>E2F is released when R is phosphorylated y CyclinD/CDK4.
</i></div>
1404272291752 1395802358422 What functions to phosphorylate R ound to E2F?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CyclinD/CDK4 complex}}</div>

<r /><div><i>Th
is phosphorylation allows E2F to e free and allows it to drive the transition i
nto the S-phase of the cell cycle.</i></div><div><i>R mutation allows for const
itutively active E2F and uncontrolled cell growth.</i></div>
1404272372337 1395802358422 {{c1::Unilateral Retinolastoma}} is a type of r
etinolastoma that results from <>2 sporadic (oth somatic) mutations in R</>
.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, R is a tumour suppressor.</i></div><div><i><img
src="paste-15715285336408.jpg" /></i></div>
1404272424477 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Retinolastoma::Disease Name}} is
a type of retinolastoma that arises from a 2-hit mutation to R (<>1 germline
, 1 somatic</>) and presents with&nsp;{{c2::<u style="font-weight: old; ">il
ateral retinolastoma</u>&nsp;and <>osteosarcoma</>.::Two clinical presentati
ons}}&nsp;
1404272495919 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with PDGF-B overexpre
ssion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Astrocytoma}}</div> <r /><div><i>Astrocytom
a is a tumor of Astrocytes (glial cells) in the rain</i></div>
1404272711967 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with ERBB2 (HER2/neu)
amplification?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Breast cancer}}</div>
1404272733781 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with RET point mutati
ons?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MEN2A; MEN2B; Sporadic medullary carcinoma of th
e thyroid}}</div>
1404272760198 1395802358422 Which <>thyroid&nsp;</>tumour is associated w
ith RET point mutations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sporadic medullary carcinoma
of the thyroid}}</div>
1404272775707 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with c-KIT point muta
tions?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GI stromal tumour}}</div>
1404272820122 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with RAS point mutati
ons?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Carcinomas, melanoma and lymphoma}}</div>
1404272837148 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with ABL translocatio
n [t(9;22)]?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::CML}}</div>
1404272866020 1395802358422 Which chromosomal translocation involving ABL ca
uses CML or ALL?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(9;22) with BCR}}</div>
1404272886725 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with c-MC translocat
ion [t(8;14)]?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Burkitt lymphoma}}</div>
1404272912523 1395802358422 Which chromosomal translocation involving c-MC
can cause Burkitt Lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(8;14) with Ig heavy cha
in}}</div>
1404272964325 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with n-MC amplificat
ion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neurolastoma}}</div>
1404272977689 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with L-MC amplificat
ion?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small cell carcinoma of the lung}}</div>
1404272995295 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with Cyclin D1 transl
ocation [t(11;14)]?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mantle Cell lymphoma}}</div>
1404273019409 1395802358422 Which chromosomal translocation involving Cyclin
D1 causes mantle cell lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(11;14) involving I
g heavy chain}}</div>
1404273053757 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with CDK4 amplificati
on?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Melanoma}}</div>
1404273064233 1395802358422 On which chromosome is the Ig heavy chain gene f
ound?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::14}}</div>
1404273948151 1395802358422 Which chromosomal translocation involving Bcl2 c
auses follicular lymphoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(14;18) to the Ig heavy c
hain gene}}</div>
1404273976628 1395802358422 {{c1::Telomerase}} is an enzyme involved with DN
A replication that is often upregualted in cancer, therey resulting in neoplast
ic cells having preserved telomeres.
1404274036695 1395802358422 Which 2 angiogenic growth factors are commonly p
roduced y tumour cells?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::FGF; VEGF}}</div>
1404274066690 1395802358422 Which MHC molecule is often downregulated in can
cer so that tumour cells can evade immune surveillance?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::MHC I}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Immunodeficiency increases the risk for ca
ncer.</i></div>
1404274337874 1395802358422 Which cellular adhesion protein is often downreg
ulated in cancer to allow for dissociation of attached cells and tumour invasion
/spread?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::E-cadherin}}</div>
1404274375937 1395802358422 To which protein in the asal lamina do cancer c
ells ind in tumour invasion/spread?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Laminin}}</div>
1404274460718 1395802358422 Which enzyme upregulated y cancer cells functio
ns to degrade the asement memrane, therey allowing for tumour invasion and sp
read?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Collagenase; Metalloproteinases}}</div>
1404274488276 1395802358422 Which type of collagen is found in the asement
memrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1404274496465 1395802358422 To which protein in the extracellular matrix do
cancer cells ind to spread locally?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Fironectin}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i>From here, entrance into vascular or lymphatic spaces allo
ws for metastasis.</i></div>
1404274543679 1395802358422 Which route of metastasis is characteristic of c
arcinomas?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lymphatic}}</div> <r /><div><i>Initial sp
read is to the regional draining lymph nodes.</i></div>
1404275186477 1395802358422 Which route of metastasis is characteristic of s
arcomas?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hematgenous}}</div>
1404275198343 1395802358422 What are the 4 carcinomas that spread hematogeno
usly?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renal cell carcinoma; hepatocellular carcinoma;
follicular carcinoma of the thyroid; choriocarcinoma}}</div> <r /><div><i>Re
nal cell carcinoma --> Renal vein</i></div><div><i>Hepatocellular carcinoma -> Hepatic vein</i></div>
1404275756862 1395802358422 {{c1::"Omental Caking"}} is a phenomenon associa
ted with cancer that involves seeding of the omentum y metastatic ovarian carci
noma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18172006629712.jpg" /></div>
1404275906224 1395802358422 Which type of tumour is associated with a <>low
nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Benign}}</div>
1404276180565 1395802358422 Which type of tumour is associated with a <>hig
h nuclear to cytoplasmic ratio</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Malignant}}</div>
1404276205308 1395802358422 Which type of tissue is associated with Keratin?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epithelium}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-18799
071854926.jpg" /></div>
1404276286666 1395802358422 Which type of tissue is associated with&nsp;Vim
entin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesenchyme}}</div>
1404276297915 1395802358422 Which type of tissue is associated with Desmin?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Muscle}}</div>
1404276314602 1395802358422 Which type of tissue is associated with GFAP?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroglia}}</div>
1404276322271 1395802358422 Which type of tissue is associated with the Chro
mogranin immunohistochemical stain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neuroendocrine ce
lls (e.g. small cell carcinoma of the lung; carcinoid tumours)}}</div>
1404276364238 1395802358422 Which type of tissue is associated with the S-10
0 immunohistochemical stain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Melanoma; Schwannoma; La
ngerhans cell histiocytosis}}</div>
1404276404718 1395802358422 What is the single most important prognostic sta
ging factor of cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metastasis}}</div>
1404276549951 1395802358422 What is the <>second most</>&nsp;important pr
ognostic staging factor for cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Spread to regiona
l lymph nodes}}</div>
1404318364589 1395802358422 {{c1::P-glycoprotein}} is a surface glycoprotein
expressed y some cancer cells that functions to pump out toxins from the cell,
including chemotherapeutic agents.
<r /><div><i>Aka Multidrug Resistance P
rotein 1 (MDR1).</i></div>
1404318436119 1395802358422 {{c1::Anaplasia}} is a type of cell growth that
involves a <>loss of structural differentiation</>&nsp;and <>function</>&n
sp;of cells, therey resemling primitive cells of the same tissue.

<r /><d
iv><i>May involve giant cells with single large nucleus or several nuclei.</i></
div>
1404318572934 1395802358422 {{c1::Desmoplasia}} is a type of cell growth tha
t involves <>firous tissue formation</>&nsp;in response to neoplasm.<div><r
/></div><div><i>e.g. {{c2::linitis plastica}} in diffuse stomach cancer</i></di
v>
<r /><div><i><r /></i></div>
1404318605871 1395802358422 {{c1::Tumour grade}} is a prognostic factor of t
umours that is determined y the <>degree of cellular differentiation and mitot
ic activity on histology</>. <div><r /></div><div><i>Stage typically has mor
e prognostic value.</i></div><img src="paste-20804821581917.jpg" />
1404318909214 1395802358422 {{c1::Tumour stage}} is a prognostic factor of t
umours that is determined y the <>degree of localization/spread</>&nsp;and <
>size of the primary lesion</>.
6.jpg" /></div>
1404319329156 1395802358422 {{c1::Leiomyosarcoma}} is a malignant tumour of
smooth muscle.
1404319354139 1395802358422 {{c1::Rhadomyosarcoma}} is a malignant tumour o
f striated muscle.
1404319375312 1395802358422 {{c1::Cachexia}} is a complication of chronic di
sease that is descried as generalized <>weight loss, muscle atrophy</>&nsp;a
nd <>fatigue.</><div><><r /></></div><div><i>Mediated y {{c2::TNF-alpha (a
ka Cachectin), IFN-gamma and IL-6::3 mediators}}</i></div>
<r /><div><i><
r /></i></div>
1404319677992 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with acanthosis nig
ricans?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Visceral malignancy (especially gastric)}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><r /></div><div><i>A skin condition characterized y dark, v
elvety patches in ody folds and creases.</i></div>
1404320272889 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Actinic Kerato
sis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma of the skin}}</div>
1404320285141 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with autoimmune dis
eases?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lymphoma}}</div>
1404320298998 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Barrett Esopha
gus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Esophageal adenocarcinoma}}</div>
1404320316305 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with chronic atroph
ic gastritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gastric adenocarcinoma}}</div>
1404320334521 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with pernicious ana
emia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gastric adenocarcinoma}}</div>
1404320344434 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with postsurgical g
astric remnants?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Gastric adenocarcinoma}}</div>
1404320362109 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with cirrhosis?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatocellular carcinoma}}</div>
1404320368744 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Cushing Syndro
me?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small cell carcinoma of the lung}}</div>
1404320382986 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Dermatomyositi
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lung cancer}}</div>
1404320393566 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Down Syndrome?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ALL; AML}}</div>
1404320403613 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Dysplastic Nev
us?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Malignant melanoma}}</div>
1404320412418 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Hypercalcemia?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma of the lung}}</div>
1404320428366 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with immunodeficien
cy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lymphoma}}</div>
1404320437487 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Lamert-Eaton
syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Small cell carcinoma of the lung}}</div>
1404320474314 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Myashenia Grav
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thymoma}}</div>
1404320482264 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with pure RBC aplas
ia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thymoma}}</div>
1404320489168 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Paget Disease

of Bone?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Secondary osteosarcoma; Firosarcoma}}</div>
1404320528070 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Plummer-Vinson
Syndrome (via Fe deficiency)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinom
a of the esophagus}}</div>
1404320558233 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Polycythemia?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renal cell carcinoma; Hepatocellular carcinoma}}</div
>
1404320578081 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with SIADH?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Small cell carcinoma of the lung}}</div>
1404320592524 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Ulcerative Col
itis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Colonic adenocarcinoma}}</div>
1404320614884 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Xeroderma Pigm
entosum and Alinism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Melanoma;&nsp;</div><div>Basal
cell carcinoma;&nsp;</div><div>and especially Squamous cell carcinoma of the s
kin}}</div>
1404320651444 1395802358422 Which neoplasm is associated with Tuerous Scler
osis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Giant cell astrocytoma; Renal angiomyolipoma; C
ardiac Rhadomyoma}}</div>
1404320695351 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with BRAF mutation?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Melanoma}}</div>
1404321116200 1395802358422 Which tumour is associated with the tumour suppr
essor gene <i>APC</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Colorectal cancer (in FAP)}}</
div>
essor gene <i>BRCA1</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Breast and ovarian cancer}}<
/div>
essor gene <i>BRCA2</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Breast and ovarian cancer}}<
/div>
essor gene <i>CPD4/SMAD4</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pancreatic cancer}}</di
v>
essor gene <i>DCC</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Colon cancer}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>"DCC = Deleted In Colon Cancer"</i></div>
essor gene <i>MEN1</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::MEN type I}}</div>
essor gene <i>NF1</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neurofiromatosis Type 1}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>NF1 encodes neurofiromin, which is a <>ras GTPase activa
ting protein</></i></div>
essor gene <i>NF2</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Neurofiromatosis type 2}}</di
v><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>NF2 codes for a {{c2::merlin (schwannomin)}} p
rotein.</i></div>
<r /><div><i><r /></i></div>
essor gene <i>p16</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Melanoma}}</div>
<div><i>
<r /></i></div>
1404321932972 1395802358422 {{c1::p16}} is a tumour suppressor gene that cod
es for CDK inhiitor 2A.
essor gene <i>p53</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Most human cancers; Li-Fraumen
i Syndrome}}</div>
essor gene <i>PTEN</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Breast cancer; prostate cance
r; endometrial cancer}}</div>
essor gene <i>R</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Retinolastoma; osteosarcoma}}<
/div>

essor gene <i>TSC1</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tuerous sclerosis}}</div>
1404322047325 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>TSC1</i>}} is a tumour suppressor gene
associated with Tuerous Sclerosis that codes for a {{c2::Hamartin protein.}}
essor gene <i>TSC2</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tuerous sclerosis}}</div>
1404322088058 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>TSC2</i>}} is a tumour suppressor gene
associated with Tuerous Sclerosis that codes for a {{c2::Tuerin}} protein.
1404322106975 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>VHL</i>}} is a tumour suppressor gene a
ssociated with von Hippel-Lindau Syndrome that inhiits hypoxia inducile factor
1a.
essor gene <i>WT1</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wilms tumour (nephrolastoma)}
}</div>
essor gene <i>WT2</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wilms tumour (nephrolastoma)}
}</div>
1404322182855 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with the tumour marke
r CA-15-3?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Breast cancer}}</div>
r CA-27-29?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Breast cancer}}</div>
r CA-19-9?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pancreatic adenocarcinoma}}</div>
r CA-125?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ovarian cancer}}</div>
1404322276504 1395802358422 Medullary carcinoma of the thyroid is associated
with the tumour marker {{c1::Calcitonin}}<div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
r eta-hCG?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hydatidiform moles; Choriocarcinoma; Test
icular cancer}}</div>
r Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metastases to one; Pag
et disease of one; Seminoma (due to placental ALP)}}</div>
r Carcinoemryonic Antigen (CEA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Produced y ~70% of
colorectal and pancreatic cancers}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Also found in gast
ric, reast and medullary thyroid cancer. Hence it is very nonspecific.</i></div
>
r S-100?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tumours of tissue with <>neural crest origi
n</>; Langerhans cell histiocytosis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>e.g. (neural crest
cell tumours) melanoma, neural tumours, schwannomas</i></div>
r Tartrate-Resistant Acid Phosphatase (TRAP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hairy c
ell leukemia}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"<>TRAP </>the <>hairy</>&nsp;east."
</i></div>
1404322684896 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with <i>Helicoacter
pylori</i><>?</><div><><r /></></div><div>{{c1::Gastric adenocarcinoma; MAL
T Lymphoma}}</div>
1404323364830 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with&nsp;<i>Clonorch
is sinensis</i>&nsp;(Liver fluke)?<div><r />{{c1::Cholangiocarcinoma}}</div>
1404323420420 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with&nsp;<i>Schistos
oma haematoium</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Squamous cell carcinoma of the
ladder}}</div>
1404323548832 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with aromatic amines
(e.g. enzidine; 2-naphthylamine)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Transitional cell
carcinoma of the ladder}}</div>
1404325609614 1395802358422 Which cancer is associated with Radon?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Lung cancer}}</div> <r /><div><i>Radon is the 2nd leading c
ause of lung cancer after cigarette smoke.</i></div>
1404325641600 1395802358422 Which hormone secreted y Hodgkin Lymphomas can

cause Hypercalcemia as a paraneoplastic syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cal
citriol}}</div>
1404326299428 1395802358422 Which hormone secreted y Small Cell carcinoma o
f the lung can cause Cushing Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ACTH}}</div>
1404326318739 1395802358422 Which hormone secreted y small cell carcinoma o
f the lung can cause SIADH as a paraneolplastic syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::ADH}}</div>
1404326341529 1395802358422 Which agent secreted y small cell carcinoma of
the lung can cause Lamert-Eaton syndrome as a paraneoplastic syndrome?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Autoantiodies against Ca channels at the NMJ}}</div>
1404326442770 1395802358422 Which hormone secreted y Renal Cell Carcinoma c
an cause polycythemia as a paraneoplastic syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::E
rythropoietin}}</div>
1404326503477 1395802358422 Which hormone secreted y squamous cell carcinom
a of the lung can cause <>hyper</>calcemia as a paraneoplastic syndrome?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP)}}</div>
1404326616308 1395802358422 {{c1::Psamomma odies}} are laminated, concentri
c, calcific spherules often seen in some cancers.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-26813480829242.jpg" /></div>
3.jpg" /></div>
1404326835414 1395802358422 Which primary tumour <>most commonly</>&nsp;c
auses metastases to the rain?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Liver}}</div><div><r
<r /><div><i>Li
ver > reast > GU > Osteosarcoma > Melanoma > GI.</i></div><div><
i>50% of rain tumours are from metastases and present as multiple well-circumsc
ried tumours at the gray/white matter junction.</i></div>
auses metastasis to the liver?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Colon}}</div><div><img
<r /><div><i>Colon >> stomach > pancreas.</i></div>
auses metastasis to the one?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prostate; reast}}</div
><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-27230092656936.jpg" /></div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Prostate, reast > lung, thyroid, kidney</i></div><div><i>Prostate = l
astic</i></div><div><i>Breast = lytic and lastic</i></div><div><i><r /></i></d
iv>
1479152820348 1421618046187 {c1:: Barrett Esophagus}} is an anormal change
(metaplasia) in the cells of the lower portion of the esophagus <r /><div><i>al
so known as Barrett Syndrome, and is associated with esophageal adenocarcinoma.<
/i></div>
1394581586258 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Milk Line}} is an imaginary line
that runs from the axilla to the vulva. Breast tissue can develop anywhere along
this line.
1394581666871 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Luminal}} cell layer is the inner
cell layer of the reast ducts and loules.
1394581712016 1358629116480 Which cell layer of the reast loules is respon
sile for producting milk?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Luminal (inner) cell layer
}}</div>
1394581750802 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Myoepithelial}} cell layer is the
outer cell layer of the reast ducts and loules.
1394581772503 1358629116480 Which cell layer of the reast ducts and loules
has contractile function and propels milk to the nipple?<div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Myoepithelial}}</div>
1394581800194 1358629116480 {{c1::Galactorrhea}} is defined as milk producti
on y the reasts outside of lactation and is not a symptom of reast cancer.
1394583366494 1358629116480 What is a common physiological cause of Galactor
rhea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nipple stimulation}}</div>
1394583386148 1358629116480 What is the most common pathological cause of Ga
lactorrhea?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prolactinoma}}</div>
1394583400497 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Mastitis}} is defined as acute acte

rial infection of the reasts.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-149250113538
1394583416727 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Acute mastitis?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}</div>
1394583430129 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Mastitis}} is a type of mastitis tha
t is associated with reast feeding as fissures develop in the nipple and provid
e a route of entry for microes.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1492071638
1394583885952 1358629116480 {{c1::Periductal Mastitis}} is a type of mastiti
s that involved inflammation of the suareolar ducts.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-15071040242061.jpg" /></div> <img src="paste-15092515078509.jpg" />
s that is commonly seen in smokers.
s that involves a relative Vit A deficiency that results in squamous cell metapl
asia of the lactiferous ducts, yielding lockage of the duct and inflammation.
s that presents with a suareolar mass with <>nipple retraction</>&nsp;(due t
o firomyolasts involved with the suareolar inflammation).
<r /><div><img
src="paste-15088220111213.jpg" /></div>
1394584110184 1358629116480 {{c1::Mammary Duct Ectasia}} is a <u>rare</u> ty
pe of mastitis that involve inflammation and <>dilation</>&nsp;of the suareo
lar ducts.
1394584137340 1358629116480 What demographic of women are most commonly affe
cted y Mammary Duct Ectasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Postmenopausal}}</div>
1394584166770 1358629116480 {{c1::Mammary Duct Ectasia}} is a rare type of m
astitis that presents as a <u>peri</u>areolar mass with <>green-rown nipple di
scharge</>&nsp;that is a result of inflammatory deris.
1394584242241 1358629116480 {{c1::Mammary Duct Ectasia}} is a type of mastit
is that involves chronic inflammation and <u>plasma cells</u>&nsp;on iopsy.<di
1394584268026 1358629116480 {{c1::Fat Necrosis}} is a reast disorder that i
nvolves necrosis of reast fat as a result of trauma.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-15178414424540.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>The trauma is often incide
ntal and unnoticed.</i></div>
1394584318160 1358629116480 {{c1::Fat Necrosis}} is a type of inflammatory
reast disorder that presents as a mass on physical exam or as <u><>anormal cal
cification</></u>&nsp;on mammography due to the saponification of necrotic fat
.
1394584358379 1358629116480 What is the most common type of pathological cha
nge in <u>pre</u>menopausal reasts?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Firocystic Chan
ge}}</div>
1394584580481 1358629116480 {{c1::Firocystic Change}} is a reast pathology
that involves the development of firosis and cysts in the reast.
1394584606547 1358629116480 {{c1::Firocystic Change}} is a reast pathology
that presents with vague irregularity of reast tissue (lumpy reast), typicall
y in the upper outer quadrant. Cysts have a lue-dome appearance.
1394584657726 1358629116480 What is the risk of invasive carcinoma associate
d with Apocrine Metaplasia of the Breast?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1
6754667421973.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::None}}</div></div>
1394584771239 1358629116480 What is the risk of invasive carcinoma associate
d with Ductal Hyperplasia and Sclerosing Adenosis of the reast?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::2x increased}}</div>
1394584799077 1358629116480 {{c1::Sclerosing Adenosis of the Breast}} is a F
irocystic change of the reasts that involves <>calcification</> that can e
seen on a mammogram.
1394584836654 1358629116480 What is the risk for invasive carcinoma associat
ed with Atypical Hyperplasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5x increase}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Atypical hyperplasia can e ductal or loular and involves signifi
cant atypia</i></div>
1394584875347 1358629116480 {{c1::Intraductal Papilloma}} is a reast disord
er that involves papilloma growth, typically into a large mammary duct.<div><r
1394585041541 1358629116480 {{c1::Intraductal Papilloma}} is a enign reast
disorder that involves growth of firovascular papillomas that are lined y ot
h <>epithelial (luminal) and myoepithelial cells</>.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-15466177233453.jpg" /></div>
1394585103608 1358629116480 Which demographic of women is affected y Intrad
uctal Papilloma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Premenopausal}}</div>
1394585130887 1358629116480 {{c1::Papillary Carcinoma}} is a malignant reas
t cancer that involves growth of firovascular papillomas that are lined y <>e
pithelial cells only.</>
<r /><div><i>There are no underlying myoepithel
ial cells in papillary carcinoma.</i></div>
1394585181635 1358629116480 What demographic of women are more commonly affe
cted y Papillary Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Postmenopausal}}</div>
1394585204761 1358629116480 {{c1::Firoadenoma}} is a enign reast disorder
that involves growth of firous tissue and reast glands.<div><r /></div><div>
1394585230976 1358629116480 What is the most common <>enign neoplasm</>&n
sp;of the reast?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Firoadenoma}}</div>
1394585246534 1358629116480 What is the most common tumour seen in <>premen
opausal</>&nsp;women?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Firoadenoma of the reast}}<
/div>
y Firoadenoma of the reast?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Premenopausal}}</div>
1394585285264 1358629116480 {{c1::Firoadenoma}} is a enign reast neoplasm
that presents as a <>well-circumscried, moile, marle-like mass</>.<div><r
<r /><div><img
src="paste-101468602368498.jpg" /></div>
1394585325118 1358629116480 {{c1::Firoadenoma}} is a enign reast neoplasm
that is sensitive to Estrogen and hence will grow during pregnancy and the mens
trual cycle.
1394585352467 1358629116480 What is the risk of carcinoma associated with Fi
roadenoma of the reast?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::None}}</div>
1394585365918 1358629116480 {{c1::Phyllodes Tumour}} is a enign reast neop
lasia similar to Firoadenoma that involves overgrowth of the firous component,
typically as a <>'leaf-like' </>projection on iopsy.<div><r /></div><div><i
4307401202.jpg" /></div>
y Phyllodes tumour?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Postmenopausal women}}</div>
1394585444611 1358629116480 {{c1::Estrone}} is an estrogen hormone made peri
pherally y adipose tissue via the conversion of androgens.
1394585795130 1358629116480 {{c1::Ductal Carcinoma <i>in situ</i>}} is a mal
ignant reast cancer that involves proliferation of duct cells with <u>no invasi
on of the asement memrane</u>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1568951553
<img src="paste101795019882910.jpg" />
1394585832123 1358629116480 {{c1::Ductal Carcinoma <i>in situ</i>}} is a mal
ignant reast cancer of duct cells that commonly involves detectale calcificati
ons on mammography. Biopsy must e performed to distinguish it from enign condi
tions.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-101799314850206.jpg" /></div>
1394585890527 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::comedo}} type of Ductal Breast Ca
rcinoma <i>in situ</i>&nsp;involves <>high-grade cells with necrosis and dystr
ophic calcification</> in the center of ducts.<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-15646565859867.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-101876624261540.jpg" /></d
iv>
1394586474104 1358629116480 {{c1::Paget's Disease of the Breast}} is a type
of Breast Ductal Carcinoma <i>in situ</i>&nsp;that extends up the ducts to invo
lve the skin of the nipple, therey presenting as <>nipple ulceration and eryth
ema</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16217796510244.jpg" /><img src="pa
>
1394586519761 1358629116480 {{c1::Invasive Ductal Carcinoma}} is a type of m
alignant reast cancer that involves formation of duct-like structures y malign
ant and invasive duct cells.
1394586838516 1358629116480 What is the most common <>invasive reast</>&n
sp;cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Invasive Ductal Carcinoma}}</div>
alignant reast cancer that may result in dimpling of the skin or retraction of
the nipple when it progresses to advanced stages.<div><r /></div><div><img src=
"paste-15822659519007.jpg" /></div>
1394586895381 1358629116480 {{c1::Tuular Carcinoma}} is a type of Invasive
Breast Ductal Carcinoma that involves well-differentiated tuules that <>lack m
yoepithelial cells </>and has a good prognosis.
alignant reast cancer that involves duct-like structures in a desmoplastic stro
ma.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-15852724290079.jpg" /></div>
1394587356098 1358629116480 {{c1::Mucinous (Colloid) Carcinoma}} is a type o
f Invasive Breast Ductal Carcinoma that involves carcinoma with aundant extrace
llular mucin (i.e. tumour cells floating in a pool of mucous).<div><r /></div><
<r /><div><i><>Good pr
ognosis.</></i></div>
y <>Mucinous</> Invasive Breast Ductal Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::O
lder (~70 y/o)}}</div>
1394587461912 1358629116480 {{c1::Medullary Carcinoma}} is a type of Invasiv
e Breast Ductal Carcinoma that involves large, high-grade cells growing in sheet
s with associated <>lymphocytes and plasma cell infiltrate</>.<div><r /></div
<r /><div><i>Good progn
osis.</i></div>
1394587505470 1358629116480 {{c1::Inflammatory Carcinoma}} is a type of Inva
sive Breast Ductal Carcinoma that involves carcinoma <>in the dermal lymphatics
</>, therey causing inflammation and swelling of the reasts with no discrete
mass.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16303695856153.jpg" /></div>
1394587546791 1358629116480 {{c1::Inflammatory Carcinoma}} is a type of Inva
sive Breast Ductal Carcinoma that involves inflamed, swollen reasts due to tumo
ur cells locking drainage of the lymphatics. It can e mistaken for acute masti
tis.
1394587615233 1358629116480 What is the prognosis of <>Inflammatory</>&ns
p;Invasive Breast Ductal Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Poor}}&nsp;</div
>
<r /><div><i>Spread is likely and easy due to access to the lymphatics.
</i></div>
1394587646480 1358629116480 {{c1::Loular Carcinoma <i>in situ</i>}} is a ma
lignant reast cancer that involves proliferation of cells in loules with no in
vasion of the asement memrane.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1576682494
4160.jpg" /></div>
1394587694721 1358629116480 {{c1::Loular Carcinoma}} is a malignant reast
cancer that involves dyscohesive cells <>lacking E-Cadherin</>&nsp;adhesion p
roteins.<div><r></div><div><img src="paste-15771119911456.jpg" /></div>
1394587721755 1358629116480 Which adhesion protein is lacking in the maligna
nt cells of Loular Carcinoma <i>in situ</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::E-Cadhe
rins}}</div>
1394587744039 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Loular Carcinoma <i>i
n situ</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tamoxifen}}</div>
1394587764203 1358629116480 What is the risk of progression to invasive carc
inoma of Loular Carcinoma <i>in situ</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Low}}</div
>
1394587803211 1358629116480 {{c1::Invasive Loular Carcinoma}} is an maligna
nt reast cancer that involves invasive carcinoma that grows in a <>single-file

pattern ("Indian file")</> with cells that may exhiit signet-ring morphology.
7213570591.jpg" /></div>
1394587859292 1358629116480 What adhesion protein is lacking in the malignan
t cells of Invasive Loular Breast Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::E-Cadhe
rin}}</div>
1394587878820 1358629116480 What are the sentinel lymph nodes for reast can
cer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Axillary}}</div>
1394587909110 1358629116480 What receptor does Trastuzuma target?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::HER2/Neu}}</div>
1394587966994 1358629116480 {{c1::HER2/neu}} is a growth factor receptor com
monly present on the <u>surface</u> of reast cancer cells.
<r /><div><i>ER
and PR are nuclear receptors.</i></div>
1394588007417 1358629116480 {{c1::Triple-negative tumours}} are a type of r
east tumours that are <>negative for ER, PR and HER2/neu</>. Hence they have a
poor prognosis.
1394588043917 1358629116480 What demographic of women have an increased prop
ensity to develop triple-negative carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::African
American women}}</div>
1394588068539 1358629116480 Which 2 genes are the most important in associat
ed with hereditary reast cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>BRCA1</i>&nsp;a
nd <i>BRCA2</i>}}</div>
1394588100860 1358629116480 Which BRCA gene is associated with reast <u>and
</u> ovarian carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::BRCA1}}</div>
1394588124872 1358629116480 Which BRCA gene is associated with reast carcin
oma in males?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::BRCA2}}</div>
1394588136841 1358629116480 {{c1::Kleinfelter's Syndrome}} is a sex chromoso
me disorder that presents with an increased risk for reast carcinoma in males.
1394588169076 1358629116480 What is the most common type of reast cancer in
males?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Invasive Ductal Carcinoma}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>As males do not have loular reast tissue, only ductal.</i></div>
1394588216702 1358629116480 {{c1::Polymastia}} is a congenital disorder of t
he reasts that involves the development of 3 reasts along the milk line.<div><
<img src="paste-14426795147809.jpg" />
1394588948222 1358629116480 {{c1::Polythelia}} is a congenital reast disord
er that involves development of 3 nipples along the milk line.
<r /><div><img
src="paste-14426795147809.jpg" /></div>
1394588976150 1358629116480 {{c1::Lymphocytic Mastopathy}} is an inflammator
y reast disorder that involves ilateral hard masses and is commonly seen in au
toimmune disorders such as T1DM and Hashimoto's Thyroiditis.
1394589117746 1358629116480 {{c1::Peau d'orange}} is a gross morphological f
eature of reast cancer that has invaded the lymphatics due to the susequent ly
mphedema that occurs.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16432544875033.jpg" /
></div>
1393086438931 1358629116480 Which genus of acteria is associated with an al
kaline, odourous urine with NH4?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Proteus sp.</i>}}
</div>
1393086887521 1358629116480 What is the normal range of urine production per
day?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::0.5 - 2 L/day}}</div>
1393087383476 1358629116480 What is the normal pH of urine?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::6}}</div>
1393087389455 1358629116480 What renal disorder is associated with the prese
nce of <>dysmorphic RBCs</>&nsp;in the urine?<div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-1825361100999.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephritic Syndrome}
}</div></div>
1393088163270 1358629116480 What renal disorder is associated with the prese
nce of excessive tuular epithelial cells in the urine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Acute Tuular Necrosis}}</div>
1393088188355 1358629116480 What renal disorder is associated with eosinophi
luria?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1924145348810.jpg" /><r /><div><r

/></div><div>{{c1::Drug-Induced Nephritis (Acute Interstitial Nephritis)}}</div>
</div>
1393088298752 1358629116480 Which renal disorder is associated with <>lipid
uria</>&nsp;(fat droplets + oval Maltese cross fat odies)?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}}</div>
1393088350188 1358629116480 What renal disorder is associated with dysplasti
c cells in clusters in the urine?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-196709502
1649.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bladder malignancy}}</div>
1393104783431 1358629116480 Which renal disorder is associated with fatty, l
ipid casts with "Maltese Crosses"?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-93200790
3461.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}}</div></div>
1393104860585 1358629116480 Which renal disorder is associated with a renal
tuular cast containing tuular epithelium?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-944892805328.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Tuular Necrosis}}<
/div>
1393104974837 1358629116480 Which renal disorder is associated with Broad ca
sts made of waxy, granular material?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-996432
412880.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Renal Failure; reflectin
g stasis within tuules}}</div>
1393105050993 1358629116480 What renal disorder is associated with WBC casts
involving mostly Neutrophils?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-103938208586
2.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pyelonephritis}}</div>
1393105170483 1358629116480 What renal disorder is associated with Waxy cast
s with granular cellular deris and sharp orders?<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-1765231558867.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Renal Fai
lure; indicating stasis within the renal tuules}}</div>
1393105227770 1358629116480 What is the most common type of urinary calculi
(stones)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcium}}</div>
1393105820418 1358629116480 What is Azotemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ele
vation of BUN and serum Creatinine}}</div>
1393106044470 1358629116480 {{c1::Azotemia}} is a renal syndrome that involv
es elevation of BUN and serum creatinine, typically due to a reduction in GFR.
<r /><div><i>Azotemia is a change of the lood; Uremia is a renal disease.</i><
/div>
1393106067916 1358629116480 What is Uremia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Azote
mia + the clinical symptoms/manifestations associated with it}}</div>
1393106127114 1358629116480 What is the normal serum BUN:Creatinine ratio?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::~15:1}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1475321266214
9.jpg" /></div>
1393106157754 1358629116480 What is the cause of pre-renal Azotemia?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Reduced urinary lood flow}}</div>
1393106912816 1358629116480 What is the cause of post-renal Azotemia?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Ostruction to urinary outflow}}</div>
1393106926742 1358629116480 {{c1::Pre-Renal Failure}} is a type of acute ren
al failure that is typically caused y a sudden, severe hypotension or decreased
lood flow to the kidneys.&nsp;
1393107310591 1358629116480 {{c1::Intrarenal Failure}} is a type of acute re
nal failure that involves direct damage to the kidneys.
1393107326929 1358629116480 {{c1::Post-Renal Failure}} is a type of acute re
nal failure that involves a sudden ostruction of urine flow. <r /><div><i>e.
g. BPH, kidney stones, ladder tumours, injury</i></div>
1393107366939 1358629116480 What is the duration of renal failure required t
o give a diagnosis of Chronic Renal Failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Minimum
3 months}}</div>
1393107977888 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Chronic Renal F
ailure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diaetes Mellitus}}</div>
1393108676065 1358629116480 What is the most common form of Acute Nephritic
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Post-Streptococcal Glomerulonephritis}}</di
v>
1393109200280 1358629116480 {{c1::Nephritic Syndrome}} is a type of renal di

sorder that involves significant periorital edema due to salt retention and mil
d proteinuria.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4535485464814.jpg" /></div>
1393109336960 1358629116480 {{c1::Staghorn Caliculi}} are a type of urinary
stone that arises in the renal calyces during or following an infection y <i>Pr
oteus sp.</i>
1393115552705 1358629116480 {{c1::Azotemia}} is a hallmark of many renal dis
orders and involves a uild up of nitrogenous waste products.
1393117212477 1358629116480 What is Oligouria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::A
decrease in urine production}}</div>
1393117223937 1358629116480 How does GFR change in Prerenal Azotemia?<div><
1393117274420 1358629116480 What is the serum BUN:Creatinine ratio in Preren
al Failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 15:1}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-14753212662149.jpg" /></div>
1393117337499 1358629116480 What is the value of FENa when renal tuular fun
ction is intact and normal?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::FENa < 1%}}</div>
1393117400979 1358629116480 What is the normal urine osmolality when renal t
uular function is intact and normal?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 500 mOsm/k
g}}</div>
1393117502282 1358629116480 The decrease in lood flow in Prerenal Failure l
eads to activation of the {{c1::RAAS}} and downstream Aldosterone release.
1393117563039 1358629116480 How does Aldosterone affect the reasorption of
BUN at the kidneys following RAAS activation in Prerenal Failure?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Increased reasorption}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Hence an increased
BUN:Creatinine</i></div>
1393117623425 1358629116480 How does GFR change following the acklog of pre
ssure in Postrenal Failure due to urinary outflow ostruction?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Decreased GFR}}</div>
1393117775935 1358629116480 In early stage ostruction in Postrenal Failure,
the increased tuular pressure forces&nsp;{{c1::BUN}} into the lood, yielding
azotemia.
1393118026874 1358629116480 With a long-standing ostruction in Postrenal Fa
ilure, tuular damage results decreased&nsp;{{c1::BUN}} asorption, therey yie
lding milder azotemia.
1393118119629 1358629116480 What is the serum BUN:Creatinine ratio in the&n
sp;<>early stage</>&nsp;of ostruction in Postrenal Failure?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::> 15:1}}</div>
></div>
1393118167051 1358629116480 What is the BUN:Creatinine ratio in the <>long
standing</>&nsp;ostruction in Postrenal Failure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::&
lt; 15:1}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to tuular damage from the long standi
ng increase in tuular pressure.</i></div><div><i><img src="paste-14753212662149
.jpg" /></i></div>
1393118226723 1358629116480 Which value of FENa is associated with <>impair
ed renal tuular function</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::FENa > 2%; i.e. the
re is inaility to reasor Na}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-1475321266214
9.jpg" /></div>
1393118264095 1358629116480 What urine osmolality is associated with an ina
ility to concentrate urine (i.e. renal tuular impairment)?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::< 500 mOsm}}</div>
1393118597525 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Tuular Necrosis}} is a type of acut
e renal failure that is also known as Intrarenal Failure/Azotemia.
1393118635780 1358629116480 What is the most common type of Acute Renal Fail
ure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Tuular Necrosis (Intrarenal Azotemia)}}</
div>
1393119806445 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Tuular Necrosis}} is a form of acut
e renal failure that involves <>necrotic cells plugging the tuules, causing an
ostruction that decreases GFR.</><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-136622
90968994.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>i.e. Intrarenal Azotemia (Intrinsic Renal

Failure)</i></div>
1393119848437 1358629116480 What type of casts are seen in the urine during
Acute Tuular Necrosis (Intrarenal Azotemia)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Brown,
granular casts}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-12631498817955.jpg" /></div>
1393119873141 1358629116480 What is the serum BUN:Creatinine ratio in a pati
ent with Acute Tuular Necrosis (Intrarenal Failure)?<div><r />{{c1::< 15:1}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, normal is ~15:1</i></div><div><i><img src="paste
-14753212662149.jpg" /></i></div>
1393119916351 1358629116480 What is the FENa in a patient with Acute Tuular
Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 2%; due to decreased Na reasorption}
1393119948345 1358629116480 What is the urine osmolality of a patient with A
cute Tuular Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::< 500 mOsm/kg}}</div>
1393120312421 1358629116480 What are the 2 major etiologies of Acute Tuular
Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ischemia and Nephrotoxicity}}</div>
1393120349391 1358629116480 {{c1::Ischemic ATN}} is a type of Acute Tuular
Necrosis that is typically preceded y Prerenal Azotemia due to a decrease in l
ood supply/flow.
1393120404006 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::proximal tuule}} and the medulla
ry segment of the {{c2::thick ascending lim}} of the nephron are particularly s
usceptile to ischemic damage.
1393120462057 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::proximal tuule}} of the nephron
is particularly susceptile to nephrotoxic agents.
1393120822630 1358629116480 What drugs are the most common cause of Nephroto
xic Acute Tuular Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aminoglycosides, Radiocon
trast Agents, Lead, Cisplatin}}</div>
1393120969493 1358629116480 {{c1::Myogloin}} is an endogenous protein that
can cause Nephrotoxic Acute Tuular Necrosis and typically occurs following crus
h injury to the muscle or other types of muscle injury.
1393121024113 1358629116480 {{c1::Ethylene Glycol}} is a sustance found in
anti-freeze that causes&nsp;Nephrotoxic Acute Tuular Necrosis. It is commonly
seen in children as it is lue and tastes sweet.
1393121061022 1358629116480 {{c1::Ethylene Glycol}} is a chemical that cause
s&nsp;Nephrotoxic Acute Tuular Necrosis and is associated with Oxalate Crystal
s in urine.
1393121101667 1358629116480 {{c1::Urate}} is a sustance that causes&nsp;Ne
phrotoxic Acute Tuular Necrosis and is associated with tumour lysis syndrome.
1393121137205 1358629116480 What 2 measures are taken prior to chemotherapy
of Nephrotoxic Acute Tuular Necrosis to decrease the risk of Urate-Induced Acut
e Tuular Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hydration and administration of A
llopurinol}}</div>
1393121475627 1358629116480 What type of casts are seen in the urine of some
one with Acute Tuular Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Brown, granular cast
s}}</div>
1393121502944 1358629116480 How is K+ levels affected in Acute Tuular Necro
sis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperkalemia; due to decreased renal excretion}}
</div>
1393121540701 1358629116480 What is the acid-ase status of someone with Acu
te Tuular Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anion Gap Metaolic Acidosis due
to Hyperkalemia (decreased K excretion)}}</div>
1393121584035 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Interstitial Nephritis}} is a type o
f Acute Tuular Necrosis that is a result of drug-induced hypersensitivity to th
e renal interstitium and tuules.
1393121639871 1358629116480 What are the 3 main causes of Acute Interstitial
Nephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillin, NSAIDs and Diuretics}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Sulfonamides and rifampin can also cause AIN.</i></div>
1393121662917 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Interstitial Nephritis}} is a type o
f Acute Tuular Necrosis that presents with oliguria, fever and <>rash</>&nsp
;days to weeks after exposure to the cause.
<r /><div><i>May also present w
ith <>hematuria, fever, rash</>&nsp;and possile <>costoverteral angle tend

erness</>.</i></div>
1393121710453 1358629116480 Which immune cells are a very key feature of the
urine in a patient with Acute Interstitial Nephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Eosinophils}}</div>
1393121741294 1358629116480 {{c1::Renal Papillary Necrosis}} is a type of Ac
ute Renal Failure that involves necrosis of the renal papillae.
1393121769575 1358629116480 What is a complication of Acute Interstitial Nep
hritis if it is allowed to progress?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renal Papillary
Necrosis}}</div>
1393121794952 1358629116480 {{c1::Renal Papillary Necrosis}} is a type of ac
ute renal failure that presents with <>gross hematuria, proteinuria and flank p
ain</>.
1393121820321 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Renal Papillary
Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic analgesic use (esp. NSAIDs)}}</div
>
<r /><div><i>Other causes include systemic disorders.</i></div>
1393121863575 1358629116480 {{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}} is a group of renal g
lomerular disorders characterized y <>mass</>&nsp;<>proteinuria</>&nsp;(&
gt; 3.5 g/day). <r /><div><i>Phroteins!</i></div>
1393126965305 1358629116480 How much protein is lost in the proteinuria of N
ephrotic Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 3.5 g/day}}</div>
1393127013796 1358629116480 {{c1::Proteinuria}} is the major feature of Neph
rotic Syndrome and results from a reduction in glomerular memrane integrity.
1393127061983 1358629116480 Which serum protein is significantly lost in Nep
hrotic Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alumin}}</div>
1393127086430 1358629116480 What is the cause of pitting edema in&nsp;Nephr
otic Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypoaluminemia}}</div>
1393127121452 1358629116480 What is the cause of increased risk of infection
in&nsp;Nephrotic Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypogammagloulinemia}}<
/div> <r /><div><i>Due to the significant proteinuria (> 3.5 g/day)</i></d
iv>
1393127154417 1358629116480 A loss of&nsp;{{c1::Antithromin III}} in&nsp;
Nephrotic Syndrome results in a hypercoagulale state. <r /><div><i>Rememer,
ATIII is involved in the inactivation of clotting factors.</i></div>
1393127205495 1358629116480 Which apolipoproteins are elevated in Nephrotic
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ApoB, ApoC-II, ApoE}}</div>
1393127605249 1358629116480 What is the cause of Hyperlipidemia and Hypercho
lesterolemia in&nsp;Nephrotic Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Compensation
y the Liver for Lipiduria}}</div>
1393127723899 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of&nsp;Nephrotic
Syndrome in children?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Minimal Change Disease}}</div>
1393127896452 1358629116480 Which cancer is associated with Minimal Change D
isease (Nephrotic Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hodgkin's Lymphoma}}</di
v>
1393127925509 1358629116480 {{c1::Minimal Change Disease}} is a&nsp;Nephrot
ic Syndrome that will show effacement/flattening of podocyte foot processes on E
M and <>nothing else</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6219112645010.jp
g" /><img src="paste-6674379178356.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-24610162609
12.jpg" /></div>
1393128110674 1358629116480 {{c1::Minimal Change Disease}} is a Nephrotic Sy
ndrome that involves selective proteinuria of alumin only, no immunogloulins a
re lost.<div><r /></div><div><r /></div>
1393128169422 1358629116480 {{c1::Minimal Change Disease}} is a&nsp;Nephrot
ic Syndrome that shows excellent response to steroids due to the damage eing me
diated y cytokines from T cells.
1393128225323 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of&nsp;Nephrotic
Syndrome in Hispanics and African Americans?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Focal Se
gmental Glomerulosclerosis (FSGS)}}</div>
1393128274819 1358629116480 Which illicit drug is associated with Focal Segm
ental Glomerulosclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Heroin}}</div>
1393128304859 1358629116480 Which virus is associated with Focal Segmental G

lomerulosclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HIV}}</div>
1393128328538 1358629116480 Which red lood cell disorder is associated with
Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sickle Cell Dise
ase}}</div>
1393128352974 1358629116480 What group of renal disorders includes Minimal C
hange Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}}</div>
1393128375405 1358629116480 What group of renal disorders includes Focal Seg
mental Glomerulosclerosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}}</div>
1393128391117 1358629116480 What group of renal disorders includes Memranou
s Nephropathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}}</div>
<r /><d
1393128426178 1358629116480 What group of renal disorders includes Memranop
roliferative Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}}
</div> <r /><div><i>It is a nephritic syndrome that typically presents as neph
rotic.</i></div>
1393129032781 1358629116480 What <>type </>of renal disorder is associated
with Diaetes Mellitus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}}</div>
1393129070017 1358629116480 What <>type</>&nsp;of renal disorder is assoc
iated with Systemic Amyloidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}}
</div>
1393129087996 1358629116480 {{c1::Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis}} is a
Nephrotic Syndrome that involves focal (some glomeruli) and segmental (parts of
the glomerulus) sclerosis with <>effacement of podocyte foot processes</> on E
M.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7529077670334.jpg" /></div><div><img src
="paste-1683627180337.jpg" /></div>
1393129237668 1358629116480 What is the <>only</> Nephrotic Syndrome that
responds to steroids?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Minimal Change Disease}}</div>
1393129362365 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Nephrotic Syndr
ome in Caucasian adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Memranous Nephropathy}}</di
v>
1393129394149 1358629116480 Memranous or Memranoproliferative renal disord
ers involve the deposition of&nsp;{{c1::immune complexes}} at the glomerular me
mrane, therey making it thicker.
1393129441592 1358629116480 Which type of hepatitis are associated with Mem
ranous Nephropathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatitis B; Hepatitis C}}</div>
1393129483443 1358629116480 {{c1::Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)}} is a
systemic autoimmune disorder that is associated with Memranous Nephropathy.
1393129528252 1358629116480 Which drugs are a common cause of Memranous Nep
hropathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::NSAIDs and Penacillamine}}</div>
1393129653206 1358629116480 {{c1::Memranous Nephropathy}} is a Nephrotic Sy
ndrome that involves a thickened glomerular asement memrane due to <>suepith
elial</>&nsp;deposits with a '<>spike and dome' </>appearance.<div><r /></d
/><img src="paste-8847632630231.jpg" /></div>
ndrome that involves <>suepithelial</>&nsp;deposits of immune complexes with
<>'spike and dome'</>&nsp;appearance.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8
843337662935.jpg" /></div>
1393129884345 1358629116480 What pattern of immunofluorescence is seen in Me
mranous Glomerulopathy due to immune complex deposition?<div><r /></div><div><
img src="paste-8959301779828.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Granular}}
</div></div>
1393129940687 1358629116480 {{c1::Memranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis (
MPGN)}} is a type of Nephrotic Syndrome that involves a thickened and <><u>spli
t</u></> glomerular asement memrane with a <>'tram-track'</>&nsp;appearanc
e.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9165460209884.jpg" /><img src="paste-283
8973382966.jpg" /></div>
1393130444959 1358629116480 What pattern of immunofluorescence is seen in Me
mranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis (MPGN) due to the immune complex depositi

on?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9298604196213.jpg" /></div><div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Granular}}</div>
1393130545618 1358629116480 Which type of&nsp;Memranoproliferative Glomeru
lonephritis (MPGN) involves <>suendothelial</>&nsp;immune complexes?<div><r
lonephritis (MPGN) is associated with HBV and HCV?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Type
I}}</div>
1393130602611 1358629116480 Type {{c1::I}}&nsp;Memranoproliferative Glomer
ulonephritis (MPGN) is associated with HBV and HCV.
1393130621855 1358629116480 Type&nsp;{{c1::I}}&nsp;Memranoproliferative G
lomerulonephritis (MPGN) involves <>suendothelial</>&nsp;immune complex depo
sits.
lonephritis (MPGN) involves <>intramemranous</>&nsp;immune complex deposits?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II (Dense Deposit Disease)}}</div>
1393130680501 1358629116480 Type&nsp;{{c1::II (Dense Deposit Disease)}}&ns
p;Memranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis (MPGN) involves <>intramemranous</
>&nsp;immune complex deposits.
1393130706128 1358629116480 Type&nsp;{{c1::II}}&nsp;Memranoproliferative
Glomerulonephritis (MPGN) is also known as Dense Deposit Disease.
1393130717222 1358629116480 {{c1::C3 Nephritic Factor}} is an antiody that
inds to and stailizes C3 Convertase in Type II&nsp;Memranoproliferative Glom
erulonephritis (MPGN).
1393130755732 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Type II&nsp;Memranopro
liferative Glomerulonephritis (MPGN)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3 Nephritic Fa
ctor; autoantiody that stailizes C3 convertase, allowing for overactivation of
complement}}</div>
1393130802284 1358629116480 Which Nephrotic Syndrome involves <>suepitheli
al</>&nsp;immune complex deposition?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1069
4468567358.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Memranous Nephropathy}}</di
v></div>
1393131074073 1358629116480 Which Nephrotic Syndrome involves <>suendothel
ial</>&nsp;immune complex deposition?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-107
37418240337.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I Memranoproliferativ
e Glomerulonephritis (MPGN)}}</div>
1393131140879 1358629116480 Which Nephrotic Syndrome involves <>intramemra
nous</>&nsp;deposition of immune complexes?<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-10771777978690.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II Memranoproli
ferative Glomerulonephritis (Dense Deposit Disease)}}</div></div>
1393171942799 1358629116480 {{c1::Nephritic Syndrome}} is a group of renal g
lomerular disorders characterized y glomerular inflammation and leeding (hemat
uria).
1393172003181 1358629116480 What amount of proteinuria is seen in Nephritic
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::< 3.5 g/day}}</div>
1393172025233 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypertension}} is a key feature of nephrit
ic syndrome due to the salt retention that occurs.
1393172052026 1358629116480 What kind of casts are seen in the urine of a pa
tient with Nephritic Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dysmorphic RBCs}}</div
>
1393172075122 1358629116480 {{c1::Nephritic Syndrome}} is a group of renal d
isorders that involves hypercellular, inflamed glomeruli upon iopsy.
1393173507102 1358629116480 {{c1::Immune-complex}} deposition in Nephritic S
yndrome results in the activation of complement.
1393173808174 1358629116480 Which complement protein is chemotactic for Neut
rophils?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C5a}}</div>
1393173823248 1358629116480 {{c1::C5a}} is a complement protein that is chem
otactic for neutrophils, which mediate the damage seen in Nephritic Syndrome.
1393173858912 1358629116480 {{c1::Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis (PSGN
)}} is a Nephritic Syndrome that arises after a Group A eta-hemolytic streptoco

ccal infection of the skin or pharynx.
1393173913658 1358629116480 What is impetigo?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Con
tagious acterial skin infection}}</div>
1393173983992 1358629116480 What type of Group A strep strains cause&nsp;Po
ststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis (PSGN)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephritoge
nic strains only}}</div>
1393174023181 1358629116480 What colour urine will e seen in&nsp;Poststrep
tococcal Glomerulonephritis (PSGN)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hematuria with co
la-coloured urine}}</div>
sorder that presents with <>hematuria</>, <>limited proteinuria</>, azotemia
and oliguria.
1393174086432 1358629116480 {{c1::Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis (PSGN
)}} is a Nephritic Syndrome that involves <>suepithelial 'humps'</>&nsp;of i
mmune complexes on EM.
1393174810209 1358629116480 Which demographic has a 25% risk of progressing
from&nsp;Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis (PSGN) to Rapidly Progressive Glo
merulonephritis (RPGN)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adults}}</div>
1393174880858 1358629116480 {{c1::Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RP
GN)}} is a Nephritic Syndrome that progresses to renal failure in weeks to month
s.
1393174903639 1358629116480 {{c1::Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RP
GN)}} is a Nephritic Syndrome that is characterized y <>crescents in the Bowma
n's space</>&nsp;of glomeruli on an H&E stain.
1393175063451 1358629116480 What comprises the crescents seen in the Bowman'
s space in&nsp;Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RPGN)?<div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-4226247819544.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Firi
n and Macrophages}}</div></div>
1393175095585 1358629116480 {{c1::Goodpasture's Syndrome}} is a&nsp;Rapidly
Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RPGN) that shows <>linear</> immunofluorescen
ce.
1393175418266 1358629116480 What type of immunofluorescence is seen in Goodp
asture's Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Linear}}</div>
1393175431430 1358629116480 What antiodies are associated with Goodpasture'
s Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-Glomerular Basement Memrane (Anti-G
BM) antiodies}}</div> <r /><div><i>Goodpastur's Syndrome is aka Anti-GBM dise
ase</i></div>
1393175473488 1358629116480 {{c1::Goodpasture's Syndrome}} is a <>Type I&n
sp;</>Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RPGN). <r /><div><i>Involves T
ype II hypersensitivity</i></div>
1393175509552 1358629116480 Which demographic is classically affected y Goo
dpasture's Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::oung, adult males}}</div>
1393175559831 1358629116480 What type of immunofluorescence is seen in Posts
treptococcal Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Granular}}</div>
1393175608720 1358629116480 What type of immunofluorescence is seen in Diffu
se Proliferative Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Granular}}</div>
1393175636854 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Diffuse Proliferative Gl
omerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<>Suendothelial</>&nsp;Ag-A co
mplex deposition}}</div>
1393175702197 1358629116480 What is the most common type of renal disease in
SLE?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diffuse Proliferative Glomerulonephritis}}</div
>
1393175725414 1358629116480 What type of&nsp;Rapidly Progressive Glomerulon
ephritis (RPGN) involves negative immunofluorescence (pauci-immune)?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Type III}}</div>
ephritis (RPGN) involves linear immunofluorescence?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::T
ype I}}</div>
ephritis (RPGN) involves granular immunofluorescence?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1:

:Type II}}</div>
1393175784212 1358629116480 Following a Pauci-Immune glomerulus iopsy, what
is the next diagnostic test that should e taken?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::AN
CA test}}</div>
1393175844623 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemoptysis}} is a clinical feature of Good
pasture's Syndrome due to cross reaction of Anti-GBM antiodies at the lungs.
1393176058497 1358629116480 What type of glomerular immunofluoresence is see
n in Wegener's Granulomatosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pauci-Immune}}</div>
1393176097301 1358629116480 What type of glomerular immunofluorescence is se
en in Microscopic Polyangiitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pauci-Immune}}</div>
1393176118209 1358629116480 What type of glomerular immunofluorescence is se
en Churg-Strauss Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pauci-Immune}}</div>
1393176136963 1358629116480 {{c1::Wegener's Granulomatosis}} is a Type III R
apidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RPGN) associated with <>c-ANCA</>.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Wegener's affects the lungs, kidneys AND pharynx. So do
not automatically think Goodpasture's if there is lung and kidney involvement.</
i></div>
1393176199186 1358629116480 What type of ANCA is seen in Wegener's Granuloma
tosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::c-ANCA}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"We<><u>c
</u></>ener's"</i></div>
1393176226466 1358629116480 What type of ANCA is seen in Microscopic Polyang
iitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p-ANCA}}</div>
1393176244792 1358629116480 What type of ANCA is seen in Churg-Strauss Syndr
ome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::p-ANCA}}</div>
1393176257486 1358629116480 {{c1::Churg Strauss Syndrome}} is a Type III&ns
p;Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RPGN) that involves <>p-ANCA, granulo
matous inflammation, eosinophilia and asthma</>.
<r /><div><i>This is th
e distinguishing feature from Microscopic Polyangiitis, as oth have p-ANCA.</i>
</div>
1393176305833 1358629116480 {{c1::Microscopic Polyangiitis}} is a Type III&n
sp;Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RPGN) that involves <>p-ANCA and no
other significant features</>.
1393176393067 1358629116480 What is the most common nephropathy worldwide?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::IgA Nephropathy (Berger's Disease)}}</div>
1393176778070 1358629116480 {{c1::IgA Nephropathy (Berger's Disease)}} is a
Nephritic Syndrome that involves <>IgA immune complex</> deposition in the mes
angium of the glomerulus.
1393176982109 1358629116480 {{c1::IgA Nephropathy}} is a type of Nephritic S
yndrome that often follows mucosal infections, especially gastroenteritis.
1393177031419 1358629116480 {{c1::Henoch-Schonlein Purpura}} is an IgA Nephr
opathy that involves systemic vasculitis.
1393177057046 1358629116480 {{c1::Alport Syndrome}} is a Neprhitic Syndrome
that involves an inherited defect in Type IV collagen.
1393177108433 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Alport Syndrome?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Inherited defect in Type IV Collagen}}</div>
1393177126931 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Alport Syndro
me?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked}}</div>
1393177146532 1358629116480 {{c1::Alport Syndrome}} is a Nephritic Syndrome
that involves <>isolated hematuria, sensory hearing loss and ocular disturance
s</>.
1393177172391 1358629116480 {{c1::Alport Syndrome}} is a Nephritic Syndrome
that involves thinning and splitting of the glomerular asement memrane due to
a <>defect in type IV collagen</>.
1393185978048 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::glomerulus}} is the site in the k
idney where the lood is filtered into the urinary tuules.<div><r /></div><div
1393186657709 1358629116480 What is the normal GFR?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::125 mL/min}}</div> <img src="paste-6743098655079.jpg" />
1393186885319 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::Glomerular Basement Memrane}} se
parates the glomerular endothelium from the urinary space, glomerular mesangium
and podocytes (epithelium).
<img src="paste-6773163426111.jpg" />
1393187077770 1358629116480 What type of collagen is aundant at the glomeru
lar asement memrane?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1393187304056 1358629116480 What electrical charge does the glomerular asem
ent memrane have?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Strong negative}}</div>
1393187382374 1358629116480 Which 2 structural proteins are found in the fil
tration slit diaphragm at the podocyte epithelium?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ne
phrin and Podocin}}</div>
<img src="paste-7039451398435.jpg" />
1393187434569 1358629116480 What percentage of glomeruli are involved in dif
fuse glomerular disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 50%}}</div>
1393188744187 1358629116480 What percentage of glomeruli are involved in foc
al glomerular disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::< 50%}}</div>
1393188756725 1358629116480 Many types of glomerulonephritis involve the dep
osition of {{c1::immune complexes}} at various places in and around the glomerul
us.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7563437408654.jpg" /><img src="paste-75
84912244902.jpg" /></div>
<img src="paste-8074538516710.jpg" />
1393189829984 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Granular}} pattern of immunofluores
cence (shown elow) is due to immune complex deposition at the glomerulus.<div><
1393189867843 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::linear}} immunofluorescence pattern
(shown elow) is typically seen in Goodpasture's Syndrome (Anti-GBM Disease).<d
1393189908984 1358629116480 {{c1::IgA Nephropathy}} is a Nephritic Syndrome
that involves an intense granular immunofluorescent pattern with mesangial, "hol
ly leaf" shape.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8327941587190.jpg" /></div>
1393190180071 1358629116480 {{c1::IgA Nephropathy}} is a Nephritic Syndrome
that involves hypercellular expansion of the glomerular mesangium with segmental
sclerosis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8362301325558.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Basically, if there are IgA deposits at the mesangium, it is Berge
r's Disease (IgA Nephropathy) until proven otherwise.</i></div>
1393190258739 1358629116480 {{c1::Henoch-Schonlein Purpura}} is a Nephritic
Syndrome that presents as <>IgA nephropathy with systemic vasculitis and purpur
ic skin lesions</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8405250998684.jpg" /><
/div>
1393190311429 1358629116480 Which Nephritic Syndrome is associated with hist
ological crescents at glomeruli?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8551279886
695.jpg" /><img src="paste-4230542786840.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1
::Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis (RPGN)}}</div>
1393190730125 1358629116480 What comprises the histological crescents seen i
n Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8
594229559657.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Firin and Macrophages}}</
div>
1393190788056 1358629116480 {{c1::Anti-GBM Antiodies}} are a type of autoan
tiody found in Goodpasture's Syndrome that targets a peptide in collagen type I
V (Goodpasture's Antigen) of the glomerular asement memrane. <r /><div><i><
r /></i></div>
1393191008626 1358629116480 {{c1::Anti-GBM Antiodies}} are an autoantiody
seen in Goodpasture's Syndrome that may cross react with the pulmonary alveolar
asement memrane, therey causing pulmonary hemorrhaging.
1393191068459 1358629116480 What type of immunofluorescence pattern is seen
in Goodpasture's Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9083855831363.jp
g" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Linear IgG GBM}}</div> <r /><div><i>Pr
etty specific to Goodpasture's</i></div>
1393191168649 1358629116480 {{c1::ANCA}} is an antiody that is associated w
ith Pauci-Immune Rapidly Progressive Glomerulonephritis, even if there is no ass
ociated vasculitis.
<r /><div><i>> 90% of isolated, idiopathic cases inv
olve ANCA.</i></div>
1393191644934 1358629116480 What type of immunofluorescence will e seen wit
h Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Granular IgG
and C3 deposits}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-9560597201184.jpg" /></div>

sorder that involves <>diffuse</> endothelial and mesangial <>hypercellularit
y</> with <>neutrophilic infiltration</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-9689446220026.jpg" /></div>
1393193864865 1358629116480 {{c1::Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis}} is
a Nephritic Syndrome that involves <>suepithelial 'humps'</>&nsp;on EM.<div>
<r /></div><div><img src="paste-9723805958564.jpg" /><img src="paste-1010176308
0529.jpg" /></div>
1393193935442 1358629116480 What is the major histological feature of Nephro
tic Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Loss of epithelial (podocyte) foot proc
esses}}</div>
1393194337327 1358629116480 How is GFR affected in Minimal Change Disease?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Unchanged, it is normal}}</div>
1393194798251 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Primary Focal Segmental
Glomerulosclerosis (FSGS)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Idiopathic; not well under
stood}}</div>
1393196888547 1358629116480 Mutations of the podocyte slit diaphragm protein
s&nsp;{{c1::Nephrin}} or&nsp;{{c2::Podocin}} are potential causes of Primary F
ocal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis (FSGS).
1393196936155 1358629116480 {{c1::Sickle Cell Disease}} is a hematological c
ause of Secondary Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) due to poor oxygenat
ion of the glomeruli and a structural weakness of RBCs.
1393197084591 1358629116480 {{c1::Collapsing Glomerulopathy}} is a variant f
orm of&nsp;Primary Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) that involves <>r
etraction/collapse of the glomerular tuft</> and is associated with proliferati
on of visceral epithelial cells.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1102088608
1887 (1).jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Poor prognosis</i></div>
1393197151900 1358629116480 {{c1::Collapsing Glomerulopathy}} is a variant f
orm of&nsp;Primary Focal Segmental Glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) that is often asso
ciated with HIV.
1393197364653 1358629116480 What percentage of&nsp;Primary Focal Segmental
Glomerulosclerosis (FSGS) patients progress to renal failure?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::20% in 2 years}}</div> <r /><div><i>Children have etter prognosis.</i
></div>
1393197401172 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Memranous Neph
ropathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Idiopathic}}</div>
ndrome that is common associated with malignancies, especially solid tumours.
1393197545582 1358629116480 {{c1::Memranoproliferative Glomerulonephritis (
MPGN)}} is a nephrotic syndrome that involves the interposition of the cell proc
esses of Mesangial cells, therey causing duplication of the glomerular asement
memrane.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11991548690870.jpg" /></div>
1393198508389 1358629116480 <div><r /></div><div>Type {{c1::II}}&nsp;Memr
anoproliferative Glomerulonephritis (MPGN) involves an irregular transformation
of the glomerular asement memrane into an electron dense sustance.</div><div>
<r /></div><img src="paste-12137577578811.jpg" />
1393198555285 1358629116480 Type&nsp;{{c1::II}} Memranoproliferative Glome
rulonephritis (MPGN) involves rion-like C3 deposits on immunofluorescence.<div
1393198633955 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Glomerulonephritis}} is a renal di
sorder defined as end stage scaarring of the kidneys from multiple types of glom
erulonephritis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-13009455940065.jpg" /></div
>
1393198704214 1358629116480 Which antiody is involved in Type II Memranopr
oliferative Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C3 Nephritic Factor}}
</div> <r /><div><i>An autoantiody to C3 Convertase, stailizing it and prolo
nging complement activation.</i></div>
1393198784742 1358629116480 Which sex is more commonly afflicted y UTIs?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Women}}</div>
1393201822102 1358629116480 {{c1::Cystitis}} is defined as infection of the
ladder that presents with <>suprapuic pain, dysuria, increased urinary freque
ncy/urgency</>.
<r /><div><i>Systemic signs of fever/chills are usually
asent.</i></div>
1393201833413 1358629116480 What kind of pain is associated with Cystitis?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suprapuic pain}}</div>
1393201864027 1358629116480 What will urinalysis of a patient with Cystitis
show?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cloudy urine with > 10 WBCs per high power f
ield (hpf)}}</div>
1393201924137 1358629116480 What will a dipstick test of a patient with Cyst
itis yield?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Positive Leukocyte esterase (pyuria) and
possile nitrites}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>Gram-negative acteria convert
nitrates to nitrites</></i></div>
1393201974410 1358629116480 How many colony forming units are found in and u
sed to diagnose Cystitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 100,000}}</div>
1393202006079 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Cystitis?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Escherichia coli</i>}}</div>
1393202016618 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Proteus mirailis</i>}} is a acteria t
hat causes cystitis and is associated with <>alkaline urine</> with <>NH4</>
&nsp;and urine with an <>ammonia scent</>.
1393202053596 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Staphylococcus saprophyticus</i>}} is a
gram positive coccus that has an increased incidence of causing cystitis in <>
young, sexually active women</>.
<r /><div><i><>E. coli still the #1 ca
use in this demographic.</></i></div>
1393202250632 1358629116480 What is sterile pyuria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Pyuria with negative urine culture}}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, pyuria i
s > 10 WBCs/hpf and leukocyte esterase</i></div>
1393202300585 1358629116480 What is pyuria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The p
resence of > 10 WBCs/hpf and Leukocyte Esterase in the urine}}</div>
1393202323581 1358629116480 Which 2 acterial species are associated with st
erile pyuria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>&nsp;and <
i>Neisseria gonorhhoeae</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Likely due to them eing i
ntracellular</i></div>
1393202395776 1358629116480 {{c1::Pyelonephritis}} is defined as infection o
f the kidney.
1393202426299 1358629116480 What type of urinary casts will e seen in Pyelo
nephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::WBC casts}}</div>
1393202467325 1358629116480 {{c1::Flank Pain}} is a symptom of pyelonephriti
s and occurs due to inflammation sensitizing the nerves of the renal capsule.
1393202552070 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Acute Pyeloneph
ritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Escherichia coli</i>}}</div>
1393202566730 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Pyelonephritis}} is a renal disord
er defined as interstitial firosis and atrophy of tuules due to multiple outs
of acute pyelonephritis.
1393202606661 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Chronic Pyelone
phritis in children?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vesicoureteral Reflux}}</div>
1393202628679 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Chronic Pyelone
phritis in adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ostruction; e.g. BPH, cervical ca
rcinoma, etc}}</div>
1393202651960 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Pyelonephritis}} is a urinary trac
t infection that involves atrophic tuules containing <>eosinophilic proteinace
ous material that resemles thyroid follicles</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-11600706666911.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>i.e. <>Thyroidization</>
&nsp;of the kidney</i></div>
1393202897601 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Pyelonephritis}} is a UTI that inv
olves cortical scarring with lunted calyces.
1393377199260 1358629116480 What causes the hyaline arteriolosclerosis of th
e glomerular asement memrane in Diaetes Mellitus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::
Nonenzymatic glycosylation due to hyperglycemia; allows for protein to enter the
BV wall}}</div>
1393377359524 1358629116480 Which glomerular arteriole is more affected in D
iaetes Mellitus Nephropathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Efferent arteriole}}</d
iv>
<r /><div><i><>Nonenzymatic glycosylation of the efferent arteriole re
sults in an increase in GFR and susequent mesangial expansion</>.</i></div>
1393377393117 1358629116480 Hyaline arteriolosclerosis of the&nsp;{{c1::eff
erent}} arteriole at the glomerulus in Diaetes Mellitus leads to a high glomeru
lar filtration pressure and resultant&nsp;{{c2::microaluminuria}}.
1393377647937 1358629116480 What group of renal disorders includes Diaetes
Mellitus Nephropathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrotic Syndrome}}</div>
1393377673221 1358629116480 {{c1::Kimmelstiel-Wilson nodules}} are a histolo
gical feature of Diaetes Mellitus Nephropathy that involves nodular sclerosis o
f the mesangium.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1065151889731.jpg" /></div
<r /><div><i>This is ve
ry specific to Diaetes Mellitus Nephropathy</i></div>
1393377758588 1358629116480 {{c1::ACE Inhiitors}} are a type of drug that c
an e given in Diaetes Mellitus Nephropathy to slow the progression of the hype
rfiltration induced damage.
1393378061878 1358629116480 Which organ is most commonly involved in Systemi
c Amyloidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Kidneys}}</div>
1393378083008 1358629116480 Where at the glomerulus does amyloid deposit?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Mesangium}}</div>
1393378103010 1358629116480 What colour does amyloid show in polarized light
following staining with Congo red?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Apple-Green Biref
ringence}}</div>
1393378155430 1358629116480 What stain is est used to visualize amyloid?<di
v><img src="paste-1473173783026.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Congo r
ed}}</div></div>
1393378194663 1358629116480 Which glomerular structure shown elow thickens
as a result of hyaline degeneration and non-enzymatic glycosylation?<div><r /><
:Glomerular Basement Memrane}}</div>
1393378741158 1358629116480 What type of antiody immunofluorescence is seen
in Diaetes Mellitus Nephropathy?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-17566416
24410.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Linear IgG}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Diaetes is the only other disease esides Goodpasture's that yields linea
r IgG.</i></div>
1393378813291 1358629116480 What type of arteriolosclerosis is seen in Diae
tes Mellitus Nephropathy?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-1997159793181.jpg
" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyaline Arteriolosclerosis}}</div>
1393379237956 1358629116480 How does GFR change in Diaetes Mellitus Nephrop
athy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Due to art
eriolosclerosis of the efferent arteriole.</i></div>
1393379631590 1358629116480 {{c1::Amyloidosis}} is a systemic Nephrotic Synd
rome that presents with a diffuse pattern of glomerular sclerosis.<div><r /></d
1393379733657 1358629116480 {{c1::Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)}} is a
systemic autoimmune disease that involves a failure to maintain self tolerance.
1393379966090 1358629116480 Which antiodies are associated with Systemic Lu
pus Erythematosus (SLE)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ANA (non-specific); Anti-dsD
NA (highly specific)}}</div>
1393380045411 1358629116480 Which WHO class of Lupus Nephritis involves a no
rmal kidney on LM?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::1}}</div>
1393380144925 1358629116480 Which WHO class of Lupus Nephritis involves Mesa
ngial Glomerulonephritis?<div><r />{{c1::2}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Similar to
IgA nephropathy.</i></div>
1393380171867 1358629116480 Which WHO class of Lupus Nephritis involves Foca
l Proliferative Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::3}}</div>
1393380189553 1358629116480 Which WHO class of Lupus Nephritis involves Diff
use Proliferative Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::4}}</div>

1393380201966 1358629116480 Which WHO class of Lupus Nephritis involves Mem
ranous Glomerulopathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::5}}</div>
<r /><div><i>At
this point it is full lown Nephrotic Syndrome.</i></div>
1393380232224 1358629116480 Where are the immune deposits found in stage III
and IV Lupus Nephropathy (Focal and Diffuse Proliferative GN)?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Suendothelium and mesangium}}</div>
1393380446947 1358629116480 Where are the immune deposits found in stage V L
upus Nephropathy (Memranous GN)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Suepithelial, sue
ndothelial and mesangial}}</div>
1393380499878 1358629116480 What kind of immunofluorescence is seen in Lupus
Nephropathy?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3577707757790.jpg" /><r /><d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Full House; involving <>granular</>&nsp;IgA, IgG an
d IgM and complement}}</div></div>
1393380561689 1358629116480 What immune elements are included in the Full Ho
use immunofluoresence seen in Lupus Nephropathy?<div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-3573412790494.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Granular IgG, IgA a
nd IgM; Complement}}</div>
1393380601317 1358629116480 Which class of Lupus Nephropathy involves hyperc
ellular glomeruli with few patent <>capillary loops </>(<>"wire looping"</>)
?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3740916515035.jpg" /></div><div><r /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Class IV; Diffuse Proliferative GN}}</div>
1393380872085 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypertensive Arteriolonephrosclerosis}} is
a renal vascular pathology seen in hypertension that involves hyaline arteriolo
sclerosis and granular kidneys.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-38010460573
58.jpg" /></div>
1393380969374 1358629116480 Renal ischemia during firinoid necrosis due to
Malignant HTN leads to the stimulation of&nsp;{{c1::RAAS}}, therey causing a d
etrimental cycle of hypertension.
1393381325492 1358629116480 {{c1::Accelerated/Hypertensive Nephrosclerosis}}
is a systemic nephropathy that involves a flea-itten kidney with pinpoint pete
chiae on the cortical surface.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-413175853906
2.jpg" /></div>
1393381402907 1358629116480 {{c1::Accelerated/Hypertensive Nephrosclerosis}}
is a systemic nephropathy that involves firinoid necrosis of glomerular arteri
oles and hyperplastic arteriolosclerosis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4
1393381455441 1358629116480 Renal Artery Stenosis leads to stimulation of&n
sp;{{c1::Renin}} release from the juxtaglomerular apparatus and susequent hyper
tension.
enosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Atherosclerosis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Fi
romuscular dysplasia is a close second</i></div>
1393381525061 1358629116480 In Renal Artery Stenosis, which kidney undergoes
atrophy?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4741643895149.jpg" /></div><div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::The affected kidney (S)}}</div> <r /><div><i>The affect
ed kidney also releases Renin, causing HTN. The unaffected kidney compensates an
d undergoes hypertrophy.</i></div>
1393381611225 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome}} is a thromoti
c microangiopathy that results from an intestinal infection, typically O157:H7 <
i>E. coli</i>.
1393381686779 1358629116480 {{c1::Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome}} is a thromoti
c microangiopathy that is associated with the Shigella-like toxins made y O157:
H7 <i>E. coli</i>&nsp;as they injure endothelial cells.
1393381738876 1358629116480 Which cells are targeted and injured y the Shig
ella-like toxins from O157:H7 <i>E. coli</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endothe
lial cells}}</div>
1393381764385 1358629116480 {{c1::Atypical HUS}} is a thromotic microangiop
athy that involves a deficiency of complement regulatory proteins (such as facto
r H), therey leading to overactive complement proteins.
1393381837992 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Atypical HUS?<div><r />

</div><div>{{c1::Deficiency of complement regulatory proteins, therey yielding
an overactive complement system}}</div>
1393381869382 1358629116480 Which cells are injured in Atypical HUS due to t
he overactivity of the complement system?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endothelium
}}</div>
1393381904084 1358629116480 What is the etiology of Thromotic Thromocytope
nic Purpura (TTP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Deficiency or defect in the ADAMTS
13 Protease (vWF Protease) due to <>autoantiodies</>; therey leading to over
active vWF}}</div>
} is a thromotic microangiopathy that involves autoantiodies against ADAMTS13
(vWF Protease) or a genetic defect in ADAMTS13.
1393448387259 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of acute renal fai
lure (especially intrinsic)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Tuular Necrosis (
Acute Kidney Injury)}}</div>
1393448538789 1358629116480 What are the 2 main etiologies of Acute Tuular
Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ischemia and toxins}}</div>
1393448559063 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::ischemic}} type of Acute Tuular
Necrosis involves a patchy pattern of necrosis at the proximal tuule and thick
ascending lim of the loop of Henle.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-858993
459517.jpg" /></div>
1393449127409 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::toxic}} type of Acute Tuular Nec
rosis typically involves extensive necrosis at the proximal tuule.<div><r /></
/></div>
1393449170322 1358629116480 Which type of urinary casts are seen in Acute Tu
ular Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-936302870890.jpg" /><img sr
c="paste-1812476199263.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Eosinophilic, di
rty <>granular</>&nsp;casts}}</div></div>
1393449258234 1358629116480 {{c1::Tuulorrhexis}} is a feature of Ischemic A
cute Tuular Necrosis that involves focal necrosis of the renal tuules, typical
ly involving focal rupture of the asement memrane.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-932007903594.jpg" /></div>
1393449544755 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::initiation}} phase of Acute Tuul
ar Necrosis spans the first 36 hrs and is dominated y the precipitating event/t
rauma.
1393449829856 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::maintenance}} phase of Acute Tuu
lar Necrosis spans several days and involves <>oliguria, salt/water overload, h
yperkalemia </>and <>uremia</>.
3.jpg" /></div>
1393449873996 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::recovery}} phase of Acute Tuular
Necrosis spans days to months and involves <>polyuria, water/salt/electrolyte
wasting </>and<> hypokalemia</>.
1393449922113 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydronephrosis}} is a renal disorder that
involves <u>dilation of the renal pelvis and calyces with permanent renal atroph
y from urinary ostruction</u>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-25469156069
04.jpg" /><img src="paste-7172595384597.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div><r /
></div></div>
1393450662815 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydronephrosis}} is a renal disorder that
results from Ostructive Uropathy that yields a acklog of pressure due to trapp
ed filtrate. Continued ostruction leads to decreased renal lood flow and decre
ased GFR.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-7168300417301.jpg" /><img src="pa
ste-7211250090399.jpg" /></div>
1393451232018 1358629116480 How does GFR change in Ostructive Uropathy?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1393451246167 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydroureter}} is a renal disorder that res
ults from Ostructive Uropathy downstream in the ureter.<div><r /></div><div><i
1393451422225 1358629116480 {{c1::Reflux Nephropathy}} is a renal disorder t
hat involves the retrograde reflux of urine and presents with recurrent UTIs.
1393452169986 1358629116480 {{c1::Reflux Nephropathy}} is a renal disorder t
hat involves the reflux of urine and <>polar scarring</>&nsp;of the kidney, t
ypically at the top and ottom poles.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-30322
46911341.jpg" /></div>
1393452225130 1358629116480 A voiding cystogram of a patient with&nsp;{{c1:
:Reflux Nephropathy}} will show a retrograde flux of urine from the ladder to t
he ureter/kidney.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3152505995644.jpg" /></di
v>
1393452268058 1358629116480 What is the most common route of infection in Py
elonephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ascending (up the urethra)}}</div>
1393452699035 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Pyelonephritis}} is a renal disorder
that involves<> flank pain </>(at the <>costoverteral angle</>)&nsp;and i
nfection of the kidneys.
1393452819189 1358629116480 What type of urinary casts are seen in Pyeloneph
ritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::WBC}}</div>
1393452830808 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Pyelonephritis}} is a renal disorder
that involves an aundance of PMNs in the lumen of the tuules and hence WBC ca
sts in the urine.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3839700762988.jpg" /></di
v>
1393453207842 1358629116480 {{c1::Pyonephrosis}} is defined as an accumulati
on of pus in the renal pelvis and calyces.
1393453250406 1358629116480 {{c1::Renal Papillary Necrosis}} is a renal diso
rder that involves necrosis of more than 1 renal papillae and is typically seen
in Pyelonephritis or Acute Interstitial Nephritis.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-3938485010823.jpg" /></div>
1393453445009 1358629116480 What are the 2 major etiologies of Chronic Pyelo
nephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Reflux nephropathy or Chronic Ostruction}
}</div>
1393453497575 1358629116480 Which renal disorder is associated with <>thyro
idization</>&nsp;of the kidney?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-420047801
5671.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Pyelonephritis}}</div>
1393453703686 1358629116480 {{c1::Xantogranulomatous Pyelonephritis}} is an
unusual form of Chronic Pyelonephritis associated with <i>Proteus sp.</i>&nsp;i
nfection.
1393453738927 1358629116480 {{c1::Xantogranulomatous Pyelonephritis}} is an
unusual form of Chronic Pyelonephritis that can simulate Renal Cell Carcinoma o
th grossly and histologically due to it's yellow nodules and foamy macrophages (
clear cells) respectively.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-4264902525171.jp
1393453827278 1358629116480 What is the treatment for drug-induced Acute Int
erstitial Nephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Withdrawal of the causative agen
t}}</div>
1393453869630 1358629116480 {{c1::Drug-induced Acute Interstitial Nephritis}
} is a renal disorder that may involves <>eosinophilia and rash</> as it is a
hypersensitivity response.
1393453906378 1358629116480 {{c1::Eosinophils}} are a type of immune cell th
at may e present in the urinary casts found in Acute Interstitial Nephritis.<di
1393453959823 1358629116480 What is the cause of <>Acute</>&nsp;Uric Acid
Nephropathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Precipiration of uric acid crystals in
tuules/collecting ducts, therey leading to ostruction of nephrons}}</div>
1393454639877 1358629116480 How can we prevent Uric Acid Nephropathy in pati
ents recieving chemotherapy for lymphoma/leukemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::In
crease urinary pH (alkaline) to prevent precipitation of urate}}</div>
1393454716487 1358629116480 What is the cause of <>Chronic</>&nsp;Urate N
ephropathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Hyperuricemia (Gout)}}</div>
1393454746313 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Urate Nephropathy}} is a renal dis
order that involves the deposition of urate crystals in the renal tuular lumen.

1393454779943 1358629116480 {{c1::Light Chain Nephropathy}} is a renal disea
se associated with Multiple Myeloma that involves amyloid light chains comining
with urinary glycoproteins to form ostructive <>angular</> casts in the tuu
les.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5677946765681.jpg" /></div>
1393454864110 1358629116480 {{c1::Light Chain Deposition Disease}} is a rena
l disease associated with Multiple Myeloma and involves the deposition of amyloi
d light chains at the glomeruli (glomerulopathy) or tuular asement memrane (t
uulinterstitial nephritis).
1393470488882 1358629116480 {{c1::Horseshoe Kidney}} is a congenital renal d
isorder that involves conjoined kidneys, typically connected at the lower pole.
<img src="paste-8448200671540.jpg" />
1393470569378 1358629116480 What is the most common congenital renal disorde
r?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Horseshoe kidney}}</div> <img src="paste-84439057
04244.jpg" />
1393470582013 1358629116480 Why is a horseshoe kidney located anormally low
in the adomen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::It gets caught on the IMA root durin
g its ascent from the pelvis}}</div>
1393470656246 1358629116480 {{c1::Unilateral Renal Agenesis}} is a form of r
enal agenesis that leads to hypertrophy of the existing kidney and susequent hy
perfiltration. <r /><div><i>Hyperfiltration presents with a risk of renal fail
ure in later life.</i></div>
1393471012623 1358629116480 {{c1::Bilateral Renal Agenesis}} is a type of re
nal agenesis that leads to oligohydramnios in the mother's wom.
1393471043753 1358629116480 {{c1::Lung Hypoplasia}} is a complication of oli
gohydramnios in Bilateral Renal Agenesis as the lungs require an adequate amount
of amniotic fluid to grow (via stretching).
1393471091437 1358629116480 {{c1::Flat face/low set ears/lim defects}} are
a complication of the oligohydramnios seen in Bilateral Renal Agenesis as the fa
ce, head and lims are pushed up against the mother.
1393471152331 1358629116480 {{c1::Potter Sequence}} is a feature of Bilatera
l Renal Agenesis that involves defects such as lung hypoplasia, flat face, low s
et ears and lim defects.
1393471186688 1358629116480 {{c1::Dysplastic Kidney}} is a congenital malfor
mation of the renal parenchyma characterized y cysts and anormal tissue. It is
<>not inherited </>and is <>not precancerous</>.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-8800387989720.jpg" /></div>
1393471240203 1358629116480 {{c1::Polycystic Kidney Disease (PCKD)}} is an i
nherited renal disorder that results in ilaterally enlarged kidneys with cysts
in the renal cortex and medulla.
1393471516196 1358629116480 Which form of Polycystic Kidney Disease (PCKD) a
ffects infants?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessive}}</div> <img src
="paste-9655086481817.jpg" />
1393471539082 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::autosomal recessive}} form of&ns
p;Polycystic Kidney Disease (PCKD) may involve Potter's Sequence due to a progre
ssive renal failure resulting from ilateral involvement of the kidneys.
1393471645334 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::autosomal recessive}} form of&ns
p;Polycystic Kidney Disease (PCKD) is associated with <>congenital hepatic fir
osis which can lead to portal HTN</>.
1393471666559 1358629116480 Which form of&nsp;Polycystic Kidney Disease (PC
KD) affects adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div><div><
<img src="paste16166256902423.jpg" />
1393471683662 1358629116480 Which genes are mutated in the autosomal dominan
t form of&nsp;Polycystic Kidney Disease (PCKD)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>A
PKD1</i>&nsp;(85%; chromosome 16) and <i>APKD2 </i>(15%; chromosome 4)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with <>hematuria, flank pain, HTN, urinary infection</>
&nsp;and <>progressive renal failure.</></i></div>
1393471825519 1358629116480 What is responsile for the HTN seen in the auto
somal dominant form of&nsp;Polycystic Kidney Disease (PCKD)?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Increased Renin release}}</div>

<r /><div><i>HTN and renal fail
ure are the common causes of death.</i></div>
1393471862317 1358629116480 {{c1::Berry Aneurysm}} is a vascular defect asso
ciated with the autosomal dominant form of&nsp;Polycystic Kidney Disease (PCKD)
and is typically found at the Circle of Willis at the CNS.
<r /><div><i>Mo
therfucka you etter screen a PCKD patient for Berry Aneurysm.</i></div>
1393471923430 1358629116480 {{c1::Mitral Valve Prolapse}} is a cardiac defec
t associated with the autosomal dominant form of&nsp;Polycystic Kidney Disease
(PCKD).
1393471948288 1358629116480 {{c1::Medullary Cystic Kidney Disease}} is an in
herited renal disorder characterized y cysts in the <>medullary collecting duc
t</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16973710754071.jpg" /></div>
1393471995603 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritence of&nsp;Medullar
y Cystic Kidney Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Poor prognosis.</i></div>
1393472006759 1358629116480 {{c1::Medullary Cystic Kidney Disease}} is an au
tosomal dominant renal disorder that involves <>parenchymal/tuulointerstitial
firosis</> and eventually <>shrunken kidneys</> with worsening renal failure
1393472040944 1358629116480 How many loes/pyramids does a normal kidney hav
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::8+}}</div>
1393472572981 1358629116480 How many loes/pyramids are found in a Hypoplast
ic Kidney?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::< 6}}</div>
1393472591655 1358629116480 What is the most common location for an ectopic
kidney?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-8263517077886.jpg" /></div><div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::In or just aove the pelvis}}</div>
1393472740409 1358629116480 What is the most common cystic disease in childr
en?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renal Dysplasia}}</div>
1393472771355 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of adominal mass
in neworns?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renal Dysplasia}}</div>
1393472836498 1358629116480 What proteins are expressed y <i>APKD1</i>&nsp
;and <i>APKD2</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Polycystin 1 and Polycystin 2}}</d
iv>
1393472886653 1358629116480 What is the most common gene mutation in Autosom
al Dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>APKD1</i>&n
sp;on chromosome 16 (85% of cases)}}</div>
1393472941185 1358629116480 Where are the Berry Aneurysms associated with au
tosomal dominant Polycystic Kidney Disease found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cir
cle of Willis}}</div>
1393472972272 1358629116480 What gene is mutated in autosomal recessive Poly
cystic Kidney Disease?<div><r />{{c1::<i>PKHD1</i>; codes for Firocystin}}</di
v>
1393473011315 1358629116480 What protein is expressed y <i>PKHD1</i>, the g
ene implicated in autosomal recessive Polycystic Kidney disease?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Firocystin}}</div>
1393473064939 1358629116480 {{c1::Dialysis associated Cystic Disease}} is a
cystic renal disorder seen after dialysis that may progress to RCC.<div><r /></
1393473138746 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Alport's Synd
rome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X linked}}</div>
1393473173105 1358629116480 {{c1::Alport's Syndrome}} is a congenital renal
disorder that results in thinning and splitting of the glomerular asement memr
ane due to a defect in Type IV collagen.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-98
74129813831.jpg" /><img src="paste-10247791968650.jpg" /></div> <img src="paste10698763534664.jpg" />
1393473229865 1358629116480 Which type of collagen is defective in Alport's
Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type IV}}</div>
1393473620305 1358629116480 {{c1::Thin Basement Memrane Nephropathy}} is an
asymptomatic familial hematuria that involves mutations in the genes encoding t
he alpha chains of type IV collagen.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-107803
67913373.jpg" /></div>
1393473758127 1358629116480 What gene mutations are associated with Thin Bas
ement Memrane Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha chains of Type IV colla
gen}}</div>
1393473783770 1358629116480 {{c1::Hyperacute Graft Rejection}} is a type of
graft rejection that occurs minutes to hours after transplant and involves anti
ody mediated thromosis and necrosis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11038
065951138.jpg" /></div>
1393474134519 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Rejection}} is a type of graft rejec
tion that occurs days to years after transplant and involves either a cellular o
r humoral rejection.
1393474173398 1358629116480 Which complement reakdown product deposits in A
cute Humoral Graft Rejection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C4d}}</div>
1393474219801 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Graft Rejection}} is a type of renal
graft rejection that involves tuulitis and/or vasculitis.<div><r /></div><div
1393474268794 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic Rejection}} is a type of renal gra
ft rejection that involves interstitial &nsp;and intimal firosis as well as ch
ronic inflammation.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11252814315996.jpg" /><
/div>
1393533003110 1358629116480 {{c1::Neprholithiasis}} is a renal disorder defi
ned as precipitation of urinary solute as a stone.
1393533477627 1358629116480 What is the most common type of Nephrolithiasis?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcium Oxalate and/or Calcium Phosphate (70%)}}</di
v>
1393534065070 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Calcium Oxalate
/Phosphate Nephrolithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Idiopathic hypercalcuria}
}</div> <r /><div><i>However, you must exclude hypercalcemia and related causes
</i></div>
1393534123186 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Calcium Oxalate/Phosph
ate Nephrolithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hydrochlorothiazide (Ca-sparing
diuretic)}}</div>
1393534330756 1358629116480 What is the <>2nd</>&nsp;most common type of
Nephrolithiasis?<div><r />{{c1::Ammonium magnesium phosphate (15-20%)}}</div>
1393534407662 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Ammonium Magnes
ium Phosphate Nephrolithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Infection with <>urea
se positive</> organisms (e.g. <i>Proteus vulgaris, Klesiella sp.</i>)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>NH4 formation from urease action leads to alkaline urine that prec
ipitates the formation of stones</i></div>
1393534481569 1358629116480 {{c1::Ammonium Magnesium Phosphate Nephrolithias
is}} is a type of Nephrolithiasis that classically results in a staghorn calculu
s in the renal calyces.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6859062772174.jpg"
/></div>
<r /><div><i>Must e removed surgically due to size; pathogen m
ust then e eradicated.</i></div>
1393534565761 1358629116480 {{c1::Uric Acid Nephrolithiasis}} is a type of n
ephrolithiasis that involves radiolucent stones instead of the more common radio
paque stones.
1393534799170 1358629116480 What is the <>3rd</>&nsp;most common cause of
Nephrolithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uric Acid}}</div>
1393534813082 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Uric Acid Nephr
olithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperuricemia or Gout}}</div>
1393534852372 1358629116480 What is the treatment of Uric Acid Nephrolithias
is?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hydration and Alkalinization of the urine (with P
otassium Bicaronate)}}</div>
1393534921138 1358629116480 {{c1::Cysteine Nephrolithiasis}} is a rare cause
of Nephrolithiasis and is most commonly seen in children.<div><r /></div><div>
1393534949455 1358629116480 What is the cause of Cysteine Nephrolithiasis?<d
iv><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6755983556934.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Cystinuria}}</div></div>
1393534970675 1358629116480 {{c1::Cystinuria}} is a genetic defect in the re

nal tuules that results in decreased reasorption of cysteine and susequent fo
rmation of cysteine nephrolithiasis.
1393535014989 1358629116480 What type of Nephrolithiasis most commonly cause
s staghorn calculi in <>adults</>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-685476
7804878.jpg" /><img src="paste-6176162971929.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Ammonium Magnesium Phosphate}}</div>
1393535083317 1358629116480 What type of Nephrolithiasis most commonly cause
s staghorn calculi in <>children</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cysteine}}</di
v>
1393535090331 1358629116480 {{c1::Angiomyolipoma}} is a renal hamartoma comp
rised of lood vessels, smooth muscle and adipose tissue.
1393535149449 1358629116480 {{c1::Renal Cell Carcinoma}} is a malignant epit
helial tumour arising from <>proximal tuule cells</>&nsp;of the kidney.<div>
<r /></div><div><img src="paste-7649336754594.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste
-7675106558231.jpg" /></div>
1393536238957 1358629116480 Which paraneoplastic syndrome results due to EPO
secretion from Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Polycythemia}}<
/div>
1393536324592 1358629116480 Which paraneoplastic syndrome results from Renin
secretion from Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HTN}}</div>
1393536348552 1358629116480 Which paraneoplastic syndrome results from PTHrP
(PTH Releasing Protein) from Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::H
ypercalcemia}}</div>
1393536382074 1358629116480 Which paraneoplastic syndrome results from ACTH
release from Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cushing's Syndrome
}}</div>
1393536415448 1358629116480 {{c1::PTH Related Protein (PTHrP)}} is a paraneo
plastic hormone from Renal Cell Carcinoma that will result in Hypercalcemia.
1393536473072 1358629116480 {{c1::Left-Sided Varicocele}} is a possile comp
lication of renal cell carcinoma that results from lockage of the drainage of t
he left spermatic vein.
1393536530931 1358629116480 Which side of the ody is commonly affected y V
aricocele due to Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Left}}</div>
1393536558109 1358629116480 Which major vein does the Right Spermatic Vein d
rain into, therey preventing a right-sided varicocele?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::IVC}}</div>
1393536629739 1358629116480 What is the most common histological variant of
Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Clear Cell type}}</div><div><r
1393536846962 1358629116480 Which gene is mutated in Renal Cell Carcinoma?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>VHL</i>&nsp;tumour suppressor on 3p}}</div>
<r /><div><i>VHL = von Hippel Lindau</i></div>
1393536884862 1358629116480 Loss of the&nsp;{{c1::<i>VHL</i>}} gene in Rena
l Cell Carcinoma leads to an increase in&nsp;{{c2::IGF-1}} which promotes cell
growth.
1393536919179 1358629116480 Loss of the&nsp;{{c1::<i>VHL</i>}} gene in Rena
l Cell Carcinoma results in increased expression of&nsp;{{c2::HIF transcription
factor}} which increases VEGF and PDGF levels and susequent neovascularization
.
1393536977230 1358629116480 Which demographic is most commonly affected y S
poradic Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adult male 50-70 y/o}}<
/div>
1393537026464 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::sporadic}} form of Renal Cell Car
cinoma classically arises in adult males unilaterally as a single tumour in the
upper pole of the kidney.
1393537074819 1358629116480 What is the major risk factor for the sporadic f
orm of Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cigarette smoke}}</div>
1393537091040 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::hereditary}} form of Renal Cell C
arcinoma commonly affects younger adults and presents ilaterally.
1393537115102 1358629116480 {{c1::Von Hippel Lindau Disease}} is an autosoma

l dominant disorder associated with the inactivation of the <i>VHL</i>&nsp;gene
and susequent increased risk for renal cell carcinoma.
1393537151433 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Von Hippel Li
ndau Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}}</div>
1393537169354 1358629116480 Which lood vessel is a common route of metastas
is for Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renal Vein to IVC}}</div
>
<div><r /></div><i>Spreads hematogenously to the lungs and one.</i><r
/><div><img src="paste-8993661518175.jpg" /></div>
1393537392109 1358629116480 Which lymph nodes are commonly involved in the s
pread of Renal Cell Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Retroperitoneal Lymph
Nodes}}</div>
1393537421926 1358629116480 {{c1::Wilm's Tumour}} is a malignant kidney tumo
ur that is comprised of <>lastema</>, primitive glomeruli/tuules and stromal
cells.
1393537702654 1358629116480 What is the most common malignant renal tumour i
n children?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wilm's Tumour}}</div>
1393537722991 1358629116480 {{c1::WAGR Syndrome}} is a tumour syndrome that
involves <>W</>ilms tumour, <>A</>niridia, <>G</>enital anormalities and
mental/motor <>R</>etardation..
1393538282898 1358629116480 Which Wilms tumour syndrome is associated with a
<>deletion</>&nsp;of the&nsp;<i>WT1</i>&nsp;tumour suppressor gene?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::WAGR Syndrome}}</div>
1393538315199 1358629116480 {{c1::Denys-Drash Syndrome}} is a tumour syndrom
e that involves Wilms tumour, progressive renal failure and <>male pseudohermap
hroditism</>.
1393538702117 1358629116480 Which Wilms tumour syndrome is associated with <
>mutations</>&nsp;of <i>WT1</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Denys-Drash Syndr
ome}}</div>
1393538750653 1358629116480 {{c1::Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome}} is a tumour
syndrome that involves Wilms tumour, neonatal hypoglycemia, muscular hemitrophy
and organomegaly (esp. the tongue).
1393539101894 1358629116480 Which Wilms tumour syndrome is associated with <
>mutations in </><i><>WT2</>, </i>especially IGF-2?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Beckwith-Wiedemann}}</div>
1393539156822 1358629116480 What is the most common lower urinary tract canc
er?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Urothelial (Transitional Cell) Carcinoma}}</div><
<r /><d
1393539377909 1358629116480 {{c1::Urothelial Carcinoma}} is a malignant tumo
ur arising from the transitional cell lining of the renal pelvis, ureter, ladde
r or urethra.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9122510537125.jpg" /></div>
1393539402403 1358629116480 What is the major risk factor for developing Uro
thelial Cancer?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cigarette Smoke}}</div>
1393539416701 1358629116480 {{c1::Azo Dyes}} are a type of chemical used in
hair dyes that can cause Urothelial Carcinoma.
1393539440964 1358629116480 Which 2 drugs are especially associated with ris
k of developing Urothelial Carcinoma, namely with long term use?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Cyclophosphamide and Phenacetin}}</div>
1393539478505 1358629116480 Which cancer is associated with Napthylamine exp
osure?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Urothelial Carcinoma}}</div>
1393539498928 1358629116480 What type of urine presents in a patient with Ur
othelial Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Painless hematuria}}</div>
1393539527461 1358629116480 Which form of Urothelial Carcinoma develops as a
high-grade tumour and then invades?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Flat}}</div>
1393539555491 1358629116480 Which form of Urothelial Carcinoma is associated
with early p53 mutations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Flat}}</div>
1393539571514 1358629116480 Which form of Urothelial Carcinoma is <>not</>
associated with early p53 mutations?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Papillary}}</di
v>
1393539598431 1358629116480 Which form of Urothelial Carcinoma develops as a
low-grade tumour and then progresses to an invasive high-grade tumour?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Papillary}}</div>
1393539624700 1358629116480 {{c1::Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Bladder}} i
s a malignant proliferation of squamous cells in the ladder that presents with
<>painless hematuria</>.
<r /><div><i>Painless hematuria is often a sign
of ladder cancer.</i></div>
1393539656099 1358629116480 What is the major risk factor for developing Squ
amous Cell Carcinoma of the Bladder in older women?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C
hronic Cystitis}}</div>
1393539679111 1358629116480 Which infectious agent is a risk factor for deve
loping Squamous Cell Carcinoma, especially in Middle Eastern/Egyptian men?<div><
r /></div><div><img src="paste-11562051960965.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::<i>Schistosoma hematoium</i>}}</div></div>
1393539724466 1358629116480 Where is Renal Adenocarcinoma typically located?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bladder}}</div>
1393539745351 1358629116480 A&nsp;{{c1::Urachal Remnant}} is a possile cau
se of Renal Adenocarcinoma and involves a tumour that develops at the dome of th
e ladder.
1393539790631 1358629116480 {{c1::Cystitis Glandularis}} is a cause of Renal
Adenocarcinoma that involves chronic inflammation of the ladder with columnar
metaplasia of the ladder epithelium. <r /><div><i>That metaplastic columnar
epithelium ecomes adenocarcinoma.</i></div>
1393539851349 1358629116480 {{c1::Exstrophy}} is a possile cause of Renal A
denocarcinoma that involves congenital failure of the caudal portion of the ante
rior adominal and ladder walls to form.
1393540065187 1358629116480 What is the #1 risk factor for developing any ty
pe of Nephrolithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Dehydration}}</div>
1393540095666 1358629116480 Which type of Nephrolithiasis is the only type t
hat involves <>radiolucent</>&nsp;stones?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uric Aci
d}}</div>
<r /><div><i><u style="font-weight: old; ">U</u>ric acid cryst
als = radiol<u style="font-weight: old; ">u</u>cent&nsp;</i></div>
1393540305734 1358629116480 What is the most common renal tumour?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Renal Cell Carcinoma}}</div>
1393541813390 1358629116480 {{c1::Familial Clear Cell Carcinoma}} is a type
of familial Renal Cell Carcinoma that involves mutation of the <i>VHL</i>&nsp;g
ene ut lacks other features of VHL Syndrome such as cereellar hemangilastoma
and pheochromocytoma. <r /><div><img src="paste-7666516623532.jpg" /></div>
1393541859350 1358629116480 {{c1::Hereditary Papillary Carcinoma}} is a fami
lial Renal Cell Carcinoma that involves multiple ilateral tumours and involves
<>MET proto-oncogene mutations</>.
.jpg" /></div>
1393541897466 1358629116480 What is the genetic inheritance of Hereditary Pa
pillary Carcinoma (Familial RCC)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal Dominant}
}</div>
1393542467045 1358629116480 {{c1::Clear Cell Carcinoma}} is a morphological
type of Renal Cell Carcinoma that involves a <>solid traecular/tuular pattern
with aundant clear/granular cytoplasm.</><div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-7679401525587.jpg" /><img src="paste-7387343749538.jpg" /><img src="paste-8237
747274157.jpg" /></div>
1393542548687 1358629116480 {{c1::Papillary Carcinoma}} is a morphological t
ype of Renal Cell Carcinoma that involves a papillary pattern with cuoidal/low
columnar cells and interstitial foamy macrophages.<div><r /></div><div><img src
1393542903596 1358629116480 {{c1::Chromophoe Carcinoma}} is a morphological
type of Renal Cell Carcinoma that involves <>solid sheets of pale eosinophilic
cells with perinuclear halos and discrete cell memranes</>.<div><r /></div><
div><img src="paste-7868380086612.jpg" /><img src="paste-8349416423816.jpg" /></
div>
1393543046226 1358629116480 {{c1::Sarcomatoid Renal Cell Carcinoma}} is a sp

indle cell-shaped change seen in Renal Cell Carcinoma associated with poor progn
osis. It is more common than true Renal Sarcomas.
1393547323059 1358629116480 {{c1::Oncocytoma}} is a <>enign</> tumour of
the renal <>collecting ducts</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-79929341
38137.jpg" /></div>
1393547741191 1358629116480 {{c1::Oncocytoma}} is a enign tumour of the ren
al collecting ducts made up of uniform cells with aundant granular eosinophilic
cytoplasm (filled with mitochondria).
1393547797495 1358629116480 Which stain is used to differentiate Chromophoe
RCC from Oncocytoma which oth have aundant eosinophilic cells?<div><r /></di
v><div><img src="paste-9229884719480.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Co
lloidal Iron; chromophoe RCC will stain lue}}</div></div>
1393547849117 1358629116480 What is the difference etween Oncocytoma and Ch
romophoe RCC on a <>gross specimen</>?<div><r />{{c1::Both have a homogenous
tan ut Oncocytoma has a <u>scar</u>}}</div> <r /><div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-7988639170841.jpg" /></div>
1393547911628 1358629116480 The aundance of&nsp;{{c1::mitochondria}} <>wi
thout perinuclear clearing</> in Oncocytoma is a histological feature that sets
it apart from Chromophoe RCC which involves <>aundant vesicles</>.<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-9328668967319.jpg" /></div><div><img src="paste-809
6013353380.jpg" /></div>
1393547959465 1358629116480 What is the most common renal tumour in patients
with Tuerous Sclerosis?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-9448928051572.jpg
" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Angiomyolipoma}}</div></div>
1393547992335 1358629116480 {{c1::Angiomyolipoma}} is a enign renal tumour
that involves vessels, smooth muscle and fat tissue.<div><r /></div><div><img s
rc="paste-9560597201351.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Angio = lood vessels</i><
/div><div><i>Myo = smooth muscle</i></div><div><i>Lipoma = adipose tissue</i></d
iv>
1393548127538 1358629116480 {{c1::Wilms Tumour}} is a malignant renal tumour
that has a triphasic nature involving <>E</>pithelial elements that surround
nodules of <>B</>lastema amongst a Myxoid <>S</>troma.<div><r /></div><div>
<r /><div><i>Presents with a hu
ge palpale flank mass and/or hematuria.</i></div>
1393548233087 1358629116480 What is the main, key symptom in Urothelial Carc
inoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Painless hematuria}}</div>
1393548350169 1358629116480 What gene is involved in <>non-invasive</>&ns
p;Urothelial Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Deletion of<i>&nsp;p16INK4a<
/i>&nsp;on chr. 9p}}</div>
1393548717696 1358629116480 What gene is involved in <>invasive</>&nsp;Ur
othelial Carcinoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Deletion of p53 on chr. 17p}}</di
v>
1393548743812 1358629116480 {{c1::Exophytic Papilloma}} is a form of Urothel
ial Carcinoma that involves finger like papillae with a firovascular core.<div>
<r /></div><div><img src="paste-10290741641431.jpg" /></div> <img src="paste10277856739600.jpg" />
1393548829259 1358629116480 {{c1::Inverted Papilloma}} is a form of Urotheli
al Carcinoma that involves cords of cytologically normal urothelium grown into t
he lamina propria.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-10325101379831.jpg" /></
div>
<img src="paste-10337986281716.jpg" />
1393548911645 1358629116480 {{c1::Low Grade Urothelial Carcinoma}} is a grad
e of Urothelial Carcinoma that involves thick papillary urothelium with mild aty
pia and occasional mitoses. Invasion is rare.<div><r /></div><div><img src="pas
te-10819022619033.jpg" /></div>
1393549421535 1358629116480 {{c1::High Grade Urothelial Carcinoma}} is a gra
de of Urothelial Carcinoma that involves a papillary and solid architecture with
prominent nuclear atypia and mitoses.&nsp;<div><r /></div><div><img src="past
e-10956461572517.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Necrosis may e apparent and invas
ion may e frequently seen.</i></div>
1393549502141 1358629116480 {{c1::Urothelial Carcinoma <i>in situ</i>}} is a

form of Urothelial Carcinoma that involves malignant cells within the epithelia
l layer and a flat red lesion with no nodular masses on gross examination.<div><
2439.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>There is no invasion as the asement memr
ane is intact.</i></div>
1405530331779 1395802358422 What type of urinary casts are seen in Acute Tu
ular Necrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Granular "muddy rown" casts}}</div>
1405530398650 1395802358422 Which nephrotic syndrome is associated with <>a
ntiodies against the Phospholipase A<su>2</su>&nsp;receptor</>?<div><r /><
/div><div>{{c1::Memranous Nephropathy}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-18253
61101107.jpg" /></div>
1405531284837 1395802358422 What type of immunogloulins deposit in the GBM
and renal mesangium in Poststreptococcal Glomerulonephritis?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::IgG; IgM; C3 is also seen}}</div>
1405533664675 1395802358422 Which nephritic syndrome is associated with <>p
eripheral</>&nsp;and <>periorital edema</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Post
streptococcal Glomerulonephritis}}</div>
1405533722233 1395802358422 Which nephritic syndrome is associated with <>i
ncreased anti-DNase B titers</>&nsp;and <>decreased complement</>?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis}}</div> <r /><div><i>Re
memer, Group A Strep infection is associated with <>elevated ASO and anti-DNAs
e titers</>.</i></div>
1405533761184 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of death in SLE?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diffuse proliferative glomerulonephritis}}</div>
1405534440445 1395802358422 Which type of nephrolithiasis involves <>envelo
pe</>&nsp;or dumell shaped crystals?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcium}}</d
1405534488851 1395802358422 Which type of calcium nephrolithiasis precipitat
es with <>increased</>&nsp;pH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcium phosphate}}
</div>
1405534518094 1395802358422 Which type of calcium nephrolithiasis precipitat
es with <>decreased</>&nsp;pH?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcium oxalate}}</
div>
1405534526858 1395802358422 Which water solule vitamin is associated with o
xalate crystals in the urine?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vitamin C ause}}</div>
1405534562599 1395802358422 What change in urinary pH is associated with Amm
onium Magnesium Phosphate nephrolithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}
</div>
1405534630588 1395802358422 Which type of nephrolithiasis is associated with
<>coffin lid</>&nsp;stones?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ammonium magnesium ph
osphate}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-5570572583136.jpg" /></div>
1405534666559 1395802358422 Which type of nephrolithiasis is aka <>struvite
</>&nsp;stones?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ammonium magnesium phosphate}}</div
>
<>infection with urease-positive ugs </>(e.g. <i>Proteus mirailis, Klesiel
la spp., Staphylococcus spp.</i>)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ammonium magnesium
phosphate}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Urease positive ugs are ale to hydrolyze
urease into ammonia, therey causing urinary alkalinization.</i></div>
1405534809480 1395802358422 What urinary pH change is associated with Uric A
cid nephrolithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Hence we treat with <>alkalinization</>&nsp;of the urine.</i></div>
1405534865631 1395802358422 What type of nephrolithiasis is associated with
<>radiolucent rhomoid or rosette-shaped crystals</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Uric Acid}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6231997546720.jpg" /><
/div>
1405534899979 1395802358422 What urinary pH change is associated with Cystei
ne nephrolithiasis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><div><i>He
nce we treat with <>alkalinization</>&nsp;of the urine.</i></div>

<>radiopaque hexagonal crystals</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cysteine nephr
olithiasis}}</div><div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6644314407138.jpg" /></d
iv>
a&nsp;<>positive sodium nitroprusside test</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cy
steine nephrolithiasis}}</div> <r /><div><i>This is also the test for Cystinur
ia.</i></div>
1405535068828 1395802358422 What is the most common <>primary</>&nsp;rena
l malignancy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Renal Cell Carcinoma}}</div>
1405539410104 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Renal Oncocytoma?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrectomy}}</div>
1405539589389 1395802358422 What is the most common renal malignancy of <>e
arly</>&nsp;childhood (2-4 y/o)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Wilms Tumour (Neph
rolastoma)}}</div>
1405539629450 1395802358422 On which chromosome are the <i>WT1</i>&nsp;or <
i>WT2</i>&nsp;tumour suppressor genes found?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Chromos
ome 11}}</div>
1405539709347 1395802358422 Which urinary tract cancer is associated with <
>painless hematuria</>&nsp;with <>no casts</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bl
adder cancer}}</div>
1405541554896 1395802358422 Which sex is more common affected y Cystitis?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Female}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Especially with "H
oneymoon Cystitis" due to the increase frequency of sexual intercourse.</i></div
>
1405542932656 1395802358422 Which class of virus is associated with Hemorrha
gic Cystitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Adenovirus}}</div>
1405543006013 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Pyelonephritis}} is a type of pyelon
ephritis that affects the cortex with relative sparing of the glomeruli/vessels.
1405543395312 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Pyelonephritis}} is a type of pyelon
ephritis that presents with <>striated parenchymal enhancement</>&nsp;of the
kidneys on CT scan.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-11420318040343.jpg" /><
/div>
1405543593196 1395802358422 {{c1::Diffuse Cortical Necrosis}} is a type of r
enal necrosis that is descried as <>acute generalized cortical infarction of
oth kidneys</>.
<r /><div><i>Typically due to a comination of <>vasos
pasm and DIC</>.</i></div><div><i>Associated with <>ostetric catastrophes and
septic shock.</></i></div>
1405544161646 1395802358422 Which stage of Acute Tuular Necrosis is associa
ted with <>oliguria</>?<div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Phase 2/Maintenance ph
ase}}</div></div>
ted with&nsp;a <>risk of hyperkalemia</>&nsp;and <>metaolic acidosis</>?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Phase 2/Maintenance Phase}}</div>
ted with&nsp;<>polyuria</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stage 3/Recovery phase
}}</div>
ted with&nsp;a risk of <>hypokalemia</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stage 3/R
ecovery}}</div>
ted with&nsp;<>fall of BUN and creatinine</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stag
e 3/Recovery}}</div>
1405544542650 1395802358422 What is the cause of <>Prerenal Azotemia</>?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased RBF}}</div>
1405546434763 1395802358422 {{c1::Renal Osteodystrophy}} is a renal disorder
that involves the <>failure of vitamin D hydroxylation, hypocalcemia</>&nsp;
and <>hyperphosphatemia</>&nsp;and presents with <>superiosteal thinning of
<r><div><i>Therey resulting in <>secondary hyperparathyroidis

one</>.
m</>.</i></div><div><i><r></i></div>
1405546614320 1395802358422 Which form of Polycystic Kidney Disease is assoc
iated with <>hepatic firosis</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessi
ve}}</div>
<r /><div><i>The hepatic firosis can cause portal hypertension
.</i></div>
1405547136271 1395802358422 Which form of polycystic kidney disease is assoc
iated with <>Potter sequence</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Autosomal recessiv
e; if severe enough}}</div>
1405547292192 1395802358422 Which type of renal cysts are usually found in t
he outer cortex and are filled with ultrafiltrate?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Si
mple}}</div>
1405547333069 1395802358422 Which type of renal cyst accounts for the majori
ty of all renal masses?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Simple}}</div>
<r /><d
1405547353513 1395802358422 Which type of renal cysts are <>septated, enhan
ced</>&nsp;or <>have solid components</>, especially on CT?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Complex}}</div>
></div>
1405547407908 1395802358422 Which type of renal cyst require removal due to
the <>risk of renal cell carcinoma</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Complex}}</d
iv>
1383067976752 1358629116480 {{c1::Achondroplasia}} is a common cause of dwar
fism characterized y impaired {{c2::cartilage}} proliferation at the growth pla
te.
<r /><div><i>Patient may present like <>Sohai</>.</i></div>
1383068999381 1358629116480 Which gene is overexpressed in Achondroplasia an
d causes the pathology seen?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>FGFR3</i>}}</div>
<r /><div><i>FGFR3 overexpression inhiits growth</i></div>
1383069919084 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta (OI)}} is an autos
omal dominant one disorder due to defective Collagen Type&nsp;{{c2::I}} synthe
sis.
1383070287777 1358629116480 What is the cause of Osteogenesis Imperfecta (OI
)?<div><r />{{c1::Defective Collagen Type I synthesis}}</div>
1383070321697 1358629116480 What pathology is lue sclera commonly indicativ
e of?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta (OI)}}</div>
1383070349267 1358629116480 What cells are proliferating in Osteosarcoma?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteo<><u></u></>lasts}}</div>
1383076945242 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteopetrosis}} is a one disorder involvi
ng defective one resorption.
1383080357991 1358629116480 What enzyme is commonly mutated in Osteopetrosis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caronic Anhydrase II}}</div>
1383080383707 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteopetrosis}} is a one disorder charact
erized y anormally thick, heavy ones that fracture easily.
1383080597219 1358629116480 Osteopetrosis involves a&nsp;{{c1::Myelophthisi
c Process}} where the continual growth of one eventually replaces the contents
of the one marrow.
<r /><div><i>Hence, there will e pancytopenia, extrame
dullary hematopoiesis and tear drop cells.</i></div>
1383080691807 1358629116480 What is the effect of Osteopetrosis on Vision an
d Hearing?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Impairment due to the impingement onto cra
nial nerve y one growth}}</div>
1383081336995 1358629116480 What is the treatment for Osteopetrosis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Bone marrow transplant}}</div>
Osteoclasts are derived from Monocytes (i.e. through hematopoiesis)</i></div>
1383081393173 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteoporosis}} is a one disorder defined
as a reduction in traecular one mass.
1383081421214 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteoporosis}} is a one disorder that inv
olves <>normal</> la values of serum Ca, PO4, PTH and ALP.
1383081454168 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteomalacia}} is a one disorder that inv
olves <>anormal</>&nsp;la values of serum Ca, PO4, PTH and ALP.
1383081492737 1358629116480 What is a DEXA Scan used to test for?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::Bone density; used to dx osteoporosis}}</div>

1383081520370 1358629116480 {{c1::Biphosphonates}} are a group of drugs used
to treat one disorders y inducing apoptosis in&nsp;{{c2::Osteoclasts}}.
1383081558764 1358629116480 {{c1::Rickets}} is due to Vitamin D deficiency i
n children.
1383081678965 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteomalacia}} is due to Vitamin D deficie
ncy in adults.
1383081692090 1358629116480 {{c1::Frontal ossing}} is a feature of Rickets
defined as the expansion of the forehead/skull due to osteoid deposition.
1383081891563 1358629116480 {{c1::Rachitic rosary}} is a feature of Rickets
defined as small, palpale eads of one at the costochondral junctions due to o
steoid deposition.
1383081956980 1358629116480 {{c1::Pigeon-reast}} is a feature of Rickets de
fined as the inward ending of the ris with anterior protrusion of the sternum.
1383081992002 1358629116480 How does serum Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) change
in Osteomalacia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase; due to increased Osteola
st activity}}</div>
1383082227721 1358629116480 How does serum Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) levels
change with increased Osteolast activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}
}</div> <r /><div><i>Rememer, an alkaline environment is needed to lay down Ca
<sup>2+</sup></i></div>
1383082292861 1358629116480 How are serum PTH levels changed in Osteomalacia
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased due to low levels of Ca and PO4}}</div>
1383082326470 1358629116480 {{c1::Paget's Disease of Bone}} is a one disord
er characterized y an idiopathic imalance etween osteoclast and osteolast fu
nction.
1383082367459 1358629116480 What is an <>isolated </>increase in serum ALP
commonly indicative of?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paget's Disease of Bone}}</d
iv>
er that involves <>local</>&nsp;one pathology as opposed to the entire skele
ton.
1383086065572 1358629116480 What is a mosaic pattern of lamellar one (aka C
ement Lines) commonly indicative of?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-110981
95493302.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paget's Disease of Bone}}</div
>
1383086481870 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteomyelitis}} is a one disorder defined
as the infection of one marrow and one.
1383086508735 1358629116480 Osteomyelitis caused y&nsp;{{c1::transient}}
acteremia is most common in&nsp;{{c2::children}}.
1383086556856 1358629116480 Osteomyelitis caused y&nsp;{{c1::open-wound}}
acteremia is most common in&nsp;{{c2::adults}}.
1383086571206 1358629116480 Where does Osteomyelitis caused y transient ac
teremia seed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The metaphysis}}</div>
1383086610551 1358629116480 Where does Osteomyelitis caused y open-wound a
cteremia seed?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::The epiphysis}}</div>
1383086642196 1358629116480 What acterial species is the most common cause
of Osteomyelitis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}</div
>
1383086908475 1358629116480 What acterial species is commonly the cause of
Osteomyelitis in sexually active young adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Nei
sseria gonorrhoeae</i>}}</div>
Osteomyelitis in Sickle Cell Disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Salmonella s
pp.</i>}}</div>
1383086966175 1358629116480 What 2 acterial species is commonly the cause o
f Osteomyelitis in diaetics or IV drug users?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pse
udomonas spp.</i>}}</div>
Patients with Sickle Cell disease contract Osteo
myelitis as a result of Salmonella, whereas IV drug users may e infected with P
seudomonas. &nsp;However, Staphylococcus aureus continues to e most common cau
se of Osteomyelitis in oth these groups of patients.

Osteomyelitis in those that have een itten or scratched y cats or dogs?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pasteurella</i>}}</div>
1383087047967 1358629116480 {{c1::Pott's Disease}} is a form of Osteomyeliti
s caused y <i>Mycoacterium tuerculosis.</i> <r /><div><i>It commonly involv
es the <>lumar</>&nsp;veterae</i></div>
1383087099448 1358629116480 What acterial species causes Pott's Disease?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycoacterium tuerculosis</i>}}</div>
1383087146366 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::sequestrum}} refers to the lytic
focus/ascess that is surrounded y sclerotic one in Pott's Disease.
1383087190823 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::involucrum}} refers to the sclero
tic one that surrounds the lytic focus/ascess in Pott's Disease.
1383087219055 1358629116480 {{c1::Dactylitis}} is a form of Avascular Osteon
ecrosis seen at the hands and feet in Sickle Cell Anaemia.
1383087263605 1358629116480 {{c1::RANK-L}} on Osteolasts inds to&nsp;{{c2
::RANK}} on Osteoclasts.
1383088007394 1358629116480 What type of collagen is found in one?<div><r
1383092882138 1358629116480 What is a pathological one fracture?<div><r />
</div><div>{{c1::A fracture that occurs in already diseased one}}</div>
1383094458172 1358629116480 What 2 acterial species are commonly the cause
of Osteomyelitis in children?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Hemophilus influenza
</i>&nsp;and Group B <i>Streptococcus</i>}}</div>
1383094537178 1358629116480 What is the a key characteristic of necrotic on
e that differentiates it from normal one?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Empty lacu
nae}}</div>
1383178845308 1358629116480 What type of collagen is found in the hyaline ca
rtilage found in articulating surfaces?<div><r />{{c1::Type II Collagen}}</div>
1383178896586 1358629116480 Osteoarthritis involves the formation of osteoph
ytes. What are the osteophytes found at the DIPs of the fingers called?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Heerden Nodes}}</div>
1383180445216 1358629116480 Osteoarthritis involves the formation of osteoph
ytes. What are the osteophytes at the PIPs called?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bo
uchard Nodes}}</div>
1383180473509 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteoarthritis}} is a joint disorder chara
cterized y joint stiffness in the morning that <>worsens</>&nsp;as the day p
rogresses.
1383180914282 1358629116480 What HLA type is associated with Rheumatoid Arth
ritis (RA)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR4}}</div>
1383180998050 1358629116480 {{c1::Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)}} is a joint dis
order that involves joint stiffness in the morning that <>improves</>&nsp;dur
ing the day.
1383181387169 1358629116480 The&nsp;{{c1::DIP}} joints of the fingers are t
ypically spared in Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA).
1383181834675 1358629116480 What is a Baker's Cyst?<div><r /></div><div>{{c
1::Swelling of a ursa ehind the knee}}</div>
1383182133677 1358629116480 What is the Rheumatoid Factor (RF)?<div><r>{{c1
::IgM antiodies against the F<su>c</su><su style="vertical-align: su; ">&n
sp;&nsp;</su>portion of IgG}}</div> <r><i>O-M-G, I have rheumatoid factor</
i>
1383183614063 1358629116480 Which HLA type is involved with Seronegative Spo
ndyloarthropathies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27}}</div>
1383184348803 1358629116480 {{c1::Ankylosing Spondyloarthritis}} is a Serone
gative Spondyloarthopathy involving a 'Bamoo spine' due to fusion of the verte
rae.
1383185534479 1358629116480 {{c1::Psoriatic Arthritis}} is a Seronegative Sp
ondyloarthropathy that involves "Sausage" fingers and/or toes at the DIPs of the
hands and feet.
1383185590094 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Infective Arthr
itis in sexually active young adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseria go

norrheae</i>}}</div>
1383185703962 1358629116480 What is the most common cause of Infectious Arth
ritis in children and adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureu
s</i>}}</div>
1383185731987 1358629116480 What type of crystals are involved in Gout?<div>
<r /></div><div>{{c1::Monosodium urate (MSU)}}</div>
1383188838613 1358629116480 What enzyme is deficient in Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome
?<div><r></div><div>{{c1::Hypoxanthine Guanine Phosphoriosyl Transferase (HGPR
T)}}</div>
<r><div><i>Rememer, Lesch-Nyhan syndrome causes severe gout</i
></div>
1383188891742 1358629116480 What is Podagra?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acut
e gout of the ig toe}}</div>
1383188906988 1358629116480 Monosodium urate (MSU) crystals in Gout exhiit
{{c1::negative}} irefringence under polarized light. <i><r />They appear yel
low</i>
1383188944152 1358629116480 What type of crystals are involved in Pseudogout
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD)}}</div>
1383188971726 1358629116480 CPPD crystals in Pseudogout exhiit&nsp;{{c1::w
eakly positive}} irefringence under polarized light.
er that involves irregularly thickened skull one.<div><r></div><div><img src="
paste-940597838043.jpg" /></div>
1383319432151 1358629116480 The pooling of lood in one depicted elow is c
haracteristic of&nsp;{{c1::Paget's Disease of Bone}}<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-974957576426.jpg" /></div>
er that involves a mosaic pattern of cement lines.<div><r /></div><div><img src
="paste-1086626726157.jpg" /></div>
<r /><div><i>Also notice the giant oste
oclast with aundant nuclei</i></div>
1383319533058 1358629116480 The radiograph elow depicts multiple lim fract
ures at varying stages of healing. This is commonly seen in children with&nsp;{
{c1::Osteogenesis Imperfecta}}<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-137009456769
1.jpg" /></div>
1383319605608 1358629116480 The wedge shaped lesion elow is a ony infarct.
Commonly seen in&nsp;{{c1::Avascular Osteonecrosis}}<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-2100239008007.jpg" /></div>
1383320794304 1358629116480 The radiograph elow shows destruction of the i
g toe through severe gout. Gout at the ig toe is called&nsp;{{c1::Podagra}}<di
1383320873584 1358629116480 {{c1::Tophi}} are white, chalky aggregates of ur
ic acid crystals with surrounding firosis that appear in Gout.<div><r /></div>
1383320955584 1358629116480 CPPD (Ca Pyrophosphate) crystals exhiit positiv
e/lue irefringence and are rhomoid-shaped. They are typically seen in&nsp;{{
c1::Pseudogout}}<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-2774548873480.jpg" /></div
>
1383321031201 1358629116480 {{c1::Osteosarcoma}} is a <>malignant</>&nsp;
tumour of Osteolasts that secrete osteoid.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste
-3268470112524.jpg" /></div>
1383321124921 1358629116480 A iopsy of one with {{c1::Ewing's Sarcoma}} wi
ll show small, round lue cells that resemle lymphocytes. It is commonly mistak
en for lymphoma or chronic osteomyelitis.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3
328599654671.jpg" /></div>
1383321267193 1358629116480 We can use a&nsp;{{c1::PAS}} stain to stain for
Glycogen in Ewing's Sarcoma to confirm our diagnosis.<div><r /></div><div><img
src="paste-3667902071049.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Ewing's Sarcoma is <>glyc
ogen positive</>.</i></div>
1383321337618 1358629116480 Radio<>dense</>&nsp;(osteo<>lastic</>) on
e lesions on an xray are typically associated with metastatic&nsp;{{c1::prostat
e}} cancer.
1383321637614 1358629116480 Radio<>lucent</>&nsp;(osteo<>clastic</>) o
ne lesions on an xray are typically associated with metastatic&nsp;{{c1::reast
}}, lung, kidney or thyroid cancer.
1383321691469 1358629116480 Rheumatoid arthritis involves the formation of a
&nsp;{{c1::pannus}} - a mass of inflamed granulation tissue.<div><r /></div><d
1383321777473 1358629116480 Liposarcoma involves the proliferation of&nsp;{
{c1::lipolasts}} with large nuclei.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-558345
7485072.jpg" /></div>
fism that involves failure of ones to grow longitudinally (via endochondral oss
ification).
1397344043909 1395802358422 Which type of ossification is defective in Achro
ndroplasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Endochondral ossification; hence here is
no longitudinal one growth}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Memranous ossification is
unaffected, hence patients usually have a large head relative to lims.</i></di
v>
fism that involves a large head relative to the short lims as <u>memranous oss
ification of one is not affected</u>.
1397344145129 1395802358422 What gene mutation is associated with Achondropl
asia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Firolast Growth Factor Receptor 3 (<i>FGFR3</
i>); the mutant receptor is constitutively active and inhiits chondrocyte proli
feration}}</div>
1397344216818 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Achondroplasia?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Activating mutation of <i>FGFR3</i>, resulting in a constitut
ively active firolast growth factor receptor that inhiits chondrocyte prolife
ration}}</div>
fism that involves a constitutively active Firolast Growth Factor Receptor 3 (
FGFR3), therey resulting in inhiition of chondrocyte proliferation.
1397344308672 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Achondroplasi
a?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 85% of mutations are sporadic ut it <>can
e autosomal dominant</>}}</div>
1397344339117 1395802358422 How does the risk of Achondroplasia manifesting
in a child change with advanced paternal age?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increas
ed}}</div>
1397344395985 1395802358422 What is the life span of a patient with Achondro
plasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal}}</div>
1397344414177 1395802358422 What is the fertility of a patient with Achondro
plasia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Normal}}</div>
1397344425046 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteoporosis}} is a one disorder that inv
olves the loss of traecular, spongy one mass and interconnections despite norm
al one mineralization and la values. <r /><div><i>Ca and PO4 are normal in O
steoporosis.</i></div>
1397345019575 1395802358422 What diagnostic test can e used to gauge for Os
teoporosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bone Mineral Density test (DEXA)}}</div>
<r /><div><i>DEXA T-score of - 2.5 is diagnostic.</i></div>
1397345067764 1395802358422 What DEXA score is diagnostic of osteoporosis?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::T-score of - 2.5}}</div>
1397345086402 1395802358422 {{c1::Verteral Crush Fractures}} are a common c
omplication of osteoporosis and leads to acute ack pain, loss of height and kyp
hosis. <r /><div><img src="paste-16411070038206.jpg" /></div>
1397345144171 1395802358422 Which type of Osteoporosis is Postmenopausal?<di
v><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type I}}</div>
1397345347088 1395802358422 Which type of Osteoporosis is Senile Osteoporosi
s?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1397345357717 1395802358422 {{c1::Postemenopausal (Type I) Osteoporosis}} is
a type of Osteoporosis that involves an increase in one resorption due to a de
crease in estrogen levels.

<r /><div><i>Rememer, Estrogen is needed to ma
intain one.</i></div>
1397345403558 1395802358422 Which type of Osteoporosis is associated with Fe
moral Neck fractures and Distal Radius (Colles) fractures?<div><r /></div><div>
{{c1::Postmenopausal (Type I)}}</div>
1397345450272 1395802358422 Which age group is commonly affected y Senile O
steoporosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 70 y/o}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Af
fects oth men and women</i></div>
1397345475349 1395802358422 {{c1::Bisphosphonates}} are a <>type</> of dru
g used to treat Osteoporosis through the induction of apoptosis in Osteoclasts.
<r /><div><i>A decrease in osteoclast action will maintain one mass.</i></div>
1397345625967 1395802358422 {{c1::Denosuma}} is a monoclonal antiody used
to treat Osteoporosis y targeting and inding to RANKL on Osteoclasts, ultimate
ly decreased Osteoclast activity and numer.
<r /><div><i>Rememer, Osteocla
sts resor one.</i></div><div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>"RANKL is expressed y
osteolasts and inds RANK on osteoclast precursors resulting in osteoclasts di
fferentiation/maturation/activity. Denosuma (mimics osteoprotegerin) prevents t
he RANKL-RANK inding y targeting RANKL'</i></div>
1397345750831 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antiody is used to treat Osteo
porosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Denosuma}}</div>
1397345766772 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Denosuma, a monoclonal anti
ody used to treat Osteoporosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Binding to and inhii
tion of RANKL}}</div>
1397345793396 1395802358422 {{c1::Specific Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SER
Ms)}} is a <>type </>of hormone drugs used to treat Osteoporosis y activating
Estrogen receptors at one.
<r /><div><i>Raloxifene is the drug of choice h
ere.</i></div><div><i>At one, Estrogens inhiit cytokines that activate Osteocl
asts and decrease Osteoclast life span. They also increase Osteolast recruitmen
t, function and life span.</i></div>
1397346003191 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteopetrosis}} is a one disorder that in
volves the failure of normal one resorption to occur due to defective osteoclas
ts, therey resulting in thickened, dense ones prone to fracture.
<r /><d
iv><i>Very dense ones are rittle.</i></div>
1397346104139 1395802358422 {{c1::Pancytopenia}} and {{c2::Extramedullary He
matopoiesis}} are complications of Osteopetrosis that occur due to the expansion
of one into the one marrow.
1397346166264 1395802358422 What enzyme mutation is associated with Osteopet
rosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Caronic Anhydrase <>II</>}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Specifically type II, which is found in Osteoclasts.</i></div>
1397346193036 1395802358422 {{c1::Caronic Anhydrase II Mutation}} is an enz
yme mutation found in Osteopetrosis that impairs the aility of Osteoclasts to g
enerate an acidic environment necessary for one resorption.
<r /><div><i>Al
kaline Phosphatase in Osteolasts yields an alkaline environment that is needed
for <>laying down one</>.</i></div><div><i>Caronic Anhydrase <>II</>&nsp;
in Osteoclasts yields an acidic environment that is needed for <>resoring one
</>.</i></div>
1397346373407 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteopetrosis}} is a one disorder that wi
ll present with a one-in-one appearance and diffusely dense ones on x-ray.<di
v><r /></div><div><img src="paste-19237158519087.jpg" /></div> <r /><div><i>Co
mmonly seen est at the pelvis.</i></div>
1397347520901 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteopetrosis}} is a one disorder that ca
n result in cranial nerve impingement and palsies as a result of narrowed forami
na due to one expansion.
1397348003623 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Osteopetrosis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Bone marrow transplant}}</div>
the cause is a defect in Osteoclast function. Since Osteoclasts are derived from
the monocyte lineage, one marrow transplant is curative.</i></div>
1397348050118 1395802358422 What one disorder is descried as Vitamin D def
iciency in adults?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteomalacia}}</div>
1397348077849 1395802358422 What one disorder is defined as Vitamin D defic
iency in children?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rickets}}</div>

1397348094316 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteomalacia}} is a one disorder that is
defined as Vitamin D deficiency in adults and involves defective mineralization
and calfication of osteoid one.
1397348145502 1395802358422 {{c1::Rickets}} is a one disorder that is defin
ed as Vitamin D deficiency in children and involves defective mineralization and
calcification of osteoid, therey yielding soft ones that ow out.
1397348178600 1395802358422 How does serum [Ca] change in Osteomalacia or Ri
ckets?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased due to the Vitamin D deficiency}}</d
iv>
1397348202438 1395802358422 How do PTH levels change in Osteomalacia or Rick
ets?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased PTH due to a decrease in serum Ca and
Vitamin D}}</div>
1397348241023 1395802358422 How does serum [PO<su>4</su>] change in Osteom
alacia and Rickets?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased due to increased PTH ac
tion}}</div>
1397349137368 1395802358422 How do ALP levels change in Osteomalacia or Rick
ets?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased due to increased osteolast activity}}
</div>
1397349170950 1395802358422 {{c1::Paget Disease of Bone (Osteitis Deformans)
}} is a common, localized one disorder that involves an increase in <>oth</>
&nsp;osteolastic and osteoclastic activity.
1397349666673 1395802358422 {{c1::Paget Disease of Bone (Osteitis Deformans)
}} is a disorder of one remodeling that involves a <>mosaic pattern</>&nsp;o
f woven and lamellar one.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-20882130993458.j
pg" /></div>
1397349735735 1395802358422 Which one disorder is associated with a <>mosa
ic pattern</>&nsp;of woven and lamellar one?<div><r /></div><div><img src="p
aste-20877836026162.jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paget Disease of Bo
ne (Osteitis Deformans)}}</div>
1397350037173 1395802358422 Which one disorder is associated with long one
chalk-stick fractures?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paget Disease of Bone}}</div>
1397350058195 1395802358422 {{c1::High-output heart failure}} is a possile
complication of Paget Disease of Bone that results from an increase in lood flo
w from an increase in arteriovenous shunts.
1397350096919 1395802358422 Which one cancer has an increased risk of occur
ring in Paget Disease of Bone?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteogenic Sarcoma (Os
teosarcoma)}}</div>
1397350115997 1395802358422 Which one disorder is commonly associated with
<>increasing hat size</>?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21311627723055.
jpg" /></div><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paget Disease of Bone}}</div>
1397350159974 1395802358422 {{c1::Hearing Loss}} is a common complication of
Paget Disease of Bone due to narrowing of the auditory foramen.
1397350405372 1395802358422 Which stage of Paget Disease of Bone involves el
evated Osteoclast activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lytic Phase}}</div>
1397350436207 1395802358422 Which stage of Paget Disease of Bone involves in
creases in&nsp;<>oth</>&nsp;Osteoclastic and Osteolastic activity?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Mixed}}</div>
1397350470033 1395802358422 What stage of Paget Disease of Bone involves inc
reased Osteolast activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sclerotic}}</div>
1397350493382 1395802358422 What stage of Paget Disease of Bone involves min
imal osteolast and osteoclast activity?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Quiescent}}<
/div>
1397350516060 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteonecrosis (Avascular Necrosis)}} is a
one pathology that involves infarction of one and one marrow and is typically
very painful.
1397350560933 1395802358422 Which hematological disorder is associated with
causing Osteonecrosis (Avascular Necrosis)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Sickle Ce
ll Disease}}</div>
1397350593149 1395802358422 Which <u>drug of ause</u>&nsp;is associated wi
th causing Osteonecrosis (Avascular Necrosis)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alcoho

l}}</div>
1397350608600 1395802358422 {{c1::High-dose corticosteroids}} are a type of
drug that is associated with causing Osteonecrosis (Avascular Necrosis).
1397350716164 1395802358422 What is the most common site of Osteonecrosis (A
vascular Necrosis)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Femoral Head; due to insufficienc
y of the Medial Circumflex Femoral Artery}}</div>
1397350765874 1395802358422 Insufficiency of which artery is associated with
Osteonecrosis (Avascular Necrosis) of the femoral head?<div><r /></div><div>{{
c1::Medial Circumflex Femoral Artery}}</div>
1397350812026 1395802358422 Which one disorder has <>normal</>&nsp;la v
alues (Ca, PO<su>4</su>, ALP and PTH levels)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteo
porosis}}</div>
1397357669266 1395802358422 How does serum Ca change in <>severe, malignant
</>&nsp;Osteopetrosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decreased; otherwise it is n
ormal}}</div>
1397357724184 1395802358422 How does serum Ca change in Paget Disease of Bon
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
1397357741325 1395802358422 How do PO<su>4</su>&nsp;levels change in Page
t Disease of Bone?<div><r />{{c1::No change}}</div>
1397357766983 1395802358422 How do ALP levels change in Paget Disease of Bon
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1397357780742 1395802358422 How do PTH levels change in Paget Disease of Bon
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::No change}}</div>
1397357793403 1395802358422 How does serum Ca change in Hypervitaminosis D?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increased}}</div>
1397357812267 1395802358422 How do PO<su>4</su>&nsp;levels change in Hype
rvitaminosis D?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397357836613 1395802358422 How do ALP levels change in Hypervitaminosis D?<
div><r />{{c1::No change}}</div>
1397357850726 1395802358422 How do PTH levels change in Hypervitaminosis D?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div>
1397357898169 1395802358422 What is the only la value that changes in Paget
Disease of Bone?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ALP increases}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Paget Disease involves overactivity of Osteolasts</i></div>
1397357960385 1395802358422 Which one disorder is associated with <>decrea
sed one mass</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteoporosis}}</div>
1397357973718 1395802358422 Which one disorder is associated with <>dense,
rittle ones</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteopetrosis}}</div>
1397357986846 1395802358422 Which one disorder is associated with an <>an
ormal "mosaic" one architecture</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paget Disease o
f Bone}}</div>
1397358016413 1395802358422 Which one disorder is associated with <>soft
ones</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteomalacia and Rickets}}</div>
1397358031173 1395802358422 {{c1::Sarcoidosis}} is a granulomatous disease t
hat can cause Hypervitaminosis D.
<r /><div><i>The other common cause is
over-supplementation of Vitamin D.</i></div>
1397358077214 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteitis Firosa Cystica}} is a one disor
der that involves <>"rown tumours</>" in one due to firous replacement of
one and superiosteal thinning and is often associated with Hyperparathyroidism.
<r /><div><i>Associated with Hyperparathyroidism (due to Parathyroid hyperplasi
a, adenoma or carcinoma). It is otherwise idiopathic.</i></div>
1397358462489 1395802358422 How does serum Ca change in <>Primary</>&nsp;
Hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397358506615 1395802358422 How do PO<su>4</su>&nsp;levels change in&nsp
;<>Primary</>&nsp;Hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}<
/div>
1397358521643 1395802358422 How do ALP levels change in&nsp;<>Primary</>&
nsp;Hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
1397358535834 1395802358422 How do PTH levels change in&nsp;<>Primary</>&
nsp;Hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div> <r /><d

iv><i>Just making sure you're still awake.</i></div>
1397358575590 1395802358422 How does Serum Ca change in&nsp;<>Secondary</
>&nsp;Hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrease}}</div> <r /><d
iv><i>Rememer, secondary hyper-PTH is typically due to chronic renal failure wh
ich involves <>decreased PO<su>4</su>&nsp;excretion</>, therey leading to
<>decreased serum Ca</>&nsp;as PO<su>4</su>&nsp;inds to free serum Ca.</i
></div>
1397358746220 1395802358422 How do PO<su>4</su>&nsp;levels change in <>S
econdary</>&nsp;Hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</di
v>
<r /><div><i>Rememer, secondary hyper-PTH is typically due to chronic
renal failure which involves&nsp;<>decreased PO<su>4</su>&nsp;excretion</>
, therey leading to <>increased PO<su>4</su></>.</i></div>
1397358760696 1395802358422 How do ALP levels change in <>Secondary</>&ns
p;Hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<div><i>
<r /></i></div>
1397358847943 1395802358422 How do PTH levels change in <>Secondary</>&ns
p;Hyperparathyroidism?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<r /><d
iv><i>Once again, just making sure you're awake.</i></div>
1397402795935 1395802358422 Which age group is commonly affected y Giant Ce
ll Tumour of the Bone?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::20-40 y/o}}</div>
1397402856237 1395802358422 Where along the one is Giant Cell Tumour common
ly located?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epiphyseal end}}</div> <r /><div><img
src="paste-700079669560.jpg" /></div>
1397402903702 1395802358422 {{c1::Giant Cell Tumour}} is a enign tumour of
the one that typically arises around the knee.
the one that involves a <>"soap ule"</>&nsp;appearance on x-ray.<div><r
the one that involves <>multinucleated giant cells</>.
1397403001256 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteochondroma (Exostosis)}} is a enign t
umour of the one that involves an outgrowth of mature one with a cartilaginous
cap. <r /><div><img src="paste-1584842932522.jpg" /></div>
1397403044975 1395802358422 What is the most common <>enign</>&nsp;tumou
r of the one?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteochondroma (Exostosis)}}</div>
1397403069242 1395802358422 Which age group is commonly affected y Osteocho
ndroma (Exostosis)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Males < 25 y/o}}</div>
1397403094414 1395802358422 How often does Osteochondroma transform into Cho
ndrosarcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rarely}}</div>
1397403157787 1395802358422 What is the most common <>primary</>&nsp;mali
gnant one tumour?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Multiple Myeloma}}</div>
1397403480763 1395802358422 What is the <>2nd</>&nsp;most common <>prima
ry</>&nsp;malignant one tumour?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteosarcoma (Oste
ogenic Sarcoma)}}</div>
1397403506100 1395802358422 What age group is commonly affected y Osteosarc
oma (Osteogenic Sarcoma)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bimodal distriution (10-20
y/o and > 65 y/o)}}</div>
1397403550154 1395802358422 What age group is commonly affected y <>primar
y</>&nsp;Osteosarcoma (Osteogenic Sarcoma)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::10-20 y
/o}}</div>
1397403570056 1395802358422 What age group is commonly affected y <>second
ary</>&nsp;Osteosarcoma (Osteogenic Sarcoma)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::>
65 y/o}}</div>
1397403603839 1395802358422 {{c1::Familial Retinolastoma}} is a familial ne
urological cancer that is a predisposing factor for Osteosarcoma (Osteogenic Sar
coma).
1397404035749 1395802358422 {{c1::Li-Fraumeni Syndrome}} is an autosomal dom
inant hereditary disorder that involves a&nsp;<>germline <i>p53</i>&nsp;mutat
ion</>&nsp;and stands as a predisposing factor for Osteosarcoma (Osteogenic Sa
rcoma).
1397404144762 1395802358422 {{c1::Paget Disease of Bone}} is a one disorder
that involves a <>mosaic pattern of one</>&nsp;and stands as a predisposing
factor for Osteosarcoma (Osteogenic Sarcoma).
1397404241211 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteosarcoma (Osteogenic Sarcoma)}} is a m
alignant one tumour that is commonly found at the <>metaphysis</>&nsp;of lon
g ones, typically around the knee.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3350074
491092.jpg" /></div>
1397404336469 1395802358422 {{c1::Codman Triangle}} is a feature of Osteosar
coma that involves elevation of the periosteum due to the presence of a heteroge
nous mass.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-3582002725166.jpg" /></div>
1397404591159 1395802358422 Which malignant one tumour is associated with a
<>sunurst pattern</>&nsp;on x-ray?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteosarcoma
(Osteogenic Sarcoma)}}</div>
1397404631697 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteosarcoma (Osteogenic Sarcoma)}} is an
aggressive, malignant one tumour that is treated with <u>surgical en loc resec
tion (with lim salvage)</u> and chemotherapy.
1397404758823 1395802358422 Which age group is commonly affected y Ewing Sa
rcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Boys < 15 y/o}}</div>
1397404780563 1395802358422 What type of cells are proliferating in Osteosar
coma (Osteogenic Sarcoma)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Osteolasts; hence this is
an osteoid secretion tumour}}</div>
1397404822931 1395802358422 {{c1::Ewing Sarcoma}} is a malignant one tumour
that commonly appears in the <>diaphysis</> of <u>lone ones, pelvis, scapula
and ris.</u> <r /><div><img src="paste-4312147165489.jpg" /></div>
1397404885107 1395802358422 {{c1::Ewing Sarcoma}} is a malignant one tumour
that involves&nsp;<>anaplastic, small lue cells</>.<div><r /></div><div><i
1397404928138 1395802358422 Which malignant one tumour is associated with a
n <>"Onion skin"</>&nsp;appearance in one?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ewing
Sarcoma}}</div>
1397404954958 1395802358422 Which chromosomal translocation is associated wi
th Ewing Sarcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::t(11;22)}}</div> <r /><div><i>11
+ 22 = 33 = Patrick <>Ewing</>'s jersey numer</i></div><div><i><img src="pas
te-4672924418488.jpg" /></i></div>
1397405538352 1395802358422 {{c1::Ewing Sarcoma}} is an <>extremely aggress
ive</>&nsp;malignant one tumour that is associated with a t(11;22) translocat
ion.
1397405579062 1395802358422 {{c1::Chondrosarcoma}} is a rare, malignant, car
tilagninous tumour that can either y <>primary</>&nsp;or (rarely) <>seconda
ry</>&nsp;from Osteochondroma.
1397405627845 1395802358422 What age groups is commonly affected y Chondros
arcoma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Men 30-60 y/o}}</div>
1397405645308 1395802358422 {{c1::Chondrosarcoma}} is a malignant, cartilagi
nous tumour that is usually located in the pelvis, spine, scapule, humerus, tii
a or femur.
1397405672660 1395802358422 {{c1::Chondrosarcoma}} is a malignant one tumou
r that presents as an <>expansile glistening mass</>&nsp;within the medullary
cavity of one.
1397405701015 1395802358422 Where along long one is Giant Cell Tumour of th
e Bone located?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Epiphysis}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-4977867096368.jpg" /></div>
1397406661873 1395802358422 Where along long one is Osteochondroma (Exostos
is) located?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metaphysis}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-4973572129072.jpg" /></div>
1397406681078 1395802358422 Where along long ones is Osteosarcoma located?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Metaphysis}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-49735
72129072.jpg" /></div>
1397406723769 1395802358422 Where along long ones is Chondrosarcoma located
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diaphysis}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-49735

72129072.jpg" /></div>
1397406740186 1395802358422 Where along long ones is Ewing Sarcoma located?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diaphysis}}</div> <r /><div><img src="paste-49735
72129072.jpg" /></div>
1397406751426 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Osteoarthritis?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Joint wear and tear leads to destruction of articular cartila
ge}}</div>
1397407426906 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteoarthritis}} is a joint disorder that
involves suchondral cysts, narrowing of the joint space and joint sclerosis on
x-ray.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-6137508266296.jpg" /><r /><div><r
/></div><div><r /></div></div>
1397407500880 1395802358422 {{c1::Eurnation}} is a feature of Osteoarthriti
s that involves a polished, ivory-like appearance of the one.
1397407672364 1395802358422 Which type of joint are Heerden Nodes located a
t?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Distal Interphalangeal Joints (DIP)}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>B</>&nsp;efore&nsp;<>H</>&nsp;(Bouchard efore Heerden)
</i></div>
1397407815616 1395802358422 Which type of joint are Bouchard Nodes located a
t?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Proximal Interphalangeal Joints (PIPs)}}</div>
<r /><div><i><>B</>&nsp;efore <>H</>&nsp;(Bouchard efore Heerden)</i><
/div>
1397407869614 1395802358422 {{c1::Osteophytes}} are a feature of Osteoarthri
tis that are descried as one spurs located at the joints.
<r /><div><img
src="paste-7232724926807.jpg" /></div>
<>does not</>&nsp;involve the Metacarpophalangeal Joints (MCPs).
<r /><d
iv><div><i>Osteoarthritis = DIPs, PIPs and no MCPs</i></div><div><i>Rheumatoid A
rthritis = MCPs, PIPs and no DIPs</i></div></div>
1397408214376 1395802358422 What is the most common risk factor for Osteoart
hritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Age}}</div>
involves pain that <>worsens</>&nsp;with use (typically at its worse at the e
nd of the day).
classically presents with knee cartilage loss that egins on the medial side, re
sulting in slight owleggedness.
1397408483283 1395802358422 What is the etiology of Rheumatoid Arthritis?<di
v><r />{{c1::Autoimmune destruction of synovial joints}}</div> <r /><div><i>Me
diated y cytokines and Type III and Type IV hypersensitivty.</i></div>
1397408557395 1395802358422 {{c1::Rheumatoid Arthritis}} is a joint disorder
that involves the formation of <>pannus</>&nsp;at the MCP and PIP joints.
<div><r /></div><i>Rememer, MCPs = knuckles</i><r /><div><img src="paste-8078
833484119.jpg" /></div>
1397411172874 1395802358422 {{c1::Sucutaneous Rheumatoid Nodules}} are a sy
stemic symptom of Rheumatoid Arthritis that involves firinoid necrosis at sucu
taneous tissue.
that presents with <>ulnar deviation</>&nsp;of the fingers and <>suluxatio
n</>&nsp;of affected joints.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-858563962500
6.jpg" /></div>
1397411295891 1395802358422 {{c1::Baker Cyst}} is a type of cyst that forms
in the popliteal fossa in Rheumatoid Arthritis.
that <>does not</>&nsp;involve the Distal Interphalangeal (DIP) joints.
<r /><div><i>Osteoarthritis = DIPs, PIPs and no MCPs</i></div><div><i>Rheumatoi
d Arthritis = MCPs, PIPs and no DIPs</i></div>
1397411444217 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y Rheumatoi
d Arthritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Females}}</div> <div><i><r /></i></div>
1397411502752 1395802358422 {{c1::Rheumatoid Factor (anti-IgG IgM antiody)}
} is an autoantiody that is found in 80% of Rheumatoid Arthritis cases and targ

ets the F<su>c</su>&nsp;portion circulating IgG.
1397411616470 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is commonly involved in Rheum
atoid Arthritis?<div><r />{{c1::Rheumatoid Factor (Anti-IgG IgM antiody); targ
ets the F<su>c</su>&nsp;portion of IgG}}</div>
1397411655407 1395802358422 {{c1::Anti-cyclic Citrullinated Peptide Antiody
}} is an antiody seen in Rheumatoid Arthritis that is more specific to the dise
ase than Rheumatoid Factor.
1397412632923 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with Rheumatoid
Arthritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-DR4}}</div>
that involves morning joint stiffness that <>improves with use</>.
that involves <>symmetrical joint involvement</>&nsp;and systemic symptoms s
uch as fatigue, pleuritis and pericarditis.
er characterized y the destruction of exocrine glands, especially at the Lacrim
al and Salivary Glands.
1397413812189 1395802358422 Which 2 exocrine glands are commonly destroyed i
n Sjogren Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Lacrimal and Salivary}}</div>
1397413831195 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y Sjogren S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Females (40-60 y/o)}}</div>
1397413850107 1395802358422 Which age group is more commonly affected y Sjo
gren Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::40-60 y/o females}}</div>
1397413866500 1395802358422 {{c1::Dental Caries}} are an oral complication o
f Sjogren Syndrome due to hyposalivation and a lack of actericidal enzymes/comp
ounds in the mouth.
1397413965172 1395802358422 {{c1::Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT) L
ymphoma}} is a tumour and possile complication of Sjogren Syndrome that present
s as unilateral parotid enlargement due to lymphocytic infiltration of the saliv
ary glands.
1397414039260 1395802358422 {{c1::Xerophthalmia}} is a feature of Sjogren Sy
ndrome that involves decreased tear production and often leads to susequent cor
neal damage.
1397414097154 1395802358422 {{c1::Xerostomia}} is a feature of Sjogren Syndr
ome that is defined as a decrease in saliva production.
1397414118360 1395802358422 Which anti-nuclear antiodies are associated wit
h Sjogren Syndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::SS-A (anti-Ro) and SS-B (anti-La)
}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"A-Ro-B-La"</i></div>
er that involves SS-A (anti-Ro) and SS-B (anti-La) antiodies.
1397424254935 1395802358422 {{c1::Gout}} is an acute, inflammatory monoarthr
itis caused y precipitation of monosodium urate crystals in joints.<div><r /><
1397424334567 1395802358422 What is the most common <>mechanism</>&nsp;th
at causes Gout?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Underexcretion ofUric Acid (seen in 9
0% of patients)}}</div> <r /><div><i>Overproduction of Uric Acid is seen in 10%
of patients.</i></div>
1397424908947 1395802358422 Which <>type</>&nsp;of diuretics can exacera
te hyperuricemia?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Thiazide diuretics}}</div>
1397425038319 1395802358422 {{c1::Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome}} is a genetic cause
of Gout that involves an X-linked deficiency of Hypoxanthine-Guanine Phosphorio
syltransferase (HGPRT).
1397425116634 1395802358422 What is the genetic inheritance of Lesch-Nyhan S
yndrome?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::X-linked}}</div>
1397425128342 1395802358422 What enzyme is deficient in Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hypoxanthine-Guanine Phosphoriosyltransferase (HGP
RT)}}</div>
1397425160819 1395802358422 {{c1::PRPP (Phosphoriosyl Pyrophosphate)}} is a
compound involved in de novo purine synthesis that can cause Gout when it is in
excess (such as in Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome).

<r /><div><i>PRPP is made into
Uric Acid (among other metaolites). In HGPRT deficiency (LN syndrome), PRPP is
shunted towards Uric Acid. This is also the case in PRPP excess, such as in Tumo
ur Lysis Syndrome.</i></div>
1397426328854 1395802358422 {{c1::Tumour Lysis Syndrome}} is a syndrome asso
ciated with tumours/cancer that can cause Gout due to increased cell turnover an
d a resultant increase in Uric Acid production.
1397426394788 1395802358422 {{c1::von Gierke Disease}} is a Glycogen Storage
Disease that can cause Gout via overproduction of Uric Acid. <r /><div><i>Th
e elevated lactic acid in von Gierke's competes with uric acid for the same tran
sporter at the kidneys, therey causing hyperuricemia.&nsp;</i></div>
1397426565170 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected with Gout?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Males}}</div>
1397426749507 1395802358422 {{c1::Gout}} is a joint disorder that involves t
he precipitation of needle shaped, <>negative irfringent </>crystals.
1397426794146 1395802358422 What colour do Uric Acid crystals of Gout show u
nder <>parallel</>&nsp;light?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ellow}}</div>
1397426810082 1395802358422 What colour do the Uric Acid crystals of Gout sh
ow under <>perpendicular</>&nsp;light?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Blue}}</div
>
1397426828247 1395802358422 {{c1::Podagra}} is a classical feature of Gout a
nd is descried as asymmetrical and painful MTP joint of the ig toe.<div><r />
1397427345469 1395802358422 {{c1::Tophi}} are a feature of Gout that are des
cried as aggregates of Uric Acid crystals that deposit at soft tissue (often th
e external ear, olecranon ursa or Achilles tendon).
1397427415078 1395802358422 Which drug of ause can cause acute attacks of G
out?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alcohol}}</div> <r /><div><i>This is due to alc
ohol metaolites competing for the same excretion sites in the kidney as uric ac
id, leading to hyperuricemia.</i></div>
1397427458024 1395802358422 {{c1::Alcohol}} is a drug of ause that can caus
e acute attacks of Gout due to its metaolites competing for the same excreting
sites in the kidneys as Uric Acid, therey causing hyperuricemia.
1397427491698 1395802358422 Which type of crystals are involved in Gout?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Uric Acid}}</div>
1397427599976 1395802358422 Which type of crystals are involved in Pseudogou
t?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Calcium Pyrophosphate}}</div>
1397427616262 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudogout}} is a joint disorder that invo
lves deposition of Calcium Pyrophosphate crystals within the joint space.
1397428040487 1395802358422 {{c1::Pseudogout}} is a joint disorder that invo
lves the deposition of <>asophilic, rhomoid crystals</>&nsp;with weakly pos
itive irefringence.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-16496969384151.jpg" />
</div>
1397428095619 1395802358422 What is the irefringence of Uric Acid crystals
in Gout?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Negative}}</div>
1397428107507 1395802358422 What is the irefringence of Calcium Pyrophospha
te crystals in Pseudogout?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Weakly positive}}</div>
1397428132452 1395802358422 Which joint is classically affected with Pseudog
out?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Knee}}</div>
<r><div><i>Larger joints are ty
pically the ones affected.</i></div>
1397428355265 1395802358422 Which age group is commonly affected y Pseudogo
ut?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::> 50}}</div> <r /><div><i>Both sexes equally
affected; this is different from Gout which is more common in men</i></div>
1397428383149 1395802358422 {{c1::Hemochromatosis}} is a hematological disor
der associated with Pseudogout and involves elevated levels of iron.
1397428431341 1395802358422 Which endocrine disorders are associated with Ps
eudogout?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hyper/hypoparathyroidism}}</div>
1397428459716 1395802358422 What colour do the Calcium Pyrophosphate crystal
s of Pseudogout yield when exposed to <>parallel</>&nsp;light?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Blue}}</div>
<div><r /></div><i>Gout = ye<>ll</>ow with pa
ra<>ll</>el light</i><div><i>Pseudogout = lue with parallel light<r /></i><d

iv><img src="paste-16492674416855.jpg" /></div></div>
1397428534962 1395802358422 What is the most common cause of Infectious Arth
ritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Neisseria gonorrheae</i>}}</div>
1397428700030 1395802358422 What is the <>2nd </>most common cause of Infe
ctious Arthritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Staphylococcus aureus</i>}}</div
>
1397428718972 1395802358422 {{c1::Gonococcal arthritis}} is an STD infection
that presents as a migratory arthritis with an asymmetric pattern of joint swel
ling, redness and pain. <r /><div><i><>STD</>&nsp;= <>S</>ynovitis (at the
knee), <>T</>enosynovitis (at the hand) and <>D</>ermatitis (pustules at th
e skin).</i></div>
1397428813427 1395802358422 Which joint is most commonly affected y Infecti
ous Arthritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Knee}}</div>
1397428824407 1395802358422 {{c1::Seronegative Spondyloarthropathies}} are a
group of inflammatory arthropathies that <>do not have Rheumatoid factor</>.
1397428947147 1395802358422 Which HLA sutype is associated with&nsp;Serone
gative Spondyloarthropathies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::HLA-B27; the gene that
codes for HLA MHC Class I}}</div>
1397428979261 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly affected y&nsp;Sero
negative Spondyloarthropathies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Males}}</div>
1397429094533 1395802358422 {{c1::Psoriatic Arthritis}} is a&nsp;Seronegati
ve Spondyloarthropathy that involves joint pain and stiffness and is associated
with Psoriasis.
1397429201651 1395802358422 <div>Which&nsp;Seronegative Spondyloarthropathy
is associated with <>dactylitis</>&nsp;(sausage fingers)?</div><div><r /></
div>{{c1::Psoriatic Arthritis}}<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-18515604013
368.jpg" /></div>
1397429297878 1395802358422 Which&nsp;Seronegative Spondyloarthropathy is a
ssociated with <>"pencil-in-cup"</>&nsp;finger deformities on x-ray?<div><r
/></div><div><img src="paste-19013820219709.jpg" /><r /><div><r /></div><div>{
{c1::Psoriatic Arthritis}}</div></div>
1397429360404 1395802358422 {{c1::Akylosing Spondylitis}} is a Seronegative
Spondyloarthropathy that involves chronic inflammatory disease of the spine and
sacroiliac joints.
1397429757880 1395802358422 {{c1::Ankylosis}} is an axial skeleton disorder
commonly seen in&nsp;Seronegative Spondyloarthropathy and is descried as a sti
ff spine due to fusion of the joints.
1397429794709 1395802358422 Which type of Seronegative Spondyloarthropathy i
s associated with <>uveitis</> and <>aortic regurgitation</>?<div><r /></di
v><div>{{c1::Akylosing Spondylitis}}</div>
1397429823669 1395802358422 {{c1::Bamoo Spine}} is a feature of Akylosing S
pondylitis and is descried as verteral fusion.<div><r /></div><div><img src="
paste-19915763351858.jpg" /></div>
1397429909087 1395802358422 Which type of GI disorder is commonly associated
with&nsp;Seronegative Spondyloarthropathy?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inflamma
tory Bowel Disease (Crohns or UC)}}</div>
1397429921973 1395802358422 {{c1::Reactive Arthritis (Reiter Syndrome)}} is
a type of&nsp;Seronegative Spondyloarthropathy that commonly arises following a
GI or <i>Chlamydia</i>&nsp;infection.
1397429975635 1395802358422 Which type of&nsp;Seronegative Spondyloarthropa
thy commonly manifests after a GI infection (<i>Shigella, Salmonella, ersinia,
Campyloacter)</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Reactive Arthritis (Reiter Syndro
me)}}</div>
1397430016161 1395802358422 What type of&nsp;Seronegative Spondyloarthropat
hy commonly manifests after <i>Chlamydia</i>&nsp;infections?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Reactive Arthritis (Reiter Syndrome)}}</div>
1397430103502 1395802358422 What is the classic triad of symptoms seen in Re
active Arthritis (Reiter Syndrome)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cojunctivitis; Ur
ethritis; Arthritis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>"Can't see, can't pee, can't end
my knee."</i></div>
1397430147694 1395802358422 {{c1::Reactive Arthritis (Reiter Syndrome)}} is
a type of&nsp;Seronegative Spondyloarthropathy that presents with a classic tri
ad of conjunctivits, urethritis and arthritis. <r /><div><i>"Can't see, can't
pee, can't end my fcking knee."</i></div>
1397430221241 1395802358422 Which type of&nsp;Seronegative Spondyloarthropa
thy is commonly associated with Inflammatory Bowel Disease?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Ankylosing Spondylitis}}</div>
1397430263469 1395802358422 What sex is more commonly affected y&nsp;Syste
mic Lupus Erythematosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Females}}</div>
1397433335783 1395802358422 What demographic is most commonly affected y&n
sp;Systemic Lupus Erythematosus?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Reproductive age fem
ales of African descent}}</div>
1397433361362 1395802358422 {{c1::Lieman-Sacks Endocarditis}} is a complica
tion of&nsp;Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) that involves <>sterile, wart-l
ike vegetations</>&nsp;on oth sides of cardiac valves.
1397433413529 1395802358422 Which autoimmune disorder is Liman-Sacks Endoca
rditis associated with?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
(SLE)}}</div>
1397433433402 1395802358422 Which type of <>Nephritic</>&nsp;syndrome is
associated with Lupus Nephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Diffuse Proliferativ
e Glomerulonephritis}}</div>
1397433507033 1395802358422 Which type of <>Nephrotic</>&nsp;syndrome is
associated with Lupus Nephritis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Memranous Glomerulo
nephritis}}</div>
1397433525281 1395802358422 {{c1::Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)}} is an
autoimmune disorder that is associated with a <>malar</>&nsp;or <>discoid</
>&nsp;rash.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-21852793602253.jpg" /></div>
1397434375371 1395802358422 Which 2 autoantiodies are <>most commonly</>&
nsp;seen in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti
nuclear (ANA) and Anti-dsDNA antiodies}}</div>
1397434451091 1395802358422 Which autoantiody involved with&nsp;Systemic L
upus Erythematosus (SLE) is <>sensitive</>, ut <>not specific</>&nsp;for t
he disease?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Antinuclear antiodies (ANA)}}</div>
upus Erythematosus (SLE) is <>specific </>to the disease and indicates <>poor
prognosis</>&nsp;and a likelihood of <>renal disease</>?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Anti-dsDNA antiodies}}</div>
upus Erythematosus (SLE) is <>specific</>&nsp;to the disease ut is <>not pr
ognostic</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-Smith (anti-Sm) antiodies}}</div>
upus Erythematosus (SLE) is <>directed against snRNPs</>?<div><r /></div><div
>{{c1::Anti-Smith (Anti-Sm) antiodies}}</div>
1397434621593 1395802358422 Which autoantiody is seen in <>Drug Induced</
>&nsp;Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-histo
ne antiodies}}</div>
1397434645140 1395802358422 Which form of&nsp;Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
(SLE) is associated with Anti-Histone Antiodies?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Dru
g Induced Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)}}</div>
1397434659956 1395802358422 Which autoantiodies involved with&nsp;Systemic
Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) are associated with <>false positive VDRL tests</>&
nsp;and <>paradoxically elevated PTT</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Anticardi
olipin antiodies}}</div>
1397434712083 1395802358422 {{c1::Anticardiolipin Antiodies}} are a type of
autoantiody that is associated with&nsp;Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) an
d yields a <>false positive VDRL test</>&nsp;for Syphilis.
1397434750329 1395802358422 {{c1::Lupus anticoagulant}} are a type of autoan
tiody in&nsp;Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) that yields a <>paradoxially
prolonged PTT</>.
<r /><div><i>There is actually an <>increased</>&nsp
;risk of arteriovenous thromoemolism.</i></div>
1397434796047 1395802358422 {{c1::Sarcoidosis}} is a systemic inflammatory d
isorder that is characterized y immune-mediated, <>widespread noncaseating gra
nulomas</>.<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-23648089932081.jpg" /></div>
1397435943125 1395802358422 Which enzyme is characteristically elevated in S
arcoidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::ACE}}</div>
<r /><div><i>ACE levels
have een shown to correlate with total granuloma load.</i></div>
1397436067608 1395802358422 Which demographic is most commonly affected y S
arcoidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Black females}}</div>
1397436092099 1395802358422 What incidental chest x-ray finding is associate
d with Sarcoidosis?<div><r /></div><div><img src="paste-24348169601327.jpg" /><
r /><div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bilateral Hilar Adenopathy (and/or reticular op
acities)}}</div></div> <r /><div><i>Aside from the ilateral hilar adenopathy,
notice the right upper lung reticular opacity.</i></div>
1397436223616 1395802358422 What <>type</>&nsp;of lung disease is associa
ted with Sarcoidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Restrictive lung disease (inter
stitial firosis)}}</div>
1397436281286 1395802358422 Which type of facial paralysis is associated wit
h Sarcoidosis?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Bell Palsy}}</div>
1397436567592 1395802358422 {{c1::Sarcoidosis}} is a systemic granulomatous
disorder that is associated with epithelioid granulomas with microscopic <>Scha
umann</>&nsp;and <>asteroid odies</>.
1397436616906 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypercalcemia}} is a common association of
Sarcoidosis that presents due to an increase in&nsp;<>1-hydroxylsemedited vit
min D ctivtion</b> in mcrophges of grnuloms.
1397436681828 1395802358422 Which enzyme in mcrophges of the grnuloms of
Srcoidosis yield the Hyperclcemi ssocited with the disese?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::1-hydroxylse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>1-hydroxylse-medited Vit
min D ctivtion leds to hyperclcemi.</i></div>
1397436764332 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Srcoidosis?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Steroids}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Rememebr, steroids re imm
unosuppressnts.</i></div>
1397436795766 1395802358422 Wht eye disorder is ssocited with Srcoidosis
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Uveitis}}</div>
1397436961545 1395802358422 {{c1::Erythem Nodosum}} is n inflmmtory skin
disorder ssocited with Srcoidosis.
1397437151323 1395802358422 {{c1::Polymylgi Rheumtic}} is n inflmmtor
y muscle disorder tht involves pin nd stiffness in the shoulders nd hips, of
ten with fever, mlise nd weight loss.
<br /><div><i><u>There is no mus
cle wekness</u>.</i></div>
1397437271496 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly ffected by Polymylg
i Rheumtic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Women}}</div>
1397437289517 1395802358422 Which ge group is more commonly ffected by Pol
ymylgi Rheumtic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::> 50 y/o}}</div>
1397437305469 1395802358422 Which type of vsculitis is ssocited with Poly
mylgi Rheumtic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Temporl Gint Cell Arteritis}}</
div>
1397437330505 1395802358422 How does ESR chnge in Polymylgi Rheumtic?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div>
1397437361372 1395802358422 How do C-Rective Protein levels chnge in Polym
ylgi Rheumtic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div>
1397437390335 1395802358422 How do Cretine Kinse levels chnge in Polymyl
gi Rheumtic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No chnge; norml CK}}</div>
1397437432149 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Polymylgi Rheumtic
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Low-dose corticosteroids}}</div>
1397437457261 1395802358422 Wht sex is more commonly ffected by Fibromylg
i?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Femles}}</div>
1397437487292 1395802358422 Wht ge group is more commonly ffected by Fibr
omylgi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::20-50 y/o}}</div>
1397437502016 1395802358422 {{c1::Fibromylgi}} is musculoskeletl disord

er tht involves chronic, widespred musculoskeletl pin ssocited with stiffn
ess, presthesis, poor sleep nd ftigue.
1397437559693 1395802358422 {{c1::Polyomyositis}} is n inflmmtory muscle
disorder tht involves progressive symmetricl proximl muscle wekness with <b>
endomysil inflmmtion</b>.
1397438480412 1395802358422 {{c1::Polymyositis}} is n inflmmtory muscle d
isorder tht involves <b>endomysil inflmmtion </b>with CD8+ T cells.
1397438519124 1395802358422 Which prt of the body is most commonly ffected
by Polymyositis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Shoulders}}</div>
1397438539446 1395802358422 Which type of T cells re involved in Polymyosit
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD8+ T cells}}</div>
1397438581487 1395802358422 {{c1::Dermtomyositis}} is n inflmmtory muscl
e disorder tht presents similr to Polymyositis but lso involves <b>mlr r
sh</b>. <div><br /></div><i>Don't lwys think Lupus with mlr rsh. Red the
history crefully!</i><br /><div><i><b>Dermto</b>myositis hs <b>skin rshes</
b> nd hence the inflmmtion is closer to the skin (<b>perimysil</b>&nbsp
;vs endomysil in Polymyositis).</i></div>
1397438680187 1395802358422 {{c1::Dermtomyositis}} is n inflmmtory muscl
e disorder tht involves <b>perimysil inflmmtion</b> nd trophy with CD
4+ T cells.
<br /><div><i><b>Dermto</b>myositis hs <b>skin rshes</b>
nd hence the inflmmtion is closer to the skin (<b>perimysil</b> v
s endomysil in Polymyositis).</i></div>
1397438729013 1395802358422 Which type of T cells re involved with Dermtom
yositis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CD4+ T cells}}</div>
1397438745335 1395802358422 {{c1::Gottron ppules}} re type of erythemto
us ppules seen in Dermtomyositis nd re found on the knuckles of the hnd.<di
1397438797110 1395802358422 {{c1::Heliotrope Rsh}} is rsh seen in Dermt
omyositis nd is described s n <b>erythemtous periorbitl rsh.</b>
1397438832144 1395802358422 Which inflmmtory muscle disorder often present
s with <b>"shwl nd fce"</b> rsh?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste
-27900107555119.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dermtomyositis}}</div>
1397438881670 1395802358422 Which inflmmtory muscle disorder involves n i
ncresed risk for occult mlignncy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dermtomyositis}
}</div>
1397439065491 1395802358422 How do Cretine Kinse (CK) levels chnge in Der
mtomyositis nd Polymyositis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div>
1397439103877 1395802358422 Which inflmmtory muscle disorder is ssocited
with <b>nti-Jo-1</b> ntibodies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both Dermtom
yositis nd Polymyositis}}</div>
with <b>nti-SRP</b> ntibodies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both Dermtomy
ositis nd Polymyositis}}</div>
with <b>nti-Mi-2</b> ntibodies?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Both Dermtom
yositis nd Polymyositis}}</div>
1397439159903 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Dermtomyositis
nd Polymyositis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Steroids (immunosuppression; nti-in
flmmtory)}}</div>
1397439188117 1395802358422 Wht is the most common Neuromusculr Junction d
isorder?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mystheni Grvis}}</div>
1397442626767 1395802358422 Wht type of utontibodies re involved in Mys
theni Grvis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autontibodies to <b>postsynptic ACh
receptors</b>}}</div>
1397442659726 1395802358422 Which type of neuromusculr junction disorder <b
>worsens with muscle use</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mystheni Grvis}}</di
v>
1397442690698 1395802358422 Which type of Neuromusculr Junction Disorder is
ssocited with Thymom or Thymic Hyperplsi?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myst
heni Grvis}}</div>
1397442717369 1395802358422 How do AChE Inhibitors influence Mystheni Grv
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Symptoms will reverse/improve}}</div>
1397442744715 1395802358422 Wht type of utontibodies re involved in Lbe
rt-Eton Mysthenic Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Autontibodies ginst
<b>presynptic C-chnnels</b>, thereby cusing decresed ACh relese}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, C is needed to trigger synptic vesicle trnsmission t
the xon terminl.</i></div>
1397442872838 1395802358422 Which Neuromusculr Junction Disorder involves
utontibodies to <b>postsynptic ACh receptors</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::M
ystheni Grvis}}</div>
1397442895152 1395802358422 Which Neuromusculr Junction Disorder involves
utontibodies to <b>presynptic C-chnnels</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lmb
ert-Eton Mysthenic Syndrome}}</div>
1397442916609 1395802358422 Which Neuromusculr Junction Disorder more commo
nly involves <b>proximl muscle wekness</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lmbert
-Eton Syndrome}}</div>
1397442957067 1395802358422 Which Neuromusculr Junction Disorder involves m
uscle wekness tht <b>improves with muscle use</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Lmbert-Eton Syndrome}}</div> <br /><div><i>With progressive muscle use, C
grdient builds up cross the xonl membrne, thereby mking it esier for C t
o enter the xon terminl nd trigger vesicle relese.</i></div>
1397443017457 1395802358422 How do AChE Inhibitors influence Lmbert-Eton S
yndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Miniml to no effect}}</div>
1397443052153 1395802358422 {{c1::Myositis Ossificns}} is skeletl muscle
disorder tht involves metplsi of skeletl muscle to bone following musculr
trum.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-30288109371698.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Notice the heterotopic ossifiction of the elbow fter injury nd
prosthetic replcement of the rdil hed.</i></div><div><i>Cn present s sus
picious mss t the site of injury or s n incidentl finding upon imging.</i>
</div>
1397443164357 1395802358422 Which prt of the body is most commonly ffected
by Myositis Ossificns?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Upper or Lower extremities}}
</div>
1397443244615 1395802358422 {{c1::Scleroderm (Systemic Sclerosis)}} is sy
stemic utoimmune disorder tht involves excessive fibrosis nd collgen deposit
ion throughout the body.
1397443351574 1395802358422 {{c1::Scleroderm (Systemic Sclerosis)}} is sy
stemic utoimmune disorder tht commonly involves sclerosis of the skin which pr
esents s <b>puffy nd tut skin with the bsence of wrinkles</b>.<div><br /></d
<br /><div><i>Remember D
r. Johnson's story: Be creful of this in the club. Old ldies could look md yo
ung nd you'd never know until it's too lte.</i></div>
1397443749436 1395802358422 {{c1::Scleroderm}} is systemic utoimmune dis
order tht presents with <b>digitl pitting </b> nd <b>distl ulcertion</
b> due to widespred sclerosis of the skin.<div><br /></div><div><img src="
pste-32113470472500.jpg" /></div>
1397443997782 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of deth in Sclero
derm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sclerosis of Pulmonry tissue}}</div>
1397444040206 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly ffected by Scleroder
m?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Femles (75%)}}</div>
1397444059610 1395802358422 {{c1::Diffuse Scleroderm}} is type of Sclerod
erm tht hs widespred skin involvement, rpid progression nd erly viscerl
involvement.
1397444129807 1395802358422 Wht type of utontibody is ssocited with Dif
fuse Scleroderm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-Scl-70 (nti-DNA Topoisomerse
I)}}</div>
1397444160915 1395802358422 Which type of Scleroderm is ssocited with <b>
Anti-Scl-70 (nti-DNA Topoisomerse I) utontibodies</b>?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Diffuse Scleroderm}}</div>
1397444187272 1395802358422 {{c1::Limited Scleroderm}} is type of Sclerod

erm tht involves limited skin involvement, typiclly confined to the fingers
nd fce.
1397444383013 1395802358422 Wht type of utontibodies re ssocited with
Limited Scleroderm (CREST Syndrome)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-Centromere
<br /><div><i><b>C</b>REST = nti-<b>C</b>entromere</i><
ntibodies}}</div>
/div>
1397444415554 1395802358422 Wht type of Scleroderm is ssocited with <b>
nti-Centromere ntibodies</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Limited Scleroderm (C
REST Syndrome)}}</div> <br /><div><i><b>C</b>REST = nti-<b>C</b>entromere</i><
/div>
1397444497212 1395802358422 Wht is the C in CREST syndrome?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Clcinosis}}</div>
1397444668854 1395802358422 Wht is the R in CREST Syndrome?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Rynud Phenomenon}}</div>
1397444680047 1395802358422 Wht is the E in CREST syndrome?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Esophgel dysmotility}}</div>
1397444692930 1395802358422 Wht is the S in CREST syndrome?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Sclerodctyly}}</div>
1397444712518 1395802358422 Wht is the T in CREST Syndrome?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Telngiectsi}}</div>
1397444724075 1395802358422 Which mjor type of Scleroderm hs the more ben
ign clinicl course nd lter viscerl involvement?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L
imited Scleroderm (CREST Syndrome)}}</div>
1385243342281 1358629116480 {{c1::Lobr}} pneumoni is chrcterized by the
consolidtion of n entire lobe of the lung on chest x-ry.<div><br /></div><d
1385243500362 1358629116480 {{c1::Bronchopneumoni}} is type of pneumoni
tht is chrcterized by scttered ptchy consolidtions centered round bronchi
oles on chest x-ry.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-901943132270.jpg" />
</div>
1385243543250 1358629116480 {{c1::Interstitil}} pneumoni is chrcterized
by diffuse interstitl infiltrtes on chest x-ry.<div><br /></div><div><img s
rc="pste-979252543597.jpg" /></div>
1385243586046 1358629116480 {{c1::Fibronectin}} is n dhesin tht promotes
phgocytic function by ttching to both bcteri nd PMNs t the lveoli.
1385253999499 1358629116480 {{c1::Surfctnt}} is n lveolr substnce tht
binds to pthogens, thereby cting s opsonins tht enhnce phgocytosis.
1385254035202 1358629116480 <i>Streptococcus pneumonie</i> is grm-{
{c1::positive}}, {{c2::lph}}-hemolytic coccus.<div><br /></div><div><img
src="pste-1589137899871.jpg" /></div>
1385254415351 1358629116480 Wht colour do lph-hemolytic bcteri turn blo
od?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Drk green}}</div>
1385254458040 1358629116480 <i>Streptococcus pneumonie</i> is Optochin
{{c1::sensitive}}.
1385254497890 1358629116480 Which virulence fctor from <i>Streptococcus pne
umonie</i> llows it to inhibit phgocytosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C
psulr polyscchrides}}</div>
1385255481294 1358629116480 Which virulence fctor from <i>Streptococcu
s pneumonie </i>llows it to ttch to epithelil cells of the nsophrynx?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Surfce Adhesin A}}</div>
s pneumonie </i>llows it to void phgocytosis nd complement medited ly
sis by binding to nd inhibiting Complement Fctor H?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Surfce Protein C}}</div>
s pneumonie </i>cts s cytotoxic gent nd ctivtes complement?<div><b
r></div><div>{{c1::Pneumolysin}}</div>
1385255630278 1358629116480 <i>Hemophilus influenze</i> is grm-{{c
1::negtive}} rod <div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-2156073582736.jpg"
/></div>
1385256711069 1358629116480 Only {{c1::encpsulted}} strins of <i>He
mophilus influenz</i> cuse pneumoni. Strins without cpsules re norml
URT flor.
1385256747616 1358629116480 <i>Hemophilus influenze</i> is fstidio
us orgnism tht grows on {{c1::chocolte}} gr, s it contins essentil
nutrients (V nd X fctor).
1385256810123 1358629116480 Wht is X Fctor (sometimes dded to culture g
rs)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Protoporphyrin}}</div>
1385256848468 1358629116480 Wht is V Fctor (sometimes dded to culture g
rs)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NAD}}</div>
1385256862587 1358629116480 <i>Morxell ctrrhlis</i> is grm-{{c1
::negtive}} diplococci.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-2310692405572.jpg"
/></div>
<br /><div><i>Grm-negtive = pink</i></div>
1385257240362 1358629116480 Which pneumococcl vccine is recommended for p
tients <b>65 y/o or older?</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b>{{c1::</b>Pnemococ
cl polyscchride vccine; <u>once</u><b>}}</b></div>
1385257671648 1358629116480 Which pneumococcl vccine is recommended for <b
>children 2-15 months old</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pneumococcl conjugte
vccine}}</div>
1385264453056 1358629116480 {{c1::Pneumoni; Pneumonitis}} is defined s inf
ection of the lung prenchym.
1385264493850 1358629116480 {{c1::Typicl}} Pneumoni will yield purulent, y
ellow-green (pus) or rusty (bloody) sputum.
1385264544162 1358629116480 {{c1::Atypicl}} Pneumoni will not yield ny sp
utum nd involves dry cough.
1385264557328 1358629116480 How do breth nd lung percussion sounds chnge
in Pneumoni?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decresed; dull}}</div>
1385264582270 1358629116480 Wht is the most common cuse of pneumoni?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumonie</i>}}</div>
1385264620876 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Klebsiell pneumonie</i>}} is n enter
ic flor tht cuses <b>lobr pneumoni</b> in ptients with n incresed r
isk of spirtion, such s the elderly, dibetics or lcholics.
1385264711895 1358629116480 Pneumoni cused by {{c1::<i>Klebsiell pne
umonie</i>}} will yield thick, mucoid cpsulr spirte tht yields geltin
ous, <b>red-current jelly sputum</b>.
1385264753748 1358629116480 Wht is the most common cuse of secondry pneum
oni?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumonie</i>}}</div>
1385264957521 1358629116480 Wht is the most common cuse of community cqui
red pneumoni?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumonie</i>}}</div
>
1385264975393 1358629116480 Wht is the 2nd most common cuse of secondry p
neumoni?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Stphylococcus ureus</i>}}</div>
1385264994876 1358629116480 Wht is empyem?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pus
filling the pleurl spce}}</div>
1385265011311 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Hemophilus influenze</i>}} is bcte
ri tht commonly cuses <u>secondry</u> bronchopneumoni nd bronchopneumoni
in <u>COPD</u> ptients.
1385265088848 1358629116480 Wht is the most common cuse of bronchopneumoni
in Cystic Fibrosis ptients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Pseudomons erugin
os</i>}}</div>
1385265119987 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Morxell ctrrhlis</i>}} is bcter
i tht commonly cuses <u>community cquired</u> bronchopneumoni nd bron
chopneumoni in <u>COPD</u> ptients.
1385265173384 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Legionell pneumophil</i>}} is bcte
ri tht cuses <u>community cquired</u> bronchopneumoni, bronchopneumoni
in <u>COPD</u> ptients nd bronchopneumoni in <u style="font-weight: bo
ld; ">immunocompromised</u> ptients.
1385265227519 1358629116480 How is <i>Legionell pneumophil</i> trnsm
itted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vi wter sources}}</div>
1385265310636 1358629116480 Which stin is needed to best visulize <i>Legio

nell pneumophil</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Silver stin}}</div>
1385265328854 1358629116480 Wht is the most common cuse of <b>typicl </b
>pneumoni?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycoplsm pneumonie</i>; typiclly i
n younger dults}}</div>
1385265378246 1358629116480 {{c1::Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemi}} is compli
ction of <i>Mycoplsm pneumonie</i> pneumoni which involves IgM ntibod
ies ginst the {{c2::I-ntigen}} found on RBCs.
1385265432898 1358629116480 Wht is the second most common cuse of <b>typi
cl</b> pneumoni in young dults?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlmydi
pneumonie</i>}}</div>
1385265457044 1358629116480 Wht is the etiology of Q fever?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::<i>Coxiell burnetti</i>}}</div>
1385265561567 1358629116480 {{c1::Q Fever}} is type of pneumoni cused by
<i>Coxiell burnetti</i> chrcterized by typicl pneumoni with very hig
h fever.
1385265585669 1358629116480 {{c1::Q Fever}} is type of typicl pneumoni
typiclly seen in frmers nd veterinrins.
1385265606777 1358629116480 Q Fever is trnsmitted through spores mde by th
e bcteri {{c1::<i>Coxiell burnetti</i>}}.
1385265637668 1358629116480 Wht is the most common cuse of <b>typicl</b>
pneumoni in <b>infnts</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Respirtory Syncyt
il Virus (RSV)}}</div>
pneumoni in <b>post-trnsplnt immunosuppressed</b> ptients?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Cytomeglovirus (CMV)}}</div>
pneumoni in the elderly/immunocompromised?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inf
luenz Virus}}</div>
1385265815974 1358629116480 A {{c1::right lower lobe}} lung bscess is
clssicl finding in {{c2::spirtion}} pneumoni.
1385265852183 1358629116480 Wht kind of pneumoni does <i>Streptococcus pne
umonie</i> cuse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lobr pneumoni}}</div>
1385265883812 1358629116480 Wht kind of pneumoni does <i>Klebsiell pneumo
nie</i> cuse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lobr pneumoni}}</div>
1385266148622 1358629116480 Wht kind of pneumoni does <i>Stphylococcus u
reus</i> cuse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bronchopneumoni}}</div>
1385266167566 1358629116480 Wht kind of pneumoni does <i>Hemophilus influ
enze</i> cuse?<div><br />{{c1::Bronchopneumoni}}</div>
1385266186402 1358629116480 Wht kind of pneumoni does <i>Pseudomons erug
inos</i> cuse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bronchopneumoni}}</div>
1385266201875 1358629116480 Wht kind of pneumoni does <i>Morxell ctrrh
lis</i> cuse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bronchopneumoni}}</div>
1385266217290 1358629116480 Wht kind of pneumoni does <i>Legionell pneumo
nie</i> cuse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bronchopneumoni}}</div>
1385266231607 1358629116480 Wht kind of pneumoni does <i>Mycoplsm pneumo
nie</i> cuse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Atypicl pneumoni}}</div>
1385266255071 1358629116480 Wht kind of pneumoni does <i>Chlmydi pneumon
ie</i> cuse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Atypicl pneumonie}}</div>
1385266273026 1358629116480 Wht kind of pneumoni does <i>Coxiell burnetti
</i> cuse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Atypicl pneumonie}}</div>
1385266284549 1358629116480 Wht kind of pneumoni does Respirtory Syncyti
l Virus (RSV) cuse?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Atypicl pneumoni; in infnts}}
</div>
1385266311628 1358629116480 Wht kind of pneumoni does Cytomeglovirus cus
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Atypicl pneumoni}}</div>
1385266321525 1358629116480 Wht kind of pneumoni does Influenz Virus cus
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Atypicl pneumoni}}</div>
1385424282903 1358629116480 {{c1::Interstitil/typicl}} pneumoni involves
<b>cler lveoli</b> nd <b>thickened, inflmed</b> <b>septe.</b><di
v><b><br /></b></div><div><b><img src="pste-476741370096.jpg" /></b></div>

<br /><div><i>This is why typicl pneumoni does not yield sputum.</i></div>
1385424358702 1358629116480 {{c1::Lobr/broncho-/typicl}} pneumoni involve
s <b>inflmed lveolr spces with n exudte of PMNs</b> nd <b>norml sep
te</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-519691043148.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>This is why typicl pneumoni yields purulent or rusty/bloody sput
um.</i></div>
1385424419062 1358629116480 How is <i>Mycoplsm pnuemonie</i> trnsmi
tted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Respirtory droplets vi cough}}</div>
1385425443961 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Legionell pneumophil</i>}} is bcte
ri tht cuses typicl/bronchopneumoni tht requires   {{c2::ch
rcol yest extrct}} gr to be cultured.
<br /><div><i>Tkes 3-5 dys</i>
</div>
1385425721846 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Legionell pneumophil</i>}} is grmnegtive bcteri tht cuses typicl/bronchopneumoni tht is <b>not contgi
ous</b>. It is trnsmitted from wter sources.
1385425822287 1358629116480 Wht cuses Legionnire's Disese?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::<i>Legionell pneumophil</i>}}</div>
1385426916105 1358629116480 Wht is the <b>second</b> most common cuse
of pneumoni in young dults/teengers?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlmydop
hil pneumonie</i>}}</div>
1385426955599 1358629116480 <i>Chlmydophil pneumonie</i> is smll,
grm-{{c1::negtive}} obligte intrcellulr bcterium tht requires ATP from h
ost cells for energy.
1385427022622 1358629116480 The {{c1::elementry}} body form of <i>Chl
mydi pneumonie</i> is the form tht is trnsmitted in erosol droplets n
d is contgious.
1385427100052 1358629116480 The {{c1::reticulte}} body form of <i>Chl
mydi pneumonie</i> is metboliclly ctive nd pthogenic form tht is os
moticlly frgile nd cnnot survive extrcellulrly. <br /><div><i>This form
yields the symptoms.</i></div>
1385427163175 1358629116480 Wht is the etiology of Psittcosis?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlmydi psittci</i>}}</div>
1385427548481 1358629116480 Psittcosis is contrcted from the fecl erosol
of infected birds, especilly {{c1::prrots}}.
<br /><div><i>There is r
re person-to-person trnsmission</i></div>
1385427613833 1358629116480 Wht is the incubtion period of Psittcosis?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::5-15 dys}}</div>
1385427629326 1358629116480 {{c1::Psittcosis}} is n typicl pneumoni th
t mnifests 5-15 dys following infection with <i>Chlmydi psittci</i>.
<br /><div><i>It is n occuptionl hzrd for birdkeepers, breeders, veterinri
ns, etc</i></div>
1385427707214 1358629116480 Which bcteri hs strong suggested linkge to
Atherosclerosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Chlmydophil sp.</i>}}</div>
1385489517410 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Actinomyces isreli</i>}} is grm-{{c
2::positive}} brnching bcillus tht cn cuse opportunistic pneumoni due to <
b>poor orl hygiene or spirtion</b>.<div><br></div><div><img src="pste-554050
781472.jpg" /></div>
1385489825455 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Nocrdi steroides</i>}} is grm-{{c
2::positive}}, cid fst, brnching bcillus tht cn cuse slowly progressing
pneumoni in immunocompromised ptients.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-7
94568950031.jpg" /></div>
1385490324617 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Aspergillus fumigtus</i>}} is n oppor
tunistic, septte, filmentous fungus tht cuses Invsive Aspergillosis.<div><b
r /></div><div><img src="pste-854698492242.jpg" /></div>
1385490943939 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Crytpcoccus neoformns</i>}} is n enc
psulted, monomorphic yest fungus tht cuses Pulmonry Cryptococcosis.<div><br
1385583405979 1358629116480 The {{c1::Forced Expirtory Volume (FEV<sub
>1</sub>)}} is the volume of ir expelled in 1 second following full inspirti
on.
1385583496156 1358629116480 The {{c1::Forced Vitl Cpcity (FVC)}} is
the totl volume of ir tht cn be forcefully inhled/exhled in single bret
h.
1385583530843 1358629116480 {{c1::Extrinsic}} sthm is typiclly cused by
llergens or environmentl ntigens.
1385583594083 1358629116480 {{c1::Intrinsic}} sthm is typiclly cused by
drugs or respirtory trct infections.
1385583617629 1358629116480 Which prticles cuses Col Workers' Pneumoconio
sis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Crbon Dust}}</div>
1385588912724 1358629116480 Which prticle cuses Silicosis?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Silic}}</div>
1385588921449 1358629116480 Which prticle cuses Berylliosis?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Beryllium}}</div>
1385588932413 1358629116480 Which prticle cuses Asbestosis?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Asbestos}}</div>
1385588941885 1358629116480 Which popultion is commonly ffected by Col Wo
rkers' Pneumoconiosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Col miners}}</div>
1385588967210 1358629116480 Which 2 popultions re commonly ffected by Sil
icosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sndblsters nd silic miners}}</div>
1385588982413 1358629116480 Which 2 popultions re commonly ffected by Ber
ylliosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Beryllium miners nd Aerospce workers}}</d
iv>
1385589015351 1358629116480 Which 3 popultions re commonly ffected by Asb
estosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Construction workers, plumbers nd shipyrd
workers}}</div>
1385589264219 1358629116480 {{c1::Col Workers' Pneumoconiosis}} is pneumo
coniosis tht my led to diffuse fibrosis (<b>blck lung</b>) if there is mssi
ve exposure.
1385589320640 1358629116480 {{c1::Col Workers' Pneumoconiosis}} is pneumo
coniosis ssocited with rheumtoid rthritis (Cpln Syndrome).
1385589357861 1358629116480 {{c1::Anthrcosis}} is benign respirtory pth
ology tht occurs following <b>mild</b> exposure to crbon. It involves cr
bon lden mcrophges t the lveoli nd hilr lymph nodes.
<br /><div><i>Se
en following regulr pollution exposure</i></div>
1385589514069 1358629116480 {{c1::Silicosis}} is pneumoconiosis involving
fibrotic nodules t the <b>upper lobes</b> of the lung.
1385589554364 1358629116480 {{c1::Silicosis}} is pneumoconiosis tht prese
nts with n incresed risk of TB s {{c1::silic}} impirs phgolysosome fo
rmtion in mcrophges.
1385589596633 1358629116480 {{c1::Berylliosis}} is <b>pneumoconiosis</b> t
ht presents with <b>non-cseting grnuloms</b> in the lung, hilr lymph nodes
<br /><div><i>In
nd systemic orgns. This is very similr to srcoidosis.
volves incresed risk of lung cncer.</i></div>
1385589651619 1358629116480 {{c1::Asbestosis}} is pneumoconiosis tht pres
ents with pulmonry nd pleurl fibrosis nd n incresed risk for <b>lung crci
nom</b> nd <b>mesotheliom</b>.
1385589700365 1358629116480 {{c1::Mesotheliom}} is cncer of the pleur t
ht results in <b>hemorrhgic pleurl effusions</b> nd <b>pleurl thickeni
ng</b>.
1385589775046 1358629116480 {{c1::Asbestosis}} is pneumoconiosis tht invo
lves <b>long, golden brown</b> lesions with ssocited <b>sbestos bodies</
b> (iron nodules).<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-9676561318002.jpg"
/></div>
<br /><div><i>This confirms exposure to sbestos.</i></div>
1385592087568 1358629116480 A honeycomb lung is seen in the lte stges of&n
bsp;{{c1::idiopthic pulmonry fibrosis}}.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste10075993276731.jpg" /></div>
1385592123917 1358629116480 {{c1::Srcoidosis}} is restrictive pulmonry d
isese tht involves <b>non-cseting</b> grnuloms.<div><br /></div><div>
<img src="pste-10127532884353.jpg" /></div>
1385592716730 1358629116480 {{c1::Goodpsture's Syndrome}} is type 2 hyper

sensitivity disorder cused by circulting {{c2::nti-GBM}} ntibodies tht
cuse necrotizing hemorrhgic interstitil pneumonitis.
1385600527561 1358629116480 {{c1::Congenitl Pulmonry Cysts}} re congenit
l respirtory nomlies cused by detched frgments of the primitive foregut th
t re bronchogenic.
1385600603043 1358629116480 {{c1::Bronchopulmonry Sequestrtion}} is cong
enitl pulmonry nomly chrcterized by lung lobes or segments tht lck conne
ction to the irwys. They cn be extrlobr or intrlobr.
<br /><div><i>Th
ey hve blood supply, but not from the pulmonry rteries.</i></div><div><i>Cn
be mistken s cncer.</i></div>
1385600686794 1358629116480 {{c1::Extrlobr}} bronchopulmonry sequestrtio
ns present s medistinl msses.
1385600703293 1358629116480 {{c1::Intrlobr}} bronchopulmonry sequestrtio
ns present s msses within the lung prenchym.
1385600734569 1358629116480 {{c1::Bronchopulmonry Sequestrtion}} is cong
enitl pulmonry pthology tht obtins its blood supply from the ort insted
of pulmonry circultion.
1385600839129 1358629116480 {{c1::Congenitl Cystic Adenomtoid Mlformtion
(CCAM)}} is congenitl pulmonry pthology tht is described s hmrtom t
ht gets its blood supply from pulmonry circultion.<div><br /></div><div><img
src="pste-11553462026616.jpg" /></div>
1385600949006 1358629116480 An {{c1::Atelectsi}} is pulmonry ptho
logy described s either n incomplete expnsion of the lungs or collpse of p
reviously inflted lungs.
1385601053368 1358629116480 A {{c1::resorption}} telectsi is cused
by complete obstruction of the irwys by secretions, fibrosis or neoplsms.<div
1385601103132 1358629116480 A {{c1::compression}} telectsi is cused
by fluid or ir in the pleurl cvity (pneumothorx or pleurl effusion for ex
mple).<div><img src="pste-11682311045448.jpg" /></div>
1385601159166 1358629116480 A {{c1::ptchy}} telectsi is seen in neo
ntl or cute/dult resportory distress syndrome.
1385601222052 1358629116480 Hyline membrnes t the lveoli re common fi
nding in {{c1::Acute Respirtory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)}}.<div><br /></di
1385601380145 1358629116480 {{c1::Obstructive}} pulmonry disorders involve
irwy obstructions tht mke it difficult to expire nd deflte the lung.
1385603041370 1358629116480 How does FVC chnge in COPD?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1385603056650 1358629116480 How does FEV<sub>1</sub> chnge in COPD?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Shrp decrese}}</div>
1385603071336 1358629116480 How does the FEV<sub>1</sub>:FVC rtio chnge in
COPD?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1385603089700 1358629116480 How does TLC chnge in COPD?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1385603100822 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic bronchitis}} is defined s condi
tion tht yields chronic productive cough lsting t lest 3 months over minim
um of yers.
1385603155794 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic bronchitis}} is COPD tht involv
es n increse in the thickness of <b>mucous glnds</b> reltive to the bro
nchil wll such tht the Reid index is greter thn {{c2::50%}}.
1385603215596 1358629116480 Wht is the Reid index in Chronic Bronchitis?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::> 50%}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Normlly it is &lt
; 40%</i></div>
1385603231272 1358629116480 {{c1::Emphysem}} is COPD tht involves destru
ction of lveolr ir scs due to n imblnce between protese nd ntiprotese
ction.
1385603270178 1358629116480 Wht type of emphysem is seen in smokers?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Centricinr emphysem}}</div>
1385603312108 1358629116480 The centricinr emphysem seen in smokers is mo

st severe in the {{c1::upper}} lobes of the lung. <br /><div><i>Remember,
smoke rises.</i></div>
1385603345513 1358629116480 Which genotype is t significnt risk for develo
ping pncinr emphysem?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PiZZ homozygotes}}</div>
1385603383001 1358629116480 Wht kind of emphysem is seen in A1AT deficient
ptients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pncinr emphysem}}</div>
1385603410943 1358629116480 The pncinr emphysem seen in A1AT deficiency
is most severe in the {{c1::lower}} lobes of the lungs.
1385603448485 1358629116480 {{c1::Liver cirrhosis}} is commonly seen longsi
de emphysem in A1AT deficient ptients due to the ccumultion of misfolded A1A
T in the ER of heptocytes.
1385603486533 1358629116480 {{c1::Aspirin Intolernt Asthm}} is form of n
on-topic sthm cused by Aspirin.
1385603528942 1358629116480 Wht is the primry role of IL-4?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Medites clss switching to IgE}}</div>
1385603603898 1358629116480 Wht is the primry function of IL-5?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Attrction of eosinophils}}</div>
1385603618947 1358629116480 Wht is the primry function of IL-10?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Stimultion of T<sub>H</sub>2 cells nd inhibition of T<sub>H<
/sub>1 cells}}</div>
1385603647545 1358629116480 {{c1::Curschmnn spirls}} re spirl-shped muc
ous plugs seen in Asthm.
1385603788958 1358629116480 {{c1::Chrcot-Leyden Crystls}} re crystllizt
ions of mjor bsic protein derived from eosinophils seen in Asthm.
1385603818435 1358629116480 {{c1::Sttus Asthmticus}} is severe, unrelent
ing stte of sthm where mediction nd therpies re ineffective.
1385603840822 1358629116480 {{c1::Bronchiectsis}} is COPD defined s the
permnent diltion of bronchioles nd bronchi. It cuses loss of irwy tone nd
cuses ir pockets nd trpped ir to form.
1385603882221 1358629116480 {{c1::Restrictive}} pulmonry disorders involve
difficulty in the inspirtory expnsion of the lungs.
1385603943123 1358629116480 How does TLC chnge in Restrictive lung diseses
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1385603960635 1358629116480 How does FEV<sub>1</sub> chnge in restrict
ive lung diseses?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1385603975841 1358629116480 How does FVC chnge in restrictive lung disese?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Shrp decrese}}</div>
1385603995511 1358629116480 How does the FEV<sub>1</sub>:FVC rtio chnge in
restrictive lung disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increses > 80%}}</div>
1385604016027 1358629116480 Which cytokine from injured pneumocytes is invol
ved in Idiopthic Pulmonry Fibrosis nd induces the fibrosis?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::TGF-bet}}</div>
1385604064666 1358629116480 {{c1::Srcoidosis}} is systemic disese involv
e non-cseting grnuloms in multiple orgns. It cuses restrictive lung dises
e by forming grnuloms t the lungs nd hilr lymph nodes.
1385604131251 1358629116480 {{c1::Schumnn bodies}} re clcified concretio
ns seen in the grnuloms found in Srcoidosis.
1385604174791 1358629116480 {{c1::Asteroid bodies}} re the stellte inclusi
ons within gint cells of the grnuloms in Srcoidosis.
1385604195571 1358629116480 Wht does pulmonry blood pressure hve to be in
order for Dx of Pulmonry HTN to be given?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::> 25
mmHg (or > 1/4 of systemic BP)}}</div>
1385604245215 1358629116480 Which gene muttion is commonly involved in fmi
lil forms of Primry Pulmonry HTN?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inctivting mut
tions of BMPR2}}</div>
1385604302626 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Respirtory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)
}} is pulmonry pthology due to diffuse dmge to the lveolr-cpillry inte
rfce. <br /><div><i>k Diffuse Alveolr Dmge</i></div>
1385604360145 1358629116480 {{c1::Neontl Respirtory Distress Syndrome}} i
s form of respirtory distress due to indequte surfctnt levels.

1385604418296 1358629116480 Which type of pneumocyte mkes surfctnt?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Type II}}</div>
1385604429476 1358629116480 Wht is the mjor phospholipid found in surfct
nt?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Phosphtidylcholine (Lecithin)}}</div>
1385604446685 1358629116480 Adequte levels of surfctnt re reched during
the {{c1::34th}} week of gesttion.
1385604473359 1358629116480 Wht Lechitin:Sphingomyelin (L:S) rtio is indic
tive of mture lungs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::> 2}}</div>
1385604490599 1358629116480 How does insulin ffect the production of Surfc
tnt?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decreses}}</div>
1385665375628 1358629116480 {{c1::Smll Cell Crcinom of the lung}} is lu
ng cncer tht is k 'Ot Cell' Crcinom.
1385665480989 1358629116480 {{c1::Smll Cell Crcinom}} is lung cncer wi
th <b>poorly differentited</b> smll cells tht rise from neuroendocrine&
nbsp;{{c2::<b>Kulchitsky</b>}} cells.<div><br /></div><div> <img src="pste-7172595
38548.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Therefore it is highly ggressive.</i></di
v><div><i>Inoperble.</i></div><div><i>Must be treted with chemotherpy.</i></d
iv>
1385665922853 1358629116480 {{c1::Lmbert-Eton Syndrome}} is prneoplst
ic syndrome commonly ssocited with Smll Cell Crcinom tht is chrcterized
by muscle wekness.
1385665999338 1358629116480 {{c1::Squmous cell crcinom}} is non-smll c
ell lung crcinom tht is chrcterized by <b>kertin perls</b> or <b>int
ercellulr bridges</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-876173328494.jpg" /
><img src="pste-974957576302.jpg" /><img src="pste-10630044058022.jpg" /></div
>
1385666092731 1358629116480 Wht is the most common lung tumour in mle smok
ers?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Squmous cell crcinom}}</div>
1385666112471 1358629116480 {{c1::Squmous Cell Crcinom}} of the lung is o
ften ssocited with hyperclcemi due to its bility to produce {{c2::PTHr
P}}
1385666197765 1358629116480 {{c1::Adenocrcinom}} of the lung is non-sml
l cell crcinom of the lung involving <b>glnds</b> or <b>mucin</b>.<div><
1385666315151 1358629116480 {{c1::Lrge Cell Crcinom}} is non-smll cell
crcinom of the lung tht involves <b>poorly-differentited, pleiomorphic lrg
e cells</b>.
1385666429870 1358629116480 {{c1::Bronchiololveolr crcinom}} is non-sm
ll cell crcinom of the lung tht involves <b>columnr cells</b> tht gro
w long pre-existing bronchioles nd lveoli.<div><br /></div><div><img src="ps
te-1451698946160.jpg" /><img src="pste-2602750181653.jpg" /></div>
1385666502601 1358629116480 Bronchiololveolr crcinom of the lung rises
from {{c1::Clr}} cells.
1385666545207 1358629116480 {{c1::Bronchiololveolr crcinom}} is non-sm
ll cell crcinom of the lung tht my present with pneumoni-like consolidtio
n on imging.
1385666578788 1358629116480 A {{c1::Crcinoid tumour}} is non-smll cell c
rcinom of the lung tht involved <b>well differentited neuroendocrine cells</
b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-1614907703405.jpg" /><img src="pste-26
75764625587.jpg" /></div>
1385666640213 1358629116480 Which immunohistochemicl mrker is expressed in
Crcinoid tumours?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-1666447310956.jpg" /></
div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chromogrnin A}}</div>
1385666694866 1358629116480 Crcinoid tumours cn be both peripherl or cent
rl. If they re {{c1::centrl}}, they clssiclly form polyp-like mss in the
bronchus.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-1786706395246.jpg" /></div>
1385666747806 1358629116480 Wht re the 2 most common sources of metsttic
cncer to the lung?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Brest nd colon crcinom}}</di
v>
<br /><div><i>Remember, metsttic cncers to the lung is more common th
n primry lung tumours.</i></div>

1385666798403 1358629116480 A {{c1::mesotheliom}} is cncer of the m
esothelium tht often encses the lung nd often compresses or invdes it.<div><
br /></div><div><img src="pste-1954210119790.jpg" /><img src="pste-29420525983
00.jpg" /></div>
1385667128750 1358629116480 Wht is the most common etiology of mesotheliom
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asbestos}}</div>
1385667141949 1358629116480 {{c1::Acnthosis Nigricns}} is prneoplstic
syndrome chrcterized by dermopthy nd blck, drk discolortion of the skin.
1385667183021 1358629116480 Which type of lung cncer is most commonly ssoc
ited with <b>hyperclcemi</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Squmous Cell Crcin
om}}</div>
1385667207406 1358629116480 {{c1::Crcinoid tumour}} is lung cncers
tht re not ssocited with smoking.
1385667367556 1358629116480 How does metsttic cncer to the lung commonly
present upon imging?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Multiple 'cnnon-bll' like nodul
es}}</div>
1385667475633 1358629116480 Which tumour mrker is very specific to Melnom
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMB-45}}</div>
1385667534805 1358629116480 Which lung cncer is ssocited with Neuron-Spec
ific Enolse (NSE)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Smll Cell Crcinom of the Lung}
}</div>
1385667565683 1358629116480 Wht is the most common cuse of lung cncer?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cigrette smoke}}</div>
1385667604808 1358629116480 {{c1::Rdon}} is risk fctor for lung cncer t
ht is formed by the rdioctive decy of urnium.
1385667624524 1358629116480 {{c1::Superior Ven Cv Syndrome}} is mss ef
fect compliction ssocited with lung cncer. It is chrcterized by distension
of hed nd neck veins cused by SVC obstruction.
1385667705190 1358629116480 Wht tumour is ssocited with Horner's Syndrome
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pncost tumour; t the pex of the lung}}</div>
1385688030788 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Mycobcterium sp.</i>}} nd {{c2::
<i>Nocrdi sp.</i>}} re the only 2 cliniclly relevnt cid-fst bcteri.
1385688112571 1358629116480 Which colour do cid-fst orgnisms stin?<div><
br></div><div>{{c1::Red}}</div>
1385688174916 1358629116480 Which membrne lipid is unique to cid-fst bct
eri?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Mycolic cid}}</div>
1385688352461 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Mycobcterium tuberculosis</i>}} is n
cid-fst, obligte nerobe bcteri tht cuses tuberculosis.<div><br /></div><
1385693279160 1358629116480 The grnuloms involved in {{c1::Tuberculos
is}} hve chrcteristic horseshoe orienttion of the nuclei in its gint cell
s.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-1481763717493.jpg" /></div>
1385693743700 1358629116480 <i>Mycobcterium tuberculosis</i> re only
ble to be visulized with n {{c1::cid-fst}} stin.<div><br /></div><div
1385693785098 1358629116480 {{c1::Miliry TB}} is form of tuberculosis th
t involves tiny seed-shped tubercules/grnuloms tht re disseminted ll over
the body, typiclly t the lungs.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-17652315
59172.jpg" /></div>
1385693858940 1358629116480 An re of indurtion with dimeter greter th
n {{c1::10 mm}} is indictive of MTB infection. <br /><div><i>> 5 mm
in immunocompromised/AIDS ptients</i></div>
1385694528297 1358629116480 How is <i>Mycobcterium tuberculosis</i> tr
nsmitted?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aerosolized respirtory droplets}}</div>
1385694602616 1358629116480 Primry TB will present t the {{c1::lower}
} lobes of the lung nd hilr lymph nodes.
1385694635390 1358629116480 Secondry TB will present t the {{c1::uppe
r}} lobes of the lung due to poor lymphtic dringe nd high oxygen tension.
<br /><div><i>O2 tension is high due to decresed pulmonry circultion (think V
/Q mismtch)</i></div>
1385694680358 1358629116480 A {{c1::Ghon focus}} is feture of MTB in
fection cused by fibrosis nd clcifiction of grnuloms.
<img src="pste2972117369027.jpg" />
1385694757716 1358629116480 A {{c1::Ghon complex}} is Ghon focus cco
mpnied by perihilr lymph node clcified nodules/grnuloms. <img src="pste2972117369027.jpg" />
1385694891017 1358629116480 {{c1::Scroful}} is cervicl lymphdenopthy t
ht commonly occurs with TB. It is the most common extrpulmonry TB mnifestti
on.
1385694947368 1358629116480 {{c1::Pott's Disese}} is compliction of TB i
nfection. It is form of osteomyelitis tht ffects the lumbr vertebre.
1397844610500 1395802358422 {{c1::Rhinosinusitis}} is n upper respirtory i
nfection tht is chrcterized by the obstruction of sinus dringe into the ns
l cvity, thereby cusing inflmmtion nd pin over the ffected re.
<br /><div><img src="pste-10814727651634.jpg" /></div><div><i>Devited nsl se
ptum (red rrow) is unrelted</i></div>
1397845075053 1395802358422 Which sinus is typiclly ffected in Rhinosinusi
tis in <b>dults</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mxillry Sinus}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="pste-10810432684338.jpg" /></div><div><i>Devited nsl se
ptum (red rrow) is unrelted.</i></div>
1397845125166 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of Acute Rhinosinu
sitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Virl URT infection}}</div>
1397845170045 1395802358422 Wht is the most common <b>grm-positive</b>&nbs
p;bcteri tht is superimposed onto cute Virl Rhinosinusitis?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumonie</i>}}</div>
1397845249749 1395802358422 Wht is the most common <b>grm-negtive</b
> bcteri tht is superimposed onto cute Virl Rhinosinusitis?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::<i>Hemophilus influenze; Morxell ctrrhlis</i>}}</div>
1397845284336 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Hemophilus influenze</i>}} nd {
{c2::<i>Morxell ctrrhlis</i>}} re the 2 most common <b>grm-negtive<
/b> bcteri tht re superimposed onto cute virl rhinosinusitis.
1397845344271 1395802358422 Wht is the most common defect in <b>cogultion
cscde proteins</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fctor V Leiden}}</div>
1397852009917 1395802358422 Where do most pulmonry emboli rise from?<div><
br /></div><div><img src="pste-13773960118576.jpg" /><br /><div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Deep veins of the leg (i.e. DVT)}}</div></div>
1397852046865 1395802358422 {{c1::Homn Sign}} is clinicl feture of deep
venous thrombosis tht involves dorsiflexion of the foot nd clf pin.
1397852087060 1395802358422 Wht hemtologicl disorder is Homn Sign ssoci
ted with?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::DVT}}</div>
1397852113263 1395802358422 Which nticogulnt is preferentilly used to <b
>prevent</b> nd <b>cutely mnge</b> deep venous thrombosis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Heprin}}</div>
1397852150660 1395802358422 Which nticogulnt is preferentilly used for <
b>long term prevention</b> of DVT recurrence?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::W
rfrin}}</div>
1397852183720 1395802358422 Wht cid-bse imblnce is ssocited with Pulm
onry Emboli?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-13778255085872.jpg" /><br /><
div><br />{{c1::Respirtory Alklosis}}</div></div>
<br /><div><i>PE = V/Q m
ismtch = hypoxemi = respirtory lklosis</i></div>
1397852580171 1395802358422 Wht type of embolus is ssocited with <b>long
bone frcture</b> nd <b>liposuction</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ft em
bolus}}</div>
1397852620750 1395802358422 {{c1::Ft Embolus}} is type of embolus tht is
ssocited with long bone frctures nd liposuction.
1397852669145 1395802358422 Which type of emboli is ssocited with clssi
c trid of <b>hypoxemi</b>, <b>neurologicl bnormlities</b> nd <b>petec
hil rsh</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ft embolus}}</div>
1397852698964 1395802358422 {{c1::Ft Embolus}} is type of embolus tht is
ssocited with clssic trid of <b>hypoxemi</b>, <b>neurologic bnormlitie

s</b> nd <b>petechil rsh</b>.
1397852723101 1395802358422 {{c1::Amniotic Fluid Emboli}} re type of embo
lus tht cn led to DIC, especilly post-prtum.
1397852751769 1395802358422 Which type of embolus cn led to DIC, especill
y <b>post-prtum</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Amniotic Fluid emboli}}</div>
1397852775224 1395802358422 Which type of emboli re commonly seen in scend
ing divers?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gs emboli}}</div>
1397852791573 1395802358422 {{c1::Gs Emboli}} re type of embolus tht in
volve <b>nitrogen bubbles tht precipitte in scending divers</b>.
1397852811589 1395802358422 Wht is the tretment for Gs Emboli?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Hyperbric Oxygen}}</div>
1397852823312 1395802358422 Wht is the <b>imging test</b> of choice f
or PE?<div><br />{{c1::CT pulmonry ngiogrphy (look for filling defects)}}</
div>
1397852945258 1395802358422 {{c1::Lines of Zhn}} re microscopic feture
of thrombi described s <u>interdigitting res of pink (pltelets; fibrin) nd
red (RBCs)</u> <b>found only in thrombi formed before deth</b>.<div><br /
1397853027108 1395802358422 Wht microscopic feture of thrombi cn be used
to distinguish pre- nd postmortem thrombus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lines
of Zhn; only seen in premortem thrombi}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-13971
528614190.jpg" /></div>
1397853647654 1395802358422 {{c1::FEV<sub>1</sub>}} is pulmonry function
test volume tht describes the <b>volume of ir tht cn forcibly be blown out i
n 1 second</b>.
1397862635276 1395802358422 How does Residul Volume (RV) chnge in COPD?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
1397862715443 1395802358422 How does Functionl Vitl Cpcity (FVC) chnge
in COPD?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1397862729410 1395802358422 How does FEV<sub>1</sub> chnge in COPD?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::<b>Mrked</b> decrese}}</div>
1397862761590 1395802358422 How does the FEV<sub>1</sub>/FVC rtio chnge in
COPD?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
<br /><div><i>FEV<sub>1<
/sub> decreses much more thn FVC.</i></div>
1397862886024 1395802358422 Which group of pulmonry disorders involves <b
>decrese in FEV<sub>1</sub>/FVC rtio</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::COPD}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><i>COPD = gretly decresed FEV<sub>1</sub>; decresed FVC</i
></div>
1397862920591 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cor Pulmonle</i>}} is crdic disord
er tht cn mnifest in COPD due to chronic, hypoxic pulmonry vsoconstriction.
1397863025795 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Bronchitis}} is type of COPD th
t is chrcterized by <b>hyperplsi of mucous-secreting glnds</b> t the
bronchi.
1397863583021 1395802358422 Which type of COPD is ssocited with <b>hyperpl
si of mucous-secreting glnds in the bronchi</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::B
ronchitis}}</div>
1397863605153 1395802358422 Wht Reid index is dignostic of Bronchitis?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::> 50%}}</div>
1397863619145 1395802358422 {{c1::Reid Index}} is histologicl mesure of
the thickness of the mucous-secreting glnd lyer of bronchi in reltion to th
e totl thickness of the bronchil wll.
<br /><div><i>It is > 50% in
Bronchitis</i></div>
1397863691025 1395802358422 Wht type of COPD is lso referred to s <b>"Blu
e Bloter"</b> disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Bronchitis}}</di
v>
1397863716668 1395802358422 Which COPD is ssocited with productive cough
for<b> > 3 months/yer</b> for <b>> 2 yers</b>?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Chronic Bronchitis}}</div>
1397863770927 1395802358422 Which COPD is ssocited with cynosis due to e
rly-onset hypoxemi resultnt of shunting?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Br

onchitis}}</div>
1397863883293 1395802358422 {{c1::Chronic Bronchitis}} is COPD tht is ss
ocited with cynosis due to erly-onset hypoxemi tht results from shunting.
1397864290614 1395802358422 {{c1::Emphysem}} is COPD tht involves the en
lrgement of ir spces, <b>decresed lung recoil</b>, <b>incresed lung compli
nce</b> nd <b>decresed diffusion cpcity</b> (DLCO) <b>due to the d
estruction of lveolr wlls</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-279774169
66451.jpg" /></div>
1397864396079 1395802358422 Which type of COPD results from <b>destruction
of lveolr wlls</b>?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-27973121999155.jpg"
/></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Emphysem}}</div>
1397864413231 1395802358422 How does lung recoil chnge in Emphysem?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1397864427438 1395802358422 How does lung complince chnge in Emphysem?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increses}}</div>
1397864436943 1395802358422 How does lung diffusion cpcity (DLCO) chnge i
n emphysem?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1397864454539 1395802358422 Which COPD is lso referred to s <b>"Pink Puffe
r"</b> Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Emphysem}}</div>
1397864481126 1395802358422 Which type of Emphysem is ssocited with smoki
ng?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-28479928140083.jpg" /><br /><div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Centricinr}}</div></div>
1397864497059 1395802358422 Which type of Emphysem is ssocited with 1
-ntitrypsin (A1AT) deficiency?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pncinr}}</div
>
1397864548121 1395802358422 Wht is the cuse of <b>Centricinr</b> Em
physem?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-28479928140083.jpg" /></div><div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Smoking}}</div>
1397864561025 1395802358422 Wht is the cuse of <b>Pncinr</b> Emphy
sem?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1-ntitrypsin (A1AT) deficiency}}</div>
1397864574126 1395802358422 Which COPD involves enlrged lveoli tht re se
prted by thin sept (on microscopy)?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-2837
6848924980.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Emphysem}}</div>
1397864614117 1395802358422 Which type of Emphysem is ssocited with <b>mu
ltiple ir-spce cvities lined by hevy blck crbon deposits</b>?<div><br /></
div><div><img src="pste-28484223107379.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Centricinr Emphysem}}</div>
1397864748040 1395802358422 Which COPD involves n <b>increse in Elstse
ctivity</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Emphysem}}</div>
1397864793912 1395802358422 Which COPD is ssocited with <b>brrel-shped
chest</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Emphysem}}</div>
1397864804079 1395802358422 {{c1::Emphysem}} is COPD tht involves <b>inc
resed elstse ctivity</b>, thereby involving <b>loss of elstic fibers</b>&
nbsp;nd n <b>incresed lung complince </b>(nd <b>decresed lung recoil</b>).
1397864853652 1395802358422 An increse in the ctivity of which enzyme is
ssocited with Emphysem?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Elstse ction}}</div>
1397864873631 1395802358422 {{c1::Emphysem}} is COPD tht involves exhl
tion through pursed lips.
<br /><div><i>Pursing the lips increses irwy
pressure t the mouth/phrynx. As result, irwy pressure in the thorx incre
ses nd irwy collpse is prevented. This is lso where "pink puffer" comes fro
m.</i></div>
1397864944957 1395802358422 Which COPD involves exhltion through pursed li
ps?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Emphysem}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Pursing th
e lips increses irwy pressure t the mouth/phrynx. As result, irwy press
ure in the thorx increses nd irwy collpse is prevented. This is lso where
"pink puffer" comes from.</i></div>
1397864958803 1395802358422 {{c1::Asthm}} is COPD tht involves bronchil
hyperresponsiveness tht yields reversible bronchoconstriction.
1397865085313 1395802358422 {{c1::Curschmnn Spirls}} re feture of Asth

m tht re described s <b>shed epithelium tht forms mucous plugs</b>.
1397865133534 1395802358422 Wht COPD is ssocited with Curschmnn Spirls?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asthm}}</div>
1397865144483 1395802358422 {{c1::Chrcot-Leyden Crystls}} re feture of
Asthm tht re formed from the <b>brekdown of eosinophils in sputum </b>nd <
b>crystlliztion of mjor bsic protein</b>.
1397865173437 1395802358422 Which COPD is ssocited with Chrcot-Leyden Cry
stls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asthm}}</div>
1397865185087 1395802358422 Wht test is used to dignose Asthm?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Methcholine Chllenge}}</div>
1397865207735 1395802358422 Which COPD cn be tested for vi the Methcholin
e Chllenge?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asthm}}</div>
1397865219216 1395802358422 Which COPD cn be triggered by virl URT infecti
ons, llergens nd/or stress?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asthm}}</div>
1397865240812 1395802358422 Which COPD is ssocited with Pulsus Prdoxus?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asthm}}</div>
1397865265944 1395802358422 Which COPD is ssocited with <b>decresed Ins
pirtory:Expirtory (I/E) rtio</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asthm}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The obstruction in sthm primrily ffects expirtory flow, hence
expirtion will be longer.</i></div>
1397865519965 1395802358422 At which re of the lung is Centricinr Emphys
em most severe?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Apex}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th
is hs to do with V/Q mismtch, which is t its highest t the pex. Centricin
r Emphysem is cused by smoking remember?</i></div>
1397865565503 1395802358422 At which re of the lung is Pncinr Emphysem
most severe?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lower lobes}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th
is hs to do with V/Q mismtch, which is t its lowest t the bse of the lung.
More perfusion = more inflmmtion = more brekdown of lveoli.</i></div>
1397872745055 1395802358422 {{c1::Bronchiectsis}} is COPD tht involves c
hronic necrotizing inflmmtion/infection tht <b>permnently diltes irwys</b
>.
<br /><div><i>This lso sets the stge for <b>purulent, pungent sputum,
recurrent infections nd hemoptysis</b>.</i></div>
1397873434612 1395802358422 Which COPD is ssocited with poor ciliry motil
ity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bronchiectsis}}</div>
1397873456187 1395802358422 Which COPD is ssocited with <b>Krtgener Synd
rome (Primry Ciliry Dyskinesi)</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bronchiectsis
}}</div>
1397873664440 1395802358422 Which COPD is ssocited with <b>cystic fibrosis
</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bronchiectsis}}</div>
1397873690460 1395802358422 Which COPD is ssocited with <b>llergic bronch
opulmonry spergillosis</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bronchiectsis}}</div>
1397873713767 1395802358422 How does Forced Vitl Cpcity (FVC) chnge in R
estrictive Lung Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<b>Mrkedly </b>Decres
ed}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Lung expnsion is restricted, hence there is going
to be less FVC.</i></div>
1397874585794 1395802358422 How does Totl Lung Cpcity (TLC) chnge in Res
trictive Lung Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Lung expnsion is decresed, hence lung cpcity decreses.</i></div>
1397874627435 1395802358422 How does FEV<sub>1</sub> chnge in Restrict
ive Lung Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
restrictive lung disese?<div><br />{{c1::<b>Increses</b> to > 80%}}</
div>
<br /><div><i>FVC decreses much more shrply thn FEV<sub>1</sub></i></
div>
1397874690660 1395802358422 Wht is the norml FEV<sub>1</sub>/FVC rtio?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::80%}}</div>
1397874704493 1395802358422 Which group of pulmonry disorders is ssocited
with n <b>incresed FEV<sub>1</sub>/FVC rtio (> 80%)</b>?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Restrictive Lung Diseses}}</div>
1397874858623 1395802358422 How does the A- grdient chnge in <b>Mechnic

l</b> Restrictive Lung Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Norml A- grdi
ent}}</div>
<br /><div><i>This mkes sense s the lung interstitium is not
ffected.</i></div>
1397874921658 1395802358422 Wht type of restrictive lung disese is ssoci
ted with <b>Polio</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mechnicl (due to poor muscul
r effort)}}</div>
1397875432209 1395802358422 {{c1::Mechnicl RLD}} is type of Restrictive
Lung Disese tht occurs <b>extrpulmonry</b> nd involves <b>norml A-
grdient</b>.
1397875473680 1395802358422 {{c1::Interstitil RLD}} is type of Restrictiv
e Lung Disese tht involves <b>decresed diffusing cpcity</b> nd n <b>
incresed A- grdient</b>.
ted with <b>Mystheni Grvis</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mechnicl (due to
poor musculr effort)}}</div>
ted with <b>Scoliosis</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mechnicl (due to poor st
ructurl pprtus)}}</div>
ted with <b>Morbid Obesity</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mechnicl (due to po
or structurl pprtus)}}</div>
1397875682871 1395802358422 How does <b>pulmonry diffusing cpcity</b>&nbs
p;chnge in <b>Interstitil</b> Restrictive Lung Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Decresed}}</div> <br /><div><i>The interstitium is disesed, hence diffus
ion is going to be ffected.</i></div>
1397875795355 1395802358422 How does the A- grdient chnge in <b>Interstit
il</b> Restrictive Lung Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed A-
grdient}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Interstitium is disesed, hence diffusion
is ffected nd hence the A- grdient s well.</i></div>
ted with <b>Acute Respirtoy Distress Syndrome (ARDS)</b>?<div><br />{{c1::Inter
stitil}}</div>
ted with <b>Neontl Respirtory Distress Syndrome</b> (Hyline membrne di
sese)?<div><br />{{c1::Interstitil}}</div>
ted with <b>Pneumoconioses</b> (Anthrcosis, Silicosis, Asbestosis)?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Interstitil}}</div>
ted with <b>Srcoidosis</b>?<div><br />{{c1::Interstitil}}</div>
1397875927764 1395802358422 Which cuse of <b>Interstitil</b> Restrict
ive Lung Disese involves <b>noncseting grnuloms</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Srcoidosis}}</div>
1397876275852 1395802358422 How does the level of Angiotensin Converting Enz
yme (ACE) chnge in Srcoidosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incresed}}</div>
1397876300942 1395802358422 How do C levels chnge in Srcoidosis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Hyperclcemi}}</div>
1397876430462 1395802358422 {{c1::Srcoidosis}} is cuse of <b>Interstiti
l </b>Restrictive Lung Disese tht involves <b>bilterl hilr lymphdenopthy<
/b>, <b>hyperclcemi</b> nd <b>elevted ACE</b>. <br /><div><i>And <b>non
cseting grnuloms</b>, but tht would hve been ded givewy.</i></div>
ted with Idiopthic Pulmonry Fibrosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Intersti
til}}</div>
1397876524826 1395802358422 {{c1::Idiopthic Pulmonry Fibrosis}} is cuse
of <b>Interstitil</b> Restrictive Lung Disese tht rises due to repete
d cycles of lung injury nd wound heling with collgen deposition.
ted with Goodpsture Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Interstitil}}</d
iv>
ted with Wegener Grnulomtosis with Polyngiitis?<div><br />{{c1::Intersti
til}}</div>
ted with Lngerhns Cell Histiocytosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Intersti
til}}</div>
ted with Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Interstit
il}}</div>
ted with <b>drug toxicity</b> (Bleomycin, Busulfn, Amiodrone, Methot
rexte)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Interstitil}}</div>
1397877060194 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis}} is cuse
of <b>Interstitil</b> Restrictive Lung Disese tht involves <b>mixed ty
pe III/IV hypersensitivity rection to environmentl ntigens</b>.
1397877117650 1395802358422 Which cuse of <b>Interstitil</b> Restrict
ive Lung Disese is often seen in frmers?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hypersensi
tivity Pneumonitis}}</div>
1397877157552 1395802358422 Which cuse of <b>Interstitil</b> Res
trictive Lung Disese is often seen in bird hndlers?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis}}</div>
1397877166031 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Cor pulmonle</i>}} is crdic disord
er tht hs n incresed risk of occuring in Pneumoconioses.
1397878276614 1395802358422 {{c1::Cpln Syndrome}} is possible complicti
on of Pneumoconioses nd involves <b>rheumtoid rthritis nd pneumoconioses wit
h intrpulmonry nodules</b>.
1397878328089 1395802358422 Which Pneumoconiosis is ssocited with <b>shipb
uilding, roofing nd plumbing</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asbestosis}}</div>
1397878367508 1395802358422 Which Pneumoconiosis is ssocited with <b>"ivor
y white"</b>, <b>clcified pleurl plques</b>?<div><br /><div><img src="pste-6
674379178284.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asbestosis}}</div></div>
<br /><div><i>Pthognomonic; not precncerous</i></div>
1397878436141 1395802358422 {{c1::Asbestosis}} is Pneumoconiosis tht is
ssocited with <b>"ivory white", clcified pleurl plques</b>.<div><br /></div>
1397878463919 1395802358422 Which Pneumoconiosis is ssocited with n incre
sed incidence of <b>bronchogenic crcinom</b> nd <b>mesotheliom</b>?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Asbestosis}}</div>
1397878494573 1395802358422 {{c1::Asbestosis}} is Pneumoconiosis tht is
ssocited with incresed incidence of <b>bronchogenic crcinom</b> nd <b>
mesotheliom</b>.
1397878517657 1395802358422 Which lobes of the lung re ffected by Asbestos
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lower}}</div>
60609660.jpg" /></div>
1397878533026 1395802358422 {{c1::Asbestosis}} is Pneumoconiosis tht invo
lves <b>ferruginous bodies</b> tht re <b>golden-brown fusiform rods</b>&n
bsp;tht resemble <b>dumbbells</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-7378753
814740.jpg" /></div>
1397878627324 1395802358422 Which lobes of the lung re ffected by Col Wor
kers' Pneumoconiosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Upper}}</div>
1397878681741 1395802358422 Which lobes of the lung re ffected by Silicosi
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Upper}}</div>
1397878692966 1395802358422 Which Pneumoconiosis is lso referred to s "Bl
ck Lung Disese"?<div><br />{{c1::Col Worker's Pneumoconiosis}}</div>
1397878731652 1395802358422 Which Pneumoconiosis is ssocited with prolonge
d col dust exposure?<div><br />{{c1::Col Workers Pneumoconiosis}}</div>
1397878764424 1395802358422 {{c1::Col Workers' Pneumoconiosis}} is Pneumo
coniosis tht involves <b>crbon-lden mcrophges</b> tht then cuse infl
mmtion nd fibrosis. <br /><div><i>When lveolr mcrophges tke in these fo
reign substnces, they re <b>ctivted nd fibrosis occurs</b>.</i></div>

1397879258994 1395802358422 {{c1::Anthrcosis}} is type of Pneumoconiosis
tht is described s n symptomtic condition found in mny urbn dwellers expo
sed to sooty ir.
1397879301092 1395802358422 Which type of Pneumoconiosis is ssocited with
<b>foundries, sndblsting nd mines</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Silicosis}}
</div>
1397879321601 1395802358422 {{c1::Silicosis}} is type of Pneumoconiosis th
t involves mcrophges tht respond to Silic nd relese fibrogenic fctors, l
eding to fibrosis.
1397879355070 1395802358422 Which Pneumoconiosis is ssocited with n <b>in
cresed risk for Tuberculosis</b>?<div><br />{{c1::Silicosis}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Silic is thought to disrupt phgolysosomes nd impir mcrophge ction,
thereby incresing susceptibility to TB.</i></div>
1397879402059 1395802358422 Which pneumoconiosis is ssocited with n incre
sed risk fo Bronchogenic Crcinom only?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Silicosis}}
</div>
1397879432227 1395802358422 Which pneumoconiosis is ssocited with <b>"eggs
hell"</b> clcifictions of the hilr lymph nodes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Silicosis}}</div>
1397922678499 1395802358422 {{c1::Neontl Respirtory Distress Syndrome}} i
s cuse of restrictive lung disese in neontes tht rises from <b>surfct
nt deficiency</b>.
<br /><div><i>No surfctct = incresed lveolr surfce
tension = lveolr collpse</i></div>
1397923107407 1395802358422 Which cuse of restrictive lung disese <b>in ne
ontes</b> is ssocited with <b>surfctnt deficiency</b>?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Neontl Respirtory Distress Syndrome}}</div>
1397923144254 1395802358422 Which Lecithin:Sphingomyelin rtio is predictive
of Neontl Respirtory Distress Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L:S <
1.5}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, L:S > 2 indictes fetl lung mturity
.</i></div>
1397923184790 1395802358422 Which congenitl hert defect is ssocited with
Neontl Respirtory Distress Syndrome?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ptent Ductu
s Arteriosus (due to the persistently low O2 tension)}}</div> <br /><div><i>PD
A cn be treted with Indomethcin.</i></div>
1397923905209 1395802358422 {{c1::Retinopthy of Premturity}} is neurolog
icl compliction of O2 therpy in neontl respirtory distress syndrome tht r
esults from ROS formtion nd dmge t the retin.
1397923948514 1395802358422 {{c1::Bronchopulmonry Dysplsi}} is pulmonr
y compliction of O2 therpy in Neontl Respirtory Distress Syndrome.
1397923972509 1395802358422 {{c1::Mternl Dibetes}} is risk fctor for N
eontl Respirtory Distress Syndrome due to <b>insulin inhibiting Lechitin prod
uction</b>.
1397924019012 1395802358422 {{c1::C-section Delivery}} is risk fctor for
Neontl Respirtory Distress Syndrome tht involves <b>decresed relese of f
etl glucocorticoids</b>.
1397924114563 1395802358422 Wht drug cn be dministered <b>to the mother</
b> to tret/prevent Neontl Respirtory Distress Syndrome?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Steroids}}</div>
1397924159174 1395802358422 {{c1::Acute Respirtory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)
}} is cuse of restrictive lung disese tht involves <b>diffuse lveolr dm
ge</b> nd resultnt <b>protein-rich lekge into lveoli</b> nd <b>p
ulmonry edem.</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b><img src="pste-1118838980638
5.jpg" /></b></div>
<br /><div><i>The protein lekge nd edem re due to
n <b>increse in lveolr cpillry permebility</b> (the edem is noncrdi
ogenic)</i></div>
1397924692651 1395802358422 Which cuse of restrictive lung disese is most
commonly ssocited with the formtion of <b>intr-lveolr hyline membrnes</b
> nd ccumultion of <b>lveolr fluid</b>?<div><br /></div><div><img
src="pste-11184094839089.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Respir
tory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)}}</div> <br /><div><i>Diffuse lveolr dmge =

incresed lveolr cpillry permebility = protein-rich lekge into lveoli n
d noncrdiogenic pulmonry edem.</i></div>
1397924789533 1395802358422 How does Pulmonry Wedge Pressure chnge in Acut
e Respirtory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Norml PCWP}}
</div>
1397924807766 1395802358422 Which cuse of restrictive lung disese yields <
b>ner-complete opcifiction of the lungs</b> with n <b>obscured cr
diomedistinl silhouette</b> on chest x-ry?<div><br /></div><div><img src
="pste-11639361372464.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Respirtor
y Distress Syndrome (ARDS)}}</div>
1397924946793 1395802358422 How do lung volumes chnge in COPD?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::<b>Increse</b>}}</div>
1397925340031 1395802358422 How do lung volumes chnge in <b>Restrictive</b>
Lung Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
COPD?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese (< 80%)}}</div> <div><br /></div
><i>COP<u style="font-weight: bold; ">D</u> = <u style="font-weight: bold;
">D</u>ecrese</i><br /><div><img src="pste-12515534701098.jpg" /></div>
<b>Restrictive</b> Lung Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse ( 80%)
}}</div>
1397925430853 1395802358422 Wht is the norml FEV<sub>1</sub>/FVC rtio??<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::80%}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pste-1251123973380
2.jpg" /></div>
1397925464547 1395802358422 Wht is the norml pulmonry rtery pressure?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::10-14 mmHg}}</div>
1397926304331 1395802358422 Wht blood pressure is dignostic of <b>Pulmonr
y</b> Hypertension?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:: 25 mmHg t rest}}</div>
1397926322306 1395802358422 Wht is the etiology of <b>Primry</b> Pulm
onry HTN?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inctivting muttion in the <i>BMPR2
</i> gene}}</div>
1397926391506 1395802358422 Wht gene is mutted in <b>Primry</b> Pulm
onry HTN?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inctivting muttion in <i>BMPR2</i>
}}</div>
1397926421249 1395802358422 Wht is the norml function of the <i>BMPR2</i>&
nbsp;gene?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of vsculr smooth muscle proli
fertion}}</div>
1397926444113 1395802358422 Wht is the prognosis of <b>Primry</b> Pul
monry Hypertension?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Poor}}</div>
1397926454178 1395802358422 {{c1::Primry Pulmonry HTN}} is type of pulmo
nry HTN tht results from <b>inctivting muttions in the <i>BMPR2</i> ge
ne.</b>
1397926761271 1395802358422 Which type of Pulmonry HTN is ssocited with <
b>inctivting muttions of the <i>BMPR2</i> gene</b>?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Primry Pulmonry HTN}}</div>
1397926787467 1395802358422 Which type of Pulmonry HTN is ssocited with C
OPD?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Secondry}}</div>
1397926818146 1395802358422 Which type of Pulmonry HTN is ssocited with M
itrl Stenosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Secondry}}</div>
1397926823362 1395802358422 Which type of Pulmonry HTN is ssocited with R
ecurrent Thromboemboli?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Secondry}}</div>
1397926835298 1395802358422 Which type of Pulmonry HTN is ssocited with A
utoimmune Disese?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Secondry}}</div>
1397926849916 1395802358422 Which type of Pulmonry HTN is ssocited with
Left-to-Right crdic shunt?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Secondry}}</div>
1397926863912 1395802358422 Which type of Pulmonry HTN is ssocited with S
leep Apne or high ltitude?<div><br />{{c1::Secondry}}</div> <br /><div><i>Du
e to <b>hypoxic vsoconstriction</b></i></div>
1397926882140 1395802358422 {{c1::COPD}} is cuse of <b>Secondry</b>&nbsp
;Pulmonry HTN tht involves the <b>destruction of lung prenchym</b>.

1397927057683 1395802358422 {{c1::Mitrl Stenosis}} is vlvulr ptho
logy tht cuses <b>Secondry</b> Pulmonry HTN through n increse in
pulmonry vsculr resistnce nd subsequent pulmonry HTN.
1397927122139 1395802358422 {{c1::Recurrent Thromboemboli}} re hemotologi
cl cuse of <b>Secondry</b> Pulmonry HTN tht yields <b>decresed
cross-sectionl re of the pulmonry vsculr bed.</b>
1397927179276 1395802358422 {{c1::Autoimmune Disese}} is cuse of&nb
sp;<b>Secondry</b> Pulmonry HTN tht involves <b>intiml fibrosis</b>&nbs
p;nd eventul <b>medil hypertrophy</b>. (low yield, not in FA/Pthom)
<br /><div><i>Medil hypertrophy = hypertrophy of the medi lyer of pulmonry v
sculture</i></div>
1397927304027 1395802358422 {{c1::Left-to-Right shunts}} re type of crdi
c shunts tht cn cuse <b>Secondry</b> Pulmonry HTN through
n increse in <b>sher stress</b> nd subsequent <b>endothelil injury</b>.
1397927404208 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of deth from Pulm
onry HTN?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decompensted <i>cor pulmonle</i> (R
V hypertrophy due to pulmonry HTN)}}</div>
1397928129185 1395802358422 {{c1::Sleep Apne}} is respirtory disorder th
t involves <b>repeted cesstion of brething > 10 sec during sleep</b>.
<br /><div><i>This leds to disruption of sleep nd subsequent dytime somnole
nce.</i></div>
1397928667529 1395802358422 {{c1::Nocturnl Hypoxi}} is feture of Sleep
Apne tht my cuse systemic/pulmonry HTN, rrhythmis nd sudden deth.
1397928939367 1395802358422 {{c1::Centrl Sleep Apne}} is type of sleep
pne tht involves <b>no respirtory effort</b>.
<br /><div><i>However it
does often involve <b>Cheyne-Stokes respirtion</b>.</i></div><div><i>Is often
diphrgmtic nd seen in the elderly.</i></div>
1397929007595 1395802358422 {{c1::Obstructive Sleep Apne}} is type of sle
ep pne tht involves <b>respirtory effort ginst irwy obstruction</b>.
<br /><div><i>Associted with obesity nd loud snoring.</i></div><div><i>Typicl
ly cnnot be confirmed by the ptient, so be sure to sk the fmily, friends, SO
, roommtes, etc.</i></div>
1397929035132 1395802358422 How do EPO levels chnge in Sleep Apne?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}</div>
<br /><div><i>The hypoxi cuses EPO rel
ese nd subsequent erythropoiesis.</i></div>
1397929062252 1395802358422 {{c1::Obesity Hypoventiltion Syndrome}} is ty
pe of pne ssocited with obesity (BMI 30). <br /><div><i>Obesity leds to h
ypoventiltion nd subsequent <b>decresed P</b><sub style="font-weight: bold;
"></sub><b>O</b><sub style="font-weight: bold; ">2</sub> nd <b>incresed
P<sub></sub>CO<sub>2</sub> during wking hours</b></i></div>
1397929445641 1395802358422 How do breth sounds chnge in Pleurl Effusion?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
415786892.jpg" /></div>
1397929489420 1395802358422 How do breth sounds chnge in Atelectsis (Bron
chil Obstruction)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="pste-16965120819596.jpg" /></div>
1397929514941 1395802358422 How do breth sounds chnge in Spontneous Pneum
othorx?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
te-16965120819596.jpg" /></div>
1397929529567 1395802358422 How do breth sounds chnge in Tension Pneumotho
rx?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
te-16965120819596.jpg" /></div>
1397929540480 1395802358422 Wht type of breth sounds re seen with <b>lung
consolidtion</b> (lobr pneumoni, pulmonry edem)?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Bronchil breth sounds with lte inspirtory crckles}}</div> <br /><d
1397929591368 1395802358422 Wht lung percussion sounds re herd in Pleurl
Effusion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dull}}</div>
te-16965120819596.jpg" /></div>
1397929629083 1395802358422 Wht lung percussion sounds re herd in Atelect

sis (Bronchil Obstruction)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dull}}</div>
1397929641976 1395802358422 Wht lung percussion sounds re herd in Spontn
eous Pneumothorx?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperresonnt}}</div>
<br /><d
1397929656309 1395802358422 Wht lung percussion sounds re herd in Tension
Pneumothorx?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyperresonnt}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="pste-16965120819596.jpg" /></div>
1397929675290 1395802358422 Wht lung percussion sounds re herd in consoli
dtion (lobr pneumoni, pulmonry edem)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dull}}</di
v>
1397929704102 1395802358422 How does vocl fremitus chnge in Pleurl Effusi
on?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1397929719992 1395802358422 How does vocl fremitus chnge in Atelectsis (B
ronchil Obstruction)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1397929736353 1395802358422 How does vocl fremitus chnge in Spontneous Pn
eumothorx?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1397929746891 1395802358422 How does vocl fremitus chnge in Tension Pneumo
thorx?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Decrese}}</div>
1397929757920 1395802358422 How does vocl fremitus chnge with lung consoli
dtion (lobr pneumoni, pulmonry edem)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increse}}
</div>
1397929780419 1395802358422 Which wy does the trche devite in Atelectsi
s (Bronchil Obstruction)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<b>Towrds</b> the si
de of the lesion}}</div>
></div>
1397929812361 1395802358422 Which wy does the trche devite in <b>Tension
</b>Pneumothorx?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<b>Awy</b> from the side of
the lesion}}</div>
1397929839419 1395802358422 Which type of pneumothorx is ssocited with tr
chel devition <b>wy from the side of the lesion</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Tension Pneumothorx}}</div>
6.jpg" /></div>
1397929992061 1395802358422 Wht type of cncer is the leding cuse of cnc
er deth?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lung cncer}}</div>
1397930269947 1395802358422 Wht is the most common source of metsttic lun
g cncer?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Brest, Colon, Prostte, Bldder}}</div>
<br /><div><i>B, C, P, B</i></div>
1404865383813 1395802358422 {{c1::Rhinosinusitis}} is disorder of the uppe
r respirtory trct tht occurs due to <b>obstruction of sinus dringe into the
nsl cvity</b> nd hence presents with inflmmtion nd pin over the f
fected re.
1404866383956 1395802358422 Which sinus is most ffected in Rhinosinusitis i
n dults?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mxillry}}</div> <br /><div><img src="ps
te-7503307866532.jpg" /></div>
1404866419732 1395802358422 Wht is the most common cuse of cute Rhinosinu
sitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Virl URI}}</div>
1404866435418 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>Streptococcus pneumonie</i>}}, {{
c2::<i>Hemophilus influenze</i>}} nd {{c3::<i>Morxell ctrrhlis</i>}
} re the 3 most common cuses of superimposed bcteri infection on top of vir
l rhinosinusitis.
1404866504133 1395802358422 {{c1::Homn sign}} is clinicl feture of pulm
onry embolism tht involves extreme <b>clf pin</b> upon <b>dorsiflexion
of the foot</b>.
1404867090221 1395802358422 Wht is the drug of choice for the <b>prevention
</b> nd <b>cute mngement</b> of DVT?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::He
prin}}</div>
1404867108820 1395802358422 Wht is the drug of choice for the <b>long-term
prevention</b> of DVT recurrence?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Wrfrin}}</di
v>
1404867124504 1395802358422 {{c1::Hypersensitivity Pneumonitis}} is pulmon

ry disorder due to mixed type III/IV hypersensitivity rection to environment
l ntigens tht presents with dyspne, cough, chest tightness nd hedche.
<br /><div><i>Often seen in frmers nd those exposed to birds.</i></div>
1404868772509 1395802358422 Which demogrphic is often ffected by Hypersens
itivity pneumonitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Frmers; people exposed to birds
}}</div>
1404868791661 1395802358422 Wht is the leding cuse of cncer deth?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Lung cncer}}</div>
02433822.jpg" /></div><div><img src="pste-8899172237394.jpg" /></div>
1404868855818 1395802358422 Wht is the primry source of most cncer metst
sis to the lungs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Brest; colon; prostte; bldder}}
</div>
1404868913009 1395802358422 Wht re the most common sites of cncer metst
sis <b>from</b> the lungs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Adrenls; brin; bone
(s pthologic frtures); liver (jundice; heptosplenomegly)}}</div>
1404868998402 1395802358422 In which generl loction in the lung is Adenoc
rcinom of the Lung found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Periphery}}</div>
1404869666047 1395802358422 In which generl loction in the lung is Squmou
s Cell Crcinom of the Lung found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Centrl}}</div>
1404869676579 1395802358422 In which generl loction in the lung is Smll C
ell (Ot Cell) Crcinom of the Lung found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Centrl}}
</div>
1404869689262 1395802358422 In which generl loction in the lung is Lrge C
ell Crcinom of the Lung found?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Periphery}}</div>
1404869700381 1395802358422 Wht is the most common primry lung cncer?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Adenocrcinom of the lung}}</div>
1404869864093 1395802358422 Wht is the most common primry lung cncer in n
on-smokers?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Adenocrcinom of the lung}}</div>
1404869876091 1395802358422 {{c1::<i>k-rs</i>}}, {{c2::<i>EGFR</i>}}
nd {{c3::<i>ALK</i>}} re 3 genes tht commonly receive ctivting muttion
s in Adenocrcinom of the lung.
1404869944942 1395802358422 Which lung cncer is ssocited with hypertrophi
c osteorthropthy (clubbing)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Adenocrcinom of the
lung}}</div>
1404869987943 1395802358422 {{c1::Bronchiololveolr denocrcinom}} is s
ubtype of denocrcinom of the lung tht often shows <b>hzy infiltrtes simili
<br /><div><i>Type of Adenocrcinom in situ.</i
r to pneumoni on CXR</b>.
></div><div><i>Prognosis is excellent.</i></div>
1404870057163 1395802358422 {{c1::Bronchiololveolr denocrcinom}} is s
ubtype of denocrcinom of the lung tht <b>grows long lveolr sept</b>&nbsp
;hence yielding n pprent <b>thickening of lveolr wlls</b>.
1404870229895 1395802358422 Which hormone produced by Squmous Cell Crcinom
of the lung cuses <b>hyperclcemi</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PTHrP}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><i>Prthyroid hormone relted protein (PTHrP).</i></div>
1404870343957 1395802358422 {{c1::Squmous Cell Crcinom of the Lung}} is
lung cncer tht presents s <b>hilr mss rising from the bronchus</b>&nbsp
;nd presents with <b>cvittion</b>.
1404870374282 1395802358422 Which gene mplifiction is common in Smll Cell
Crcinom of the Lung?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>myc</i>}}</div>
1404870600746 1395802358422 {{c1::Lmbert-Eton Syndrome}} is prneoplst
ic syndrome tht presents due to <b>uto-ntibodies ginst presynptic C<sup>2
+</sup> chnnels</b>.
1404870683592 1395802358422 Which lung cncer is ssocited with ADH secreti
on?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Smll Cell Crcinom of the lung}}</div>
1404870713304 1395802358422 Which lung cncer is ssocited with ACTH secret
ion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Smll Cell Crcinom of the lung}}</div>
1404870725864 1395802358422 Which lung cncer is ssocited with relesing&n
bsp;<b>uto-ntibodies ginst presynptic C<sup>2+</sup> chnnels</b>?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Smll Cell Crcinom of the lung}}</div>
1404870753592 1395802358422 {{c1::Kulchitsky cells}} re pthologicl <b>n

euroendocrine </b>cell fetured in Smll Cell Crcinom of the lung tht h
ve <b>smll, drk blue</b> colour.<div><br /></div><div><img src="p
ste-11768210391461.jpg" /></div>
1404870828558 1395802358422 Wht is the prognosis of Lrge Cell Crcinom of
the Lung?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Poor}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Less respo
nsive to chemotherpy. Removed surgiclly.</i></div><div><i>(compred to smll c
ell cncer which is inoperble nd hs to be treted chemiclly)</i></div>
1404870869383 1395802358422 Wht is the prognosis of Bronchil Crcinoid Tum
our?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Excellent}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Metstsis
is rre.</i></div>
1404870964586 1395802358422 {{c1::Crcinoid syndrome}} is possible prneo
plstic syndrome ssocited with Bronchil Crcinoid Tumours tht presents with
<b>flushing, wheezing</b> nd <b>dirrhe</b> due to 5-HT secretion.
1404871322628 1395802358422 {{c1::Mesotheliome}} is cncer of the pleur t
ht often presents with <b>psmmom bodies</b> on histology.
1404871414325 1395802358422 {{c1::Pncost Tumour}} is crcinom tht occu
rs in the pex of the lung nd cn cuse <b>Horner Syndrome</b> by ffectin
g the cervicl sympthetic plexus.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-13168369
729958.jpg" /></div>
1404871665466 1395802358422 {{c1::Horner Syndrome}} is prneoplstic synd
rome ssocited with pncost tumour tht presents with <b>ipsilterl ptosis, m
iosis</b> nd <b>nhidrosis</b>. <br /><div><i>"Horny P.A.M."</i></div>
1404871717597 1395802358422 {{c1::Superior Ven Cv (SVC) Syndrome}} is p
ossible mss effect compliction of lung cncers tht involves <b>impired blood
dringe from the hed, neck</b> nd <b>upper extremities</b>.
<br /><d
iv><i>Impirment of hed dringe = fcil plethor.</i></div><div><i>Impirment
of neck dringe = jugulr venous distention.</i></div><div><i>Impirment of up
per extremity dringe = edem.</i></div><div><i>Commonly cused by <b>mlignnc
y nd thrombosis from indwelling ctheters</b>.</i></div>
1404871833168 1395802358422 {{c1::SVC Syndrome}} is compliction cused by
obstruction of the SVC tht cn rise intrcrnil pressure if severe enough, t
hereby leding to hedches, dizziness nd n <b>incresed risk of neurysm/rupt
ure of intrcrnil rteries</b>.
1404871951498 1395802358422 Wht is the most common <b>crdic</b> cus
e of deth in Sleep Apne?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nocturnl rrhythmis }}</
div>
<br /><div><i>e.g. tril fibrilltion/flutter</i></div>
1404872267922 1395802358422 Which sex is more commonly ffected by sleep pn
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mles}}</div>
<br /><div><i>>2:1 (M:F)</i><
/div>
1404872305927 1395802358422 Wht is the most frequent cuse of Lobr Pneumon
i?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Steptococcus pneumonie</i>}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Legionell nd Klebsiell re common s well.</i></div>
1404872383801 1395802358422 {{c1::Lobr Pneumoni}} is type of pneumoni t
ht presents with <b>intr-lveolr exudte</b> nd hence <b>consolidtion<
/b> on CXR.<div><br /><div><img src="pste-14701673054632.jpg" /><img src="
pste-15225659064736.jpg" /></div></div>
tht presnts with <b>cute inflmmtory infiltrtes from bronchioles into djce
nt lveoli</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-15324443312552.jpg" /></div
>
<br /><div><i>Note the neutrophils in the lveolr spces (i.e. cute in
flmmtion).</i></div>
tht yields ptchy distribution involving<sub> </sub> 1 lobe.
1404872943826 1395802358422 {{c1::Interstitil (Atypicl) Pneumoni}} is t
ype of pneumoni tht presents with <b>diffuse ptchy inflmmtion loclized to
interstitil res t lveolr wlls</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-1
5491947037092.jpg" /></div>
1404873300682 1395802358422 {{c1::Lung bscess}} is lung pthology describ
ed s loclized collection of pus within the lung prenchym typiclly cused
by <b>bronchil obstruction</b> or <b>spirtion of orophryngel contents<

/b>.
<br /><div><i>Typiclly due to Stphylococcus ureus or nerobes such s
Bcteroides, Fusobcterium nd Peptostreptococcus.</i></div>
1404873608965 1395802358422 {{c1::Lung bscess}} is lung pthology tht in
volves loclized collection of pus within the lung prenchym nd yields visib
le ir-fluid levels on CXR.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-16234976379162.
jpg" /></div>
1404873639753 1395802358422 {{c1::Pleurl effusion}} is respirtory pthol
ogy tht is described s excess ccumultion of fluid between the two pleurl l
yers tht thereby cuses restricted lung expnsin during inspirtion.<div><br />
</div><div><img src="pste-16518444220837.jpg" /></div>
1404873961345 1395802358422 {{c1::Trnsudtive Pleurl Effusion}} is type
of pleurl effusion tht hs <b>decresed protein content</b> nd is often
due to CHF, nephrotic syndrome or heptic cirrhosis.
1404874005125 1395802358422 {{c1::Exudtive Pleurl Effusion}} is type of
pleurl effusion tht holds <b>incresed protein content</b> nd is often d
ue to mlignncy, pneumoni, collgen vsculr disese nd trum.
<br /><d
iv><i>Must be drined due to the risk of infection.</i></div>
1404874079561 1395802358422 {{c1::Chylothorx}} is type of pleurl effusio
n tht involves lymph ccumution nd is due to thorcic duct injury from trum
or mlignncy. <br /><div><i>Hs milky ppernce.</i></div>
1404874244950 1395802358422 {{c1::Pneumothorx}} is respirtory pthology
described s ccumultion of ir in the pleurl spce.<div><br /></div><div><img
src="pste-17192754086308.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Presents with <b>u
nilterl chest pin, unilterl chest expnsion, dyspne, decresed tctile fre
mitus, hyperresonnce, </b>nd <b>dimished breth sounds</b> ll on th
e <u style="font-weight: bold; ">ffected side</u>.</i></div>
1404874343429 1395802358422 {{c1::Spontneous Pneumothorx}} is type of pn
eumothorx tht presents with ir ccumultion in the pleurl spce nd occurs m
ost frequently in <b>tll, thin, young mles</b> due to <b>rupture of pic
l blebs</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-17188459119012.jpg" /></div>
1404874388700 1395802358422 {{c1::Tension Pneumothorx}} is type of pneumo
thorx tht usully occurs in the setting of trum or lung infection. <br /><d
iv><i>Air is cpble of entering the pleurl spce but not exiting.</i></div><di
v><i><img src="pste-17540646437284.jpg" /></i></div>
1404874620305 1395802358422 {{c1::Tension Pneumothorx}} is type of pneumo
thorx tht presents with <b>trchil devition <u>wy</u> from the ffect
ed lung.</b><div><b><br /></b></div><div><b><img src="pste-17536351469988.jpg"
/></b></div>
1385328762409 1358629116480 {{c1::Cries}} is dentl pthology due to orl
bcteri tht ferment sugrs nd produce cidic products tht dissolve enmel.
1385329071201 1358629116480 Fluoride in drinking wter forms {{c1::Fluorop
tite}} in enmel tht increses resistnce to bcteril cids.
1385329123185 1358629116480 {{c1::Gingivitis}} is defined s inflmmtion of
squmous mucos round teeth which cn result in edem nd bleeding. It is due
to improper orl hygiene.
1385329163649 1358629116480 {{c1::Periodontitis}} is defined s inflmmtion
of deeper supportive structures of the teeth. <br /><div><i>Cn cuse tooth lo
ss nd systemic disese due to exposure of blood vessels nd esier ccess into
circultion</i></div>
1385329230705 1358629116480 A {{c1::tori}} is common, benign nodulr
bony overgrowth of the jw bones.
<br /><div><i>33% of the US popultion h
s it</i></div>
1385329269275 1358629116480 {{c1::Torus Pltinus}} is defined s tori fro
m the hrd plte.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-5373004087575.jpg" /></d
iv>
<br /><div><i>Most common loction</i></div>
1385329289307 1358629116480 {{c1::Torus Mndibulris}} is tori tht origin
tes from the mndible. 90% of cses re bilterl.<div><br /></div><div><img sr
c="pste-5003636900086.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>Bilterlity will point w
y from mndibulr cncer</i></div>
1385329361557 1358629116480 A {{c1::fibrom}} is rective fibrous pp

ule from chronic irrittion. Typiclly ssocited with jgged teeth, ill-fitting
dentures, etc.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-5570572583155.jpg" /></div>
1385329992314 1358629116480 A {{c1::pyogenic grnulom}} is n ulcerti
on tht cn be due to exubernt grnultion tissue or benign cpillry hemngi
om.<div><br /><div><img src="pste-5750961209578.jpg" /></div></div> <br /><d
iv><i><b>Common in pregnnt women.</b></i></div>
1385330147827 1358629116480 A {{c1::pyogenic grnulom}} is n orl ulcerti
on tht is commonly mde of grnultion tissue. It is common in pregnnt women.<
div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-5793910882600.jpg" /></div>
1385330195849 1358629116480 A {{c1::peripherl gint cell grnulom}} is r
ective gingivl prolifertion of gint cells nd fibrous strom. <div><br
1385330252126 1358629116480 A {{c1::mucocele}} is n ccumultion of mucin,
thereby producing mss. Typiclly due to trumtic injury to minor slivry gl
nds.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-5957119639808.jpg" /></div>
1385330305838 1358629116480 A {{c1::Cnker sore (Apthous ulcer)}} is commo
n superficil orl ulcer tht is very pinful but not dngerous. Cn be ssocit
ed with Celic disese nd inflmmtory bowel disese.<div><br /></div><div><img
src="pste-6077378724069.jpg" /></div>
1385330392139 1358629116480 {{c1::Glossitis}} is inflmmtion of the tongue
tht is often due to nutritionl deficiencies or trum.<div><br /></div><div><i
1385330557116 1358629116480 A histologicl finding of multiple nuclei with f
ine chromtin is often indictive of {{c1::HSV infection}} <br /><div><i>k
Tznck smer</i></div>
1385330628862 1358629116480 {{c1::Acute Herpetic Gingivostomtitis}} is the
brupt onset of vesicles throughout the mouth following n HSV infection.
<br /><div><i>Dx is through Tznck test</i></div>
1385330688086 1358629116480 {{c1::Orl Cndidisis (Orl Thrush)}} is define
d s n overgrowth nd clinicl infection tht cn occur with immunodeficiency o
r ltered orl flor.
1385330763128 1358629116480 A superficil, curdy, white membrne of inflmm
tory debris nd fungi tht is <b>redily scrped off</b> is commonly indic
tive of {{c1::Orl Cndidisis (Orl Thrush)}}.<div><br /></div><div><img s
rc="pste-6936372183445.jpg" /></div>
1385330843955 1358629116480 {{c1::<i>Cndid lbicns</i>}} is yest tht
commonly cuses Orl Thrush. It hs both hyphe nd pseudophyphe.<div><br /></d
1385330883018 1358629116480 {{c1::Hiry Leukoplki}} is non-premlignnt
condition of the mouth cused by EBV in immunocompromised ptients chrcterized
by white, fluffy, hiry ptches on the <b>lterl</b> border of the tongue
. It <b>cnnot be scrped off</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-69836168
23521.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
1385330950171 1358629116480 Wht is the most common orl cncer?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Squmous Cell Crcinom}}</div>
1385330985834 1358629116480 Wht genetic defect occurs during the Hyperkert
osis stge of Orl Squmous Cell Crcinom?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inctvti
on of p16 (vi loss of 3p nd 9p21)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>p16 --> p53 --&
gt; Cyclin D overexpression</i></div>
1385332011254 1358629116480 Wht genetic defect occurs during the Dysplstic
phse of Orl Squmous Cell Crcinom?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Muttion of p
53 (vi loss of 17p)}}</div>
1385332043998 1358629116480 Wht genetic defect occurs during the full blown
crcinom stge of Orl Squmous Cell Crcinom?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ove
rexpression of Cyclin D}}</div> <br /><div><i>p16 --> p53 --> Cyclin D</i>
</div><div><i>(Hyperkertosis) --> (Dysplstic) --> (Crcinom)</i></div>
1385332101447 1358629116480 {{c1::Leukoplki}} is precncerous condition
to squmous cell crcinom of the mouth tht is chrcterized by white ptches t
ht don't scrpe off.
1385332244020 1358629116480 {{c1::Erythroplki}} is precncerous conditio

n to squmous cell crcinom tht is red nd often ulcerted or eroded.<div><br
<br /><div><i>90
% show dysplsi or cncer</i></div>
1385332298146 1358629116480 High grde squmous {{c1::dysplsi}} is
hllmrk of precncerous conditions to squmous cell crcinom.<div><br /></div>
1385332337717 1358629116480 A {{c1::dentigerous cyst}} is cyst tht o
rigintes round n unerupted tooth. It is removed by excision.<div><br /></div>
1385332493629 1358629116480 An {{c1::odontogenic kertocyst (OKC)}} is
loclly ggressive cyst tht hs high recurrence rte in its common prker
totic vrint form.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-7932804595961.jpg" /></
div>
1385332559495 1358629116480 {{c1::Gorlin's Syndrome}} is nevoid bsl cell
crcinom syndrome tht results from multiple odontogenic kertocysts nd cutn
eous bsl cell crcinoms.
1385332600218 1358629116480 {{c1::Ameloblstom}} is low grde, mlignnt,
loclly invsive tumour tht rises from odontogenic epithelium.
1385332635661 1358629116480 Wht ntibody is involved with Allergic Rhinitis
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IgE}}</div>
1385332668722 1358629116480 {{c1::Allergic Rhinitis}} is inflmmtion of the
nsl mucos tht involves swollen mucos with lymphocytes nd <b>eosinophils
</b>.
1385332711032 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic}} rhinitis cn led to superimpose
d bcteril infections tht extend into the sinuses.
1385332745034 1358629116480 Wht is the cuse of Nsl Inflmmtory Polyps?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c2::Recurring, chronic rhinitis}}</div>
1385332765014 1358629116480 A {{c1::nsl inflmmtory polyp}} is n ed
emtous mss of mucos nd inflmed strom tht cn ulcerte nd grow to 4 cm in
size in the nose.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-8448200671561.jpg" /></d
iv>
1385332807527 1358629116480 Wht re the 2 mjor complictions of Group A St
reptococcl phryngitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Rheumtic Fever nd Ac
ute Glomerulonephritis}}</div>
1385332858003 1358629116480 Wht is the most common cuse of phryngitis?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Group A Streptococcl infection; <i>Streptococcus pyoge
nes</i>}}</div>
1385332888316 1358629116480 An {{c1::Angiofibrom}} is benign tumour
of the nsophrynx tht is chrcterized by lrge vessels in fibrous, erectile
like strom tht <b>bleeds esily</b>.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-858
5639625112.jpg" /></div>
<br /><div><i>We cnnot biopsy it s it bleeds v
ery esily</i></div>
1385332944043 1358629116480 {{c1::Angiofibrom}} is benign nsophryngel
tumour tht is lmost exclusive to dolescent mles. It is Androgen receptor pos
itive.
1385333011965 1358629116480 {{c1::Olfctory Neuroblstom (Esthesioneurobls
tom)}} is mlignnt neuroblstic tumour of the olfctory nerve tht involves
smll blue tumour cells with <b>long cytoplsmic processes</b> yielding <
b>fibrillry bckground</b>.<div><br></div><div><img src="pste-9040906158484.jp
g" /></div>
1385333096457 1358629116480 {{c1::Nsophryngel Crcinom}} is nsophryn
gel cncer tht is most frequently seen in <b>Africn children</b>. It is commo
nly ssocited with EBV infection.
1385333139412 1358629116480 {{c1::Chronic}} Sinusitis is commonly cused by
secondry bcteril infections.
1385333365851 1358629116480 Sinusitis cn invde into the crnil vult, the
reby cusing {{c1::meningitis}}.
1385333416588 1358629116480 {{c1::Krtgener's Syndrome}} is rre cuse of
sinusitis due to defective ciliry ction. It is lso chrcterized by bronchie
ctsis nd situs inversus.

1385334012956 1358629116480 {{c1::Mucormycosis}} is n unusul form of sinus
itis chrcterised by invsive nd destructive fungi.<div><br></div><div><img sr
c="pste-9521942495479.jpg" /></div>
1385334070939 1358629116480 A {{c1::sinonsl ppillom}} is benign t
umour of the squmous mucos of the sinuses tht is thought to be due to HPV inf
ection.
1385334107198 1358629116480 The {{c1::exophytic}} form of Sinonsl Pp
illom is the most common form.
1385334119447 1358629116480 The {{c1::Inverted}} form of Sinonsl Ppi
llom is very ggressive nd cn be invsive with higher recurrence rte.<div>
<br /></div><div><img src="pste-9599251906823.jpg" /></div>
1385334177706 1358629116480 {{c1::Cholestetom}} is kertinous cyst tht
forms due to repeted bouts of otitis medi.
<br /><div><i>It cn rupture nd
cuse locl inflmmtory rection</i></div>
1385334305530 1358629116480 {{c1::Otosclerosis}} is defined s <b>bnorml</
b> bone deposition t the middle er which cuses crying degrees of herin
g loss nd immobilizes the stpes.
1385334380576 1358629116480 {{c1::Brnchil Cleft Cysts}} re defined s ben
ign remnnts of the phryngel clefts typiclly found t the lterl neck long
the sternocleidomstoid.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-10179072491775.jpg
" /></div>
1385334458256 1358629116480 A {{c1::Thryglossl Duct}} cyst is defined
s remnnt of thyroid migrtion typiclly found long the nterior midline of
the neck or t the bse of the tongue.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-1044
5360464155.jpg" /><img src="pste-10823317586284.jpg" /></div>
1385334955722 1358629116480 A {{c1::prgngliom}} is slow growing t
umours tht rises from prgngli. It involves neuroendocrine cells nd my be
mlignnt.
1385334998401 1358629116480 A {{c1::prgngliom}} is k Crotid Bo
dy Tumour if it rises from the crotid body prgngli.
1385335041322 1358629116480 {{c1::Zellbllen}} re nests of chief cells with
eosinophilic ple cytoplsm typiclly found in <b>prgnglioms</b>.<div><br /
1385335092009 1358629116480 Wht is the most common cuse of Lryngoepiglott
itis?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-11282879086973.jpg" /><br /><div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::<i>Hemophilus influenze</i>}}</div></div>
1385335124147 1358629116480 Wht is the most common cuse of Croup?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Prinfluenz Virus (HPIV)}}</div>
1385335160263 1358629116480 Lryngel {{c2::nodules nd polyps}} re be
nign rective lesions of squmous epithelium nd overlying edemtous strom with
fibrin tht re common in <b>people who yell, sing or smoke</b> very often
.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-11613591568675.jpg" /></div>
1385335260100 1358629116480 A {{c1::Lryngel ppillom}} re benign <b>ppi
llry</b> squmous prolifertions commonly found on the true vocl cords. I
t is ssocited with HPV6 nd HPV11.
1385335604751 1358629116480 {{c1::Koilocytes}} re perinucler hlos tht r
e chrcteristic of HPV infections.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-1176821
0391221.jpg" /></div>
1385335633007 1358629116480 {{c1::Cigrette smoking}} nd {{c2::lcohol
}} re the 2 biggest risk fctors for lryngel crcinom, 95% of which re squ
mous cell crcinoms.
1385335687837 1358629116480 Which tissue do most lryngel crcinoms rise
from?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Epithelium of the true vocl cords}}</div>
1385335725888 1358629116480 Lryngel squmous cell crcinom often includes
'perl-like' condenstions of {{c1::kertin}}<div><br /></div><div><img sr
c="pste-11940009083255.jpg" /></div>
1385335792075 1358629116480 Intercellulr bridges re common indiction of
{{c1::squmous cell}} crcinom.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-1201
7318494561.jpg" /></div>
1385335821253 1358629116480 {{c1::Xerostomi}} is defined s 'dry mouth' due

to decresed sliv production.
1385336077800 1358629116480 {{c1::Cndidisis}} nd {{c2::dentl cries
}} re the 2 mjor complictions of Xerostomi due to the lst of bctericidl s
livry ction.
1385336158507 1358629116480 {{c1::Sjogren's Syndrome}} is n utoimmune diso
rder chrcterized by the destruction of slivry nd lcriml glnd tissue, the
reby cusing xerostomi nd kertoconjuncitivis sicc (dry eyes).
1385336215843 1358629116480 {{c1::Mikulicz Disese}} is the term used to des
cribe the inflmmtory rection seen in slivry glnds in Sjogren's Syndrome.
1385336244760 1358629116480 Wht is the most common slivry glnd lesion?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mucocele}}</div>
1385336262361 1358629116480 A {{c1::mucocele}} is slivry glnd lesi
on tht occurs when slivry duct is blocked or ruptured, thereby letting sli
v lek into the surrounding interstitium.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste12932146528582.jpg" /></div>
1385336309155 1358629116480 A {{c1::rnul}} is lrge mucocele t the
floor of the mouth.
1385336328208 1358629116480 {{c1::Sildentitis}} is defined s inflmmtion
of the slivry glnd. It hs mny cuses,
1385336355442 1358629116480 The mjority (80%) of slivry glnd tumours re
found t the {{c1::protid}} glnd.
1385336384985 1358629116480 The more mlignnt slivry glnd tumours re lo
cted t {{c1::smller, minor}} slivry glnds.
1385336426384 1358629116480 Wht is the most common slivry glnd tumour?<d
iv><br /></div><div><img src="pste-5510443041140.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Pleomorphic Adenom}}</div>
1385336448381 1358629116480 A {{c1::pleomorphic denom}} is benign s
livry glnd tumour tht is derived from myoepithelil cells nd involves <b>
mixed cell</b> popultion of <b>chondromyxoid strom nd epithelium</b>.<di
v><br /></div><div><img src="pste-5506148073844.jpg" /></div> <br /><div><i>k
Mixed Tumour.</i></div><div><i>Presents s <b>pinless, mobile mss</b>.</i>
</div><div><i>Will recur if it is incompletely excised or ruptured intropertiv
ely.</i></div>
1385336500196 1358629116480 {{c1::Crcinom ex pleomorphic denom}} is m
lignnt tumour tht rises from pre-existing pleomorphic denom.
1385336561848 1358629116480 A {{c1::Wrthin tumour}} is benign sliv
ry glnd tumour tht is lmost exclusively found in the protid glnd. It rises
from <b>slivry glnd inclusions within intrprotid lymph nodes nd germinl
centers</b>.
1385336626926 1358629116480 A {{c1::Wrthin Tumour}} is slivry gln
d tumour tht is chrcterized by double-lyered, pink grnulr epithelium nd
centrl lymphoid infiltrte.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-13275743912
279.jpg" /></div>
1385336669451 1358629116480 Wht is the most common <b>primry</b> sli
vry glnd cncer?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-5630702125380.jpg" /></d
iv><div><br />{{c1::Mucoepidermoid Crcinom}}</div>
1385336694112 1358629116480 A {{c1::mucoepidermoid crcinom}} is pri
mry slivry glnd tumour tht is often cystic nd composed of <b>squmous cell
s, mucin producing glndulr cells nd intermedite cells</b>.<div><br /></div><
1385336743468 1358629116480 An {{c1::denoid cystic crcinom}} is <b
>mlignnt</b> slivry glnd tumour chrcterized by <b>tubulr, solid
nd cribiform pttern</b> of cells with reduplicted bsl lmin.<div><br
1385336809588 1358629116480 {{c1::Adenoid Cystic Crcinom}} is <b>mlign
nt</b> slivry glnd tumour tht often exhibits <b>perineurl invsion</b>
.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-13494787244353.jpg" /></div>
1385336847961 1358629116480 An {{c1::Acinic Cell Crcinom}} is slivry g
lnd tumour tht shows cinr cell differentition with zymogen grnules. It is
generlly slow growing.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-13572096655575.jpg"

/><img src="pste-13941463843152.jpg" /></div>
1385667735042 1358629116480 Which middle er bone is common involved in Otos
clerosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Stpes}}</div>
1385670893422 1358629116480 {{c1::Nsl polyps}} re glistening polypoid ms
ses filled with mucous nd edemtous fluid in the nsl cvities. They re commo
nly seen following chronic rhinitis.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-348321
8477362.jpg" /><img src="pste-3504693313948.jpg" /></div>
1385670971738 1358629116480 A {{c1::Cnker Sore}} is lso commonly refe
rred to s n {{c2::Aphthous Ulcer}}.
1385671055773 1358629116480 {{c1::Cholestetom}} is mss tht forms in th
e middle er due to recurrent bouts of infectious otitis medi.
1385671100010 1358629116480 Wht is the most common mlignncy of the sliv
ry glnds?<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-5634997092676.jpg" /></div><div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Mucoepidermoid crcinom}}</div>
1385671141216 1358629116480 A {{c1::prgngliom}} is tumour tht co
mmonly rises ner the crotid bifurction.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste
-5368709120426.jpg" /></div>
1385671229805 1358629116480 After smoking, wht is the second most common c
use of squmous cell crcinom?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Humn Ppillom Virus
}}</div>
1385671268920 1358629116480 An {{c1::Adenoid cystic crcinom}} is slivr
y glnd tumour tht commonly exhibits perineurl invsion.<div><br /></div><div>
<img src="pste-3783866188052.jpg" /><img src="pste-3805341024562.jpg" /></div>
1385671324515 1358629116480 Aphthous ulcers cn be recurrent when they re
ssocited with GI diseses such s {{c1::Celic Disese}} nd {{c2::In
flmmtory Bowel Disese}}.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-4290672328931.j
pg" /></div>
1385671431575 1358629116480 {{c1::Mucormycosis}} is n invsive nd destruct
ive form of infectious sinusitis tht involves brod, septte hyphe tht bend
t 90 degree ngles.<div><br /></div><div><img src="pste-4428111282530.jpg" /></
div>
1385671698693 1358629116480 Wht is the dentl pthology shown below?<div><b
r /></div><div><img src="pste-4505420693810.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Dentigerous Cyst}}</div>
1385671799077 1358629116480 {{c1::Odontogenic Kertocyst (OKC)}} is n orl
mss tht hs high recurrence rte nd is ssocited with bsl cell crcinom
cncer syndrome known s {{c2::Gorlin's Syndrome}}<div><br /></div><div><i
1385671899156 1358629116480 Wht is the Dx?<div><br /></div><div><img src="p
ste-4677219385758.jpg" /></div><div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ameloblstom}}</div
>
1385671954672 1358629116480 Nsl {{c1::Angiofibrom}} is nsl tumou
r tht involves vsculr chnnels nd fibrous strom.<div><br /></div><div><im
g src="pste-4711579124138.jpg" /></div>
1385671993063 1358629116480 {{c1::Olfctoryneuroblstom}} is tumour found
t the <b>roof of the nose</b> tht hs <b> fibrillry bckground</b>.<div><im
g src="pste-4788888535459.jpg" /></div>
1385672040128 1358629116480 The {{c1::inverted}} form of Sinonsl Ppi
lloms is the more dngerous form with the possibility of becoming mlignnt.<di
v><br></div><div><img src="pste-5192615461155.jpg" /></div>
1405644203846 1395802358422 Which slivry glnd is most commonly ffected b
y cncer?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Protid glnd}}</div>
1385427739856 1358629116480 <i>Bordetell pertussis</i> is grm-{{c1:
:negtive}} coccobcillus.<div><br /><div><img src="pste-2276332667173.jpg" /><
/div></div>
1385428302931 1358629116480 <i>Bordetell pertussis</i> grows best on t
he {{c1::Bordet-Gengou}} gr.
1385431620851 1358629116480 Wht is the function of the fimbrie nd pertct
in virulence fctors from <i>Bordetell pertussis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Adhesion}}</div>
1385431668647 1358629116480 Wht is the MOA of the Pertussis toxin?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::ADP ribosyltion of regultory G proteins, thereby resulting
in incresed [cAMP] nd overctive denylte cyclse}}</div>
1385431701414 1358629116480 Wht is the MOA of the Adenylte Cyclse toxin f
rom <i>Bordetell pertussis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytoplsmic de
nylyl cyclse; increses [cAMP]}}</div>
1385431732180 1358629116480 The Adenylte Cyclse toxin from <i>Bordete
ll pertussis</i> works to impir {{c1::chemotxis}} nd {{c2::H<
sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>}} production in neutrophils, lymphocytes nd monocytes.
1385431788963 1358629116480 Wht is the MOA of the Trchel cytotoxin from&n
bsp;<i>Bordetell pertussis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Destruction of cili
ted respirtory epithelium}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Likely the cuse of the wh
ooping cough</i></div>
1385431826728 1358629116480 Wht is the MOA of the Filmentous Hemgglutinin
(FHA) toxin from <i>Bordetell pertussis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::A
ttchment of <i>Bordetell pertussis</i> to respirtory epithelium}}</
div>
1385431856910 1358629116480 Coughing spells of Whooping Cough cn be followe
d by {{c1::vomiting}} nd {{c2::cynosis}}.
1385431889056 1358629116480 Which vccine is used to vccinte ginst
<i>Bordetell pertussis</i>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::DTP vccine}}</div>
1391020119522 1358629116480 Which cells myelinte the CNS?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Oligodendrocytes}}</div>
1380677443964 1358629116480 The primry MOA of NSAIDs is the inhibition of&n
bsp;{{c1::Cyclooxygense (COX)}} enzymes.
<br /><div><i>NSAIDs re such CO
X blockers</i></div>
1380678046247 1358629116480 {{c1::Aspirin}} is n NSAID tht <b>irreversibly
</b> inhibits COX.
1380678074151 1358629116480 Most NSAIDs block both COX1 nd COX2. {{c1:
:Celecoxib}} is n NSAID tht selectively blocks COX2 only.
1380678103511 1358629116480 COX inhibition by NSAIDs results in the inhibiti
on of {{c1::prostglndin}} synthesis.
<br /><div><i>Leukotrienes re u
nffected.</i></div>
1380678149521 1358629116480 The ntipyretic, nlgesic nd nti-inflmmtory
effects of NSAIDs re ttributed to their bility to inhibit {{c1::prostg
lndin}} synthesis.
1380678482065 1358629116480 Toxic doses of the NSAID {{c1::Aspirin}} cn le
d to direct depression of the respirtory center.
moderte doses stimulte respirtion.</i></div>
1380679223863 1358629116480 Low doses of Aspirin (< 300 mg/dy) cn cuse
decrese in {{c1::pltelet}} ggregtion.
1380679404649 1358629116480 High doses of Aspirin cn {{c1::decrese}}
GFR.
1380679452203 1358629116480 A severe dverse effect of Aspirin on the GI is
tht it cn cuse {{c1::gstric ulcertion}}.
1380679579958 1358629116480 High doses of Aspirin cn cuse {{c1::tinni
tus}} through fferent stimultion of CN VIII.
1380679628573 1358629116480 Toxic doses of the NSAID {{c1::Aspirin}} c
n cuse uncompensted respirtory nd metbolic cidosis.
1380680029616 1358629116480 The NSAID {{c1::Aspirin}} is useful in the
mngement of cute myocrdil infrction nd in the prophylxis of myocrdil i
nfrction, stroke, ischemic ttck nd unstble ngin pectoris.
1380680133968 1358629116480 Most NSAIDs re contrindicted in ptient th
t hs hypersensitivity to {{c1::Aspirin}}.
1380680205934 1358629116480 {{c1::Aspirin hypersensitivity}} is severe nd
potentilly lethl dverse effect of Aspirin where the loss of the COX pthwy
leds to n increse in Leukotriene synthesis cusing resultnt <b>pseudollerg
enic</b> rection.
1380680283629 1358629116480 {{c1::Anlgesic nephropthy}} is severe dvers
e effect of Aspirin where chronic inhibition of prostglndin synthesis leds to

renl ppillry necrosis nd chronic interstitil nephritis.
1380680379057 1358629116480 {{c1::Reye's Syndrome}} is severe dverse effe
ct of Aspirin minly seen in children or young dults with virl infection. It i
s chrcterized by initil respirtory infection followed by nuse, vomiting n
d lbortory signs of liver dmge.
1380680514782 1358629116480 Intrvenous dministrtion of Ibuprofen cn be u
sed to close ptent {{c1::Ductus Arteriosus}}.
1380680803357 1358629116480 Most NSAIDs re pregnncy ctegory {{c1::D}} dru
gs during the 3rd trimester due to their bility to close the Ductus Arteriosus.
1380680898853 1358629116480 The NSAID {{c1::Ibuprofen}} is the nlgesic nd
ntipyretic of choice in children with virl infections s it will not cuse Re
ye's Syndrome. <br /><div><i>Other non-slicylte NSAIDs cn be used s well.</
i></div>
1380739896211 1358629116480 {{c1::Diclofenc}} is n NSAID tht not only non
selectively inhibits COX, but lso inhibits {{c2::LOX}} enzymes nd decres
es {{c3::Oxygen rdicl}} production.
1380740180161 1358629116480 {{c1::Ketorolc}} is n NSAID with potent nlge
sic ction. It cn successfully replce morphine nd other opioids for relief of
mild to moderte postsurgicl pin.
<br /><div><i>Cn decrese opioid r
equirement by 25-50%</i></div>
1380740497061 1358629116480 {{c1::Indomethcin}} is n NSAID tht not only n
onselectively inhibits COX but lso inhibits both {{c2::PLA}} nd {{c3
::PLC}}.
1380740595837 1358629116480 {{c1::Indomethcin}} is the only NSAID tht hs
n effect on the dptive immune system. It decreses T nd B cell prolifertion
.
1380740633966 1358629116480 {{c1::Indomethcin}} is the NSAID of choice for
closing ptent ductus rteriosus. It is given vi IV to neonte.
1380740960243 1358629116480 {{c1::Piroxicm}} is n NSAID tht not only nons
electively inhibits COX but lso inhibits polymorphonucler luekocyte migrtion.
1380741044191 1358629116480 {{c1::Piroxicm}} is n NSAID tht hs 9.5x high
er risks of cusing GI bleeding, perfortion, or ulcertion thn other NSAIDs.
1380741102197 1358629116480 {{c1::Celecoxib}} is the only NSAID tht selecti
vely inhibits {{c2::COX2}}.
1380741136781 1358629116480 {{c1::Celecoxib}} is the NSAID with the lowest G
I toxicity s it does not inhibit COX1.
1380741195848 1358629116480 The {{c1::COX2}} isoform of Cyclooxygense
is only found in inflmmtory cells nd endothelium.
1380741507354 1358629116480 Acetminophen is extensively metbolised in the
liver. Smll mounts of it is converted to toxic metbolite known s {{c1
::N-cetyl-<i>p</i>-benzoquinone (NAPQI)}}.
1380741624425 1358629116480 Acetminophen functions by inhibiting {{c1:
:COX}} enzymes in the CNS.
1380741695183 1358629116480 Acetminophen is wek inhibitor of {{c1::CO
X}} enzymes t peripherl inflmed tissue.
1380741725840 1358629116480 Acetminophen lcks nti-inflmmtory ction bec
use of its inbility to inhibit {{c1::prostglndin}} synthesis t periphe
rl inflmed tissue.
1380741775442 1358629116480 {{c1::Acetminophen}} is potent nlgesic tht
is preferred to Aspirin in ptients with hemophili or PUD.
1380741849657 1358629116480 {{c1::Acetminophen Poisoning}} is severe dve
rse effect of Acetminophen where NAPQI cuses heptic toxicity.
1380741930328 1358629116480 In Acetminophen Poisoning, NAPQI rects with su
lfhydryl groups on {{c1::Glutthione (GSH)}}, thereby inctivting it nd
llowing NAPQI to rect with heptic proteins nd cuse liver dmge.
1380742000259 1358629116480 Acetminophen Poisoning cn be treted with&nbsp
;{{c1::<i>N-</i>Acetylcysteine (NAC)}}. Mximum effectiveness is chieved if the
Tx is given with 8 hrs of poisoning.
1380742125318 1358629116480 {{c1::N-Acetylcysteine (NAC)}} trets Acetminop
hen Poisoning by replenishing glutthione stores nd directly conjugting with N

APQI, thereby promoting its metbolism.
1380742215846 1358629116480 Alcohol consumption cn exrcerbte Acetminophe
n Poisoning s ethnol induces the expression of the heptic enzyme {{c1::C
YP2E1}}, which metbolizes both EtOH nd Acetminophen.
1380742304115 1358629116480 {{c1::Glucocoritcoids}} re nti-inflmmtories
tht bind to cytoplsmic GCRs, thereby forming homodimer tht binds to GREs on
specific genes.
1380743936419 1358629116480 {{c1::Glucocorticoids}} re nti-inflmmtories
tht exhibit their effects through the regultion of gene trnscription.
1380743975964 1358629116480 The downstrem effect of Glucocorticoid trnscri
ptionl regultion is the inhibition of {{c1::PLA<sub>2</sub>}} ctivity or
decresed expression of {{c2::COX2}} enzymes.
1380744061190 1358629116480 Glucocorticoids cn lso regulte the trnscript
ion of genes tht do not hve GREs through other trnscription fctors, especil
ly {{c1::AP1}} nd {{c2::NF-B}}.
1380744161749 1358629116480 Glucocorticoids suppress PLA<sub>2</sub> ac
tivity by inducing the expression of {{c1::PLA<sub>2</sub> inhibitory
proteins}}.
1380745014279 1358629116480 Glucocorticoids act on the fetal lungs; stimulat
ing structural and functional changes and triggering the production of {{c1
::surfactant}}.
1380745126661 1358629116480 {{c1::Prednisone}} is a Glucocorticoid that is a
dministered as a prodrug. It is converted into the active form Prednisolone.
1380745188168 1358629116480 The {{c1::Dexamethasone Suppression}} test
is used for the DDx of the underlying cause of non-iatrogenic Cushing syndrome.
1380745226228 1358629116480 Normal individuals will show a {{c2::decrea
se}} in cortisol levels following adminisration of a low-dose of Dexamethasone.
1380745325090 1358629116480 Patients with Cushing's <b>Disease</b> (cau
sed by a pituitary adenoma) will show {{c1::no decrease}} in cortisol level
s following a low dose of Dexamethasone, but will following a high dose.
1380745836654 1358629116480 Patients with Cushing's <b>Syndrome</b> (ca
used by cortisol-producing adrenal tumour or ectopic ACTH-producing tumour) will
show {{c1::no change}} in cortisol levels following a low or high dose of
Dexamethasone.
1380746068286 1358629116480 {{c1::Betamethasone}} and {{c2::Dexamethaso
ne}} are the Glucocorticoids of choice for stimulating fetal lung maturation. Th
ey are given via IM.
1380746431770 1358629116480 Long term use of Glucocorticoids can result in i
atrogenic {{c1::Cushing's Syndrome}} due to exogenous suppression of the HP
A axis. <br /><div><i>Signs and symptoms are in line with Cushing's.</i></div>
1380746605360 1358629116480 Most Glucocorticoids are have a pregnancy catego
ry of {{c1::D}}.
1383189450497 1358629116480 What are the first line drugs to treat Osteoporo
sis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bisphosphonates}}</div>
1383189506025 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Bisphosphonates?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Induction of apoptosis in osteoclasts}}</div>
1383189530504 1358629116480 {{c1::Zoledronate}} and {{c2::Pamidronate}}
are the only 2 bisphosphonates that are administered via IV.
1383189569532 1358629116480 {{c1::Denosumab}} is a monoclonal antibody that
targets RANKL, thereby reducing osteoclast number and function.
1383189623140 1358629116480 {{c1::Denosumab}} is a monoclonal Ab used to red
uce the occurrence of osteoporotic fractures in menopausal women who are intoler
ant to other osteoporotic drugs or have renal failure.
1383189667565 1358629116480 {{c1::Raloxifene}} is a SERM used to treat Osteo
porosis by activating estrogen receptors.
1383189714373 1358629116480 {{c1::Raloxifene}} is a SERM that is indicated a
s a treatment of Osteoporosis in women with <b>vasomotor symptoms</b>.
1383189751462 1358629116480 {{c1::Teriparatide}} is recombinant PTH used to
treat <b>advanced</b> Osteoporosis
1383189782742 1358629116480 What T-score on a DEXA scan is indicative of adv

anced osteoporosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::< -3.5}}</div>
1383189806573 1358629116480 What is a serious adverse effect/ris of Teripar
atide?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Osteosarcoma}}</div>
1383242742115 1358629116480 {{c1::Infliximab}} is a monoclonal antibody that
binds to both soluble and transmembrane TNF-a, thereby preventing its proinflam
matory action.
1383250981281 1358629116480 {{c1::Infliximab}} is a monoclonal antibody used
to treat Rhematoid Arthritis, Crohn's Disease and other arthritic disorders by
binding to both soluble and transmembrane TNF-a.
1383251024159 1358629116480 When used to treat Rheumatoid Arthritis, Inflixi
mab must be co-administered with {{c1::Methotrexate}} unless it is contrain
dicated.
1383251084550 1358629116480 {{c1::Adalimumab}} is a monoclonal antibody used
to treat Rheumatoid Arthritis, Crohn's Disease and other arthritic disorders by
blocing the interaction between TNF-a and the TNF-a Receptor on cell surfaces.
1383251463359 1358629116480 {{c1::Etanercept}} is a soluble TNF Receptor tha
t is used to treat Rheumatoid Arthritis and other arthritic disorders.
1383251512846 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Etanercept?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Soluble TNF receptor; Binds to TNF, inhibiting its inflammatory signal
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Etaner<b><u>CEPT</u></b> is a soluble TNF Re<b><u>
CEPT</u></b>or</i></div>
1383251610574 1358629116480 {{c1::Anainra}} is an IL-1 receptor antagonist
used to treat Rheumatoid Arthritis.
1383251707391 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Anainra?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::IL-1 Receptor antagonism}}</div>
1383253082872 1358629116480 {{c1::Penicillamine}} is a drug used to treat Rh
eumatoid Arthritis when other DMARDs have been ineffective. It is also used to t
reat Wilson's Disease.
1383253152449 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Penicillamine?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Suppression of T cells and circulating Rheumatoid Factor}}</div>
1383253313466 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydroxychloroquine}} is a drug used to tre
at <b>milder</b> Rheumatoid Arthritis and SLE
1383253389866 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Hydroxychloroquine?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Suppression of T cell response to mitogens; Decrease in leuoc
yte migration}}</div>
1383253430927 1358629116480 {{c1::Sulfasalazine}} is a drug used to treat Rh
eumatoid Arthritis, Ulcerative Colitis and IBD by decreasing B cell function and
inhibiting COX in the gut.
1383253501983 1358629116480 Sulfasalazine is converted into 2 active metabol
ites {{c1::5-Aminosalicylic Acid}} and {{c2::Sulphapyridine}}.
1383253570785 1358629116480 What is the most commonly prescribed DMARD?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Methotrexate}}</div>
1383253606727 1358629116480 {{c1::Methotrexate}} is the DMARD of choice to t
reat <b>severe</b> Rheumatoid Arthritis.
1383253625417 1358629116480 {{c1::Leflunomide}} is a DMARD used to treat sev
ere Rheumatoid Arthritis and Psoriatic Arthritis by inhibiting Dihydro-orotate D
ehydrogenase.
1383253735509 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Leflunomide?<div><br></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of Dihydro-orotate Dehydrogenase, thereby inhibiting de novo
pyrimidine synthesis}}</div> <br><div><i>This then inhibits T and B cell prol
iferation</i></div>
1383253779215 1358629116480 What group of drugs are used to treat <b>acute</
b> gout?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NSAIDs}}</div>
1383253844483 1358629116480 What is the most potent NSAID?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Indomethacin}}</div>
1383253855813 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Colchicine?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c2::Binding to Tubulin to prevent MT formation and leuocyte migration; In
hibition of Lipooxygenase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Remember, Lipooxygenase pr
oduces leuotrienes.</i></div>
1383253922145 1358629116480 What do we use Colchicine to treat for?<div><br

/></div><div>{{c1::The <b>pain</b> associated with acute gout}}</div>
1383253946670 1358629116480 What is a serious adverse effect of Colchicine?<
div><br></div><div>{{c1::GI Toxicity}}</div>
1383253993570 1358629116480 {{c1::Probenecid}} is a Uricosuric that is used
to treat Hyperuricemia/Gout by inhibiting the reabsorption of Urate at the proxi
mal convoluted tubule.
1383254040152 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Probenecid?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of the reabsorption of Urate at the PCT}}</div>
1383254053796 1358629116480 What is a secondary use of Probenecid other than
to treat Gout?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of the secretion of Penici
llin (or other acidic drugs) at the PCT}}</div>
1383254086142 1358629116480 {{c1::Sulphinpyrazone}} is a Uricosuric with the
same MOA as Probenecid.
1383254127686 1358629116480 {{c1::Allopurinol}} is a Xanthine analog used to
treat Hyperuricemia/Gout or prevent hyperuricemia.
1383254178873 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Allopurinol?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Reduction of Uric Acid production by acting as a competitive substrat
e for Xanthine Oxidase}}</div>
1383254208563 1358629116480 Allopurinol is converted into a more active form
called {{c1::Alloxanthine}} by Xanthine Oxidase.
1383254239456 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Febuxostat?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of Xanthine Oxidase}}</div>
1383254473182 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Adalimumab?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Blocs the interaction of TNF-a with the TNF-a Receptor}}</div>
1395410837171 1358629116480 {{c1::Bacitracin}} is a topical antibiotic that
inhibits cell wall formation through inhibiting dephosphorylation of Bactoprenol
.
1395415731461 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Bacitracin?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of the dephosphorylation of Bactoprenol}}</div>
1395415749063 1358629116480 {{c1::Mupirocin}} is a topical antibiotic that i
nhibits the synthesis of Isoleucyl tRNA, thereby inhibiting protein synthesis.
1395416099660 1358629116480 What is the clinical, dermatological use of Clin
damycin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acne Vulgaris}}</div>
1395416138838 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Clindamycin?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhibition of the 50S ribosomal subunit}}</div>
1395416180508 1358629116480 {{c1::Sulfacetamide}} is an antibiotic that inhi
bits PABA action in the synthesis of bacterial folic acid, thereby inhibiting DN
A synthesis.
1395416220057 1358629116480 {{c1::Acyclovir}} is a topical antiviral that tr
eats Herpes Labialis and Herpetic Keratitis by inhibiting viral DNA Polymerase,
thereby causing DNA chain termination.
1395416321388 1358629116480 Which viral enzyme is responsible for activating
Acyclovir?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thymidine Kinase}}</div>
1395416359908 1358629116480 {{c1::Docosanol}} is a topical antiviral that is
able to treat recurrent Herpes Labialis by inhibiting the fusion of the viral e
nvelope with host cell membranes.
1395416547578 1358629116480 {{c1::Penciclovir}} is a topical antiviral that
is able to treat recurrent Herpes Labialis by competitively inhibiting viral DNA
Polymerase, but with a lower affinity than Acyclovir. <br /><div><i>Hence it d
oes not cause DNA chain termination.</i></div>
1395416598225 1358629116480 {{c1::Imiquimod}} is a topical immunostimulant t
hat is able to treat HPV Genital Warts through agonism at TLR7 and subsequent pr
oduction of IFN-alpha.
1395416695700 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Imiquimod?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Agonism at TLR7, leading to production of IFNa}}</div>
1395416710213 1358629116480 {{c1::Tacrolimus}} is a topical immunosuppressan
t that can treat Atopic Dermatitis by complexing with FKBP-12 and inhibiting Cal
cineurin Phosphatase.
1395416858860 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Tacrolimus?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of Calcineurin by complexing with FKBP12}}</div>

1395416882553 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydroquinone}} and {{c2::Mequinol}} are to
pical agents used to treat hyperpigmentation by inhibiting melanin synthesis, ty
pically by blocing Tyrosine action.
1395416968713 1358629116480 {{c1::Methoxsalen}} is a Psoralen that is used t
o treat Psoriasis alongside UVA light which is needed to activate the drug.
1395417071373 1358629116480 {{c1::Benzoyl Peroxide}} is a topical agent that
is used to treat Acne Vulgaris by releasing free ROS oxidizing bacterial protei
ns found in sebaceous glands and hair follicles.
1395417121835 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Retinoids in treating Acne Vu
lgaris?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Agonism at RARs and RXRs, thereby decreasing
cell growth}}</div>
1395417187120 1358629116480 {{c1::Retinoids}} are a <b>class</b> of top
ical agents that treat acne vulgaris through agonism at RARs and RXRs. <br /><d
iv><i>Retinoic Acid receptors and Retinoid X receptors.</i></div>
1395417260866 1358629116480 {{c1::Acitretin}} is an oral retinoid that is us
ed off label to treat Psoriasis, Darier's Disease, and Lichen Planus.
1395434553947 1358629116480 {{c1::Alefacept}} is a dermatological drug used
to treat Psoriasis by binding to CD2 cell surface receptors on lymphocytes, ther
eby preventing the interaction with LFA-3.
1395434603225 1358629116480 {{c1::Calcipotriene}} is a topical agent used to
treat Psoriasis through agonism at Vitamin D receptors.
1395434637114 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Alefacept in the treatment of
Psoriasis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Binding to CD2 on cell surface}}</div>
<br /><div><i>It is a dimeric fusion binding protein.</i></div>
1395434669659 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Calcipotriene?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Agonism at Vitamin D receptors}}</div>
1395434699893 1358629116480 {{c1::Salicylic Acid}} is a topical agent that f
unctions as a eratolytic. However it can cause Salicylism which can be fatal in
chilren.
1395434877772 1358629116480 {{c1::Salicylism}} is a potentially fatal compli
cation of Salicylic acid administration in children due to their increased surfa
ce area:mass ratio.
1395434912445 1358629116480 {{c1::Aminolevulinic Acid/Methylamino-levulinate
}} is a topical agent used to photorejuvinate the sin or treat dermatic eratos
is though photodynamic production of ROS, thereby leading to apoptosis of cells.
1395435512027 1358629116480 {{c1::Coal Tar}} is a topical eratolytic agent
used to treat psoriasis and seborrheic dermatitis. It is made from coals.
1395435548817 1358629116480 {{c1::Alitretinoin}} and {{c2::Bexarotene}}
are topical retinoids used as antineoplastics in the treatment of Kaposi's Sarc
oma and cutaneous T-cell lymphoma respectively.
1395435624415 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Bleomycin?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Fragmentation of DNA via free radical formation}}</div>
1395435821343 1358629116480 Which phase of the cell cycle does Bleomycin act
in?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G2}}</div>
1395435833014 1358629116480 What is the severe adverse effect associated wit
h Bleomycin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary fibrosis/toxicity}}</div>
1395435852549 1358629116480 What is the MOA of the anti-neoplastic Carmustin
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c2::Alylation of DNA}}</div>
1395435879042 1358629116480 What is the adverse affect associated with Carmu
stine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CNS Toxicity}}</div>
1395435892881 1358629116480 What is the MOA of the antineoplastic Cyclophosp
hamide?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Formation of Carbonium ion that targets Guani
ne N7, thereby destabilizing DNA}}</div>
1395435944587 1358629116480 {{c1::Denileuin}} is an antineoplastic that is
composed of Diphtheria toxin and IL-2 receptor.
1395436473362 1358629116480 {{c1::Denileuin}} is an antineoplastic that tre
ats advanced cutaneous or peripheral T-cell lymphoma when there is > 20% of T
cells expressin CD25.
1395436505281 1358629116480 {{c1::Denileuin}} is an antineoplastic that tha
t treats cutaneous or peripheral lymphoma by binding to IL-2 receptors on <b>act

ivated</b> T-cells in order to internalize the active toxin portion that AD
P ribosylates EF2, thereby decreasing protein synthesis.
<br /><div><i>Re
member, Denileuin is IL-2 receptor + Diphtheria toxin</i></div>
1395436772713 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Doxorubicin?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c2::Inhibition of Topoisomerase II and radical formation}}</div>
1395436803534 1358629116480 What severe adverse effect is associated with Do
xorubicin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cardiotoxicity}}</div>
1395436821846 1358629116480 What is the MOA of the antineoplastic Vinblastin
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to Tubulin; Inhibits the polymerization of m
icrotubules}}</div>
1395436961043 1358629116480 What toxicity is associated with Vinblastine?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myelosuppression}}</div>
1395436990777 1358629116480 {{c1::Vorinostat}} is an anti-neoplastic that ac
ts through inhibition of HDAT (Histone Deacetlyase Enzymes), thereby altering an
d destabilizing chromatin structure.
1395437036816 1358629116480 What is the MOA of the antineplastic Vorinostat?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibitiong of HDAT (Histone Deacetylase Enzymes)}}<
/div>
1395437067615 1358629116480 {{c1::Capsaicin}} is a dermatological agent that
treats pathological pain through agonism at TRPV1 (Transient Receptor Potential
Vanilloid-1), thereby leading to desensitization/downregulation of nerve ending
s.
1395437307230 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Capsaicin in the treatment of
pathological pain?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Agonism at TRPV-1 (Transient Rece
ptor Potential Vanilloid-1)}}</div>
1395437336642 1358629116480 {{c1::Dapsone}} is a dermatological agent that a
cts as a competitive antagonist of PABA and Folic Acid synthesis.
1395437395714 1358629116480 {{c1::Dapsone}} is a dermatological agent that a
cts as an anti-inflammatory by preventing respiratory bursts in Myeloperoxidase.
1395437432220 1358629116480 {{c1::Dapsone}} is a dermatological agent that b
locs integrin mediated adherence during neutrophil migration, thereby acting as
an anti-inflammatory.
1395438012368 1358629116480 {{c1::Cocaine}} is a topical local anaesthetic t
hat is used in ENT procedures due to its excellent penetration and local vasocon
striction.
1395445612517 1358629116480 Into which CNS space is anaesthetic administered
in Spinal Anaesthesia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Subarachnoid Space}}</div>
1395446477833 1358629116480 How many spinal segments from the point of Senso
ry Anaesthesia does Sympathetic N.S. anaesthesia develop?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::2 above}}</div>
1395446584630 1358629116480 How many spinal segments from the point of Senso
ry Anaesthesia does Motor anaesthesia develop?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2 belo
w}}</div>
1395446611881 1358629116480 Which type of anaesthesia is suitable for older
patients and for patients with systemic diseases?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Spi
nal anaesthesia}}</div>
1395447302794 1358629116480 {{c1::Bier Bloc}} is a method of anaesthesia th
at involves IV regional anaesthesia typically for a short surgical procedure (&l
t; 60 min), especially at the upper or lower extremities.
<br /><div><i>An
aesthetic is injected into the vein and the limb's circulation is isolated with
tourniquet.</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-75977971469
48.jpg" /></i></div>
1395447461335 1358629116480 {{c1::Tachyphylaxis}} is an adverse effect of re
peated anaesthetic injections that manifests due to extracellular acidosis.
<div><br /></div><i>Remember, Tachyphylaxis is <b>rapid</b> desensitization
to the drug.</i><br /><div><i>Repeated injections deplete local tissue bufferin
g capacity; Acidosis of the tissue increases the cationic form of the drug which
exhibits poor diffusion into the cell.</i></div>
1395447552966 1358629116480 {{c1::Articaine}} is a local anaesthetic used fo
r dental and periodontal procedures.

1395447607593 1358629116480 {{c1::Cocaine}} is a topical anaesthetic used fo
r mucous membranes.
1395447624965 1358629116480 {{c1::Dyclonine}} is a local anaesthetic used fo
r pain with the oral mucosa.
1395447665983 1358629116480 {{c1::Pramoxine}} is a local anaesthetic used fo
r analgesia and antipruritic effects for hemorrhoids, burns, minor cutes, scrape
s and minor sin irritation.
1395447759924 1358629116480 {{c1::Chloroprocaine}} and {{c2::Lidocaine}
} are local anaesthetics that have strong neurotoxicity when used for spinal ana
esthesia.
1395448093704 1358629116480 What is the duration of action of Benzocaine?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Short}}</div>
1395448109110 1358629116480 What is the duration of action of Cocaine?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Short}}</div>
1395448113288 1358629116480 What is the duration of action of Chloroprocaine
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Short}}</div>
1395448123181 1358629116480 What is the duration of action of Tetracaine?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Short}}</div>
1395448128844 1358629116480 What is the duration of action of Bupivacaine?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Long}}</div>
1395448139968 1358629116480 What is the duration of action of Lidocaine?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Intermediate}}</div>
1395448145394 1358629116480 What is the duration of action of Prilocaine?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Intermediate}}</div>
1395448157060 1358629116480 What is the duration of action of Ropivacaine?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Long}}</div>
1395448165554 1358629116480 What <b>size</b> of nerve fibers are prefer
entially bloced by Local Anaesthetics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Small}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Because the distance of passive propagation of electrical impulses
is shorter.</i></div>
1395448249978 1358629116480 If 2 nerves have the same diameter, which parame
ter will determine which nerve is bloced first by a local anaesthetic?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Myelinated nerve is bloced first}}</div>
<br /><div><i>As
2-3 nodes of ranvier must be bloced to halt propagation as opposed to a longer
section of axon.</i></div>
1395448326690 1358629116480 What <b>type</b> of nerve fibers are prefer
entially bloced by local anaesthetics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pain (sensory
)}}</div>
1397486279373 1395802358422 Which enzyme acting on Arachidonic Acid yields L
euotrienes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lipoxygenase}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i><b>L</b>ipoxygenase yields <b>L</b>euotrienes.</i><br /><div><img src="past
e-34325378630254.jpg" /></div>
1397486919055 1395802358422 Which Leuotriene is chemotactic for Neutrophils
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LTB<sub>4</sub>}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b>Neutrop
hils</b> arrive <b>B4</b> others.</i></div>
1397486951032 1395802358422 Which leuocyte is attracted by LTB<sub>4</sub>?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Neutrophils}}</div> <br /><div><b><i>Neutrophils</i>
</b><i>arrive <b>B4</b> everyone else.</i></div><div><i><i
1397486983727 1395802358422 Which Prostacyclin inhibits platelet aggregation
and promotes vasodilation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PGI<sub>2</sub>}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-34325378630254.jpg" /></div>
1397487228415 1395802358422 Which enzyme acting on Arachidonic Acid yields P
rostaglandins, Prostacyclins and Thomboxane?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclooox
ygenase}}</div> <br /><div><img src="paste-34325378630254.jpg" /></di
v>
1397487848510 1395802358422 {{c1::LTC4}}, {{c2::LTD4}}, and {{c3::LTE4}
} are Leuotrienes that function in bronchoconstriction, vasoconstriction, smoot
h muscle contraction and increasing vascular permeability.
<br /><div><img
src="paste-34325378630254.jpg" /></div>
1397487853161 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Aspirin?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Irreversible inhibition of Cycolooxygenase (COX1 and COX2) by covalent ac
etylation}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Thereby decreases Thromboxane, Prostagland
in and Prostacyclin synthesis.</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i>"Why sho
uldn't you bring NSAIDs on a date? Because they're COX blocers!"</i></div>
1397488465031 1395802358422 How does Bleeding Time (BT) change following Asp
irin administration?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase; until new platelets ar
e made in ~7 days time}}</div>
1397488506257 1395802358422 How does PT change following Aspirin use?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::No change; remember Aspirin <b>only affects platelet aggreg
ation</b>}}</div>
1397488534307 1395802358422 How does PTT change following Aspirin use?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::No change; remember Aspirin <b>only affects platelet aggre
gation</b>}}</div>
1397488597269 1395802358422 What dose of Aspirin is used to inhibit platelet
aggregation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Low Dose (< 300 mg/day)}}</div>
1397488622642 1395802358422 What phase of platelet plug formation is inhibit
ed by Aspirin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Platelet Aggregation}}</div>
1397488704358 1395802358422 What dose of Aspirin is used to achieve antipyre
tic action and analgesia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Intermediate (300-2400 mg/d
ay)}}</div>
1397488734880 1395802358422 What does of Aspirin is used to achieve anti-inf
lammatory action?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::High (2400-4000 mg/day)}}</div>
1397488760886 1395802358422 What GI complication is associated with Aspirin
use?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Gastric ulceration; upper GI bleed with chronic
use}}</div>
1397488849390 1395802358422 What neurological complication is associated wit
h Aspirin use?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tinnitus (CN VIII activation)}}</div>
1397488872005 1395802358422 Which renal complications are associated with ch
ronic Aspirin use?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Renal Failure; Interstitial
Nephritis}}</div>
1397488895451 1395802358422 {{c1::Reye Syndrome}} is a severe complication o
f Aspirin use commonly seen in children that are being treated with Aspirin for
a viral infection.
<br /><div><i>Acetaminophen is the DOC for analgesia/ant
ipyresis in children with viral infections.</i></div>
1397488923413 1395802358422 {{c1::Hyperventilation}} is a respiratory compli
cation that arises in Aspirin use due to stimulation of the respiratory center.
1397488973683 1395802358422 {{c1::Respiratory Alalosis}} is an <b>acid-base
imbalance</b> that is seen in Aspirin use due to stimulation of the respir
atory center and hyperventilation.
1397489014307 1395802358422 What type of anti-inflammatory is Ibuprofen?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::NSAID}}</div>
1397489055455 1395802358422 What type of anti-inflammatory is Naproxen?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NSAID}}</div>
1397489060238 1395802358422 What type of anti-inflammatory is Indometha
cin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NSAID}}</div>
1397489065579 1395802358422 What type of anti-inflammatory is Ketorolac
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NSAID}}</div>
1397489072311 1395802358422 What type of anti-inflammatory is Diclofena
c?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NSAID}}</div>
1397489082695 1395802358422 What is the MOA of NSAIDs?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::<b>Reversible</b> inhibition of Cyclooxygenase (both COX1 and COX2),
thereby blocing prostaglandin synthesis}}</div>
1397489114929 1395802358422 Which NSAID is used to <b>close</b> a
Patent Ductus Arteriosus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Indomethacin}}</div>
1397489151325 1395802358422 {{c1::Gastric Ulcer}} is a GI complication of NS
AID use due to the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis at the stomach.
1397489196241 1395802358422 {{c1::Renal Ischemia}} is a renal complication o
f NSAID use due to a lac of Prostaglandin synthesis and hence vasocontriction o
f the afferent arteriole.

<br /><div><i>Prostaglandins <b>vasodilate</b>&n
bsp;the afferent arteriole. This is bloced by NSAIDs.</i></div>
1397489242923 1395802358422 {{c1::Celecoxib}} is an NSAID that <b>selectivel
y inhibits Cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2)</b>, which is found in inflammatory cells and
vascular endothelium (mediating pain and inflammation).
1397489307207 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Celecoxib?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Selective reversible inhibition of <b>Cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2)</b>
which is found in inflammatory cells and vascular endothelium}}</div>
1397489350477 1395802358422 Which isoform of Cyclooxygenase is found in infl
ammatory cells and vascular endothelium?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::COX2}}</div>
1397489369222 1395802358422 Which isoform of Cyclooxygenase is found at the
gastric mucosa?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::COX1}}</div>
1397489387909 1395802358422 Which isoform of Cyclooxygenase produces Thrombo
xane A<sub>2</sub>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::COX1}}</div>
1397489418932 1395802358422 {{c1::Celecoxib}} is an NSAID that selectively i
nhibits COX2, thereby sparing COX1 at the gastric mucosa and not causing gastric
ulceration.
1397489470259 1395802358422 {{c1::Celecoxib}} is an NSAID that selectively i
nhibits COX2, thereby sparing platelet function as Thromboxane A<sub>2</sub>&nbs
p;production is dependent on COX1.
1397489511847 1395802358422 Which type of anti-inflammatory is Celecoxib?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::NSAID; Selective for COX2}}</div>
1397489670719 1395802358422 {{c1::Celecoxib}} is an NSAID that is safe to us
e in patients with Gastritis or Gastric Ulcers as it does not affect COX1 action
at the stomach.
1397489757797 1395802358422 {{c1::Celecoxib}} is an NSAID selective for COX2
that is used to treat Rheumatoid Arthritis and Osteoarthritis.
1397489847846 1395802358422 {{c1::Thrombosis}} is a hematological complicati
on that has an increased ris of manifesting in Celecoxib use as it spares plate
let function as it is selective for COX2.
1397489925560 1395802358422 {{c1::Acetaminophen}} is an antipyretic/analgesi
c that reversibly inhibits cyclooxygenase <b>in the CNS </b>as it is typically i
nactivated peripherally.
1397490012116 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Acetaminophen?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Reversible inhibition of Cyclooxygenase, <b>mostly in the CNS</b>}}
</div> <br /><div><i>It is inactivated peripherally.</i></div>
1397490039280 1395802358422 Which analgesic/antipyretic is used instead of A
spirin in children with viral infections to avoid Reye Syndrome?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Acetaminophen}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Acetaminophen is the DOC f
or analgesia/antipyresis in children with viral infections.</i></div>
1397490150618 1395802358422 {{c1::Hepatic Necrosis}} is a classical complica
tion of Acetaminophen overdose due to NAPQI toxicity.
1397490209616 1395802358422 {{c1::NAPQI}} is a toxic metabolite of acetamino
phen that depletes glutathione and forms toxic tissue adducts in the liver, ther
eby causing Hepatic Necrosis and potentially liver failure.
1397490251303 1395802358422 Which toxic metabolite of Acetaminophen depletes
glutathione and forms toxic tissue adducts in the liver?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::NAPQI}}</div>
1397490284036 1395802358422 What is the antidote for Acetaminophen overdose?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::N-Acetylcysteine; regenerates glutathione}}</div>
1397490307172 1395802358422 {{c1::N-acetylcysteine}} is the antidote for Ace
taminophen overdose as it regenerates glutathione.
1397490340890 1395802358422 {{c1::Alendronate}} is a Bisphosphonate that bin
ds to hydroxyapatite in bone, thereby inhibiting osteoclast activity. <br /><d
iv><i>-dronates are all Bisphosphonates.</i></div>
1397490603007 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Bisphosphonates (Alendronate;
-dronate)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to hydroxyapatite in bone, thereby
inhibiting osteoclast activity}}</div>
1397490643675 1395802358422 {{c1::Bisphosphonates}} are a <b>type</b> o
f drug that are used in Osteoporosis, Hypercalcemia and Paget Disease of Bone as
they bind hydroxyapatite in bone to inhibit osteoclast activity.

1397490717993 1395802358422 {{c1::Corrosive Esophagitis}} is a GI complicati
on of Bisphosphonates that arises if patients do not tae the drug with water an
d remain upright for 30 minutes.
1397490765780 1395802358422 Osteonecrosis is a complication of Bisphosphonat
e administration. Where does it commonly occur?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::The j
aw}}</div>
1397490795247 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Allopurinol?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhibition of Xanthine Oxidase, thereby decreasing the converstion of
xanthine to uric acid}}</div> <br /><div><img src="paste-41652592837187.jpg" /
></div>
1397490875284 1395802358422 {{c1::Allopurinol}} is a chronic gout drug that
is also used in Lymphoma and Leuemia to prevent tumour lysis-associated urate n
ephropathy.
1397490910740 1395802358422 Which chronic gout drug is also used in Lymphoma
and Leuemia to prevent tumour lysis-associated urate nephropathy?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Allopurinol}}</div>
1397490991681 1395802358422 How does Allopurinol affect the concentrations o
f Azathioprine and 6-Mercaptopurine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increases both,
as both are normally metabolized by Xanthine Oxidase}}</div>
1397491027973 1395802358422 {{c1::Allopurinol}} is a chronic gout drug that
<b>increases</b> the concentrations of Azathioprine and 6-Mercaptopurine, a
s they are both metabolized by Xanthine Oxidase.
1397491070395 1395802358422 {{c1::Salicylates}} are a <b>type of chemical/dr
ug</b> that are contraindicated with Allopurinol as they depress uric acid
clearance.
<br /><div><i>Even high doses (5-6 g/day) have <b>minor</b>&nbsp
;uricosuric activity.</i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-4
3001212568126.jpg" /></i></div>
1397491204682 1395802358422 What <b>type of chemical/drug</b> is contra
indicated in Allopurinol therapy as they depress Uric Acid clearance?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Salicylates}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-4300121256812
6.jpg" /></div>
1397491240715 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Febuxostat?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of Xanthine Oxidase}}</div>
te-43005507535422.jpg" /></div>
1397491261524 1395802358422 What is the clinical use of Febuxostat?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Gout (or prevention)}}</div>
1397491276340 1395802358422 What is the primary clinical use of Allopurinol?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic Gout (or prevention)}}</div>
1397491310250 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Probenecid?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of the <b>reabsorption</b> of Uric Acid in the Proximal Con
voluted Tubule (PCT)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>It also inhibits the <b>secretion<
/b> of Penicillin and can be used to maintain penicillin levels.</i></div><
div><i><br /></i></div><div><i><img src="paste-43001212568126.jpg" /></i></div>
1397491400188 1395802358422 {{c1::Probenecid}} is a chronic gout drug that i
s functions by inhibiting the <b>rebsorption </b>of Uric Acid in the PCT.
1397491448302 1395802358422 {{c1::Probenecid}} is a chronic gout drug that a
lso inhibits the <b>secretion</b> of Penicillin into the urine.
<br /><d
1397491467842 1395802358422 Which chronic gout drug inhibits the <b>reabsorp
tion</b> of Uric Acid at the Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Probenecid}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="paste-4300121256812
6.jpg" /></div>
1397491540243 1395802358422 Which NSAIDs are used to treat acute gout?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Naproxen; Indomethacin}}</div>
1397491568325 1395802358422 What is the ROA of Glucocorticoids being used to
treat Acute Gout?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oral; Intraarticular}}</div>
1397491599711 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Colchicine?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Binds to and stabilizes Tubulin, thereby inhibiting microtubule polyme
rization and impairing leuocyte chemotaxis/degranulation}}</div>

1397491643020 1395802358422 What is the primary clinical use of Colchicine?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acute Gout}}</div>
1397491654889 1395802358422 {{c1::Colchicine}} is an acute gout drug that bi
nds to an stabilizes Tubulin to inhibit microtubule polymerization, thereby impa
ring Leuocyte chemotaxis and degranulation.
1397491690485 1395802358422 What side effect are associated with Colchicine?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GI}}</div>
1397491713539 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Etanercept?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Recombinant fusion protein that acts as a TNF decoy receptor, thereby
preventing TNF from binding to actual receptors and inhibiting the proinflammato
ry response}}</div>
1397491876545 1395802358422 {{c1::Etanercept}} is an anti-inflammatory that
acts as a TNF decory receptor.
1397491909556 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Infliximab?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Monoclonal Ab; Binds to and inhibits TNF-alpha}}</div>
1397491943001 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Adalimumab?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Monoclonal Ab; Binds to an inhibits TNF-alpha}}</div>
1397491957831 1395802358422 How do TNF-alpha inhibitors influence infection
ris?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increased ris, especially with TB as TNF is ne
eded to activate macrophages and induce phagocytic destruction of microbes}}</di
v>
1397492004534 1395802358422 Which joint disorder is treated with TNF-alpha i
nhibitors (Etanercept; Infliximab, Adalimumab)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rheum
atoid Arthritis}}</div>
1397492065621 1395802358422 Which Seronegative Spondyloarthropathy can be tr
eated with TNF-alpha inhibitors (Etanercept; Infliximab, Adalimumab)?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Anylosing Spondylitis}}</div>
1397492099656 1395802358422 Which sin disorder can be treated with TNF
-alpha inhibitors (Etanercept; Infliximab, Adalimumab)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::Psoriasis}}</div>
1397492112898 1395802358422 Which GI disorder can be treated with Infliximab
and Adalimumab?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inflammatory Bowel Disease (Crohn Di
sease and Ulcerative Colitis)}}</div>
1382222141618 1358629116480 Which bleeding parameter do we use to monitor th
e effect of Warfarin/Coumadin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PT}}</div>
1382222805255 1358629116480 Which coagulation factors does High Molecular We
ight Heparin (HMWH) inhibit?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Factors II, IX, X, XI, X
II}}</div>
1382223023874 1358629116480 Which coagulation factors do Vitamin K antagonis
ts affect?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Factors II, VII, IX and X}}</div>
1382230427299 1358629116480 What is the mechanism of action of Warfarin?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Vitamin K Epoxide Reductase}}</div>
1382230576960 1358629116480 {{c1::Dabigatran etexilate}} is an antocoagulant
that is a prodrug. Once activated it directly inhibits both free and clot
-bound thrombin.
1382230779809 1358629116480 {{c1::Alteplase}} is a thrombolytic and is recom
binant human tPA.
1382230852860 1358629116480 How does Aspirin inhibit platelet aggregation?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Thromboxane A<sub>2 </sub>production}}</
div>
1382230906664 1358629116480 {{c1::Clopidogrel}} is an anti-platelet drug tha
t irreversibly inhibits {{c2::ADP receptors}} on platelets, thereby preventing c
lumping.
1382231081452 1358629116480 What drug is used as a rapid antidote to Heparin
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Protamine sulphate}}</div>
1382231163739 1358629116480 {{c1::Aminocaproic acid}} is a drug used to trea
t bleeding disorders by inhibiting the activation of plasminogen.
1382634951241 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Cytarabine used to treat AML?
<div><br />{{c1::Blocing of DNA Strand elongation}}</div>
1382634981548 1358629116480 {{c1::Carmustine}} is an alylating agent cancer

chemotherapy that is toxic to the CNS. It is used for CNS cancers.
1382817154505 1358629116480 What phase of the cell cycle does Bleomycin have
an effect on cancer?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G2-Phase}}</div>
1382835319214 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Methotrexate?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Dihydrofolate Reductase}}</div>
1382836138335 1358629116480 What is the antidote to Methotrexate?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Leuovorin/Folinic Acid}}</div>
1382836829405 1358629116480 What is MOA of Cyclophosphamide?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Formation of Carbonium ions with Guanine-N7}}</div>
1382836914031 1358629116480 What is the antidote for Cyclophosphamide?<div><
br>{{c1::Mesna}}</div>
1382837006681 1358629116480 {{c1::Demecocycline}} is an antidote given for C
yclophosphamide treatment to treat the symptoms of Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH
Secretion (SIADH)
1382837213623 1358629116480 {{c1::Cisplatin}} is a <b>bone-marrow sparing</b
> alylating agent used in cancer chemotherapy.
1382837368884 1358629116480 {{c1::Amifostine}} is an antidote for Cisplatin
treatment to counteract nephrotoxicity.
1382837430582 1358629116480 What type of cancer chemotherapy is Doxorubicin?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytotoxic antibiotic}}</div>
1382837509282 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Doxorubicin (Adriamycin)?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Free radical generation to cause DNA strand breas, Inte
rcalation of DNA leading to inhibition of Topoisomerase II}}</div>
1382837540333 1358629116480 Besides myelosuppression, what is the serious ad
verse effect of Doxo<b>rub</b>icin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cardiotoxicity}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>'rub' = ruby = red = heart</i></div>
1382837621671 1358629116480 {{c2::Dexrazoxane}} is an antidote for Doxorubic
in treatment that acts as an iron chelator and reduces free radical formation.
1382837964948 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Bleomycin?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::DNA fragmentation through free radical formation}}</div>
1382838668785 1358629116480 {{c1::Vincristine}} is a <b>bone marrow sparing<
/b> vinca alaloid used for cancer chemotherapy.
1397226484821 1395802358422 {{c1::Heparin}} is an anticoagulant that functio
ns by acting as a cofactor for the activation of Antithrombin. <br /><div><i>Th
ereby decreasing Thrombin (IIa) and Factor Xa levels.</i></div>
1397226584007 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Heparin?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Cofactor for the activation of Antithrombin}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th
ereby decreasing Thrombin (Factor IIa) and Factor Xa levels.</i></div>
1397226612776 1395802358422 What is the half-life of Heparin?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Short}}</div>
1397226622835 1395802358422 Which coagulation test is used to gauge the acti
on of Heparin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PTT}}</div> <br /><div><i>3 letters
= Hep = PTT</i></div>
1397226704783 1395802358422 What is the toxicity of Heparin at bone?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Osteoporosis}}</div>
1397226754902 1395802358422 {{c1::Protamine Sulfate}} is a positively charge
d molecule that is used as an antidote to Heparin as it binds to the negatively
charged Heparin molecules.
1397227051007 1395802358422 {{c1::Enoxaparin}} and {{c2::Dalteparin}} a
re <b>low-molecular-weight heparins (LMWH)</b> that function similarly to n
ormal Heparin (HMWH), however they act more on Factor Xa.
<br /><div><i>Th
ey also have better bioavailability and 2-4x longer half-life.</i></div><div><i>
ROA is SC.</i></div><div><i>No laboratory monitoring is required.</i></div>
1397227177564 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is primarily targeted b
y Heparin (HWMH)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thrombin (Factor IIa) and Factor Xa
}}</div>
1397227244177 1395802358422 Which type of Heparin has better bioavailability
and 2-4x longer half-life?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LMWH}}</div>
1397227315703 1395802358422 Which form of Heparin <b>does not</b> requi
re laboratory monitoring?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::LMWH}}</div>

1397227329989 1395802358422 {{c1::Argatroban}} and {{c2::Bivalirudin}}
are hirudin anticoagulants that are derived from the anticoagulant used by leech
es.
1397227371033 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Argatroban and Bivalirudin (h
irudin anticoagulants)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Direct inhibition of Thrombin
(Factor IIa)}}</div>
1397227408980 1395802358422 {{c1::Argatroban}} and {{c1::Bivalirudin}}
are hirudin anticoagulants used instead of Heparin in patients that have Heparin
-induced Thrombocytopenia that function by directly inhibiting Thrombin.
<br /><div><i>Lepirudin is also another example not in FA2014.</i></div>
1397227481888 1395802358422 {{c1::Warfarin (Coumadin)}} is an anticoagulant
that functions by interfering with the normal synthesis and -carboxylation o
f Vitamin-K dependent clottin factors (II, VII, IX, X) and Protein C and S.
<div><br /></div><i>By actin as a Vitamin K antaonist.</i><br /><div><i>People
always foret about Protein C and S. Don't be that uy.</i></div>
1397229858709 1395802358422 {{c1::Warfarin}} is an <b>oral</b> anticoa
ulant that is metabolized by the cytochrome P450 pathway.
1397230173819 1395802358422 What is the half-life of Warfarin?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Lon}}</div>
1397230182897 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Warfarin?<div><br />{{c1::Inh
ibition of normal synthesis and -carboxylation of Vitamin K-dependent clottin fa
ctors by actin at a Vitamin K antaonist}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Factors II
, VII, IX and X as well as Protein C and S.</i></div>
1397230369633 1395802358422 What is the anticoaulant of choice for the prev
ention of stroke in atrial fibrillation patients?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::War
farin}}</div>
1397230392891 1395802358422 What is the anticoaulant of choice to achieve <
b>immediate</b> anticoaulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Heparin}}</div>
1397230634015 1395802358422 {{c1::Skin/Tissue Necrosis}} is a possible compl
ication of Warfarin administration that involves necrosis of skin or other soft
tissue. <im src="paste-3620657430743.jp" />
1397230684893 1395802358422 {{c1::Apixaban}} and {{c2::Rivaroxaban}} ar
e anticoaulants that function by bindin to and directly inhibitin the activit
y of Factor Xa. <br /><div><i>Api<b><u>Xa</u></b>ban and Rivaro<b><u>Xa</u></b>b
an taret Factor <b><u>Xa</u></b>.</i></div>
1397230885781 1395802358422 {{c1::Apixaban}} and {{c2::Rivaroxaban}} ar
e anticoaulants used to treat and prevent DVT and stroke in A-fib patients by <
u>bindin to and directly inhibitin the activity of Factor Xa.</u>
<br /><d
iv><i>Api<b><u>Xa</u></b>ban and Rivaro<b><u>Xa</u></b>ban taret Factor <b
><u>Xa</u></b>.</i></div>
1397230921892 1395802358422 {{c1::Rivaroxaban}} is an anticoaulant that is
used to treat and prevent PE by <u>directly bindin to and inhibitin the activi
ty of Factor Xa.</u>
<br /><div><i>Api<b><u>Xa</u></b>ban and Rivaro<b><u>Xa<
/u></b>ban taret Factor <b><u>Xa</u></b>.</i></div>
1397230949132 1395802358422 What is the most common adverse effect of Apixab
an and Rivaroxaban (Factor Xa inhibitors)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bleedin;
there is no specific antidote}}</div>
1397230976085 1395802358422 {{c1::Vitamin K}} is a dru that can be iven to
reverse Warfarin overdose.
1397230997343 1395802358422 What is the treatment for <b>severe</b> War
farin overdose?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fresh Frozen Plasma}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Followed by Vitamin K</i></div>
1397231471329 1395802358422 Where in the body does Warfarin act?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Liver (at the level of coaulation factor synthesis)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>And Protein C and S!</i></div>
1397231520203 1395802358422 What is the onset of action of Warfarin?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Slow}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Warfarin is able to stop s
ynthesis riht away, but it's effect is limited by the half-lives of normal clot
tin factors that were made before Warfarin administration.</i></div>
1397231681637 1395802358422 What is the duration of action of Heparin?<div><

br /></div><div>{{c1::Acute (only lasts for a few hours)}}</div>
1397231892711 1395802358422 What is the duration of action of Warfarin?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Chronic (days)}}</div>
1397231937316 1395802358422 What <b>type </b>of anticoaulant is Alteplase (
tPA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thrombolytic; tissue plasminoen activator}}</d
iv>
1397232183557 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Alteplase?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Activation/conversion of Plasminoen to Plasmin, which then cleaves thr
ombin and fibrin clots}}</div>
1397232477560 1395802358422 What is the treatment for Thrombolytic toxicity?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aminocaproic Acid}}</div>
1397232588793 1395802358422 {{c1::Aminocaproic Acid}} is a procoaulant that
can be used to treat Thrombolytic toxicity by inhibitin fibrinolysis by inhibi
tin plasminoen activation.
1397232630838 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Aminocaproic Acid?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of plasminoen activation and hence inhibition of Fi
brinolysis}}</div>
1397238217409 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Aspirin?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Irreversible inhibition of cyclooxyenase (both COX1 and COX2) via covale
nt acetylation}}</div>
1397238439222 1395802358422 How does PTT chane after Aspirin administration
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No chane}}</div> <br /><div><i>Aspirin inhibits&n
bsp;<b>platelet areation</b>. PTT measures coaulation!!</i></div>
1397238459456 1395802358422 How does Bleedin Time (BT) chane after Aspirin
administration?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Increase}}</div>
<br /><div><i>As
pirin inhibits <b>platelet areation</b>. </i></div>
1397238943922 1395802358422 How does Aspirin affect acid-base balance?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Initially causes Respiratory Alkalosis; Metabolic Acidosis
superimposes on top after}}</div>
<br /><div><i>RAlk --&t; MAc</i></div>
1397239133781 1395802358422 What type of antiplatelet/anticoaulant is Clopi
dorel?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ADP receptor inhibitor}}</div>
1397239225804 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Clopidorel?<div><br></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of platelet areation by irreversible blockin ADP recepto
rs on platelets; Inhibits fibrinoen bindin by blokin GpIIb/IIIa expression }}
</div> <br><div><im src="paste-8083128451642.jp" /></div>
1397239584439 1395802358422 What stae of platelet plu formation is inhibit
ed by Aspirin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Platelet areation}}</div>
1397239598624 1395802358422 What stae of platelet plu formation is inhibit
ed by ADP Receptor Inhibitors (Clopidorel; Ticlopidine)?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Platelet areation}}</div>
1397241819610 1395802358422 {{c1::Cilostazol}} and {{c2::Dipyridamole}}
are anti-platelet drus that act at anticoaulants by inhibitin phopshodiester
ase III, thereby increasin [cAMP] in platelets and preventin platelet areat
ion.
1397247098765 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the anti-platelet Dipyridamol
e?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of phosphodiesterase III, thereby incre
asin [cAMP] in platelets and inhibitin platelet areation}}</div>
are anti-platelet drus that also function as vasodilators, as they inhibit Pho
sphodiesterase III.
are anti-platelet drus that can cause nausea, headache, facial flushin, hypot
ension and abdominal pain, all due to their ability to cause vasodilation.
1397247884935 1395802358422 What stae of platelet plu formation do Cilosta
zol and Dipyridamole inhibit?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Platelet areation}}<
/div> <br /><div><i>All antiplatelet drus inhibits platelet areation</i></
div>
1397247973114 1395802358422 What type of anticoaulant is Tirofiban?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Antiplatelet; GpIIb/IIIa inhibitor}}</div>
1397248583312 1395802358422 Which stae of the cell cycle do Vinca Alkaloids

and Taxols inhibit?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::M}}</div>
<br /><div><im
src="paste-11978663789090.jp" /></div>
1397248720018 1395802358422 Which stae of the cell cycle does Etoposide inh
ibit?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::S; G2}}</div>
1397249163421 1395802358422 Which stae of the cell cycle does Cisplatin inh
ibit?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G1}}</div>
1397251895665 1395802358422 {{c1::Dactinomycin}} and {{c2::Doxorubicin}
} are antitumour antibiotics that inhibit cellular proliferation by <b>intercala
tin DNA</b>. <br /><div><im src="paste-12945031430441.jp" /></div>
1397252058906 1395802358422 {{c1::Methotrexate (MTX)}} is an antimetabolite
antineoplastic that functions as a Folic Acid analo and inhibits Dihydrofolate
Reductase.
<div><br /></div><i>Thereby eventually leadin to <b>decreased&n
bsp;dTMP</b> and less DNA and protein synthesis.</i><br /><div><im src="pa
ste-13868449399244.jp" /></div>
1397258754520 1395802358422 After complexin with Folic Acid, which enzyme d
oes 5-Fluorouracil inhibit?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thymidylate Synthase}}</d
iv>
<br /><div><i>Thereby causin decreased dTMP synthesis and inhibition of
protein and DNA synthesis.</i></div><div><i><im src="paste-14839112008157.jp"
/></i></div>
1397258829083 1395802358422 What is the MOA of 5-Fluorouracil (5FU)?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Thymidylate Synthase via covalently complexin
with Folic Acid}}</div>
1397259242813 1395802358422 {{c1::Colon Cancer}} is a GI cancer that can be
treated with 5-Fluorouracil (5FU).
1397259296118 1395802358422 {{c1::Pancreatic Cancer}} is an endocrine cancer
that can be treated with 5-Fluorouracil (5FU).
1397259969723 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antineoplastic Cytarabine
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of DNA polymerase (as a pyrimidine analo
)}}</div>
1397260112545 1395802358422 What type of anaemia is associated with Cytarabi
ne?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mealoblastic Anaemia}}</div>
<br /><div><i>As
part of a pancytopenia</i></div>
1397260283043 1395802358422 What is the MOA of 6-Mercaptopurine?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of de novo purine synthesis}}</div>
1397261049229 1395802358422 Which enzyme metabolizes Azathioprine and 6-Merc
aptopurine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Xanthine Oxidase}}</div> <br /><div><i>He
nce Allopurinol, a dru that inhibits Xanthine Oxidase, will increase the toxici
ty of both Azathioprine and 6MP.</i></div>
1397261352499 1395802358422 {{c1::Dactinomycin}} is an antitumour antibiotic
that is commonly used in childhood tumours such as Wilms tumour, Ewin Sarcoma
and Rhabdomyosarcoma. <br /><div><i>Children <b>ACT</b> out, et tumours
and then receive D<b>ACT</b>inomycin.</i></div>
1397261543718 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Dactinomycin?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Intercalates into DNA, thereby causin DNA damae and stoppin the c
ell cycle}}</div>
1397261576847 1395802358422 What is the primary toxicity of Dactinomycin?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Myelosuppression}}</div>
1397261635422 1395802358422 {{c1::Doxorubicin}} and {{c1::Daunorubicin}
} are antitumour antibiotics that function throuh <u>both</u> the enerati
on of free radicals <u>and</u> intercalatin into DNA.
<br /><div><i>Re
member, intercalation into DNA causes DNA breaks and hence a decrease in replica
tion.</i></div>
1397261754554 1395802358422 What is the MOA of Doxorubicin and Daunorubicin?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Generation of Free Radicals <u>and</u> Intercal
ation into DNA}}</div>
1397261804029 1395802358422 Which antitumour antibiotics are used to treat S
olid Tumours in addition to Leukemias and Lymphomas?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Doxorubicin and Daunorubicin}}</div>
1397261889610 1395802358422 What is the major toxicity associated with Doxor
ubicin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cardiotoxicity (dilated cardiomyopathy)}}</di

v>
<br /><div><i>Doxo<b>RUB</b>icin; rub = red = heart</i></div>
1397262375604 1395802358422 What type of antineoplastic is Doxorubicin?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Antitumour antibiotic}}</div>
1397262426525 1395802358422 What is the toxicity of Bleomycin at mucous memb
ranes?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mucositis}}</div>
1397262463322 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyclophosphamide}} is an alkylatin antine
oplastic aent that functions by covalently X-linkin DNA at Guanine N-7, thereb
y damain DNA.
1397262673536 1395802358422 What type of antineoplastic is Cyclophosphamide
and Ifosfamide?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alkylatin aent}}</div>
1397262753051 1395802358422 What type of antineoplastic are Nitrosoureas (Ca
rmustine, Lomustine, Semustine, Streptozocin)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alkyla
tin aents}}</div>
1397262926995 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antineoplastics Cyclophos
phamide and Ifosfamide?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Covalently X-links to DNA at Gu
anine N7, thereby causin DNA damae}}</div>
1397262985353 1395802358422 {{c1::Cyclophosphamide}} and {{c2::Ifosfami
de}} are alkylatin antineoplastic aents that require bioactivation by the live
r.
1397263053851 1395802358422 What is the primary toxicity of Cyclophosphamide
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hemorrhaic cystitis}}</div>
1397263195947 1395802358422 What type of alkylatin antineoplastic aents ca
n cross the BBB?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nitrosoureas (Carmustine, Lomustine,
Semustine)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Then they cross-link DNA.</i></div>
1397264007828 1395802358422 What type of alkylatin antineoplastic aent is
Carmustine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nitrosourea}}</div>
1397264049706 1395802358422 What type of alkylatin antineoplastic aents ar
e used primarily to treat brain cancer, includin Glioblastoma Multiforme?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Nitrosoureas (Carmustine, Lomustine, Semustine, Streptozoc
in)}}</div>
1397264098414 1395802358422 What is the primary toxicity of Nitrosoureas (Ca
rmustine, Lomustine)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CNS toxicity such as convulsion
s, dizziness, ataxia}}</div>
1397264452240 1395802358422 What type of antineoplastic dru is Vinblas
tine?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vinca alkaloid; microtubule inhibitor}}</div>
1397264465549 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the Vinca Alkaloids (Vincrist
ine and Vinblastine)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bind to -tuulin, therey inhii
ting microtuule polymerization and mitotic spindle formation}}</div>
1397264586129 1395802358422 {{c1::Vincristine}} and&nsp;{{c2::Vinlastine}}
are microtuule inhiiting antineoplastic drugs that ind to and inhiit&nsp;<
>-tuulin</>, therey inhiiting microtuule polymerization and mitotic spindle
formation.
<r /><div><i>Hence they act in the M-phase</i></div>
1397264692256 1395802358422 What is the primary toxicity of Vinlastine?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myelosuppression}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Vin<>las
t</>ine <>lasts </>one</i></div>
1397264965845 1395802358422 What type of antineoplastic drug is Paclitaxel a
nd other Taxols?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Microtuule inhiitors}}</div>
1397265184734 1395802358422 Which microtuule inhiiting antineoplastics hyp
erstailize <>already polymerized</>&nsp;microtuules and hence inhiits the
<>reakdown of mitotic spindles</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paclitaxel and
other taxols}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Thereofre, anaphase cannot occur</i></div>
1397265245313 1395802358422 Which microtuule inhiiting antineoplastics are
used in ovarian and reast carcinomas?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Paclitaxel an
d other taxols}}</div>
1397265274181 1395802358422 What is the toxicity of Paclitaxel/Taxols at the
skin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alopecia}}</div>
1397265305630 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antineoplastic Cisplatin?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cross-linking of DNA}}</div>
1397265860724 1395802358422 What drug can e used to prevent the nephrotoxic
ity of Cisplatin and Caroplatin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Amifostine}}</div>

1397265877937 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antineoplastic Etoposide?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of Topoisomerase II, therey causing an i
ncrease in DNA degradation}}</div>
<r /><div><i>E<>TOPO</>side inhiits
<>TOPO</>isomerase II.</i></div>
1397265932036 1395802358422 What is the MOA of the antineoplastic Teniposide
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of Topoisomerase II, therey causing an
increase in DNA degradation}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Teni<>PO</>side inhiits
To<>PO</>isomerase</i></div>
1397266026641 1395802358422 What type of solid tumours are effectively treat
ed with Etoposide and Teniposide?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Testicular; Small C
ell Cancer of the Lung}}</div>
1397266066788 1395802358422 What is the toxicity of Etoposide and Teniposide
at the skin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Alopecia}}</div>
1397266083381 1395802358422 What is the toxicity of Etoposide and Teniposide
at the GI tract?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::GI irritation}}</div>
1397266160269 1395802358422 {{c1::Etoposide}} and&nsp;{{c2::Teniposide}} ar
e antineoplastics that inhiit <>Topoisomerase II</>, therey leading to an in
crease in DNA degradation.
1397270227923 1395802358422 What <>CNS</> chemotoxicity is associated with
Cisplatin and Caroplatin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Acoustic Nerve Damage}}</
div>
1397270440379 1395802358422 What chemotoxicity is associated with Vincristin
e?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Peripheral neuropathy}}</div>
<r /><div><img
src="paste-29867202577011.jpg" /></div>
1397270465604 1395802358422 What chemotoxicity is associated with Bleomycin
and Busulfan?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary Firosis}}</div>
<r /><d
1397270485327 1395802358422 What chemotoxicity is associated with Doxoruici
n (and Daunoruicin)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Cardiotoxicity (dilated cardiom
yopathy)}}</div>
1397270535441 1395802358422 What <>renal</> chemotoxicity is associated wi
th Cisplatin and Caroplatin?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nephrotoxicity}}</div>
1397270560982 1395802358422 What chemotoxicity is associated with Cyclophosp
hamide?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hemorrhagic Cystitis}}</div> <div><r /></div
><i>Rememer, the leeding is from the <>ladder.</></i><r /><div><img src="p
aste-29867202577011.jpg" /></div>
1397270602707 1395802358422 What is the chemotoxicity associated with 5-Fluo
rouracil (5FU)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myelosuppression}}</div>
<r /><d
1397270625771 1395802358422 What is the chemotoxicity associated with 6-Merc
aptopurine (6-MP)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myelosuppression}}</div> <r /><d
1397270640683 1395802358422 What is the chemotoxicity associated with Methot
rexate (MTX)?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Myelosuppression}}</div>
<r /><d
1385507717897 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Beta-lactams?<div><r /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhiition of acterial transpeptidase; Activation of acterial auto
lysins}}</div>
1385509018546 1358629116480 {{c1::Pseudomemranous colitis}} is a GI adverse
effect of penicillin usage due to toxin secretion from the acteria&nsp;{{c2::
<i>Clostridium difficile</i>}}.
1385509078658 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Clavulanate?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhiition of Beta-Lactamase}}</div>
1385509101063 1358629116480 What antiiotics are part of Augmentin?<div><r
/></div><div>{{c1::Amoxicillin and Clavulanate}}</div>
1385509119631 1358629116480 Which anti-iotic is used to treat <i>Klesiella
pneumoniae</i>&nsp;infections?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Penicillins (Augment
in)}}</div>
1385509514116 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Sulactam?<div><r /></div><d

iv>{{c1::Inhiition of Beta-Lactamase}}</div>
1385509532798 1358629116480 {{c1::Nafcillin}} and&nsp;{{c2::Dicloxacillin}}
are penicillins that are resistant to Staphylococcal eta-lactamase.
1385510126382 1358629116480 What is the DOC for MSSA respiratory infections?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Nafcillin or Dicloxacllin}}</div>
1385510164349 1358629116480 What generation cephalosporin in Cephalexin?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1385511489322 1358629116480 What generation cephalosporin in Ceftriaxone?<di
v><r />{{c1::3rd}}</div>
1385511499798 1358629116480 Cephalexin is effective against gram-{{c1::posit
ive}} respiratory infections. <r /><div><i>It is ineffective against LAME: Li
steria, Atypicals, Mycoplasma and Enterococci</i></div>
1385511558271 1358629116480 Vancomycin is ineffective against gram-{{c2::neg
ative}} acteria
1385511660831 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Vancomycin?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhiition of acterial Transglycolase}}</div>
1385511678938 1358629116480 What is the DOC for MRSA respiratory infections?
<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Vancomycin}}</div>
1385511715656 1358629116480 {{c1::Vancomycin}} is an antiiotic than can e
given orally to treat enterocolitis caused y <i>Clostridium difficile</i>
1385511750575 1358629116480 {{c2::Red man/neck syndrome}} is an adverse effe
ct of Vancomycin characterized y histamine induced hypotension and vasodilation
following IV ROA only.
1385511803666 1358629116480 Which class of antiiotics are the most effectiv
e against intracellular acteria?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Macrolides}}</div>
1385511990983 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Macrolide antiiotics?<div><
r /></div><div>{{c1::Binding to the 50S riosomal suunit, therey inhiiting tr
anslocation}}</div>
1385512019462 1358629116480 What is a secondary MOA of Macrolide antiiotics
at the GI tract?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Stimulation of Motilin receptors, t
herey causing GIT motility}}</div>
<div><i><r /></i></div><div><i>Hence ca
using GIT pain and diarrhea</i></div>
1385512064417 1358629116480 {{c1::Macrolides}} are antiiotics that <>inhi
it</>&nsp;many CP450 enzymes.
1385512105216 1358629116480 {{c1::Azithromycin}} is a macrolide antiiotic t
hat <>does not</>&nsp;inhiit CP450 enzymes.
1385512123332 1358629116480 What is the 1st choice antiiotic for Whooping C
ough?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Erythromycin}}</div>
1385512156035 1358629116480 What is the DOC for <i>Legionella pneumophila</i
>&nsp;infection?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Azithromycin}}</div>
1385512187121 1358629116480 What is the 1st line antiiotic for MAC infectio
ns?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Azithromycin}}</div>
1385512208521 1358629116480 Which <i>Mycoaterium sp.</i>&nsp;make up the M
AC?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::<i>Mycoacterium avium</i>&nsp;and <i>Mycoacter
ium intracellulare</i>}}</div>
hat we prefer over Doxycyline in pregnant women.
hat is used to treat Chlamydial urethritis and Chlamydial cervicitis.
1385512593053 1358629116480 What is the mechanism for Macrolide resistance?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c3::Methylation of the 50S riosomal suunit}}</div>
1385512670509 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Fluoroquinolone antiiotics?<
div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiitions of cytoplasmic Topoisomerase II and Topoi
somerase IV}}</div>
1385512717899 1358629116480 Ciprofloxacin, Levofloxacin and Moxifloxacin are
all&nsp;{{c1::fluoroquinolone}} antiiotics.
1385512796180 1358629116480 What is the DOC for Anthrax?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Ciprofloxacin}}</div>
1385512808437 1358629116480 What is the most potent fluoroquinolone against
<i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ciprofloxacin; except

in Cystic Firosis patients}}</div>
1385512839037 1358629116480 What is the 2nd line antiiotic for Tuerculosis
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Ciprofloxacin}}</div>
1385512863849 1358629116480 {{c1::Tendonitis}}, especially at the achilles t
endon, is a common adverse effect of Fluoroquinolones.
1385512892912 1358629116480 {{c1::Levofloxacin}} is the preferred fluoroquin
olone to treat community acquired pneumonia due to it's overall improved activit
y against gram-positives and atypical causes of pneumonia.
1385512975117 1358629116480 {{c1::Moxifloxacin}} is the fluoroquinolone with
<>weak</>&nsp;activity against <i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>.
1385512999859 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Linezolid?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Binding to the 23S suunit of the 50S riosomal suunit, therey locki
ng formation of the initiation complex}}</div>
1385513035393 1358629116480 Linezolid also inhiits&nsp;{{c1::Monoamine Oxi
dase (MAO)}}, an enzyme involved in metaolisation of many neurotransmitters and
hormones.
1385513069418 1358629116480 {{c1::Linezolid}} is an antiiotic that is gener
ally reserved as an alternative agent for the treatment of respiratory infection
s due to multidrug resistant strains such as MSSA, MRSA, VRSA and VRE. <r /><d
iv><i>It is hence used sparingly.</i></div>
1385513157112 1358629116480 {{c1::Linezolid}} is an Oxazolidinone antiiotic
that is ineffective against gram-{{c2::negative}} acteria.
1385694971101 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Isoniazid?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inactivates enzymes associated with mycolic acid synthesis, therey inh
iiting cell wall synthesis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Enoyl-ACP Reductase and Be
ta-Ketoacyl-ACP Synthase are inactivated.</i></div>
1385695837677 1358629116480 Isoniazid is converted into its active form y&n
sp;{{c1::Catalase-Peroxidase}}.
1385695871612 1358629116480 What is a common adverse effect of all first lin
e TB drugs?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hepatitis (hepatotoxicity)}}</div>
1385695900579 1358629116480 {{c1::Acetylisoniazid}} is a <>hepatotoxic</>&
nsp;metaolite of Isoniazid that can cause hepatitis in patients eing treated
for TB.
1385695949204 1358629116480 {{c1::Vitamin B6}} can e coadministered with Is
oniazid to prevent neuropathies.
1385695981037 1358629116480 {{c1::Rifampin}} is a first-line drug for TB tha
t is also a strong CP enzyme <>inducer</>.
1385696007546 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Rifampin?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Binds to the eta-suunit of DNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase, therey inhi
iting transcription}}</div>
1385696038987 1358629116480 {{c1::Rifampin}} is a first-line TB drug that yi
elds a reddish-orange discoloration of urine, tears, saliva, sweat and other od
ily fluids.
1385697363913 1358629116480 What is the first line therapy for active MTB in
the <>first 2 months of therapy</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rifampin, Ison
iazid, Pyrazinamide, Ethamutol}}</div> <r /><div><i>RIPE</i></div>
1385697402956 1358629116480 What is the first line therapy for active MTB in
fections during <>months 2-6 of therapy</>?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Rifampi
n and Isoniazid}}</div>
1385697433288 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Pryazinamide in TB therapy?<d
iv><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of MTB growth}}</div>
1385697462314 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Ethamutol in TB therapy?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhiition of Arainosyl Transferase, therey inhiiting
Arainogalactan synthesis}}</div>
<r /><div><i>Arainogalactan is an impo
rtant component of the cell wall</i></div>
1385697523273 1358629116480 {{c1::Ethamutol}} is a first-line TB therapy in
volving optic neuritis that involves decreased visual acuity and red-green colou
r lindness.
1385775528730 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Aluterol?<div><r /></div><d
iv>{{c1::B2 agonism}}</div>
1385776076120 1358629116480 What is the prototype <>short-acting</>&nsp;
eta2 agonist?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Aluterol}}</div>
1385776105952 1358629116480 What is the prototype <>long-acting</>&nsp;e
ta2 agonist?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Salmeterol}}</div>
1385776122460 1358629116480 What is the main MOA of Beta-2 agonists in the t
reatment of COPD?<div><r />{{c1::2 pre-synaptic receptor agonism, therey&nsp
;inhiiting ACh release}}</div>
1385776181501 1358629116480 What is the DOC to treat acute asthma?<div><r /
></div><div>{{c1::Aluterol}}</div>
1385776194322 1358629116480 What is the pregnancy category of eta2-agonists
?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::C}}</div>
1385776213353 1358629116480 What is the ROA of Salmeterol?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhalation via powder only}}</div>
1385776233925 1358629116480 Which eta2 agonist is involved in the long term
maintenance of Asthma?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Salmeterol}}</div>
1385776277082 1358629116480 {{c1::Salmeterol}} is a eta2-agonist that is co
ntraindicated in acute asthma.
1385776304212 1358629116480 {{c1::Theophylline}} is a Methylxanthine that ca
uses ronchodilation through unknown mechanisms.
1385776612407 1358629116480 Removal of the ronchodilator&nsp;{{c1::Theophy
lline}} can result in worsening of the disease.
1385776636803 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Ipratropium?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Competitive inhiition of ACh Muscarinic receptors}}</div>
1385776678585 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Tiotropium?<div><r /></div><
div>{{c1::Selective inhiition of M1 and M3 receptors}}</div> <r /><div><i>Do
es not antagonize M2 receptors&nsp;</i></div>
1385776725153 1358629116480 What is the DOC for Bronchodilation in COPD?<div
><r /></div><div>{{c1::Tiotropium}}</div>
1385776737663 1358629116480 {{c3::Inhaled Corticosteroids}} are used in the
prophylaxis and therapy of chronic asthma in patients who need more than&nsp;{{
c1::2}} weekly doses of&nsp;{{c2::eta-2 agonists}}
1385777370570 1358629116480 {{c1::Fluticasone}} is an inhaled corticosteroid
that is also used to treat Eosinophilic Esophagitis.
1385777425018 1358629116480 What is the Corticosteroid of choice for parente
ral administration?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Hydrocortisone}}</div>
1385778048287 1358629116480 What are the 2 Corticosteroids of choice for Ora
l administration?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::Prednisone and Prednisolone}}</div>
1385778074935 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Montelukast?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Antagonism of Cysteinyl Leukotriene Receptor 1 (CysLT1), therey loc
king leukotriene action}}</div>
1385778281063 1358629116480 {{c1::Montelukast}} and&nsp;{{c2::Zafirlukast}}
are leukotriene pathway inhiitors that antagonise Cysteinyl Lukotriene Recepto
r 1 (CysLT1) to lock leukotriene action.
1385778337092 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Zafirlukast?<div><r /></div>
<div>{{c1::Antagonism of Cysteinyl Leukotriene Receptor 1 (CysLT1), therey inhi
iting Leukotriene action}}</div>
1385778375470 1358629116480 What are the ligands that ind to Cysteinyl Leuk
otriene Receptor 1?<div><r /></div><div>{{c1::LTC4, LTD4 and LTE4}}</div>
<r /><div><i>a<u style="font-weight: old; ">CDE</u>'s of LT's</i></div>
1385778463657 1358629116480 What is the MOA of Zileuton?<div><r /></div><di
v>{{c1::Inhiition of 5-Lipoxygenase, therey inhiiting leukotriene synthesis}}
</div>
1385778524455 1358629116480 {{c1::Zileuton}} is a leukotriene-pathway inhii
tor that inhiits 5-Lipoxygenase.
1385778545905 1358629116480 {{c1::Omalizuma}} is a monoclonal antiody that
inds to {{c2::IgE}} antiodies, inhiiting their aility to ind to the&nsp;F
cRI r c ptor on mast c lls.
1385778639434 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Omalizumab?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Binds to IgE antibodi s, th r by inhibiting th ir ability to bind to F
cRI on mast c lls}}</div>

1385778667894 1358629116480 {{c1::Ambris ntan}} is an anti-pulmonary hyp rt
nsiv that comp titiv ly inhibits Endoth lin-1 at ET<sub>A</sub> r c ptors
only.
1385779244052 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Ambris ntan?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Comp titiv inhibition of Endoth lin-1 at ET<sub>A</sub> r c pto
rs only}}</div>
1385779260722 1358629116480 {{c1::Endoth lin-1}} is a pot nt pulmonary vasoc
ontrictor produc d in incr as d amounts in pulmonary hyp rt nsion. It also induc
s th prolif ration of pulmonary vascular smooth muscl .
1385779321631 1358629116480 {{c1::Bos ntan}} is an anti-pulmonary hyp rt nsi
v that comp titiv ly antagoniz s Endoth lin-1 at ET<sub>A</sub> and ET<sub
>B</sub>, th r by d cr asing pulmonary vascular r sistanc .
1385779398751 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Bos ntan?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Comp titiv antagonism Endoth lin-1 at ET<sub>A</sub> and ET<sub>B<
/sub>, th r by d cr asing pulmonary vascular r sistanc .}}</div>
1385779418751 1358629116480 {{c1::Ambris ntan}} is an Endoth lin-1 antagonis
t us d to tr at pHTN with WHO Class II or III symptoms.
1385779470001 1358629116480 {{c1::Bos ntan}} is an Endoth lin-1 antagonist u
s d to tr at pHTN with WHO class II, III and IV symptoms.
1385779493892 1358629116480 What is th pr gnancy rating of Endoth lin-1 ant
agonists?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X}}</div>
1385779522411 1358629116480 {{c1::Epoprost nol}} is an anti-pulmonary hyp rt
nsiv that acts as an agonist at IP1 r c ptors (PGI<sub>2</sub> R c ptors)
, th r by inducing vascular smooth muscl r laxation.
1385779646836 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Epoprost nol?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Agonist at IP1 r c ptors (PGI<sub>2</sub> R c ptors), th r by i
nducing vascular smooth muscl r laxation.}}</div>
1385779660233 1358629116480 {{c1::Sild nafil}} is an anti-pulmonary hyp rt n
siv that inhibits Phosphodi st ras -5, th r by inhibiting th d gradation of cG
MP.
1385779730872 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Sild nafil?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibits Phosphodi st ras -5, th r by inhibiting th d gradation of cG
MP; nhanc s NO action at corpus cav rnosum}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Incr as d
cGMP caus s vasodilation</i></div><div><i>aka Viagra</i></div>
1385779790854 1358629116480 {{c1::Sild nafil}} and {{c2::Tadalafil}} ar
PDE5 inhibitors that ar not only us d for pulmonary HTN but also for Er ctil
Dysfunction.
1385779836156 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Tadalafil?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibits Phosphodi st ras -5, th r by inhibiting th d gradation of cGM
P.}}</div>
<br /><div><i>aka Cialis</i></div>
1385779854476 1358629116480 {{c1::Tadalafil}} is a PDE5 inhibitor that can b
us d to tr at B nign Prostatic Hyp rtrophy (BPH).
1385779908806 1358629116480 {{c1::Sild nafil}} and {{c2::Tadalafil}} ar
anti-pulmonary hyp rt nsiv s that can caus colour vision impairm nts.
1397930340851 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Diph nhydramin ?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::R v rsibl inhibition of H1 histamin r c ptors}}</div>
1397930781235 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Dim nhydrinat ?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::R v rsibl inhibition of H1 histamin r c ptors}}</div>
1397930798668 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Chlorph niramin ?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::R v rsibl inhibition of H1 histamin r c ptors}}</div>
1397930810749 1395802358422 What g n ration H1 block r is Diph nhydramin ?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div> <br /><div><i>1st g n has "- n/-in " or
"- n/-at "</i></div>
1397930858929 1395802358422 What g n ration H1 block r is Dim nhydrinat ?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
<br /><div><span styl ="font-styl : ital
ic">1st g n has "- n/-in " or "- n/-at "</span></div>
1397930879277 1395802358422 What g n ration H1 block r is Chlorph niramin ?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div> <br /><div><span styl ="font-styl : ital
ic">1st g n has "- n/-in " or "- n/-at "</span></div>
1397931000207 1395802358422 Which g n ration of H1 block rs is associat d wi

th <b>s dation</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st g n ration}}</div>
1397931031437 1395802358422 Which g n ration of H1 block rs is assocait d wi
th <b>antimuscarinic</b> activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st g n ratio
n}}</div>
1397931201921 1395802358422 Which g n ration of H1 block rs is associat d wi
th <b>anti-alpha-adr n rgic</b> activity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st g
n ration}}</div>
1397931277178 1395802358422 Which g n ration of H1 block rs is us d to tr at
<b>all rgy, motion sickn ss </b>or as a<b> sl p aid</b>?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::1st g n}}</div>
1397931322136 1395802358422 What g n ration of H1 block r is Loratadin ?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd g n}}</div> <br /><div><i>2nd g n nds in -adin </i>
</div>
1397931438770 1395802358422 What g n ration of H1 block r is F xof nadin ?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd g n}}</div>
<br /><div><i>2nd g n nds in -a
din </i></div>
1397931463250 1395802358422 What g n ration of H1 block r is D sloratadin ?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd g n}}</div>
<br /><div><i>2nd g n is -adin <
/i></div>
1397931480280 1395802358422 What g n ration of H1 block r is C tirizin <div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd g n}}</div>
1397931494515 1395802358422 Which g n ration of H1 block rs is us d to tr at
<b>all rgy only</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd g n ration}}</div>
1397931512920 1395802358422 Which g n ration of H1 block rs involv s <b>far
l ss s dation</b> du to <b>d cr as d ntry into th CNS</b>?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::2nd g n}}</div>
1397931536885 1395802358422 {{c1::Guaif n sin}} is an xp ctorant that funct
ions by <b>thinning r spiratory s cr tions</b>. <br /><div><i>It do s not suppr
ss th cough r fl x.</i></div>
1397944060396 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Guaif n sin?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Thins r spiratory s cr tions}}</div> <br /><div><i>Do s <b>not</b>&nb
sp;supr ss th cough r fl x.</i></div>
1397944123853 1395802358422 {{c1::Exp ctorants}} ar a <b>typ </b> of r
spiratory drugs that that aid in th cl aranc of mucous from th airways.
1397944214189 1395802358422 What typ of r spiratory drug is Guaif n sin?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Exp ctorant}}</div>
1397944231519 1395802358422 What typ of r spiratory drug is N-Ac tylcyst in
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Exp ctorant; Mucolytic}}</div>
1397944251158 1395802358422 {{c1::N-Ac tylcyst in }} is an xp ctorant and m
ucolytic that can loos n mucous plugs in Cystic Fibrosis pati nts.
1397944286968 1395802358422 What is th <b>pulmonary</b> clinical us of N-A
c tylcyst in ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Loos ns mucous plugs in Cystic Fibrosi
s pati nts; it can also b us d as an antidot for ac taminoph n ov rdos }}</div
>
1397944331443 1395802358422 Which xp ctorant is us d to loos n mucous plugs
in Cystic Fibrosis pati nts?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::N-ac tylcyst in (as a
mucolytic)}}</div>
1397944375408 1395802358422 Which xp ctorant is also us d as an antidot fo
r ac taminoph n ov rdos ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::N-ac tylcyst in }}</div>
1397944390900 1395802358422 {{c1::N-ac tylcyst in }} is an xp ctorant and m
ucolytic that is us d as an antidot for ac taminoph n ov rdos .
1397944427059 1395802358422 {{c1::D xtrom thorphan}} is an antitussiv ag nt
that acts by <b>NMDA r c ptor antagonism</b>. <br /><div><i>It also has mild o
pioid ff ct in high dos s.</i></div>
1397945493799 1395802358422 What typ of r spiratory drug is D xtrom thorpha
n?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antitussiv }}</div>
1397945508096 1395802358422 What is th MOA of D xtrom thorphan as an antitu
ssiv ag nt?<div><br />{{c1::NMDA r c ptor antagonism}}</div> <br /><div><i>Op
ioid agonist activity at high dos s</i></div>
1397945546933 1395802358422 Which antitussiv ag nt is a synth tic cod in a

nalog and has mild abus pot ntial?<div><br />{{c1::D xtrom thorphan}}</div>
1397945616281 1395802358422 What is th tr atm nt for D xtrom thorphan ov rd
os ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Naloxon }}</div>
1397945633826 1395802358422 {{c1::Naloxon }} is an opioid antagonist that is
us d to tr at D xtrom thorphan ov rdos .
1397945770457 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Ps udo ph drin ?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Sympathomim tic <b>alpha-agonism</b>}}</div>
1397946122811 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Ph nyl phrin ?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Sympathomim tic <b>alpha-agonism</b>}}</div>
1397946129016 1395802358422 {{c1::Ps udo ph drin }} and {{c2::Ph nyl ph
rin }} ar alpha-agonists us d to r duc hyp r mia, d ma and nasal cong stion.
1397946175310 1395802358422 Which alpha-agonists ar us d to r duc hyp r mi
a, d ma and nasal cong stion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ps udo ph drin ; Ph ny
l phrin }}</div>
1397946260592 1395802358422 Which alpha-agonists ar us d to <b>op n obstruc
t d ustachian tub s</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ps udo ph drin ; Ph nyl phr
in }}</div>
1397946286620 1395802358422 Which r spiratory alpha-agonist can b us d illi
cit to mak M thamph tamin ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ps udo ph drin }}</div>
1397946313918 1395802358422 What is th toxicity of th r spiratory alpha-ag
onists Ps udo ph drin and Ph nyl phrin ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyp rt nsio
n}}</div>
1397946378234 1395802358422 Which r spiratory alpha-agonist is associat d wi
th CNS stimulation and anxi ty as an adv rs ff ct?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Ps udo ph drin }}</div>
1397946440314 1395802358422 {{c1::Albut rol}} is an asthma drug that caus s
bronchodilation through b ta2-agonism and is pr f rr d in <b>acut xac rbation<
/b>.
<br /><div><img src="past -24567212933894.jpg" /></div>
1397947861662 1395802358422 {{c1::Salm t rol}} and {{c2::Formot rol}} a
r b ta-2 agonists us d as <b>long acting ag nts</b> in th prophylaxis of
asthma. <br /><div><img src="past -29957396889959.jpg" /></div>
1397947894575 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Albut rol?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::B ta-2 agonism, th r by causing bronchial smooth muscl r laxation}}</d
iv>
1397947922723 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Salm t rol?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::B ta-2 agonism, th r by causing bronchial smooth muscl r laxation}}</
div>
1397947942211 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Formot rol?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::B ta-2 agonism, th r by causing bronchial smooth muscl r laxation}}</
div>
1397947963908 1395802358422 What is th DOC <b>acut asthma attack/ xac rbat
ion</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Albut rol}}</div>
1397947995234 1395802358422 Which b ta-2 agonists ar us d for <b>acut asth
ma xac rbation/attack</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Albut rol}}</div>
1397948024702 1395802358422 Which b ta-2 agonists ar us d for <b>long actin
g prophylaxis</b> of asthma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Salm t rol; Formot
rol}}</div>
1397948050210 1395802358422 Which b ta-2 agonists ar us d in th tr atm nt
of asthma ar associat d with <b>tr mor</b> and <b>arrhythmia</b> as a
dv rs ff cts?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Salm t rol; Formot rol}}</div>
1397948416845 1395802358422 What typ of asthma drug is Th ophyllin ?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::M thylxanthin }}</div>
1397948490710 1395802358422 {{c1::Th ophyllin }} is a M thylxanthin us d to
tr at asthma by <b>inhibiting phosphodi st ras </b>, th r by causing bronchodil
ation by incr asing cAMP l v ls (du to d cr as d cAMP hydrolysis).
<br /><d
iv><img src="past -24567212933894.jpg" /></div>
1397948532918 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Th ophyllin ?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhibition of phosphodi st ras , th r by incr asing cAMP l v ls by d

cr asing cAMP hydrolysis r sulting in bronchodilation}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="past -29957396889959.jpg" /></div>
1397948583297 1395802358422 {{c1::Th ophyllin }} is a m thylxanthin drug us
d to tr at asthma that has a narrow th rap utic ind x and caus s cardiotoxicity
and n urotoxicity.
d to tr at asthma that is m taboliz d by cytochrom p450.
<br /><d
d to tr at asthma that can block th action of <b>ad nosin </b>.
1397948843420 1395802358422 Which m thylxanthin us d to tr at asthma can bl
ock th action of Ad nosin ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Th ophyllin }}</div>
1397948875170 1395802358422 {{c1::Ipratropium}} is a muscarinic antagonist t
hat is us d to tr at asthma by blocking muscarinic r c ptors, th r by <b>pr v nt
ing bronchoconstriction</b>.
<br /><div><img src="past -24567212933894.jpg" /
></div>
1397948907833 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Ipratropium?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Antagonism at muscarinic r c ptors (M1, M2, M3)}}</div>
<br /><d
1397948941963 1395802358422 {{c1::Ipratropium}} and {{c2::Tiotropium}}
ar anti-muscarinic ag nts us d for Asthma and COPD.
t -29957396889959.jpg" /></div>
1397948971876 1395802358422 Which anti-muscarinic us d to tr at COPD is <b>l
ong-acting</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tiotropium}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="past -29957396889959.jpg" /></div>
1397948995159 1395802358422 What is th duration of action of Tiotropium?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Long-acting}}</div>
1397949005021 1395802358422 {{c1::B clom thason }} and {{c2::Fluticason
}} ar corticost oids us d to tr at asthma by <b>inhibiting cytokin synth sis<
/b> and <b>inactiating NF-kB</b>, r sulting in anti-inflammatory action.
<br /><div><i>Inactivation of NF-kB r sults in d cr as d production of TNF-alpha
and oth r pro-inflammatory ag nts</i></div><div><i><img src="past -245672129338
94.jpg" /></i></div>
1397949325476 1395802358422 How do s TNF-alpha xpr ssion chang in r spons
to corticost roids?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as d xpr ssion}}</div>
1397949350789 1395802358422 {{c1::NF-kB}} is a transcription factor that ind
uc s th production of TNF-alpha. It is inactivat d following corticost roid adm
inistration.
1397949386733 1395802358422 What is th 1st-lin th rapy for <b>Chronic</b>&
nbsp;Asthma?<div><br />{{c1::Corticost roids (B clom thason ; Fluticason )}}</di
v>
1397949440759 1395802358422 {{c1::Mont lukast}} and {{c2::Zafirlukast}}
ar antil ukotri n s us d to tr at asthma by <b>blocking l ukotri n r c ptors<
/b> (CysLTR1).
1397949791937 1395802358422 What typ of r spiratory drug is Ipratropdium an
d Tiotriopium?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Muscarinic antagonist}}</div>
1397949810898 1395802358422 What typ of r spiratory drug is Mont lukast and
Zafirlukast?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antil ukotri n s}}</div>
1397949830394 1395802358422 What typ of r spiratory drug is Zil uton?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Antil ukotri n }}</div>
1397949846351 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Mont lukast?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Blocks l ukotri n r c ptors (CysLTR1; sp cifically LTC4, LTD4, LTE4)
}}</div>
1397949899204 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Zafirlukast?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Blocks l ukotri n r c ptors (CysLTR1; sp cially LTC4, LTD4 and LTE4
)}}</div>
1397949928903 1395802358422 Which antil ukotri n s ar sp cially us ful in
tr ating <b>Aspirin-induc d asthma</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mont lukast;
Zafirlukast}}</div>
1397949955720 1395802358422 {{c1::Zil uton}} is an antil ukotri n us d to t
r at asthma by <b>inhibiting 5-Lipoxyg nas </b> (5-LOX), th r by blocking t
h conv rsion of arachidonica cid to l ukotri n s.
t -24567212933894.jpg" /></div>
1397950006116 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Zil uton?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Inhibition of 5-Lipoxyg nas (5LOX), th r by blocking th conv rsion of
arachidonic acid to l ukotri n s}}</div>
1397950145130 1395802358422 {{c1::Omalizumab}} is a monoclonal antibody us d
to tr at asthma by <b>binding to unbound s rum IgE</b>, th r by blocking bindin
g to F<sub>c</sub>RI r c ptors on mast c lls. <br /><div><img src="past -24567
212933894.jpg" /></div>
1397950159111 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Omalizumab?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Binds to unbound IgE, th r by blocking th binding to F<sub>c</su
b>RI r c ptors on mast c lls}}</div>
1397950182877 1395802358422 What is th clinical us of Omalizumab?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::All rgic asthma that is r sistant to inhal d st roids and lon
g-acting b ta-2 agonists}}</div>
1397950209256 1395802358422 {{c1::Omalizumab}} is a monoclonal antibody us d
to tr at <b>all rgic asthma</b> that is <u>r sistant to inhal d st roids a
nd long-acting b ta-2 agonists</u>.
1397950247369 1395802358422 Which monoclonal antibody is us d to tr at asthm
a?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Omalizumab}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Binds to u
nbound IgE, th r by pr v nting binding to F<sub>c</sub>RI r c ptors on mast
c lls.</i></div><div><i>Typically us d in all rgic asthma r sistant to inhal d s
t roids and long acting b ta-2 agonists.</i></div>
1397950490124 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Tiotropium?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Antagonism at muscarinic r c ptors (M1, M3)}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="past -29957396889959.jpg" /></div>
1397950519034 1395802358422 {{c1::M thacholin }} is a muscarinic agonist tha
t is us d in bronchial provocation chall ng s to diagnos asthma.
1397950561994 1395802358422 What is th MOA of M thacholin ?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Agonism at muscarinic r c ptors}}</div>
1397950576339 1395802358422 Which muscarinic agonist is us d in bronchial pr
ovocation chall ng s to <b>diagnos asthma</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::M tha
cholin }}</div>
1397950594921 1395802358422 {{c1::Bos ntan}} is a r spiratory drug us d to t
r at <b>pulmonary hyp rt nsion</b> by <b>comp titiv ly antagonising ndoth
lin-1 at ET<sub>A</sub> & ET<sub>B</sub> r c ptors</b>, th r by d
cr asing pulmonary vascular r sistanc . <br /><div><div><i>Bos ntan = ET<sub>A</
sub> and ET<sub>B</sub></i></div><div><i>Ambris ntan = ET<sub>A</sub>
only</i></div></div>
1397950697328 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Bos ntan?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Comp titiv antagonism of Endoth lin-1 at ET<sub>A</sub> and ET<sub
>B</sub> r c ptors}}</div>
1397950724798 1395802358422 What is th clinical us of Bos ntan?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary HTN}}</div>
1397950734628 1395802358422 {{c1::Ambris ntan}} is a r spiratory drug that t
r ats pulmonary art rial hyp t nsion by <b>comp titiv ly antagonizing Endoth lin
-1 at ET<sub>A</sub> r c ptors</b> only, th r by d cr asing pulmonary
vascular r sistanc .
<br /><div><i>Bos ntan = ET<sub>A</sub> and ET<sub>
B</sub></i></div><div><i>Ambris ntan = ET<sub>A</sub> only</i></div>
1397950836557 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Ambris ntan?<div><br />{{c1::
Comp titiv antagonism of Endoth lin-1 at ET<sub>A</sub> r c ptors only}}</
div>
1397950890526 1395802358422 What is th clinical us of Ambris ntan?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary HTN}}</div>
1390182109637 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Amph tamin ?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Incr as s cat cholamin (DA; NE) ton by blocking r uptak and facili
tating r l as }}</div>
1390182637621 1358629116480 What is th MOA of M thylph nidat ?<div><br /></

div><div>{{c1::Incr as s cat cholamin (DA; NE) ton by blocking r uptak and fa
cilitating r l as }}</div>
1390182640345 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Lisd xamf tamin Dism sylat ?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as s cat cholamin (DA; NE) ton by blocking r
uptak and facilitating r l as }}</div>
1390182656649 1358629116480 What is th clinical us of Amph tamin ?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Tx of ADHD in adults and childr n}}</div>
1390182679312 1358629116480 What is th clinical us of Lisd xamf tamin ?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tx of ADHD in adults and childr n}}</div>
1390182692754 1358629116480 What is th clinical us of M thylph nidat ?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Tx of ADHD in adults and childr n; som forms of narcol
psy}}</div>
1390182705091 1358629116480 Abrupt withdrawal of stimulants can l ad to&nbsp
;{{c1::acut d pr ssion}} and possibl suicid .
1390182736679 1358629116480 Lisd xamf tamin is a prodrug that is conv rt d
into its activ form {{c1::D xtroamph tamin }}.
1390182830507 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Bupropion?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Incr as s DA and NE l v ls by blocking r uptak }}</div>
1390666772378 1358629116480 {{c1::St. John's Wort}} is an ov r-th -count r h
rbal r m dy with SSRI function.
1390667256716 1358629116480 Which isoform of MAO mainly br aks down 5-HT, NE
, Epi and M latonin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::MAO-A}}</div>
1390667438458 1358629116480 Which isoform of MAO mainly br aks down Ph n thy
lamin and trac amin s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::MAO-B}}</div>
1390667456485 1358629116480 {{c1::Dopamin }} and {{c2::Tyramin }} ar b
rok n down qually by both isoforms of MAO.
1390667476865 1358629116480 Wh r is MAO-A typically found asid from th CN
S?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Liv r, GI tract, plac nta}}</div>
1390667518570 1358629116480 Wh r is MAO-B typically found asid from th CN
S?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blood plat l ts}}</div>
1390667531380 1358629116480 {{c1::Tyramin }} is a trac amin found in many
foods that is abl to caus a mass displac m nt of NE and downstr am Hyp rt nsiv
Crisis in th pr s nc of a {{c2::<b>non-sp cific</b> MAO}} inh
ibitor.
1390668287065 1358629116480 D pr ssion may b abl to rais th numb r of au
to-r c ptors on pr synaptic 5-HT n urons, making th m r sistant to {{c1::SS
RIs}} as tr atm nt.
<br /><div><i>Such pati nts would r quir a combination
of anti-d pr ssants.</i></div>
1390668327797 1358629116480 All fficacious antid pr ssants hav b n found
to incr as th l v ls of {{c1::BDNF}} in th hippocampus and th r by incr
as n uroplasticity.
1390668407713 1358629116480 {{c1::K tamin }} is an NMDA r c ptor antagonist
that is som tim s us d for rapid r v rsal of d pr ssiv symptoms through a r l a
s of BDNF.
1390669722225 1358629116480 What class of anti-d pr ssant is Imipramin ?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::TCA}}</div>
1390671627354 1358629116480 What class of anti-d pr ssant is Amitriptylin ?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::TCA}}</div>
1390671639268 1358629116480 What class of anti-d pr ssant is Clomipramin ?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::TCA}}</div>
1390671645999 1358629116480 What class of anti-d pr ssant is Ph n lzin ?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Non-s l ctiv MAOI}}</div>
t -7709466296401.jpg" /></div>
1390671661331 1358629116480 What class of anti-d pr ssant is S l gilin ?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::S l ctiv MAO-B Inhibitor}}</div>
<br /><div><img
src="past -7705171329105.jpg" /></div>
1390671671241 1358629116480 What class of anti-d pr ssant is Fluox tin ?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::SSRI}}</div>
1390671677794 1358629116480 What class of anti-d pr ssant is Parox tin ?<div
1390671683636 1358629116480 What class of anti-d pr ssant is Escitalopram?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::SSRI}}</div>
1390671694045 1358629116480 What class of anti-d pr ssant is Citalopram?<div
1390671702625 1358629116480 What class of anti-d pr ssant is S rtralin ?<div
1390671709755 1358629116480 What class of anti-d pr ssant is Dulox tin ?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::SNRI}}</div>
1390671719414 1358629116480 What class of anti-d pr ssant is V nlafaxin ?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::SNRI}}</div>
1390671726272 1358629116480 What class of anti-d pr ssant is D sv nlafaxin ?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SNRI}}</div>
1390671736830 1358629116480 Which 2 class s of Anti-d pr ssants mak up th
1st g n ration antid pr ssants?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::TCAs and MAOIs}}</div
>
1390671769296 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Tricyclic Antid pr ssants?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of 5-HT and NE r uptak }}</div>
<div><br
/></div><img src="past -6970731922197.jpg" />
1390671902488 1358629116480 {{c1::Imipramin }} is a TCA that yi lds a balanc
b tw n 5-HT and NE.
1390671956732 1358629116480 {{c1::Amitriptylin }} is a TCA that slightly fav
ours 5-HT r uptak ov r NE.
1390671984926 1358629116480 {{c1::Clomipramin }} is a TCA that <b>gr atly</b
> favours 5-HT r uptak ov r NE.
1390672008495 1358629116480 {{c1::Imipramin }} is a TCA that is also us ful
in Noctural Enur sis du to its ability to d cr as slow wav sl p in Phas IV
of sl p.
1390672053469 1358629116480 {{c1::Amitriptylin }} is a TCA that is also us f
ul in tr ating n uropathic pain.
1390672069613 1358629116480 {{c1::Clomipramin }} is a TCA that is us ful in
th tr atm nt of OCD.
1390672086409 1358629116480 TCAs caus drowsin ss through th antagonism of&
nbsp;{{c1::H1 Histamin }} r c ptors.
1390672145171 1358629116480 TCAs caus postural hypot nsion through antagoni
sm of {{c1::Alpha1-adr n rgic}} r c ptors.
1390672163938 1358629116480 TCAs caus m mory impairm nts, dry mouth, blurry
vision and urinary r t ntion through antagonism of {{c1::muscarinic}} r c
ptors.
1390672198585 1358629116480 Which 5-HT r c ptors ar involv d in th s xual
dysfunction s n with TCAs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::5-HT2A and 5-HT3}}</div>
1390672238744 1358629116480 {{c1::Tricyclic Antid pr ssants}} ar a class of
anti-d pr ssants that hav strong int ractions with CYP450 nzym s.
<br /><d
1390672276500 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Ph n lzin ?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::<b>Non-s l ctiv </b> inhibition of MAO-A and MAO-B; th r by yi ld
ing incr as d monoamin l v ls}}</div> <br /><div><img src="past -6970731922197
.jpg" /></div>
1390672347135 1358629116480 What drugs ar us d wh n tr at Atypical D pr ssi
on won't r spond to typical first lin drugs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Non-s l
ctiv MAOIs}}</div>
1390672378615 1358629116480 What is th MOA of S l gilin ?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::S l ctiv , irr v rsibl inhibition of MAO-B only}}</div>
<br /><d
1390672483033 1358629116480 {{c1::S l gilin }} is an antid pr ssant that is
giv n as a high-dos transd rmal patch to tr at d pr ssion.
1390672503338 1358629116480 {{c1::Ph n lzin }} is a MAOI that is only giv n
par nt rally.
1390672522106 1358629116480 {{c1::S l gilin }} is a MAOI that can b us d in
low oral dos s in Parkinson's to incr as DA l v ls.
1390672561795 1358629116480 S l gilin do s not pr s nt with a risk of Hyp r

t nsiv Crisis as it s l ctiv ly inhibits {{c1::MAO-B}} only.
1390672615501 1358629116480 {{c1::Fluox tin }} and {{c2::Parox tin }} ar 2
SSRIs that ar CYP450 nzym inhibitors.
1390672668965 1358629116480 What is th MOA of SSRIs?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::S l ctiv inhibition of 5-HT r uptak , th r by l ading to incr as d 5-HT, d
ownr gulation of 5-HT autor c ptors and v ntual incr as in pr synaptic 5-HT pr
oduction}}</div>
1390672717683 1358629116480 What is th 1st lin drug in Mild, Mod rat or S
v r D pr ssion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SSRIs}}</div>
1390672735865 1358629116480 What is th DOC for Bulimia?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::SSRIs}}</div>
1390672743722 1358629116480 What is th drug of choic for G n ral Anxi ty D
isord r?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SSRIs}}</div>
1390672764041 1358629116480 SSRIs can caus naus a through {{c1::5-HT3}
} r c ptors.
1390672817839 1358629116480 What is Bruxism?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T t
h grinding; oft n s n with l vat d 5-HT l v ls}}</div>
1390672835914 1358629116480 SSRIs can caus anorgasmia through {{c1::5HT2A}} r c ptors.
<br /><div><i>This is an off-lab l us for SSRIs in m n
with arly jaculation or hyp rs nsitivity.</i></div>
1390672880885 1358629116480 What is th pr gnancy cat gory of SSRIs?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::C - possibl risk}}</div>
1390672898138 1358629116480 SSRIs ar oft n giv n initially with th b nzodi
az pin {{c1::Alprazolam}} to allow th SSRI to tak ff ct. Th b nzo miti
gat s d pr ssion in th first f w w ks.
1390673007853 1358629116480 {{c1::Parox tin }} is an SSRI with high r rat s
of s xual dysfunction.
1390677802286 1358629116480 Which 2 SSRIs hav favourabl fficacy, ADEs <b>
and</b> tol rability?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Escitalopram and S rtralin
}}</div>
1390677879039 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Dulox tin ?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of 5-HT and NE r uptak }}</div>
t -6975026889493.jpg" /></div>
1390677955170 1358629116480 {{c1::Dulox tin }} is an SNRI that has a h patot
oxicity warning.
1390677999928 1358629116480 {{c1::V nlafaxin }} is an SNRI that is us d to t
r at Hot Flash s in M nopaus or R sistant S v r D pr ssion.
1390678067856 1358629116480 {{c1::V nlafaxin }} is an SNRI that has f w r AN
S sid ff cts than oth r SNRIs.
1390678091180 1358629116480 {{c1::D sv nlafaxin }} is th activ m tabolity
of th SNRI V nlafaxin .
1390678115369 1358629116480 {{c1::Burpropion}} is an atypical antid pr ssant
that inhibits th r uptak of DA and NE only. <br /><div><i>H nc it can b us
d with SSRIs as it do s not aff ct 5-HT.</i></div>
1390678170878 1358629116480 {{c1::Mirtazapin }} is an atypical antid pr ssan
t that acts as an antagonist at pr -synaptic {{c2::alpha2}} adr n rgic autor c p
tors, th r by incr asing NE l v ls.
t that acts as an antagonist at pr synaptic {{c2::alpha2}} h t roc ptors on
S rotonin rgic n urons, th r by incr asing 5-HT l v ls.
t that can mitigat 5-HT induc d naus a via antagonism at {{c2::5-HT3}} r c
ptors.
t that can mitigat 5-HT induc d anxi ty via antagonism at {{c2::5-HT2A}} r c pt
ors
t that can mitigat 5-HT induc d sl p via antagonism at {{c2::5-HT2C}} r c
ptors.

t that is a s cond lin th rapy for d pr ssion or a common adjunct drug to oth r
antid pr ssants.
1390678565765 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Trazodon ?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::W ak inhibition of 5-HT r uptak }}</div>
t -6970731922197.jpg" /></div>
1390678614885 1358629116480 {{c1::Trazodon }} is an atypical antid pr ssant
that is associat d with a risk of priapism.
<br /><div><i>Trazo<b>BONE</b> c
aus s <b>bon rs</b>.</i></div>
1390678676472 1358629116480 {{c1::Trazodon }} is an atypical antid pr ssant
that is actually us d mor commonly for insomnia. It is not pr f rr d for d pr s
sion.
1391388450535 1358629116480 Blockad of {{c1::D2}} r c ptors at th m solimb
ic pathway in Schizophr nia blocks th positiv symptoms from occurring.
1391389680857 1358629116480 Blockad of {{c1::D2}} r c ptors in th Nig
rostriatal pathway is an adv rs ff ct of Schizophr nia tr atm nt and may r sul
t in abnormal mov m nt and <b>tardiv dyskin sia</b> with chronic administration
of th drug.
1391389740262 1358629116480 Blockad of {{c1::D2}} r c ptors at th m s
ocortical pathway in Schizophr nia confounds th n gativ symptoms of Schizophr
nia as th m socortical pathway is hypoactiv to b gin with.
<br /><div><i>R
m mb r, th m socortical pathway xt nds to th pr frontal cort x.</i></div>
1391389852419 1358629116480 Blockad of th {{c1::D2}} r c ptors in th
tub rinfundibular dopamin pathway in Schizophr nia can caus adv rs ff cts s
uch as hyp rprolactin mia, galactorrh a and am norrh a.
1391389902454 1358629116480 {{c1::N urol ptic Malignant Syndrom }} is a lif
thr at ning disord r caus d by adv rs r actions to n urol ptics or antipsychot
ics. It involv s high f v r, unstabl BP, autonomic dysfunction and muscl rigid
ity.
<br /><div><img src="past -5480378269864.jpg" /><img src="past -55018531
06427 (1).jpg" /></div>
1391389999544 1358629116480 What is th tr atm nt for Malignant Hyp rth rmia
??<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dantrol n }}</div>
1391390021170 1358629116480 Which adv rs ff cts ar commonly associat d wi
th th <b>typical</b> antipsychotics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::EPS and <b
>Tardiv Dyskin sia</b>}}</div> <br /><div><img src="past -5544802779443.jpg" />
</div>
1391390075952 1358629116480 Which adv rs ff cts ar commonly associat d wi
th th <b>typical</b> antipsychotics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::N urol pti
c Malignant Syndrom }}</div>
1391390094850 1358629116480 Th binding of S rotonin to {{c1::5HT2A}} p
ost-synaptic r c ptors on pr synaptic dopamin n urons acts as a brak on dopami
n n urons.
1391390577370 1358629116480 Antagonism of {{c1::5HT2A}} post-synaptic r
c ptors on pr synaptic dopamin n urons in Schizophr nia r sults in dopamin r
l as in th <b>nigrostriatal</b> and <b>m socortical</b> r gions.
<br /><div><i>Th r by, d cr asing EPS and n gativ symptoms.</i></div>
1391390648277 1358629116480 S rotonin agonism at {{c1::5HT1A}} autor c
ptors acts as an acc l rator on dopamin r l as by r ducing th amount of 5-HT
in th synaptic cl ft (i. . disinhibition of DA n urons du to l ss 5-HT2A postsynaptic r c ptor activation).
1391391183083 1358629116480 What g n ration of antipsychotics ar Typical an
tipsychotics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1391392439540 1358629116480 What g n ration of antipsychotics ar Atypical A
ntipsychotics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1391392452918 1358629116480 What is th main MOA for all Typical Antipsychot
ics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antagonism at D2 r c ptors}}</div>
1391392502972 1358629116480 What kind of antipsychotic is Chlorpromazin ?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Typical}}</div>
1391392523223 1358629116480 What kind of antipsychotic is Fluph nazin ?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Typical}}</div>
1391392530682 1358629116480 What kind of antipsychotic is P rph nazin ?

1391392536613 1358629116480 What kind of antipsychotic is Thioridazin ?
1391392545506 1358629116480 What kind of antipsychotic is Halop ridol?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Typical}}</div>
1391392552573 1358629116480 What is th drug of choic to tr at th positiv
symptoms of Psychosis & Schizophr nia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Typical A
ntipsychotics}}</div>
1391392598701 1358629116480 What is th drug of choic in Tour tt 's Syndrom
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Typical antipsychotics}}</div>
1391392612353 1358629116480 What is th s condary MOA of antipsychotics that
yi lds many of th adv rs ff cts s n?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antagonism
of M3, Histamin H1 and Alpha-1 Adr n rgic r c ptors}}</div>
<br /><div><i>i.
. H.A.M. ff cts</i></div>
1391392710557 1358629116480 What kind of antipsychotic is Clozapin ?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Atypical}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="past -56006
37354068.jpg" /></div>
1391392731508 1358629116480 What kind of antipsychotic is Olanzapin ?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Atypical}}</div>
37354068.jpg" /></div>
1391392736846 1358629116480 What kind of antipsychotic is Qu tiapin ?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Atypical}}</div>
37354068.jpg" /></div>
1391392755317 1358629116480 What kind of antipsychotic is Risp ridon ?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Atypical}}</div>
37354068.jpg" /></div>
1391392763418 1358629116480 What kind of antipsychotic is As napin ?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Atypical}}</div>
37354068.jpg" /></div>
1391392770052 1358629116480 What kind of antipsychotic is Aripiprazol ?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Atypical}}</div>
32321364.jpg" /></div>
1391392782174 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Clozapin ?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Partial agonism at 5HT1A r c ptors; Antagonism at 5HT2A and D2 r c ptor
s}}</div>
1391392948596 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Olanzapin ?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Antagonism at 5HT2A and D2 r c ptors}}</div>
1391392967107 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Qu tiapin ?<div><br />{{c1::P
artial agonism at 5HT1A r c ptors; Antagonism at 5HT2A and D2 r c ptors}}</div>
1391392996386 1358629116480 {{c1::Qu tiapin }} is an atypical antipsychotic
that also acts as a NE r uptak inhibitor.
1391393086535 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Risp ridon ?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Antagonism at 5HT2A and DA r c ptors}}</div>
1391393105925 1358629116480 What is th MOA of As napin ?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Antagonism at 5HT2A and D2 r c ptors}}</div>
1391393121746 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Aripiprazol ?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Partial agonism at 5HT1A and D2 r c ptors; Antagonism at 5HT2A}}</di
v>
1391393148611 1358629116480 {{c1::Aripiprazol }} is an atypical antipsychoti
c that is approv d for irritability in autism in childr n ag d 6-17.
1391393177789 1358629116480 {{c1::Clozapin }} is an atypical antipsychotic t
hat must b watch d v ry clos ly du to th high risk of <b>agranulocytosis</b>.
<br /><div><i>Th r must b w kly WBC counts.</i></div><div><i><b>Cloz</b>apin
must b watch d <b>CLOZE</b>ly.</i></div>
1391393244043 1358629116480 Clozapin can caus {{c1::s dation}} throug
h antagonism of M1, H1 and Alpha-1 adr n rgic r c ptors.
1391393272012 1358629116480 Clozapin can caus w ight gain through {{c
1::H1 and 5-HT2C}} r c ptor antagonism.
1391393305198 1358629116480 Clozapin can licit muscarinic sid ff cts thr
ough {{c1::M3}} r c ptors.
1391393320012 1358629116480 {{c1::Sialorrh a}} is a sid ff ct of Clozapin
that involv s hyp rsalivation.
1391393409998 1358629116480 {{c1::Myocarditis}} is a sid ff ct of Clozapin
that involv s inflammation of th myocardium.
1391393432011 1358629116480 {{c1::Risp ridon }} and {{c2::As napin }} a
r atypical antipsychotics that do not hav Histamin and Muscarinic binding. Th
y still hav Alpha-1 Adr noc ptor binding.
1391393476744 1358629116480 {{c1::Aripiprazol }} is an atypical antipsychoti
c that has th l ast sid ff cts.
1391393505498 1358629116480 What kind of antipsychotics ar us d for Acut M
ania?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Atypical Antipsychotics}}</div>
1391393632011 1358629116480 {{c1::Qu tiapin }} is an atypical antipsychotic
that is also us d for bipolar d pr ssion.
1391393685518 1358629116480 {{c1::Carbamaz pin }} and {{c1::Valproic Ac
id}} ar anti pil ptics us d in Acut Mania that may induc n uronal plasticity
through d pl ting inositol and nhancing growth factor action.
1391393782074 1358629116480 What is th pr gnancy cat gory of Anti pil ptics
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C - possibl risk}}</div>
1391393808964 1358629116480 {{c1::Lamotrigin }} is an anti pil ptic that is
us d in maint nanc th rapy in Bipolar Disord rs and as a 2nd lin drug for Bipo
lar D pr ssion.
1391394284215 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Lithium in th tr atm nt of A
cut mania and Bipolar Disord rs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Inosi
tol Monophosphatas and th inositol signalling cascad }}</div> <br /><div><i>Th
r by promoting n uroprot ction, long t rm plasticity and antimanic ff cts</i><
/div>
1391394374071 1358629116480 Lithium is not r comm nd d to b tak n with&nbsp
;{{c1::NSAIDs}} du to th ir ability to incr as Li plasma l v ls.
;{{c1::Diur tics}} du to th ir ability to d pl t Na and incr as Li l v ls.
;{{c1::ACE Inhibitors}} du to th ir ability to d pl t Na and d cr as GFR.
1391394877115 1358629116480 {{c1::Lithium}} is a mood stabiliz r us d in bip
olar disord rs that is tr at d lik Na at th proximal tubul . <br /><div><i>H
nc it is influ nc d by GFR and plasma volum chang s and r quir s a pati nt wit
h good kidn y function.</i></div>
1405884132958 1395802358422 What is th pr f rr d drug tr atm nt for ADHD?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::M thylph nidat }}</div>
1405885513493 1395802358422 What is th pr f rr d drug tr atm nt for alcohol
withdrawal?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::B nzodiaz pin s}}</div>
1405885523499 1395802358422 What is th pr f rr d drug tr atm nt for anxi ty
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SSRIs; SNRIs; Buspiron }}</div>
1405885534956 1395802358422 What is th pr f rr d drug tr atm nt for bipolar
disord r?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mood stabiliz rs; Atypical antipsychotics}
}</div>
1405885548907 1395802358422 What is th pr f rr d drug tr atm nt for Bulimia
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SSRIs}}</div>
1405885558678 1395802358422 What is th pr f rr d drug tr atm nt for d pr ss
ion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SSRIs; SNRIs; TCAs; Bupropion; Mirtazapin }}</di
v>
1405885578573 1395802358422 What is th pr f rr d drug tr atm nt for obs ssi
v -compulsiv disord r?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SSRIs; Clomipramin }}</div>
1405885596049 1395802358422 What is th pr f rr d drug tr atm nt for panic d
isord r?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SSRIs; V nlafaxin ; B nzodiaz pin s}}</div>
1405885616986 1395802358422 What is th pr f rr d drug tr atm nt for PTSD?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::SSRIs}}</div>
1405885621937 1395802358422 What is th pr f rr d drug tr atm nt for schizop
hr nia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antipsychotics}}</div>
1405885629817 1395802358422 What is th pr f rr d drug tr atm nt for social
phobias?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SSRIs; b ta-block rs}}</div>

1405885639984 1395802358422 What is th pr f rr d drug tr atm nt for tour tt
syndrom ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antipsychotics}}</div>
1405885654243 1395802358422 Which atypical antipsychotics is known to <b>inc
r as prolactin</b>, th r by r sulting in d cr as d GnRH, LH and FSH l v ls?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Risp ridon }}</div>
<br /><div><i>Can caus lactatio
n, gyn comastia, irr gular m nstruation and f rtility issu s.</i></div>
1405886098707 1395802358422 Which atypical antipsychotic is commonly associa
t d with prolong d th QT int rval?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ziprasidon }}</di
v>
1405886121104 1395802358422 Which atypical antipsychotics may caus signific
ant w ight gain?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Olanzapin ; Clozapin }}</div>
1405886155163 1395802358422 {{c1::Lithium}} is a mood stabiliz r that is ass
ociat d with f tal cardiac d f cts such as <b>Ebst in anomaly</b> and
<b>malformation of th gr at v ss ls</b>.
1405886455993 1395802358422 Which ndocrin disord r can b caus d by Lithiu
m?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hypothyroidism}}</div>
t -6695854014724.jpg" /></div>
1405886473293 1395802358422 Which TCA drug has l<b> ss s dating ff ct</b>&n
bsp;but has a <b>high r s izur incid nc </b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D sipr
amin }}</div>
1405886905575 1395802358422 What is th tr atm nt for th cardiovascular tox
icity caus d by tricylic antid pr ssants?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::NaHCO<sub>3
</sub>}}</div> <br /><div><img src="past -7065221202057.jpg" /></div>
1405886924350 1395802358422 What is th cardiotoxicity of tricyclic antid pr
ssants?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arrhythmia}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pas
t -7065221202057.jpg" /></div>
1405886940423 1395802358422 Which atypical antid pr ssant is also us d for s
moking c ssation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bupropion}}</div>
1384111029236 1358629116480 What is th MOA of thiazid diur tics?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of NaCl symport rs (NCC) at th arly DT}}</div>
<br /><div><i>R sults in an initial d cr as in plasma volum (i. . SV and CO) a
nd a lat -stag d cr as in TPR.</i></div>
1384119991396 1358629116480 What typ of diur tic is Hydrochlorothiazid ?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thiazid }}</div>
1384120013251 1358629116480 What typ of diur tics ar 1st choic drugs for
tr ating Hyp rt nsion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thizaid s}}</div>
1384120035907 1358629116480 What typ of diur tic is Indapamid ?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Thiazid diur tic}}</div>
1384120075062 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Furos mid (loop diur tics)?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of NKCC2 symport rs at th thick asc nding
loop of H nl }}</div>
1384120134142 1358629116480 What typ of diur tic is Furos mid ?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Loop diur tic}}</div>
1384120147571 1358629116480 {{c1::Loop}} diur tics ar pr f rr d ov r {
{c2::thiazid }} diur tics in malignant HTN or chronic kidn y dis as .
1384120223309 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Spironolacton (K-sparing diu
r tic)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aldost ron r c ptor antagonism; pr v nts xp
r ssion of ENaC at th lat distal tubul }}</div>
1384120281936 1358629116480 What typ of diur tic is Spironolacton ?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::K-sparing}}</div>
1384120298509 1358629116480 What diur tic is us d to tr at HTN caus d by Hyp
raldost ronism?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Spironolacton ; K-sparing diur tics}
}</div>
1384120345454 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Clonidin ?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::C ntral a2 r c ptor agonism; th r by d cr as s adr n rgic ton }}</div>
1384120388525 1358629116480 Sudd n withdrawal of Clonidin can r sult in lif
-thr at ning {{c1::hyp rt nsiv crisis}}.
1384120431376 1358629116480 {{c1::M thyldopa}} is a c ntrally acting sympath
olytic that is tak n up by SNS n urons and conv rt d into a fals n urotransmitt
r, alpha-m thylnor pin phrin .

1384120499143 1358629116480 What is th MOA of M thyldopa?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::C ntral a2 r c ptor agonism; th r by d cr asing adr n rgic ton }}</div
>
1384120523818 1358629116480 {{c1::M thyldopa}} is a sympatholytic that can b
us d to tr at HTN in pr gnancy.
1384120544273 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Prazosin in th tr atm nt of
HTN?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::a1 r c ptor antagonist; caus s vasodilation}}</d
iv>
1384120955288 1358629116480 What ar th 2 major sid ff cts associat d wit
h a1-block rs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Orthostatic hypot nsion; r fl x tachyc
ardia}}</div>
1384121002529 1358629116480 What is th major MOA us d by b ta-block rs at t
h kidn ys to tr at HTN?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of R nin r l as vi
a b1 blocking}}</div>
1384121128128 1358629116480 {{c1::Lab talol}} is a non-s l ctiv alpha-b ta
adr n rgic block r that can b us d in Hyp rt nsiv Em rg ncy.
1384121212744 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Esmolol?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::S l ctiv b1 antagonism}}</div>
1384121233317 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydralazin }} is a vasodilator that stimul
at s th r l as of NO through inhibition of th IP3 signal cascad .
<br /><d
iv><i>Inhibits IP3-induc d Ca r l as </i></div>
1384121286947 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydralazin }} is a <b>vasodilator</b> that
can b us d to tr at HTN in pr gnancy.
1384121302774 1358629116480 {{c1::Nitroprussid }} is a vasodilator that is r
apidly m taboliz d into NO which th n caus s vasodilation.
1384121335055 1358629116480 All vasodilators act on art riol s xc pt for&nb
sp;{{c1::Nitroprussid }} which also acts on v ins.
1384121363299 1358629116480 {{c1::Nitroprussid }} is th only vasodilator th
at acts on both art riol s <u>and</u> v ins.
1384121378532 1358629116480 {{c1::Cyanid }} toxicity is associat d with high
dos s of th vasodilator {{c2::Nitroprussid }}
1384121414249 1358629116480 {{c1::Minoxidil}} and {{c3::Diazoxid }} ar vaso
dilators that op n ATP d p nd nt {{c2::K}} chann ls at art riolar smooth mu
scl .
1384121488447 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Minoxidil?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Op ning of ATP d p nd nt K chann ls at art riolar smooth muscl }}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th r by causing hyp rpolarization and r laxation</i></div>
1384121517297 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Diazoxid ?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Op ning of ATP d p nd nt K chann ls at art riolar smooth muscl }}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th r by causing hyp rpolarization and r laxation.</i></div>
1384121665042 1358629116480 {{c1::Minoxidil}} is a vasodilator that is rar l
y us d du to its toxicity. It is only mploy d wh n oth r drugs hav not tr at
d HTN.
1384121718648 1358629116480 What is th primary clinical us of Diazoxid ?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyp rt nsiv m rg ncy}}</div>
1384121768932 1358629116480 {{c1::Diazoxid }} is a vasodilator that can b u
s d to tr at hypoglyc mia s condary to an insulinoma.
1384121794716 1358629116480 {{c1::F noldopam}} is a vasodilator that activat
s p riph ral D1-dopamin r c ptors.
1384121838634 1358629116480 What is th MOA of F noldopam?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Activation of p riph ral D1-dopamin r c ptors}}</div>
1384121859012 1358629116480 What is th primary clinical us of F noldopam?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyp rt nsiv m rg ncy}}</div>
1384121884279 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Ca chann l blocking vasodilat
ors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antagonism of L-typ Ca chann ls; th r by inhibi
ting vasoconstriction}}</div>
1384122143503 1358629116480 What typ of vasodilator is V rapamil?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Ca-chann l block r}}</div>
1384122159371 1358629116480 What typ of vasodilator is Nif dipin ?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Ca-chann l block r}}</div>

1384122180210 1358629116480 What typ of vasodilator is Nicardipin ?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Ca-chann l block r}}</div>
1384122191941 1358629116480 What typ of vasodilator is Diltiaz m?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Ca-chann l block r}}</div>
1384122201829 1358629116480 {{c1::V rapamil}} is a Ca chann l blocking vasod
ilator with high s l ctivity towards th h art.
1384122431251 1358629116480 {{c1::Nif dipin }} and {{c2::Nicardipin }}
ar Ca-chann l blocking vasodilators with s l ctivity for blood v ss ls inst ad
of th h art.
1384122467550 1358629116480 {{c1::Diltiaz m}} is a Ca-chann l blocking vasod
ilator with s l ctivity towards both th h art and blood v ss ls.
1384122489489 1358629116480 What typ of vasodilators ar 1st choic drugs f
or tr ating HTN?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ca-chann l blocking vasodilators}}</
div>
1384122523569 1358629116480 {{c1::Nicardipin }} is a Ca chann l blocking vas
odilator that can b us d for Hyp rt nsiv Em rg ncy.
1384122579081 1358629116480 {{c1::Aliskir n}} is an antihyp rt nsiv drug th
at inhibits R nin and th r by inhibits th conv rsion of Angiot nsinog n to Angi
ot nsin I.
1384122632277 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Aliskir n?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Dir ct inhibition of R nin}}</div>
1384122643427 1358629116480 All ACE inhibitors nd in th suffix {{c1::
-pril}}.
1384122667674 1358629116480 ACE inhibitors ar {{c1::1st}} choic antihyp rt
nsiv s.
1384123072638 1358629116480 What is th MOA of ACE Inhibitors?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Angiot nsin Conv rting Enzym (ACE); th r by inhibit
ing RAAS}}</div>
1384123107077 1358629116480 {{c1::Enalapril}} is an ACE inhibitor that is ad
minist r d as a prodrug.
1384123130727 1358629116480 {{c1::Enalaprilat}} is an ACE inhibitor that is
us d for Hyp rt nsiv Em rg ncy.
1384123239726 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Losartan?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Comp titiv antagonism of Angiot nsin II R c ptors}}</div>
1384123260766 1358629116480 Angiot nsin II R c ptor Block rs (ARBs) ar &nbsp
;{{c1::1st}} choic antihyp rt nsiv s.
1384123335318 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Lovastatin (statins)?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Comp titiv inhibition of HMG-CoA R ductas }}</div>
1384123479878 1358629116480 Statins inhibit th CYP450 {{c1::3A4}} nzy
m .
1384123524220 1358629116480 What is th pr gnancy cat gory of Lovastatin?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::X}}</div>
1384123552245 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Chol styramin ?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Bil acid r sin; binds bil acids in th GI lum n; th r by causing
upr gulation of LDL r cptors}}</div>
1384123615266 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Niacin in th Tx of Hyp rlipi
d mia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Strong inhibition of lipolysis at adipos tiss
u ; incr as in ApoA1 l v ls from HDL}}</div>
1384123671950 1358629116480 What is a s rious sid ff ct of Niacin administ
ration?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H patotoxicity}}</div>
1384123859332 1358629116480 On can co-administ r {{c1::Aspirin}} with
Niacin to pr v nt cutan ous flushing.
1384123885433 1358629116480 What is th MOA of G mfibrozil?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Activation of PPAR-alpha; th r by yi lding incr as d Lipoprot in Lipa
s xpr ssion}}</div>
1384123937187 1358629116480 {{c1::G mfibrozil}} is an antihyp rlipid mic tha
t activat s PPAR-alpha, th r by incr asing th xpr ssion of Lipoprot in Lipas .
1384123967936 1358629116480 What is th clinical us of G mfibrozil?<div><br
/>{{c1::Tx of Typ <u styl ="font-w ight: bold; ">III</u> Hyp rlipoprot in
mia}}</div>
1384123995978 1358629116480 {{c1::G mfibrozil}} is th drug of choic for Ty
p III Hyp rlipid mia
1384124024312 1358629116480 {{c1::Ez timib }} an anthyp rlipid mic that s l
ctiv ly inhibits th int stinal absorption of chol st rol by localizin at th br
ush bord r of th SI.
1384124079621 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Ez timib ?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of chol st rol absorption by localizing at th brush bord r
of th SI}}</div>
1384124107152 1358629116480 What is th intrac llular MOA of Nitrat s/Nitrit
s in th Tx of Angina?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Conv rsion to NO; NO activat s
cytosolic guanylyl cyclas }}</div>
1384125181784 1358629116480 Prot in Kinas G d phosphorylat s {{c1::Myosin L
ight Chains}} and d cr as s intrac llular {{c2::Ca}} to caus smooth muscl
r laxation at BVs.
1384125238437 1358629116480 What is th most common sid ff cts of Nitrat s
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H adach }}</div>
1384125266969 1358629116480 What th major cardiovascular action of Nitrat s
/Nitrit s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Significant r laxation of larg v ins; th
r by d cr asing pr load, CO, BP and improving sub ndocardial p rfusion}}</div>
1384125333516 1358629116480 B sid s IV administration, what ROA of Nitroglyc
rin has th fast st ons t?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sublingual}}</div>
1384125368661 1358629116480 What 2 ROA's of Nitroglyc rin hav significantly
long duration of action?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oral and Transd rmal}}</div
>
1384125400498 1358629116480 Nitrat s/Nitrit s incr as th formation of&nbsp
;{{c1::M th moglobin}} as nitrit ions can oxidiz f rrous iron into f rric iron
.
1384125516073 1358629116480 {{c1::Amyl Nitrat }} is a nitrat that is admini
st r d nasally and has a v ry rapid ons t of ~30 s conds.
1384125720885 1358629116480 {{c1::Isosorbid Mononitrat }} is a nitrat with
strict oral ROA and long duration of 6-10 hours.
1384125756604 1358629116480 {{c1::Nif dipin }} and {{c2::Nicardipin }}
ar Ca chann l block rs with high vascular s l ctivity.
1384126061011 1358629116480 {{c1::Nicardipin }} is a Ca chann l block r with
v ry high vascular s l ctivity. It is s l ctiv for <u styl ="font-w ight: bold
; ">both</u> coronary and c r bral v ss ls.
1384126090762 1358629116480 What is th drug of choic for Prinzm tal's Angi
na?<div><br /></div><div>{{c2::Nicardipin }}</div>
1384126112568 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Ca chann l block rs in th Tx
of Angina?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antagonism of L-typ Ca chann ls; caus s
vasodilation and r duc s cardiac O2 d mand and incr as s O2 supply}}</div>
1384126175672 1358629116480 {{c1::Diltiaz m}} and {{c2::V rapamil}} ar
Ca chann l block rs that hav low vascular s l ctivity and h nc x rt ff cts
at th h art .
1384126216360 1358629116480 What is th ff ct of b ta-block rs on th diast
olic p riod?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L ngth ns it; th r by incr as d myocardi
al p rfusion}}</div>
1384126344136 1358629116480 What is th main MOA of b ta-block rs in th Tx
of Angina?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::R duction of cardiac O2 d mand by r ductio
n in HR, contractility and BP}}</div>
1384126408141 1358629116480 B ta-block rs ar contraindicat d in pati nts th
at hav a PR int rval long r than {{c1::0.24}} s conds.
1384126560835 1358629116480 What is th antidot for Ca chann l block rs?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::B1 adr n rgic agonists; or oth r drugs that incr as Ca
flux}}</div>
1384126611420 1358629116480 Which 2 Ca chann l block rs that act at th h ar
t can caus AV block, Arrhythmias, V-fib or bradycardia?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::Diltiaz m and V rapamil}}</div>
1384709840083 1358629116480 Class {{c1::Ia}} anti-arrhythmics ar Na-ch
ann l block rs that <b>mod rat ly</b> d cr as th slop of phas 0.

1384713512383 1358629116480 Class {{c1::Ia}} anti-arrhythmics ar Na-ch
ann l block rs that <b>prolong</b> r polarization.
1384713537320 1358629116480 Class {{c1::Ib}} anti-arrhythmics ar Na-ch
ann l block rs that <b>minimally</b> d cr as th slop of phas 0.
1384713571887 1358629116480 Class {{c1::Ib}} anti-arrhythmics ar
Na-chann l block rs that short n th r polarization p riod.
1384713607498 1358629116480 Class {{c1::Ic}} anti-arrhythmics ar
Na-chann l block rs that caus a <b>mark d</b> d cr as in th slop of pha
s 0.
1384713630037 1358629116480 Class {{c1::Ic}} anti-arrhythmics ar
Na-chann l block rs that hav <b>littl ff ct </b>on r polarization.
1384713650100 1358629116480 Class {{c1::II}} anti-arrhythmics ar
b ta-block rs.
1384713662785 1358629116480 Class {{c1::III}} anti-arrhythmics ar
K-chann l block rs that <b>prolong</b> r polarization.
1384713686427 1358629116480 Class {{c1::IV}} anti-arrhythmics ar
Ca-chann l block rs that <b>d cr as </b> th slop of phas 0 of slow fib r
s.
1384713725463 1358629116480 Class {{c1::Ia}} anti-arrhythmics xhibit <
b>int rm diat </b> r cov ry tim of th chann l th y bind to.
1384714944962 1358629116480 Class {{c1::Ib}} anti-arrhythmics disp
lay <b>short</b> r cov ry tim of th chann l th y bind to.
1384714960125 1358629116480 Class {{c1::Ic}} anti-arrhythmics disp
lay <b>long</b> r cov ry tim of th chann l th y bind to.
1384714974365 1358629116480 Acidosis acc ntuat s th Na-chann l blockad of
Class {{c1::I}} anti-arrhythmics as th y ar w ak bas s with pKa > 7.
<br /><div><i>Alkalosis diminish s th Na chann l blockad </i></div>
1384715329275 1358629116480 What is th main m chanism of Quinidin action a
s an anti-arrhythmic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blockad of activat d Na chann
ls}}</div>
1384716181401 1358629116480 What is th ff ct of Quinidin on th r fractor
y p riod?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Prolongation}}</div>
1384716602317 1358629116480 What is th ff ct of Quinidin on th QT int rv
al?<div><br />{{c1::Prolongation}}</div>
1384716620826 1358629116480 What is th ff ct of Quinidin on th automatic
ity of cardiomyocyt s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as }}</div>
1384716646312 1358629116480 {{c1::Cinchonism}} is an adv rs ff ct of Quini
din administration and is charact riz d by autonomic n rvous syst m dysfunction
.
1384716737332 1358629116480 Quinidin is contradindicat d in pati nts with p
rolong d {{c1::QT}} int rvals.
1384716939998 1358629116480 {{c1::Torsad d Point s}} is an adv rs ff ct
of Quinidin administration du to prolongation of th QT int rval.
1384717002515 1358629116480 {{c1::Sodium Lactat }} is us d as an antidot fo
r Quinidin toxicity as is incr as s Na flux and alkaliniz s tisu to r duc dru
g r c ptor binding.
1384717127204 1358629116480 What is th main MOA of Procainamad as an antiarrhythmic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blockad of activat d Na chann ls}}</div>
1384717199422 1358629116480 {{c1::Procainamid }} is a Class Ia anti-arrhythm
ic that lacks antimuscarinic, alpha-blocking and Ca-chann l blocking action.
1384717297393 1358629116480 {{c1::N-ac tylprocainamid }} is an activ m tabo
lit of Procainamid that blocks K-chann ls as an anti-arrhythmic.
1384717407044 1358629116480 What is th clinical us of Procainamid ?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Tx of th arrythmias associat d with Wolf-Parkinson-Whit s
yndrom }}</div>
1384717476573 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Lidocain ?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Blockad of both activat d and inactivat d Na-chann l block rs}}</div>
1384717529267 1358629116480 How do s Lidocain chang th r fractorin ss in
normal cardiac c lls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as }}</div>
1384717916212 1358629116480 How do s Lidocain chang th r fractorin ss in

<b>d polariz d</b> c lls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as }}</div>
<br /><div><i>In d polariz d c lls, Na chann ls r main larg ly block d during di
astol . Mor can b com block d by lidocain .</i></div>
1384717985851 1358629116480 {{c1::Lidocain }} is th l ast cardiotoxic
anti-arrhythmic.
1384718034767 1358629116480 {{c1::Lidocain }} is th anti-arrhythmic us
d to tr at Digitalis induc d arrhythmias.
1384718380513 1358629116480 {{c1::Lidocain }} is th anti-arrhythmic us
d in th acut tr atm nt of v ntricular arrhythmias in th ICU and post MI.
1384719364941 1358629116480 {{c1::Lidocain }} is th anti-arrhythmic th
at is controv rsially us d to pr v nt v ntricular arrhythmias and V-fib in pati
nts with MI.
1384719421725 1358629116480 {{c1::M xil tin }} is an anti-arrhythmic that is
a Lidocain analog and is us d in {{c2::v ntricular tachycardia}}.
1384719486310 1358629116480 {{c1::Ph nytoin}} is a Class Ib anti-arrhyt
hmic that blocks mainly<b> inactivat d</b> Na chann ls in th h art and brain.
1384719671895 1358629116480 What is th clinical us of Ph nytoin?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Digitalis-induc d arrhythmias}}</div>
1384719688508 1358629116480 What is th main MOA of Fl cainid ?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Blocks <b>activat d</b> Na chann ls}}</div>
1384719738240 1358629116480 {{c1::Fl cainid }} is an anti-arrhythmic us
d to control th <b>rhythm</b> of atrial flutt r and fibrillation.
1384720288565 1358629116480 How do b ta-block rs chang th PR int rval?<div
><br />{{c1::Elongation}}</div>
1384720798493 1358629116480 Class {{c1::II}} anti-arrhythmics ar us d
for th <b>chronic </b>control of A-fib, A-flutt r and SVT.
1384720911441 1358629116480 Class {{c1::II}} anti-arrhythmics ar
us d to tr at arrhythmias du to incr as d adr n rgic activity.
1384720938467 1358629116480 Class {{c2::II}} anti-arrhythmics act
as prophylactics for V-fib in pati nts with MI through b ta-adr n rgic antagonis
m.
1384721021372 1358629116480 What is ar th 2 main MOAs of Amiodaron ?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Blockad of K chann ls; Blockad of <b>inactivat d</b>&nbs
p;Na chann ls}}</div>
1384721103028 1358629116480 What is th ff ct of Amiodaron on th QT int r
val?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mark d prolongation}}</div>
1384721289169 1358629116480 {{c1::Amiodaron }} is a Class III anti-arrh
ythmic that also has Class I, II and IV ff cts du to its m mbran alt rations.
1384721566861 1358629116480 {{c1::Corn al}} microd posits ar a common sid
ff ct of Amiodaron .
1384721639451 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypothyroidism}} is a common hormonal sid
ff ct of Amiodaron .
1384721659106 1358629116480 What is th most ff ctiv anti-arrhythmic?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Amiodaron }}</div>
1384721770255 1358629116480 What is th most commonly pr scrib d anti-a
rrhythmic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Amiodaron }}</div>
1384721795366 1358629116480 What is th first choic drug in th prophylaxis
of V-fib?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Amiodaron }}</div>
1384721825518 1358629116480 What is th first choic drug in Sustain d V ntr
icular Tachycardia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Amiodaron }}</div>
1384722092004 1358629116480 {{c1::Sotalol}} is a Class III anti-arrhyth
mic that is typically us d in {{c2::Suprav ntricular Arrhythmias}} or in li
f -thr at ning {{c3::V ntricular arrhythmias}}
1384722261922 1358629116480 {{c1::Sotalol}} is a Class III anti-arrhyth
mic that is also a nons l ctiv b ta-block r
1384722276128 1358629116480 {{c1::Ibutilid }} is a Class III anti-arrhy
thmic that is only us d in atrial flutt r and atrial fibrillation.
1384722371884 1358629116480 What is th clinical us of Ibutilid ?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Acut Atrial Flutt r or A-Fib}}</div>
1384722391671 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Ibutilid ?<div><br /></div><d

iv>{{c1::K chann l blockad }}</div>
1384722404024 1358629116480 Which 2 Ca chann l block rs ar th only on s th
at block Ca chann ls at th h art?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V rapamil; Diltiaz
m}}</div>
1384722630296 1358629116480 What is th ff ct of Class IV anti-arrhythmics
on th PR int rval?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Prolongation}}</div>
1384722678094 1358629116480 Class IV anti-arrhythmics ar contrain
dicat d in {{c1::Wolf-Parkinson-Whit }} Syndrom .
1384722828573 1358629116480 What is th main MOA of Ad nosin as an ant
i-arrhythmic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as s th outwards K curr nt, hyp r
polarizing th c ll}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th r by d cr asing th automaticit
y of th SA nod </i></div>
1384723721804 1358629116480 What is th anti-arrhythmic of choic to tr
at PSVT?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ad nosin }}</div>
1384723751525 1358629116480 {{c1::Magn sium Sulfat }} is an anti-arrhyt
hmic that can tr at Digitalis induc d arrhythmia and oth r arrhythmias involving
d cr as d Mg l v ls.
1384723812054 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Digoxin?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Inhibition of Na/K ATPas , th r by d cr asing Ca fflux and incr asing co
ntractility}}</div>
1384723892782 1358629116480 {{c1::Digoxin}} is a misc llan ous anti-arr
hythmic that is us ful to tr at A-flutt r and A-fib in pati nts with h art failu
r .
1384723935867 1358629116480 {{c1::Quinidin }} is an anti-arrhythmic dru
g that incr as s Digoxin toxicity by pr v nting its limination.
1384734672848 1358629116480 How do s Digoxin aff ct vascular ton ?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Slight incr as }}</div>
1384736615449 1358629116480 Digoxin dir ctly stimulat s th {{c1::ch mo
r c ptor trigg r}} zon in th CNS.
1384736641183 1358629116480 Digoxin dir ctly stimulat s th {{c1::vagus
}} nucl us in th CNS.
1384736654920 1358629116480 {{c1::Digoxin}} is an inotropic drug that can ca
us visual disturbanc s such as blurr d vision and gr n-y llow halos around bri
ght obj cts as sid ff cts.
1384737115733 1358629116480 {{c1::Digitalis D l rium}} is a sid ff ct of D
igoxin at v ry high dos s. It is charact ris d by confusion , disori ntation , a
gitation and hallucinations.
1384737181321 1358629116480 What is th most common adv rs ff ct of Digoxi
n?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Arrhythmia}}</div>
1384737209288 1358629116480 What is th most common Digoxin-induc d arrhythm
ia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V ntricular xtrasystol }}</div> <br /><div><i>2n
d most common would b 2nd or 3rd d gr AV block</i></div>
1384737305987 1358629116480 How do s Hypokal mia alt r Digoxin's ff cts?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Digoxin has a gr at r ff ct as is comp t s with K+ for
th binding sit }}</div>
1384737848539 1358629116480 How do s Hyp rkal mia alt r Digoxin action?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::R duction; hyp rkal mia l ads to d phosphorylation of th
ATPas subunit}}</div>
1384737890378 1358629116480 How do s Hyp rcalc mia alt r Digoxin action?<div
><br />{{c1::Additiv ; Ca has inotropic ff cts its lf}}</div>
1384737960965 1358629116480 What is th main MOA of Digoxin?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Blockad of th Na/K ATPas by comp ting with K}}</div>
1384743529992 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Dobutamin ?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::S l ctiv b ta1-agonism, th r by incr asing intrac llular Ca}}</div>
1384743585547 1358629116480 Dopamin yi lds positiv inotropic ff cts with&
nbsp;{{c1::int rm diat }} dos s.
<br /><div><i>2-5 mcg/min/Kg</i></div>
1384743638004 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Milrinon ?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of Phosphodi st ras Isozym 3, l ading to incr as d cAMP}}<
/div>
1384743859196 1358629116480 {{c1::Milrinon }} is a inotropic ag nt that inhi

bits Phosphodi st ras Isozym 3, th r by incr asing intrac llular [cAMP].
1384743921070 1358629116480 Inotropic ag nts ar typically us d in {{c1
::acut d comp nsat d}} h art failur .
1384743940384 1358629116480 {{c1::Spironolacton }} is a RAAS drug that att n
uat s th pathological r mod ling that occurs in h art failur and is additiv t
o th positiv ff ct of ACE Inhibitors.
1384744006455 1358629116480 {{c1::Furos mid }} is th most ff ctiv diur ti
c in th tr atm nt of h art failur .
1384744713424 1358629116480 Thiazid s ar always us d in combination with&nb
sp;{{c1::Furos mid }} wh n tr ating HF
1384744735413 1358629116480 B ta-block rs ar r comm nd d in all stag s of&n
bsp;{{c1::chronic}} h art failur .
1384744767717 1358629116480 What sp cific typ s of h art failur can b tr a
t d with b ta-block rs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Diastolic HF; Chronic Systoli
c HF; Chronic HF}}</div>
1384744805634 1358629116480 Which 2 b ta-block rs ar th on s r comm nd d i
n HF?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::M toprolol and Carv dilol}}</div>
1384744833492 1358629116480 {{c1::Art riolar}} dilators ar favour d in pati
nts with primary symptoms of {{c2::low CO}}.
1384745099877 1358629116480 {{c1::V nous}} dilators ar favour d in pati nts
with primary symptoms of {{c2::pulmonary cong stion}}.
1385868569866 1358629116480 <div>Which typ of diur tics ar contraindicat d
in advanc d r nal insuffici ncy?</div><div><br /></div>{{c1::K-sparing}}
<br /><div><i>Loop diur tics ar indicat d in advanc d r nal insuffici ncy.</i><
/div>
1385926406283 1358629116480 What is th DOC for Typ I Hyp rlipid mia?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Low Fat Di t}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Incr as d chylomic
rons</i></div>
1385926484540 1358629116480 What is th DOC for Typ IIa Hyp rlipid mia?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Statins}}</div> <br /><div><i>Incr as d LDL</i></div>
1385926523968 1358629116480 What is th DOC for Typ IIb Hyp rlipid mia?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Statins}}</div> <br /><div><i>Incr as d LDL and VLDL</i>
</div>
1385926539772 1358629116480 What is th DOC for Typ III Hyp rlipid mia?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Niacin or G mfibrozil or Statins}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>Incr as d VLDL and Chylomicrons</i></div>
1385926578865 1358629116480 What is th DOC for Typ IV Hyp rlipid mia?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Niacin or G mfibrozil}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Incr as d
VLDL</i></div>
1385926601009 1358629116480 What is th DOC for Typ V Hyp rlipid mia?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Niacin or G mfibrozil or Statins}}</div> <br /><div><i>In
cr as d VLDL and Chylomicrons</i></div>
1385929088473 1358629116480 Nitrat s ar contraindicat d with simultan ous {
{c1::Sild nafil}} administration du to th fr qu nt occurr nc of s v r hypot
nsion.
1385929155739 1358629116480 {{c1::B ta-block r}} ar contraindicat d with si
multan ous {{c2::cardiac Ca-chann l block rs}} du to th occurr nc of adv
rs cardiovascular ff cts.
1385929201274 1358629116480 Barbiturat s and Rifampin ar CYP nzym {{
c1::induc rs}}.
1385929270662 1358629116480 Cardiac Ca-chann l block rs ar contraindicat d
in simultan ous {{c1::Digoxin}} administration du to it b ing abl to incr
as th plasma l v ls of Digoxin.
1385941090707 1358629116480 {{c1::SLE-lik syndrom }} is an adv rs ff ct o
f Procainamid that can b diagnos d through th pr s nc of {{c2::Anti-His
ton }} antibodi s.
1385941144140 1358629116480 Class {{c1::Ia}} Na-chann l block rs bind t
o and block {{c2::activ }} Na-chann ls. <br /><div><i> .g. Quinidin and Procain
amid </i></div>
1385941206409 1358629116480 Class {{c1::Ib}} Na chann l block rs bind t

o and block {{c2::inactiv (d polariz d)}} Na chann ls.
<br><div><i> .g.
Lidocain , M xil t n , Ph nytoin</i></div>
1385941222709 1358629116480 Class {{c1::Ic}} Na chann l block rs bind t
o and blocks all forms of Na chann ls. <br><div><i> .g. Fl cainid </i></div>
1385941529180 1358629116480 Class {{c1::II}} antiarrhythmics ar us d t
o tr at SVTs du to th ir ability to prolong AV and SA nodal pac mak r pot ntial
s by blocking {{c2::B1}} r c ptors
1385941816835 1358629116480 {{c1::Cinchonism}} is an adv rs ff ct of {{c2:
:Quinidin }} du to it's ability to act as both an anti-muscarinic and alpha blo
ck r.
1385941974430 1358629116480 {{c1::Amiodaron }} is an anti-arrhythmic that ca
us s pulmonary fibrosis du to its ability to coval ntly bind to tissu prot ins
at th lung.
1385942174779 1358629116480 {{c1::Ad nosin }} is an unclassifi d anti-arrhyt
hmic that can caus bronchospasm and dyspn a through Gq-prot in activation at th
lungs.
1385997709720 1358629116480 Digoxin is contraindicat d in pati nts with&nbsp
;{{c1::hyp rtrophic cardiomyopathy}} as th outflow tract obstruction can wors n
following Digoxin administration.
;{{c1::<i>cor pulmonal </i>}} as COPD-induc d hypoxia incr as s th s nsitivity
to Digoxin.
;{{c1::Wolff-Parkinson-Whit Syndrom }} du to risk of fatal v ntricular arrhyth
mia.
;{{c1::v ntricular arrhythmia}} du to risk of V-fib.
1385997848345 1358629116480 Digoxin is contraindicat d in pati nts with any
form of {{c1::Bradycardia}} du to risk of compl t h art block.
1385997885329 1358629116480 Digoxin is contraindicat d in pati nts that hav
damag d {{c1::myocardium}} as it displays incr as d s nsitivity to Digoxin
.
1386638809750 1358629116480 Which antihyp rt nsiv is r comm nd d in pati nt
s with diab t s, sp. thos with r nal complications?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Captopril (and oth r ACE Inhibitors)}}</div>
1397687435814 1395802358422 {{c1::Amlodipin }}, {{c2::Nimodipin }} and&
nbsp;{{c3::Nif dipin }} ar dihydropyridin Ca chann l block rs that block volta
g d p nd nt L-typ Ca chann ls.
<br /><div><i>-dipin = Dihydropyridin <
/i></div>
non-dihydropyridin Ca chann l block rs that block voltag -d p nd nt L-typ Ca
chann ls.
1397697832136 1395802358422 What typ of Ca chann ls do both dihydropyridin
and non-dihydropyridin Ca chann l block rs block?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V
oltag -d p nd nt L-typ Ca chann ls}}</div>
1397697870656 1395802358422 Which <b>typ </b> of Ca chann l block rs pr
imarily act at <b>vascular smooth muscl </b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dihyrop
yridin s (Amlodipin = Nif dipin > Diltiaz m > V rapamil)}}</div>
1397697930611 1395802358422 Which <b>typ </b> of Ca chann l block rs pr
imarily act at th <b>h art</b>?<div><br />{{c1::Non-dihydropyridin s (V rapamil
> Diltiaz m > Amlodipin = Nif dipin )}}</div> <br /><div><i><b>V</b> r
apamil = <b>V</b> ntricl </i></div>
1397697975385 1395802358422 How do Ca chann l block rs influ nc muscl cont
ractility at cardiac and smooth muscl ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as }}</d
iv>
1397698126464 1395802358422 {{c1::V rapamil}} and {{c2::Diltiaz m}} ar
non-dihydropyridin Ca chann l block rs that primarily <b>act at th h art</b>.
<br /><div><i><b>V</b> rapamil = <b>V</b> ntricl </i></div>
1397698174125 1395802358422 {{c1::Amlodipin }} and {{c2::Nif dipin }} a
r dihydropyridin Ca chann l block rs that primarily act at <b>vascular smooth

muscl </b>.
1397698211784 1395802358422 Which dihydropyridin Ca chann l block r is us d
in <b>Subarachnoid H morrhag </b> to pr v nt c r bral vasospasm?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Nimodipin }}</div>
1397698249553 1395802358422 Which <b>typ </b> of Ca chann l block rs ar
us d to tr at <b>Raynaud Ph nom non</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dihydropyr
idin (<u> xc pt for Nimodipin )</u>}}</div>
<br /><div><i>R m mb r, th dihy
dropyridin s primarily act at vascular smooth muscl , not th h art.</i></div>
1397698316714 1395802358422 Which <b>typ </b> of Ca chann l block rs ar
us d to tr at <b>Atrial Fibrillation/Flutt r</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::N
on-dihydropyridin s}}</div>
<br /><div><i>R m mb r, th non-dihydropyridin s
act at th h art.</i></div>
1397698351128 1395802358422 {{c1::Hydralazin }} is a vasodilator that acts b
y incr asing cGMP in smooth muscl , th r by causing smooth muscl r laxation.
1397699096904 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Hydralazin ?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Incr as s cGMP in smooth muscl , th r by causing r laxation (vasodila
tion)}}</div>
1397699116821 1395802358422 Which <b>typ </b> of blood v ss l is pr f r
ntially dilat d by Hydralazin ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Art riol s > v in
s}}</div>
1397699144678 1395802358422 How do s Hydralazin chang aft rload?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::R duction}}</div>
1397699154220 1395802358422 What vasodilator is th <b>first-lin th rapy fo
r Hyp rt nsion in pr gnancy</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hydralazin (with M
thyldopa)}}</div>
1397699182726 1395802358422 Which <b>typ </b> of drug is commonly co-ad
minist r d with Hydralazin to pr v nt r fl x tachycardia?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::B ta-block r}}</div>
1397699212010 1395802358422 {{c1::Hydralazin }} is a vasodilator that can ca
us Lupus-lik syndrom (<b>Drug-induc d SLE</b>) as an adv rs ff ct.
<br /><div><i>R m mb r, Drug induc d SLE has <b>anti-histon antibodi s</b></i><
/div>
1397699354682 1395802358422 {{c1::Hydralazin }} is a vasodilator that acts b
y incr asing cGMP in c lls and is <u>contraindicat d in Angina/CAD</u> du
to th risk of comp nsatory tachycardia.
1397699401087 1395802358422 {{c1::Nitroprussid }} is a vasodilator that is u
s d to tr at Hyp rt nsiv Em rg ncy and acts by incr asing cGMP in smooth muscl
<b>via dir ct r l as of NO</b>.
1397699442976 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Nitroprussid ?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Incr as s cGMP in smooth muscl via dir ct r l as of NO}}</div>
1397699460935 1395802358422 What is th duration of action of Nitroprussid ?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Short}}</div>
1397699469049 1395802358422 {{c1::Nitroprussid }} is a vasodilator us d in H
yp rt nsiv Em rg ncy that can caus cyanid toxicity as it r l as s cyanid .
1397699489450 1395802358422 What toxicity is associat d with Nitroprussid ?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cyanid toxicity}}</div>
1397699504982 1395802358422 {{c1::F noldopam}} is a vasodilator us d in Hyp
rt nsiv Em rg ncy that acts though <b>Dopamin D1 agonism</b>, th r by causing
coronary, p riph ral, r nal and splanchnic vasodilation.
1397699886825 1395802358422 What is th MOA of F noldopam?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Dopamin D1 r c ptor agonism; caus s vasodilation at coronary, p riph
ral, r nal and splanchnic v ss ls}}</div>
1397699920561 1395802358422 How do s F noldopam chang blood pr ssur ?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as (via vasodilation; d cr as d TPR)}}</div>
1397699942757 1395802358422 How do s F noldopam chang natriur sis?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Incr as (it caus s r nal vasodilation)}}</div>
1397699973563 1395802358422 What is th clinical us of Nitroprussid ?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyp rt nsiv Em rg ncy}}</div>
1397699986594 1395802358422 What is th clinical us of F noldopam?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Hyp rt nsiv Em rg ncy}}</div>

1397699996405 1395802358422 Which dihydropyridin Ca chann l block r is comm
only us d in Hyp rt nsiv Em rg ncy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nicardipin ; Cl
vidipin }}</div>
1397701304543 1395802358422 Which mix d alpha-b ta adr n rgic antagonist is
commonly us d to tr at Hyp rt nsiv Em rg ncy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lab ta
lol}}</div>
1397701342056 1395802358422 Which Dopamin D1 agonist is commonly us d to tr
at Hyp rt nsiv Em rg ncy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::F noldopam}}</div>
1397701356471 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Nitroglyc rin?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Incr as s NO in vascular smooth muscl , th r by causing an incr as
in cGMP and smooth muscl r laxation}}</div>
1397701483582 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Isosorbid Dinitrat ?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Incr as s NO in vascular smooth muscl , th r by causing an i
ncr as in cGMP and smooth muscl r laxation}}</div>
1397701492550 1395802358422 Which <b>typ </b> of blood v ss ls ar pr f
r ntially dilat d by Nitroglyc rin and Isosorbid Dinitrat ?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::<b>V ins</b> >> art ri s}}</div>
1397701526747 1395802358422 {{c1::Nitroglyc rin}} and {{c2::Isosorbid
Dinitrat }} ar vasodilators that <b>pr f r ntially dilat v ins</b> by inc
r asing NO in vascular smooth muscl .
1397701638414 1395802358422 How do Nitroglyc rin and Isosorbid Dinitrat ch
ang pr load?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as }}</div>
1397701835727 1395802358422 What is th tr atm nt for R fl x Tachycardia cau
s d by Nitroglyc rin or Isosorbid Dinitrat ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::B ta-bl
ock rs}}</div>
1397701873775 1395802358422 {{c1::"Monday Dis as "}} is an adv rs ff ct of
Nitroglyc rin/Isosorbid Dinitrat that is commonly s n following industrial
xposur to th drug.
<br /><div><i>Involv s th d v lopm nt of tol ranc to t
h drug during th work w k (via industrial xposur ) and a loss of tol ranc o
v r th w k nd. </i><i>H nc wh n th p rson r turns to work on Monday th
r is tachycardia, dizzin ss and h adach wh n th y ar r - xpos d.</i></div>
1397701971568 1395802358422 What adv rs ff ct of Nitroglyc rin/Isosorbid
Dinitrat is du to industrial xposur to th drug?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
"Monday Dis as "}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Involv s th d v lopm nt of tol ra
nc to th drug during th work w k (via industrial xposur ) and a loss of tol
ranc ov r th w k nd. </i><i>H nc wh n th p rson r turns to work on Mo
nday th r is tachycardia, dizzin ss and h adach wh n th y ar r - xpos d.</i><
/div>
1397702006971 1395802358422 {{c1::"Monday Dis as "}} is an adv rs ff ct of
Nitroglyc rin/Isosorbid Dinitrat that involv s th d v lopm nt of tol ranc t
o th drug during th work w k (via industrial xposur ) and a loss of tol ranc
ov r th w k nd.
<br /><div><i>H nc wh n th p rson r turns to work on M
onday th r is tachycardia, dizzin ss and h adach wh n th y ar r - xpos d.</i>
</div>
1397702126234 1395802358422 How do s th administration of Nitrat s chang E
DV?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as }}</div> <br /><div><i>Vasodilation caus
s a d cr as in v nous r turn and h nc a d cr as in EDV.</i></div><div><i><img
src="past -34531537060192.jpg" /></i></div>
1397702396695 1395802358422 How do s th administration of Nitrat s chang B
lood Pr ssur ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as }}</div>
<br /><div><i>Va
sodilation = d cr as d TPR = d cr as d BP</i></div><div><i><img src="past -34531
537060192.jpg" /></i></div>
1397702417193 1395802358422 How do s th administration of Nitrat s chang c
ardiac contractility?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as d <b>via r fl x r spons
</b>}}</div> <br /><div><img src="past -34531537060192.jpg" /></div>
1397702486208 1395802358422 How do s th administration of Nitrat s chang H
R?<div><br />{{c1::Incr as <b>via r fl x r spons </b>}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="past -34531537060192.jpg" /></div>
1397702495712 1395802358422 How do s th administration of Nitrat s chang E
j ction Tim ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as }}</div>

<br /><div><i>Va
sodilation = d cr as d v nous r turn = d cr as d EDV = d cr as d SV = d cr as d
Ej ction Tim </i></div><div><i><img src="past -34531537060192.jpg" /></i></div>
1397702547667 1395802358422 How do s th administration of Nitrat s chang M
yocardial O<sub>2</sub> consumptions (MVO<sub>2</sub>)?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::D cr as }}</div>
<br /><div><img src="past -34535832027488.jpg" /
></div>
1397702571667 1395802358422 How do s th administration of B ta-block rs cha
ng EDV?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as }}</div>
<br /><div><i>B ta-block
ad = vasoconstriction = incr as d v nous r turn = <b>incr as d EDV</b></i></div
><div><i><b><img src="past -34531537060192.jpg" /></b></i></div>
ng Blood Pr ssur ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as }}</div> <br /><div><i>B
ta blockad = d cr as d HR = d cr as d CO (that gr atly ov rcom s th incr as i
n TPR) = <b>d cr as d BP</b></i></div><div><i><b><img src="past -34531537060192.
jpg" /></b></i></div>
ng cardiac contractility?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as }}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>B ta-agonists would incr as contractility.</i></div><div><i><img src="pas
t -34531537060192.jpg" /></i></div>
ng HR?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as }}</div>
<br /><div><i>B ta-agoni
sts would incr as HR</i></div><div><i><img src="past -34531537060192.jpg" /></i
></div>
ng Ej ction Tim ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as }}</div> <br /><div><i>B
ta-blockad = vasoconstriction = incr as d TPR = incr as d v nous r turn = incr
as d EDV = incr as d SV = <b>incr as d Ej ction Tim </b></i></div><div><i><b><im
g src="past -34531537060192.jpg" /></b></i></div>
ng Myocardial O<sub>2</sub> consumption (MVO<sub>2</sub>)?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::D cr as }} </div>
2.jpg" /></div>
1397702810511 1395802358422 Which dihydropyridin Ca chann l block r is simi
lar to nitrat s in ff ct?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nif dipin }}</div>
1397702853787 1395802358422 Which non-dihydropyridin Ca chann l block r is
similar to b ta-block rs in ff ct?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V rapamil}}</div>
1397702874185 1395802358422 {{c1::Pindolol}} and {{c2::Ac butolol}} ar
partial b ta-agonists that ar contraindicat d in angina.
1397745556950 1395802358422 What typ of antihyp rlipid mic is Lovastatin?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA R ductas inhibitor}}</div>
1397745939726 1395802358422 What typ of antihyp rlipid mic is Pravastatin?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA R ductas Inhibitor}}</div>
1397746276428 1395802358422 What typ of antihyp rlipid mic is Simvastatin?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA R ductas Inhibitor}}</div>
1397746294708 1395802358422 What typ of antihyp rlipid mic is Atorvastatin?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA R ductas Inhibitor}}</div>
1397746314784 1395802358422 What typ of antihyp rlipid mic is Rosuvastatin?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HMG-CoA R ductas Inhibitor}}</div>
1397746326534 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Statins (Lovastatin, Pravasta
tin, tc)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of HMG-CoA R ductas , th r by i
nhibiting th conv rstion of HMG-CoA to M valonat (a chol st rol pr cursor)}}</
div>
1397746405355 1395802358422 {{c1::H patotoxicity}} is an adv rs ff ct of S
tatins and is charact riz d by an l vation in Liv r Function T sts (LFTs).
<br /><div><i>i. . ALT and AST l v ls ar l vat d</i></div>
1397746493330 1395802358422 {{c1::Rhabdomyolysis}} is an adv rs ff ct of S
tatins wh n administ r d with Fibrat s and Niacin.
1397746520905 1395802358422 What adv rs ff ct of Statins is s n wh n th y
ar co-administ r d with Fibrat s and Niacin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rhabdo
myolysis}}</div>
1397746549099 1395802358422 What typ of antihyp rlipid mic is Chol styramin
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bil Acid R sin}}</div>
1397746567067 1395802358422 What typ of antihyp rlipid mic is Col stipol?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bil Acid R sin}}</div>
1397746576589 1395802358422 What typ of antihyp rlipid mic is Col s v lam?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bil Acid R sin}}</div>
1397746584445 1395802358422 What typ of antihyp rlipid mic is Ez timib ?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Chol st rol absorption block r}}</div>
1397746604265 1395802358422 What typ of antihyp rlipid mic is G mfibrozil?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fibrat }}</div>
1397746614717 1395802358422 What typ of antihyp rlipid mic is Clofibrat ?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fibrat }}</div>
1397746620154 1395802358422 What typ of antihyp rlipid mic is B zafibrat ?<
1397746626301 1395802358422 What typ of antihyp rlipid mic is F nofibrat ?<
1397746631239 1395802358422 What typ of antihyp rlipid mic yi lds th gr at
st d cr as in <b>LDL (bad chol st rol)</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Statins
(HMG-CoA R ductas Inhibitors)}}</div>
1397746695067 1395802358422 What typ of antihyp rlipid mic yi lds th gr at
st d cr as in <b>triglyc rid s</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fibrat s ( .g.
G mfibrozil)}}</div>
1397746896740 1395802358422 In g n ral, how to antihyp rlipid mics chang LD
L l v ls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as }}</div> <br /><div><i>LDL = "bad
chol st rol"</i></div>
1397746942732 1395802358422 In g n ral, how to antihyp rlipid mics chang HD
L l v ls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as }}</div> <br /><div><i>HDL = "goo
d chol st rol"</i></div>
1397746964172 1395802358422 In g n ral, how to antihyp rlipid mics chang Tr
iglyc rid l v ls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as (<b> xc pt for bil acid
r sins</b>)}}</div>
1397746983330 1395802358422 How do Triglyc rid l v ls chang following th
administration of Bil Acid R sins (Antihyp rlipid mics)?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Slight <b>incr as </b>}}</div>
<br /><div><i>All oth r antihyp rlipid m
ics d cr as triglyc rid s or don't hav an ff ct.</i></div>
1397747047583 1395802358422 What is th only typ of Antihyp rlipid mic that
<b>incr as s</b> Triglyc rid l v ls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bil Acid
R sins (slightly incr as s l v ls)}}</div>
1397747558057 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Niacin (Vitamin B3) as an ant
ihyp rlipid mic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibits Lipolysis at adipos tissu
; R duc s H patic VLDL synth sis}}</div>
24218659.jpg" /></div>
1397747602781 1395802358422 {{c1::Niacin (Vit B3)}} is a vitamin us d to tr
at hyp rlipid mia by inhibiting lipolysis in adipos tissu and r ducing h patic
VLDL synth sis.
1397747646538 1395802358422 Which vitamin can b us d to tr at Hyp rlipid mi
a by <u>r ducing h patic VLDL synth sis</u>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Niacin (
Vitamin B3)}}</div>
1397747673110 1395802358422 {{c1::R d/Flush d Fac }} is a cutan ous adv rs
ff ct of Niacin administration that is improv d by Aspirin or long t rm us of
Niacin.
1397747720968 1395802358422 {{c1::Acanthosis Nigricans}} is a pot ntial cuta
n ous adv rs ff ct of Niacin us du to th hyp rglyc mia it caus s.
1397747758907 1395802358422 {{c1::Niacin (Vitamin B3)}} is a vitamin us d to
tr at Hyp rlipid mia that can caus Hyp rglyc mia.
tr at Hyp rlipid mia that can xac rbat gout/hyp ruric mia.
1397747817449 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Bil Acid R sins as antihyp r
lipid mics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pr v nt th int stinal r absorption of bi
l acids, th r by making th liv r us chol st rol to mak mor }}</div> <br /><d
1397748532281 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Chol styramin ?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Inhibits th int stinal r absorption of Bil Acids, th r by making
th liv r us chol st rol to mak mor }}</div>
1397748562903 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Col stipol?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibits th int stinal r basorption of bil acids, th r by th liv r
has to us chol st rol to mak mor }}</div>
1397748596944 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Col s v lam?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhibits th int stional r absorption of bil acids, th r by making t
h liv r us chol st rol to mak mor }}</div>
1397748643863 1395802358422 {{c1::Bil Acid R sins}} ar a typ of antihyp r
lipid mic that pati nts hat as it tast s bad and caus s GI discomfort.
1397748681889 1395802358422 Which typ of antihyp rlipid mics is associat d
with bad tast and GI discomfort?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bil Acid R sins (h
nc , pati nts hat th m)}}</div>
1397748712248 1395802358422 Which vitamins can b com d fici nt following th
administration of Bil Acid R sins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fat solubl vit
amins (Vitamin A, D, E, K)}}</div>
1397748770890 1395802358422 {{c1::Bil Acid r sins}} ar a typ of antihyp r
lipid mics that can d cr as th absorption of fat-solubl vitamins (A, D, E, K)
.
tr at hyp rlipid mia that <u>inc ras s Apo-A1 xpr ssion on HDL</u>.
1397749305972 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Ez timib in th tr atm nt of
hyp rlipid mia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pr v nts chol st rol absorption at t
h small int stin brush bord r}}</div> <br /><div><img src="past -7056631267882
.jpg" /></div>
1397749360817 1395802358422 {{c1::Ez timib }} is a chol st rol absorption bl
ock r that is us d to tr at hyp rlipid mia by pr v nting chol st rol absorption
at th small int stin brush bord r.
.jpg" /></div>
1397749424115 1395802358422 What is a common GI adv rs ff ct of Ez timib
(chol st rol absorption block r)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Diarrh a}}</div>
1397749454497 1395802358422 {{c1::Ez timib }} is a chol st rol absorption bl
ock r us d to tr at hyp rlipid mia that is <b>rar ly</b> associat d with in
cr as d liv r function t sts (LFTs).
1397749504687 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Fibrat s in th tr atm nt of
hyp rlipid mia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Upr gulation of LPL to incr as TG cl
aranc ; Activation of PPAR-alpha to induc HDL synth sis}}</div>
1397749556387 1395802358422 {{c1::Fibrat s}} ar a typ of antihyp rlipid mi
c that function by <b>upr gulating LPL</b> (to incr as TG cl aranc ) and <
b>activating PPAR-alpha</b> (to induc HDL synth sis).
<div><br /></div
><i>Fibrat s = G mfibrozil; -fibrat </i><br /><div><img src="past -7052336300586
.jpg" /></div>
1397749595933 1395802358422 What typ of antihyp rlipid mics upr gulat Lipo
prot in Lipas (LPL) to incr as TG cl aranc ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fibrat
s}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Via this MOA, Fibrat s yi ld th gr at st d cr as
in TG l v ls</i></div><div><i><img src="past -7052336300586.jpg" /></i></div>
1397749625526 1395802358422 What typ of antihyp rlipid mics <b>activat s PP
AR-alpha</b> to induc HDL synth sis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Fibrat s}}
</div> <br /><div><img src="past -7052336300586.jpg" /></div>
1397749647328 1395802358422 What is th MOA of G mfibrozil?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Upr gulation of LPL to incr as TG cl aranc ; Activation of PPAR-alph
a to induc HDL synth sis}}</div>
<div><br /></div><i>All of th oth r fib
rat s ar "-fibrat "</i><br /><div><img src="past -7052336300586.jpg" /></div>
1397749710222 1395802358422 Which nzym is upr gulat d by Fibrat s (G mfibr
ozil, Clofibrat , -fibrat )?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Liproprot in Lipas (LPL
)}}</div>
1397749814595 1395802358422 {{c1::Myositis}} is a musculosk l tal adv rs f
f ct of Fibrat s that has an incr as d risk of occurring wh n giv n with Statins

.
1397749895362 1395802358422 {{c1::H patotoxicity}} is an adv rs ff ct of F
ibrat s that is charact riz d by incr as d liv r function t sts (LFTs).
1397749914930 1395802358422 {{c1::Chol st rol Gallston s}} ar a biliary adv
rs ff ct of Fibrat s, sp cially wh n giv n concurr ntly with bil acid r sin
s.
1397749940315 1395802358422 What musculosk l tal adv rs ff ct is associat
d with Fibrat s, sp cially wh n giv n with Statins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Myositis}}</div>
1397749975229 1395802358422 What biliary adv rs ff ct is associat d with F
ibrat s, sp cially wh n giv n with Bil Acid R sins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1:
:Chol st rol Gallston s}}</div>
1397750027386 1395802358422 What is th DOC for <b>Typ III Hyp rlipid mia</
b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G mfibrozil}}</div>
1397755765165 1395802358422 What is th bioavailability of Digoxin?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::75%}}</div>
1397756185930 1395802358422 What is th half-lif (t<sub>1/2</sub>) of Digox
in?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::40 hrs}}</div>
1397756210742 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Digoxin?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Dir ct inhibition of Na/K ATPas , th r by indir ctly inhibiting th Na/Ca
xchang r and yi lding incr as d intrac llular [Ca] and subs qu nt incr as in
inotropy}}</div>
1397756276591 1395802358422 {{c1::Digoxin}} is a cardiac glycosid that is u
s d to tr at CHF via dir ct inhibition of th Na/K ATPas , th r by indir ctly in
hibiting th Na/Ca xchang r and yi lding incr as d intrac llular [Ca] and subs
qu nt incr as in inotropy.
1397756300484 1395802358422 Which transport r is <b>dir ctly</b> inhibit d b
y Digoxin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Na/K ATPas }}</div>
1397756336165 1395802358422 Which transport r is <b>indir ctly</b> inhi
bit d by Digoxin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Na/Ca xchang r/antiport r (via Na/
K ATPas )}}</div>
1397756373228 1395802358422 How do s Digoxin chang cardiac contractility?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as (by ultimat ly incr asing intrac llular [Ca])
}}</div>
1397756394534 1395802358422 How do s Digoxin chang HR?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::D cr as (via Vagal N rv [CN X] stimulation)}}</div>
1397756420903 1395802358422 Which cranial n rv is stimulat d by Digoxin?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vagus (CN X); this th r by d cr as s HR}}</div>
s d to tr at <b>CHF</b> by <b>incr asing cardiac contractility</b>.
s d to tr at <b>Atrial Fibrillation</b> by <b>d cr asing conduction at th
AV nod s and d pr ssing th SA nod </b>.
1397758270422 1395802358422 {{c1::Digoxin}} is a cardiac glycosid that can
yi ld <b>cholin rgic </b>adv rs ff cts such as naus a, vomiting, diarrh a and
blurry y llow vision.
1397758744364 1395802358422 {{c1::Blurry Y llow Vision}} is a n urological a
dv rs ff ct of Digoxin that occurs du to its cholin rgic action.
1397758780250 1395802358422 How do s th PR int rval chang following Digoxi
n administration?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PR int rval longation}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Digoxin slows AV nod conduction, h nc th PR int rval is long r<
/i></div>
1397758887976 1395802358422 How do s th QT int rval chang with Digoxin us
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::QT int rval short ning}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Di
goxin incr as s v ntricular contractility, h nc th QT int rval is short r</i><
/div>
1397758917657 1395802358422 {{c1::Digoxin}} is a cardiac glycosid that yi l
ds <b>ST s gm nt scooping</b> on an ECG.
1397758951129 1395802358422 {{c1::Digoxin}} is a cardiac glycosid that yi l
ds <b>T-wav inv rsion</b> on an ECG.

1397759442727 1395802358422 {{c1::AV Block}} is a cardiac conduction disord
r that is associat d with Digoxin du to its ability to d cr as AV nod conduct
ion.
1397759489044 1395802358422 Which l ctrolyt imbalanc is associat d with D
igoxin us ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyp rkal mia}}</div>
<br /><div><i>In
dicat s poor prognosis.</i></div>
1397759652765 1395802358422 How do s r nal failur influ nc Digoxin toxicit
y?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as d toxicity as Digoxin is r nally xcr t d}
}</div>
1397759699922 1395802358422 How do s Hypokal mia influ nc Digoxin action?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as d Digoxin action (and h nc incr as d toxicity
)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hypokal mia is p rmissiv to Digoxin action as it
incr as s Digoxin binding at K+ binding sit s on th Na/K ATPas . R m mb r, Digo
xin comp t s with K for th Na/K ATPas binding sit in ord r to inhibit it.</i>
</div>
1397759788785 1395802358422 How do s Hyp rkal mia aff ct Digoxin action?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as d Digoxin action}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Di
goxin and K comp t for th sam binding sit on Na/K ATPas s.</i></div>
1397759847571 1395802358422 Which Ca chann l block r is associat d with a pr
disposition to Digoxin toxicity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V rapamil}}</div>
1397759973111 1395802358422 {{c1::V rapamil}} is a Ca chann l block r that c
aus s a pr disposition to Digoxin toxicity by displacing Digoxin from tissu pro
t ins and d cr asing its cl aranc , th r by incr asing [Digoxin]<sub>s rum</sub>
.
1397760023687 1395802358422 {{c1::Amiodaron }} and {{c2::Quinidin }} ar
antiarrhythmics that caus a pr disposition to Digoxin toxicity by displa
cing Digoxin from tissu prot ins and d cr asing its cl aranc , th r by incr asi
ng [Digoxin]<sub>s rum</sub>.
1397760069760 1395802358422 How do s Hyp rcalc mia aff ct Digoxin action?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as ; hyp rcalc mia is additiv onto Digoxin and wi
ll incr as cardiac contractility alon }}</div>
1397760120222 1395802358422 How do s <b>hypo</b>magn s mia aff ct Digoxin ac
tion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as d Digoxin action}}</div>
1397760393225 1395802358422 How do s <b>hyp r</b>mag n s mia aff ct Digoxin
action?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as d Digoxin action}}</div>
1397760415064 1395802358422 What class of antiarrhythmics ar Na chann l blo
ck rs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class I (IA, IB, and IC)}}</div>
1397760871955 1395802358422 What class of antiarrhythmics ar b ta-block rs?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class II}}</div>
1397760888975 1395802358422 What class of antiarrhythmics ar K-chann l bloc
k rs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class III}}</div>
1397760897004 1395802358422 What class of antiarrhythmics ar Ca chann l blo
ck rs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IV}}</div>
1397760916776 1395802358422 How do s Hyp rkal mia aff ct th toxicity of Cla
ss I Antiarrhythmics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as d toxicity}}</div>
1397761055765 1395802358422 What class of antiarrhythmic is Quinidin ?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IA}}</div>
1397762345618 1395802358422 What class of antiarrhythmic is Procainamid
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IA}}</div>
1397762363998 1395802358422 What class of antiarrhythmic is Disopyramid
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IA}}</div>
1397762382991 1395802358422 What typ of Class I antiarrhythmics bind t
o <b>activ </b> Na chann ls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IA}}</div>
1397762450555 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Class IA antiarrhythmics
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blocks <b>activ </b> Na chann ls, th r by
<b>incr asing AP duration</b> and th <b> ff ctiv r fractory p riod</b>;
QT int rval longat s as a r sult}}</div>
810045696.jpg" /></div><div><i>R sting Na Chann ls --(Op ns at thr shold)-->
Activ Na Chann ls --(D polarization)--> Inactiv Na Chann ls</i></div>
1397762513763 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Quinidin as an antiarryhtmic

?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IA; Blocks <u styl ="font-w ight: bold; ">act
iv </u> Na chann ls, th r by <b>incr as s AP duration, ff ctiv r fractory
p riod</b> and <b>duration of QT int rval</b>}}</div>
<div><br /></div
><i>R m mb r, th QT int rval is v ntricular conraction. H nc long r APs will l
ad to long r contractions and QT int rval</i><br /><div><img src="past -1509251
5078400.jpg" /></div><div><i>R sting Na Chann ls --(Op ns at thr shold)--> Ac
tiv Na Chann ls --(D polarization)--> Inactiv Na Chann ls</i></div>
1397762587548 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Procainamid ?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Class IA; Blocks <u styl ="font-w ight: bold; ">activ </u>&nbsp
;Na chann ls, th r by <b>incr as s AP duration, ff ctiv r fractory p riod
</b> and <b>duration of QT int rval</b>}}</div>
<br /><div><i>R
m mb r, th QT int rval is v ntricular conraction. H nc long r APs will l ad to
long r contractions and QT int rval</i><br /><div><img src="past -1509251507840
0.jpg" /></div></div><div><i>R sting Na Chann ls --(Op ns at thr shold)--> Ac
1397762614877 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Disopyramid ?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Class IA; Blocks <u styl ="font-w ight: bold; ">activ </u>&nbsp
;Na chann ls, th r by <b>incr as s AP duration, ff ctiv r fractory p riod
</b> and <b>duration of QT int rval</b>}}</div>
<br /><div><i>R
m mb r, th QT int rval is v ntricular conraction. H nc long r APs will l ad to
long r contractions and QT int rval</i><br /><div><img src="past -1509251507840
0.jpg" /></div></div><div><i>R sting Na Chann ls --(Op ns at thr shold)--> Ac
1397762637971 1395802358422 What <u styl ="font-w ight: bold; ">structural&n
bsp;typ </u> of Na chann ls ar block d by Class IA antiarrhythmics?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Activ Na chann ls}}</div> <br /><div><i>R sting Na Chann l
s --(Op ns at thr shold)--> Activ Na Chann ls --(D polarization)--> Inact
iv Na Chann ls</i></div>
1397762710020 1395802358422 {{c1::Class IA antiarrhythmics}} ar a typ of C
lass I antiarrythmics that bind to <u styl ="font-w ight: bold; ">activ </u>&nbs
p;Na chann ls. <br /><div><i>R sting Na Chann ls --(Op ns at thr shold)--> A
ctiv Na Chann ls --(D polarization)--> Inactiv Na Chann ls</i></div>
1397762741899 1395802358422 Which arrythmias ar sp cially tr atabl by Cla
ss IA antiarrhythmics?<div><br />{{c1::Atrial; V ntricular; sp cially <b>r - nt
rant and ctopic SVT and VT</b>}}</div>
1397762812045 1395802358422 Which Class IA antiarrhythmic is associat d with
Cinchonism as a sid - ff ct?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Quinidin }}</div>
<br /><div><i>H adach and tinnitus.</i></div>
1397763716817 1395802358422 {{c1::Cinchonism}} is an adv rs ff ct of Quini
din that involv s h adach and tinnitus.
1397763736890 1395802358422 What is th most common sid ff ct of Quinidin
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cinchonism}}</div>
1397763754274 1395802358422 Which Class IA antiarrhythmic is associat d
with r v rsibl Drug-Induc d SLE?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Procainamid }}</di
v>
<br /><div><i>R m mb r, drug-induc d lupus has anti-histon antibodi s</
i></div>
1397763803479 1395802358422 {{c1::Procainamid }} is a Class IA antiarrh
ythmic that is associat d with drug-induc d SLE, a form of lupus that involv s a
nti-histon antibodi s.
1397763839925 1395802358422 Which Class IA antiarrhythmic is associat d
with h art failur as an adv rs ff ct?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Disopyramid
}}</div>
1397763861041 1395802358422 {{c1::Disopyramid }} is a Class IA antiarrh
ythmic that is associat d with h art failur as an adv rs ff ct.
1397763887488 1395802358422 Which h matological adv rs ff ct is associat d
with Class IA antiarrhythmics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thrombocytop nia
}}</div>
1397763910748 1395802358422 {{c1::Thrombocytop nia}} is a h matological adv
rs ff ct of Class IA antiarrhythmics.
1397763939192 1395802358422 {{c1::Torsad d Point s}} is a typ of v ntricu

lar tachycardia that is associat d with Class IA antiarrhythmics du to th
QT int rval longation.
<br /><div><i>R m mb r, anything that longat s
th QT int rval can r sult in Torsad d Point s.</i></div>
1397764014477 1395802358422 {{c1::Torsad d Point s}} is a v ntricular tach
ycardia that is commonly caus by a <b>prolong d QT int rval</b>.
1397764036896 1395802358422 What class of antiarrhythmic is Lidocain ?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IB}}</div>
1397764087437 1395802358422 What class of antiarrhythmic is M xil tin ?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IB}}</div>
1397764095410 1395802358422 What <u styl ="font-w ight: bold; ">structural f
orm</u> of Na chann ls do Class IB antiarrhythmics bind to and block?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inactiv }}</div>
<br /><div><i>R sting Na Chann l
1397764171212 1395802358422 Which typ of Class I antiarrhythmics binds
to <b>inactiv </b> Na chann ls?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IB}}</div
>
1397764187926 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Class IB antiarrhythmics
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blocks <u styl ="font-w ight: bold; ">inactiv </u>&
nbsp;Na chann ls, th r by <b>d cr as s AP duration</b>}}</div> <br /><div><img
src="past -17282948399356.jpg" /></div><div><i>R sting Na Chann ls --(Op ns at t
hr shold)--> Activ Na Chann ls --(D polarization)--> Inactiv Na Chann ls
</i></div>
1397764321707 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Lidocain as an antiarrhythmi
c?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blocks <u styl ="font-w ight: bold; ">inactiv
</u> Na chann ls, th r by <b>d cr as s AP duration</b>}}</div>
<br /><div><img src="past -17282948399356.jpg" /></div><div><i>R sting Na Chann
ls --(Op ns at thr shold)--> Activ Na Chann ls --(D polarization)--> Inac
tiv Na Chann ls</i></div>
1397764351025 1395802358422 What is th MOA of M xil tin as an antiarrhythm
ic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blocks <u styl ="font-w ight: bold; ">inacti
v </u> Na chann ls, th r by <b>d cr as s AP duration</b>}}</div>
1397764375946 1395802358422 What class of antiarrhythmic is Ph nytoin?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IB}}</div>
1397764418901 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Ph nytoin as an antiarrh
ythmic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blocks <u styl ="font-w ight: bold; ">in
activ </u> Na chann ls, th r by <b>d cr as s AP duration</b>}}</div>
1397764442172 1395802358422 Which typ of Class I antiarrhythmic pr f r ntia
lly aff cts <b>isch mic or d polariz d Purkinj fib rs and v ntricular tissu </b
>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IB}}</div> <br /><div><i>This is b caus th
Na chann ls at th s tissu ar <b>inactiv </b>.</i></div><div><i><br /></i></
div><div><i>R sting Na Chann ls --(Op ns at thr shold)--> Activ Na Chann ls
--(D polarization)--> Inactiv Na Chann ls</i></div>
1397764958649 1395802358422 {{c1::Class IB Antiarrhythmics}} ar a typ of C
lass I antiarrhythmics that bind to <u styl ="font-w ight: bold; ">inactiv </u>&
nbsp;Na chann ls.
<br /><div><i>R sting Na Chann ls --(Op ns at thr shold)
--> Activ Na Chann ls --(D polarization)--> Inactiv Na Chann ls</i></div
>
1397764984419 1395802358422 {{c1::Class IB Antiarrhythmics}} ar a typ of C
lass I antiarrhythmics that <b>pr f r ntially bind to isch mic or d polariz d Pu
rkinj fib rs and v ntricular tissu </b>.
<br /><div><i>R sting Na Chann l
1397765029992 1395802358422 What typ of Class I antiarrhythmics ar <b>b st

us d post-MI</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IB}}</div> <br /><div><i>I<
b>B</b> is <b>b</b> st post-MI, as all of th Na chann ls in d polariz d/in
farct d tissu ar <u styl ="font-w ight: bold; ">inactiv </u>, th form IB bind
s to</i></div>
1397765069517 1395802358422 What typ of Class I antiarrhythmics ar us d in
acut v ntricular arrhythmias, <b> sp cially post-MI</b>?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Class IB}}</div> <br /><div><i>Why post-MI? B caus th Na chann ls in in
farct d tissu ar all <b>inactiv </b>(th form that IB binds to).</i></div><di
v><i><br /></i></div><div><i></i><i>R sting Na Chann ls --(Op ns at thr shold)-> Activ Na Chann ls --(D polarization)--> Inactiv Na Chann ls</i></div>
1397765160084 1395802358422 What typ of Class I antiarrhythmics ar us d in
<b>digitalis-induc d arrhythmias</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IB}}</di
v>
1397765194974 1395802358422 Which typ of Class I antiarrhythmics ar associ
at d with CNS stimulation/d pr ssion and cardiovascular d pr ssion as adv rs f
f cts?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IB}}</div>
1397765230620 1395802358422 What class of antiarrhythmic is Fl cainid ?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IC}}</div>
1397765645838 1395802358422 What class of antiarrhythmic is Propaf non
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IC}}</div>
1397765652647 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Class IC antiarrhythmics
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blocks <u styl ="font-w ight: bold; ">all morpholog
ical forms</u> of th Na chann l, th r by <b>significantly prolonging th r
fractory p riod at th AV nod </b>; <u>minimal ff ct on AP duration</u>}}&nbsp
;</div> <br /><div><img src="past -20066087207175.jpg" /></div>
1397765884961 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Fl cainid as an antiarrhythm
ic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IC; Blocks <u styl ="font-w ight: bold
; ">all morphological forms</u> of th Na chann l, th r by <b>signific
antly prolonging th r fractory p riod at th AV nod </b>; <u>minimal ff c
t on AP duration</u>}} </div>
5.jpg" /></div>
1397765914641 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Propaf non as an antiarrhyth
mic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IC; Blocks <u styl ="font-w ight: bol
d; ">all morphological forms</u> of th Na chann l, th r by <b>signifi
cantly prolonging th r fractory p riod at th AV nod </b>; <u>minimal ff
ct on AP duration</u>}} </div>
5.jpg" /></div>
1397765945493 1395802358422 Which typ of Class I antiarrhythmics hav th m
ost pot nt Na chann l blocking ff cts?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IC}}</d
iv>
1397765974862 1395802358422 {{c1::Class IC antiarrhythmics}} ar a typ of C
lass I antiarrhythmics that bind to <b>all morphological forms</b> of th N
a chann l.
1397766021833 1395802358422 Which typ of Class I antiarrhythmics ar us d i
n SVTs (including A-fib)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IC}}</div>
1397767612531 1395802358422 Which typ of Class I antiarrhythmics ar consid
r d a <b>last r sort</b> in r fractory v ntricular tachycardia?<div><br />
{{c1::Class IC}}</div>
1397767693318 1395802358422 Which typ of Class I antiarrhythmics ar <b>con
traindicat d in structural and isch mic h art dis as </b>?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::Class IC}}</div> <br /><div><i>Class I<b><u>C</u></b> is <b><u>c</u>
</b>ontraindicat d</i></div>
1397767954546 1395802358422 {{c1::Class IC antiarrhythmic}} ar a typ of Cl
ass I antiarrhythmic that ar <b>contraindicat d post-MI</b> as th y th n c
an act proarrhythmic. <br /><div><i>Class IC is contraindicat d in structural
and isch mic h art dis as .</i></div>
1397768151812 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Class II antiarrhythmics?<div
><br />{{c1::B ta-blockad ; D cr as d SA and AV nodal activity b d cr asing cAM
P and Ca curr nts; D cr as s slop 4 of th AP}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pas
t -22303765168426.jpg" /></div>
1397768458069 1395802358422 Which cardiac conduction nod is particularly s
nsitiv to Class II antiarrhythmics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::AV nod ; r sults
in an longat d PR int rval}}</div>
1397768901060 1395802358422 How do s th PR int rval chang as a r spons of
Class II antiarrhythmic action a th AV nod ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Elonga
t d PR int rval}}</div> <br /><div><i>Class II = b ta block rs</i></div>
1397768945879 1395802358422 What is th duration of action of Esmolol?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::V ry short}}</div>
1397768959108 1395802358422 {{c1::Esmolol}} is a Class II antiarrhythmic tha
t has a <b>v ry short duration of action</b>.
1397768974526 1395802358422 {{c1::M toprolol}} is a Class II antiarrhythmic
that can caus dyslipid mia.
1397769044317 1395802358422 Which Class II antiarrhythmic is associat d with
dyslipid mia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::M toprolol}}</div>
1397769057217 1395802358422 {{c1::Propanolol}} is a class II antiarrhythmic
that can xac rbat vasospasm in Prinzm tal angina.
1397769077871 1395802358422 Which class II antiarrhythmic can xac rbat vas
ospasm in Prinzm tal angina?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Propanolol}}</div>
1397769098605 1395802358422 Which <b>class</b> of antiarrhythmics ar <
b>contraindicat d in cocain us rs</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class II; B t
a-block rs}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th r is a risk of unoppos d alpha-adr n r
gic r c ptor agonist activity (du to th cocain action) if th r is b ta-block
ad pr s nt.</i></div>
1397769163985 1395802358422 What is th tr atm nt for Class II antiarrhythmi
c ov rdos ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Glucagon}}</div>
1397769179321 1395802358422 What class of antiarrhythmic is Amiodaron ?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Class III}}</div>
1397769668490 1395802358422 What class of antiarrhythmic is Ibutilid ?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Class III}}</div>
1397769675115 1395802358422 What class of antiarrhythmic is Dof tilid ?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Class III}}</div>
1397769682584 1395802358422 What class of antiarrhythmic is Sotalol?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Class III}}</div>
1397769688193 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Class III antiarrhythmics?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blocks K chann ls, th r by <b>incr asing AP duration</b
> and <b> ff ctiv r fractory p riod</b>}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pas
t -23476291240195.jpg" /></div>
1397769759390 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Amiodaron as an antiarrhythm
ic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blocks K chann ls, th r by <b>incr asing AP
duration</b> and <b> ff ctiv r fractory p riod</b>}}</div> <br /><d
1397769783120 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Ibutilid as an antiarrhythmi
c?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blocks K chann ls, th r by <b>incr asing AP d
uration</b> and <b> ff ctiv r fractory p riod</b>}}</div>
<br /><d
1397769803395 1395802358422 <div>What is th MOA of Dof tilid as an antiarr
hythmic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blocks K chann ls, th r by <b>incr asin
g AP duration</b> and <b> ff ctiv r fractory p riod</b>}}</div></div>
1397769818087 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Sotalol as an antiarrhythmic?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blocks K chann ls, th r by <b>incr asing AP dur
ation</b> and <b> ff ctiv r fractory p riod</b>}}</div>
<br /><d
1397769835483 1395802358422 {{c1::Class III antiarrhythmics}} ar a class of
antiarrhythmics that ar us d with oth r antiarrhythmics fail.
1397769856790 1395802358422 How do Class III antiarrhythmics aff ct th QT i
nt rval?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Elongat d QT int rval}}</div>
1397769879275 1395802358422 Which Class III antiarrhythmics ar us d in v nt
ricular tachycardia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Amiodaron ; Sotalol}}</div>
1397769909004 1395802358422 {{c1::Amiodaron }} and {{c2::Sotalol}} ar

Class III antiarrhythmics that ar us d in v ntricular tachycardia.
1397769927363 1395802358422 Which Class III antiarrhythmic is associat d wit
h <b>torsad d point s</b> <u>and</u> <b> xc ssiv b ta-blockad </b>
as adv rs ff cts?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Sotalol}}</div>
1397769970973 1395802358422 {{c1::Sotalol}} is a class III antiarrhythmic th
at is associat d with <b>torsad d point s</b> <u>and</u> <b> xc ssiv b t
a-blockad </b> as adv rs ff cts.
1397770030470 1395802358422 Which class III antiarrhythmic is associat d wit
h <u>only</u><b> torsad d point s</b> as an adv rs ff ct?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Ibutilid }}</div>
<br /><div><i>R m mb r, anything that l
ongat s th QT int rval has a risk of causing Torsad .</i></div>
1397770074754 1395802358422 What is th toxicity of Amiodaron at th lungs?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary Fibrosis}}</div>
h pulmonary fibrosis as an adv rs ff ct?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Amiodaron
}}</div>
h <b>hypothyroidism/hyp rthyroidism</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Amiodaron }}
</div> <br /><div><i>Amiodaron is 40% iodin by w ight.</i></div>
1397770167816 1395802358422 Which class III antiarrhythmic is 40% iodin by
w ight?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Amiodaron }}</div> <br /><div><i>H nc hypo
thyroidism/hyp rthyroidism ar adv rs ff cts.</i></div>
h H patotoxicity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Amiodaron }}</div>
h <b>corn al d posits</b> as an adv rs ff ct?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Amiodaron }}</div>
h <b>blu /gray skin d posits</b> that caus photod rmatitis?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Amiodaron }}</div>
h constipation and n urological ff cts?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Amiodaron }}
</div>
1397770299486 1395802358422 {{c1::Amiodaron }} is a class III antiarrhythmic
that r quir s fr qu nt pulmonary, liv r and thyroid functions t sts. <br /><d
iv><i>PFTs, LFTs and TFTs</i></div>
1397772184724 1395802358422 {{c1::Amiodaron }} is a class III antiarrhythmic
that has class I, II, III and IV ff cts and alt rs th lipid m mbran .
1397772209216 1395802358422 What class of antiarrhythmic is V rapamil?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IV}}</div>
1397772225516 1395802358422 What class of antiarrhythmic is Diltiaz m?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IV}}</div>
1397772234909 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Class IV antiarrhythmics?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ca chann l block rs; <b>D cr as AP conduction v locity<
/b>, incr as th ff ctiv r fractory p riod}}</div> <br /><div><img src="pas
t -26491358282007.jpg" /></div>
1397772370080 1395802358422 What is th MOA of V rapamil as an antiarrhythmi
c?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ca chann l block rs; <b>D cr as AP conductio
n v locity</b>, incr as th ff ctiv r fractory p riod}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><div><img src="past -26491358282007.jpg" /></div>
1397772393618 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Diltiaz m as an antiarrhythmi
c?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ca chann l block rs; <b>D cr as AP conductio
n v locity</b>, incr as th ff ctiv r fractory p riod}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><br /></div><div><img src="past -26491358282007.jpg" /></div>
1397772410313 1395802358422 How do s th PR int rval chang with Class IV an
tiarrhythmics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Elongat d PR int rval}}</div>
1397772429835 1395802358422 Which class of antiarrhythmics is us d to pr v n
t nodal arrhythmias ( .g. SVT)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IV}}</div>
1397772456099 1395802358422 Which class of antiarrhythmics is us d for <b>ra
t control in atrial fibrillation</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Class IV}}</di

v>
1397772470100 1395802358422 What is th clinical us of Magn sium (Mg<sup>2+
</sup>) as an antiarrhythmic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Torsad d point s; Dig
oxin Toxicity}}</div>
1397772515905 1395802358422 {{c1::Magn sium (Mg<sup>2+</sup>)}} is a trac
l m nt that is us d to tr at Torsad d Point s and Digoxin toxicity.
1397772552595 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Ad nosin as an antiarrhythmi
c?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Driv s K out of c lls, th r by causing hyp rpolari
zation and d cr asing Ca conductanc }}</div>
1397772592635 1395802358422 What is th DOC in diagnosing/abolishing <b>supr
av ntricular tachycardia</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ad nosin }}</div>
1397772609762 1395802358422 What is th duration of action of Ad nosin ?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::<b>V ry short</b> (~15 s c)}}</div>
1397772623795 1395802358422 {{c1::Ad nosin }} is an antiarrhythmic that can
b block d by Th ophyllin and Caff in .
1397772644453 1395802358422 How do Th ophyllin and Caff in aff ct Ad nosin
action?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Blocks Ad nosin action}}</div>
1397772661430 1395802358422 {{c1::Ad nosin }} is an antiarrhythmic that is t
h DOC in <b>diagnosing/abolishing suprav ntricular tachycardia</b>.
1383258997861 1358629116480 How many mol cul s of Non-D polarizing N(m) bloc
k rs ar r quir d to antagoniz th N(m) r c ptor?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::On
ly 1; at ith r of th alpha subunits}}</div> <br /><div><i>R m mb r, 2 ACh mo
cs ar n d d to bind to op n th N(m) chann l. 1 at ach alpha subunit.</i></di
v>
1383259079542 1358629116480 {{c1::Tubocurarin }} is th prototyp <b>non-d p
olarizing</b> muscl block r.
1383270887350 1358629116480 What is th MOA of <b>Non-D polarizing </b>muscl
block rs (-curium; -ronium)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Comp titiv antagonism
of th sk l tal muscl nicotinic r c ptor, N(m)}}</div>
<i><div></div><b
r />Th r by, pr v nting d polarization and activation of muscl .</i>
1383271012319 1358629116480 What drug is us d to rapidly r v rs th blockad
in muscl activation caus d by Non-D polarizing muscl block rs?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::N ostigmin , an AChE inhibitor}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Must b gi
v n with atropin to pr v nt muscarinic ff cts such as bradaycardia.</i></div><
div><i>Edrophonium can also b giv n.</i></div>
1383271070975 1358629116480 {{c1::Atracurium}} is a non-d polarizing muscl
block r that is saf to us in pati nts with h patic or r nal impairm nt.
1383271124233 1358629116480 {{c2::Atracurium}} is a non-d polarizing muscl
block r that is spontan ously inactivat d into {{c1::Laudanosin }}
1383271169132 1358629116480 What is a s rious sid ff ct of Laudanosin , th
toxic m tabolit of Atracurium?<div><br />{{c1::S izur s; CNS toxicity}}</div>
1383271195260 1358629116480 {{c1::Mivacurium}} is a non-d polarizing muscl
block r with <b>v ry short duration</b>.
1383271236698 1358629116480 {{c1::Succinyl cholin }} is a<b> d polarizi
ng</b> muscl block r with a v ry short ons t and short duration (5-10 min)
.
1383272001457 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Succinylcholin ?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::<b>Noncomp titiv </b> agonism of th muscl nicotinic r c pt
or N(m)}}</div> <br /><div><i>Th r by causing sustain d d polarization and an in
ability to r polariz /initiat anoth r AP</i></div>
1383272081961 1358629116480 What is a s rious adv rs ff ct of Succinylchol
in ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Malignant Hyp rth rmia}}</div> <br /><div><i>Ch
aract riz d by HTN, Tachycardia and pot ntial Arrhythmia</i></div>
1383272132606 1358629116480 What is th tr atm nt for Malignant Hyp rth rmia
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dantrol n }}</div>
1383272157705 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Baclof n?<div><br></div><div>
{{c1::GABA agonism pr - and post-synaptically}}</div> <br><i>Pr v nts th r l
as of xcitatory Glutamat from pr synaps s and facilitat s th r l as of
inhibitory GABA from postsynaps s</i>
1383272249148 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Dantrol n ?<div><br /></div><

div>{{c1::R duc s Ca r l as from th sarcoplasmic r ticulum via th RyR1}}</div
>
1383272294175 1358629116480 {{c1::Dantrol n }} is a muscl r laxant that r d
uc s Ca r l as from th sarcoplasmic r ticulum.
1383272318688 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Botulinum Toxin?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Inhibits ACh r l as from n rv t rminals; caus s flaccid paralys
is}}</div>
1390098026603 1358629116480 Th dihydropyridin vasodilator {{c1::Nif d
ipin }} is r comm nd d in pati nts with Subarachnoid H morrhaging to r duc th
incid nc and s v rity of n urological d ficits.
<br /><div><i>Nif dipin
and Nimodipin ar r comm nd d.</i></div>
1390098115656 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Str ptokinas ?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Compl x s with plasminog n, conv rting it to plasmin}}</div>
1390098995998 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Alt plas ?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::R combinant human tPA; Activat s Plasminog n into Plasmin}}</div>
1390099049306 1358629116480 What is th MOA of R t plas ?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::R combinant human tPA; Activat s Plasminog n into Plasmin}}</div>
1390099051907 1358629116480 What is th MOA of T n ct plas ?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::R combinant human tPA; Activat s Plasminog n into Plasmin}}</div>
1390099059620 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Aspirin?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Irr v rsibl , suicid inhibition of COX}}</div>
1390099071627 1358629116480 What is th fibrin sp cificity of Str ptokinas ?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Minimal}}</div>
1390099091760 1358629116480 What is th fibrin sp cificity of Alt plas ?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mod rat }}</div>
1390099100028 1358629116480 What is th fibrin sp cificity of R t plas ?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mod rat }}</div>
1390099110513 1358629116480 What is th fibrin sp cificity of T n ct plas ?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::High}}</div>
1390099124963 1358629116480 What dosag of Aspirin is n d d to achi v anti
-plat l t ff cts?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Low; 75-325 mg}}</div>
1390103300276 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Sumatriptan in th tr atm nt
of h adach ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation of 5-HT<sub>1B/1D</sub> n uro
ns, th r by blocking r l as of vasoactiv p ptid s}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th
r by pr v nting pain and inflammation</i></div>
1390103381470 1358629116480 Administration of {{c1::Sumatriptan}} subcu
tan ously is th quick st and most ff ctiv triptan us d to tr at h adach s.
1390103433654 1358629116480 What ar Triptan S nsations?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Sid ff cts of Triptan us ; tingling, flushing and n ck tightn ss}}</di
v>
1390103481906 1358629116480 Triptans should not b giv n within 24 hours of
r c iving {{c1::Ergotamin }}, a first g n ration h adach m dicin that r l
as s 5-HT, DA and NE.
1390103558344 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Ergotamin and Dihydro rgotam
in in th tr atm nt of h adach ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::R l as of 5-HT, DA
and NE}}</div> <br /><div><i>C/I in pr gnancy</i></div>
1390103596304 1358629116480 What is th most pow rful analg sic?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Morphin }}</div>
1390164305846 1358629116480 All thr opioid r c ptors ar coupl d to {
{c1::G<sub>i</sub>}} G-prot ins.
1390164347463 1358629116480 Which opioid r c ptor to Endorphins hav th hig
h st affinity for?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mu}}</div>
1390164673002 1358629116480 Which opioid r c ptor do Enk phalins hav th hi
gh st affinity for?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D lta}}</div>
1390164698285 1358629116480 Which opioid r c ptor do Dynorphins hav th hig
h st affinity for?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Kappa}}</div>
1390164714907 1358629116480 Which opioid r c ptor is abl to induc dysphori
a?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Kappa}}</div>
1390164741125 1358629116480 Which opioid r c ptor ar Endomorphins s l ctiv
for?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mu}}</div>
1390164993377 1358629116480 All thr opioid r c ptors signal through Gi/Go
prot ins, th r by l ading to inhibition of {{c1::ad nylat cyclas }}.
<br /><div><i>And downstr am d cr as s in cAMP</i></div>
1390165092588 1358629116480 What is th pr gnancy risk cat gory for all opio
ids?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C - Possibility of risk}}</div>
1390166068824 1358629116480 Opioid administration via {{c1::transd rmal patc
h}} will yi ld p ak ff cts 24-48 hours lat r.
1390166143306 1358629116480 {{c1::Miosis}} is a CNS ff ct of opioid ov rdos
<br /><d
that do s not d v lop tol ranc , h nc w us this in diagnosis.
iv><i>Also a big sign of opiat addiction/abus </i></div>
1390166204391 1358629116480 What is th ff ct of opioids at th GI tract?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Constipation and GI spasm}}</div>
1390166256332 1358629116480 What is th ff ct of opioids at th biliary tra
ct?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Biliary colic du to biliary smooth muscl contra
ction}}</div>
1390166307654 1358629116480 Opioids can caus pruritis through th r l as o
f {{c1::Histamin }}.
1390166323209 1358629116480 Full opioid agonists ar contraindicat d with pa
rtial agonists or antagonists du to th risk of pr cipitation of {{c1::wit
hdrawal}}.
1390166429005 1358629116480 Opioids ar contraindicat d in pati nts with r d
uc d {{c1::r spiratory function}} du to th ir r spiratory d pr ssion.
1390166782314 1358629116480 Opioids ar contraindicat d in pati nts with&nbs
p;{{c1::h ad injury}} du to th ability of r spiratory d pr ssion to incr as C
O2 r t ntion and c r bral vasodilation which can impair brain function with incr
as d ICP.
1390166821885 1358629116480 Opioids ar contraindicat d in pati nts with&nbs
p;{{c1::pr gnancy}} du to th risk of th f tus b coming physically d p nd nt.
<br /><div><i>Opioids can cross th plac nta and BBB</i></div>
1390166849116 1358629116480 Morphin can b m taboliz d into {{c1::Morp
hin -6-Glucuronid }}, an activ , polar compound with mor pot ncy than Morphin .
1390166908928 1358629116480 Morphin is a full opioid agonist at {{c1::
mu & kappa}} r c ptors.
1390166930360 1358629116480 M thadon is a full opioid agonist at {{c1:
:mu}} r c ptors
1390166941507 1358629116480 M p ridin (P thidin ) is a full opioid agonist
at {{c1::mu}} r c ptors.
1390167002337 1358629116480 F ntanyl is a full opioid agonist at {{c1::
mu}} r c ptors.
1390167013246 1358629116480 What is th only opioid that acts as an antimusc
arinic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::M p ridin (P thidin )}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>H nc , it will not yi ld miosis.</i></div>
1390167044205 1358629116480 What is us d as an antidot for th r spiratory
d pr ssion caus d by Morphin or oth r opioids?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nalox
on }}</div>
1390167110434 1358629116480 What symptoms mak up th classic triad of Acut
Opioid Toxicity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pinpoint Pupils, R spiratory D pr s
sion and Coma}}</div>
1390167148012 1358629116480 {{c1::M thadon }} is an opioid that is also an N
MDA r c ptor antagonist and monoamin r uptak inhibitor.
1390167175792 1358629116480 What is th clinical us of M thadon ?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Tx of Opioid Abus }}</div>
1390167196129 1358629116480 {{c1::Nom p ridin }} is a m tabolit of M p ridi
n that acts as an SSRI and can caus s izur s du to accumulation in th CNS.
1390167260664 1358629116480 {{c1::F ntanyl}} is an opioid that can caus ch
st muscl rigidity if IV infusion is giv n too quickly.
1390167308328 1358629116480 Cod in is a partial opioid agonist at {{c1
::mu}} r c ptors.
1390167484281 1358629116480 Hydrocodon is a partial opioid agonist at
{{c1::mu}} r c ptors.
1390167495418 1358629116480 Tramadol is a partial opioid agonist at {{c
1::mu}} r c ptors.
1390167507091 1358629116480 Cod in is biotransform d into {{c1::Morphi
n (10%)}} or {{c2::Cod in -6-Glucuronid (~60%)}}, both of which contribut
to its analg sic action.
1390167551099 1358629116480 {{c1::Cod in }} and {{c2::Hydrocodon }} ar
opioids that can act as antitussiv s if giv n in low r dos s n d d for analg s
ia.
1390167595112 1358629116480 Th opioid {{c1::Tramadol}} pos s an incr a
s d risk of S rotonin Syndrom .
1390167801113 1358629116480 Bupr norphin is a mix d opioid with partial ago
nism at {{c1::mu}} r c ptors and antagonism at {{c2::d lta}} and
{{c2::kappa}} r c ptors.
1390167865925 1358629116480 P ntazocin is a mix d opioid with partial agoni
sm at {{c1::mu}} r c ptors and <b>full agonism</b> at {{c2::kappa
}} r c ptors.
1390167898011 1358629116480 Which opioid is known to caus dysphoria du to
it's full agonist action at kappa r c ptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::P ntazoc
in }}</div>
1390167922500 1358629116480 Naloxon is an opioid antagonist at {{c1::m
u, d lta and kappa}} r c ptor(s).
1390167957212 1358629116480 Naltr xon is an opioid antagonist at {{c1:
:mu, d lta and kappa}} r c ptor(s).
1390167972199 1358629116480 {{c1::Naloxon }} is an opioid antagonist with a
short duration of action.
1390167990935 1358629116480 {{c1::Naltr xon }} is an opioid antagonist with
long r duration of action.
1390168008274 1358629116480 What is th clinical us of Naltr xon ?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Tx of Ethanol D p nd nc }}</div>
1390168022988 1358629116480 What is th clinical us of Naloxon ?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Opioid ov rdos ; r spiratory d pr ssion du to opioids}}</div>
1390178073007 1358629116480 What g n ration anti pil ptic is Carbamaz pin ?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1390178147187 1358629116480 What g n ration anti pil ptic is Ph nytoin?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1390178153486 1358629116480 What g n ration anti pil ptic is Ph nobarbitol?<
1390178160114 1358629116480 What g n ration anti pil ptic is Ethosuximid ?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1390178167897 1358629116480 What g n ration anti pil ptic is Valproic Acid?<
1390178176686 1358629116480 What g n ration anti pil ptic is Clonaz pam?<div
1390178184799 1358629116480 What is th sp ctrum of activity of th anti pil
ptic Carbamaz pin ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Narrow}}</div>
ptic Ph nytoin?<div><br />{{c1::Narrow}}</div>
ptic Ph nobarbitol?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Narrow}}</div>
ptic Ethosuximid ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Narrow}}</div>
ptic Valproic Acid?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Broad}}</div>
ptic Clonaz pam?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Broad}}</div>
1390178297175 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Carbamaz pin ?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Blocks voltag gat d Na chann ls on n uronal m mbran s}}</div>
1390178322367 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Ph nytoin?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Blocks voltag gat d Na chann ls}}</div>
1390178338953 1358629116480 What is th drug of choic for Trig minal N ural

gia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Carbamaz pin }}</div>
1390178432802 1358629116480 Gingival Hyp rplasia and Hirsutism ar 2 uniqu
sid ff cts of th anti pil ptic {{c1::Ph nytoin}}.
1390179526252 1358629116480 {{c1::Ph nytoin}} is an anti pil ptic that is t
ratog nic and can caus cl ft palat and cl ft lip in babi s.
1390179687973 1358629116480 Ph nytoin and oth r anti pil ptics can caus &nbs
p;{{c2::aplastic ana mia}}, th r by pr s nting a n d for constant CBCs and WBC
Diff r ntials to b m asur d in th pati nt.
1390179785242 1358629116480 Ph nytoin and oth r anti pil ptics can caus &nbs
p;{{c1::m galoblastic ana mia}} as it can impair folat absorption at th GI. Th
is is also why it is t ratog nic.
1390179911297 1358629116480 Ph nytoin and oth r anti pil ptics can caus {{c
1::ost omalacia/hypocalc mia}} as it utiliz s a larg amount of hydroxylas s for
its own m tabolism, l aving too f w for th activation of Vitamin D.
1390179956938 1358629116480 {{c1::St v n-Johnson's}} syndrom is a sid ff
ct of Carbamaz pin (and oth r anti pil ptics) and is d scrib d as a s v r rash
with a rapid ons t of <b> ryth matous/purpuric macul s</b> that progr ss t
o <b> pid rmal n crosis and sloughing.</b>
<br /><div><i>aka Exfoliativ D
rmatitis</i></div>
1390180182652 1358629116480 Carbamaz pin can caus {{c1::N ural tub d
f cts, Craniofacial d f cts, fing rnail hypoplasia, d v lopm ntal d lay, IUGR}}
.
1390180217771 1358629116480 {{c1::Valproic Acid}} is an anti pil ptic that i
s abl to inhibit th nzym {{c2::GABA Transaminas }}, th r by stopping th
br akdown of GABA and incr asing GABA l v ls.
1390180278917 1358629116480 {{c1::Valproic Acid}} is an anti pil ptic that c
an caus pancr atitis.
an caus alop cia.
1390180445972 1358629116480 {{c1::Valproic Acid}} is a anti pil ptic that ty
pically caus s only spina bifida in babi s (as a t ratog n).
1390180485631 1358629116480 Abrupt withdrawal of anti pil ptics can r sult i
n {{c1::Status Epil pticus}}.
1390180530472 1358629116480 Which anti pil ptic is th saf st for us in pr
gnancy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ph nobarbitol; du to its high plasma prot in
binding}}</div>
1390180609553 1358629116480 Carbamaz pin is a strong {{c1::induc r}} o
f CYP450s.
1390180977536 1358629116480 Ph nytoin is a strong {{c1::induc r}} of CY
P450s.
1390180988691 1358629116480 Valproic Acid is a strong {{c1::inhibitor}}
of CYP450s.
1390181000987 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Ph nobarbitol?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Binds to GABA-A; Incr as s Cl chann l op ning; Hyp rpolariz s n uro
ns and pot ntiat s GABA action}}</div>
1390181077747 1358629116480 What typ of Ca chann ls do s Ethosuximid block
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T-typ Ca chann ls at Thalamic n urons}}</div>
1390181098570 1358629116480 What is th DOC for th tr atm nt of Abs nc S i
zur s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ethosuximid }}</div>
1390181117950 1358629116480 What Ca chann l do s Valproic Acid block?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::T-typ Ca chann ls at Thalamic n urons}}</div>
1390181206018 1358629116480 Which nzym do s Valproic Acid inhibit?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::GABA Transaminas }}</div>
1390181247047 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Valproic Acid?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Blocks voltag gat s Na chann ls; Blocks T-typ Ca chann ls at Thal
amic n urons; Inhibits GABA transaminas }}</div>
an b us d in all s izur stat s.
1390181342695 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Clonaz pam?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Incr as s GABA action}}</div>

1390181371579 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Gabap ntin and Pr gabalin?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibits voltag gat d Ca chann ls as a GABA analog}}</
div>
1390181401199 1358629116480 What is th MOA of F lbamat ?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Blocks NMDA r c ptors (sup r low yi ld for st p 1)}} </div>
1390181428414 1358629116480 {{c1::F lbamat }} is a <b>2nd g n ration</b>&nbs
p;anti pil ptic that is associat d with h patotoxicity and aplastic ana mia.
1390181456060 1358629116480 {{c1::Lamotrigin }} is a <b>2nd g n ration</b>&n
bsp;anti pil ptic that is associat d with St v n-Johnson syndrom , a hyp rs nsit
ivity d rmatitis.
1390181486609 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Lamotrigin ?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Blocks voltag gat d Na chann ls}}</div>
1390181506038 1358629116480 {{c1::L v tirac tam}} is a 2nd g n ration anti p
il ptic that <b>binds to Synaptic V sicl Prot in 2A (SV2A)</b>, th r by modulat
ing GABA and Glutamat r l as .
ptic Gabap ntin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Narrow}}</div>
ptic Pr gabalin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Narrow}}</div>
ptic Oxcarbaz pin ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Narrow}}</div>
1390181621580 1358629116480 {{c1::Oxcarbaz pin }} is th prodrug form of Car
bamaz pin .
ptic Lamotrigin ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Broad}}</div>
ptic L v tirac tam?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Broad}}</div>
ptic Topiramat ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Broad}}</div>
ptic F lbamat ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Broad}}</div>
1390181669576 1358629116480 Which anti pil ptic is commonly us d as a backup
drug for pr gnant wom n?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ph nobarbitol}}</div>
1390181992821 1358629116480 Carbamaz pin and Ph nytoin ar us ful in all s
izur stat s xc pt for {{c1::abs nc }} s izur s.
1390182773843 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Atomox tin ?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhibition of NE r uptak at th pr frontal cort x}}</div>
1390182822112 1358629116480 What is th clinical us of Atomox tin ?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Tx of ADHD in adults and childr n}}</div>
1390182863733 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Guanfacin ?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::S l ctiv activation of alpha2 r c ptors at post-synaptic r c ptors at
th pr frontal cort x}}</div> <br /><div><i>L ads to incr as d action of NE</i
></div>
1390325367772 1358629116480 Which drug is us d to tr at Atropin (or oth r A
nticholin rgic) ov rdos ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Physostigmin }}</div>
1390326826554 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Physostigmin ?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Inhibition of AChE}}</div>
1390326836833 1358629116480 Th curr nt aim in th pharmacoth rapy of Alzh i
m r's Dis as is to incr as th l v ls of th n urotransmitt r {{c1::ACh}}
in th synaps .
1390338457581 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Tacrin ?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Inhibition of AChE}}</div>
1390338493342 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Don p zil in th tr atm nt of
Alzh im r Dis as ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of AChE}}</div>
1390338500316 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Rivastigmin in th tr atm nt
of Alzh im r Dis as ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of AChE}}</div>
1390338506194 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Galantamin in th tr atm nt
of Alzh im r Dis as ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of AChE}}</div>
1390338513489 1358629116480 What is th MOA of M mantin ?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::W ak NMDA antagonism; Stabiliz s th Glutamat syst m and balanc s xci

tatory n urotransmission}}</div>
<br /><div><i>R m mb r, too much glutama
t is toxic and can caus n uronal damag through continuous Ca influx</i></div>
1390338619734 1358629116480 {{c1::M mantin }} is an NMDA r c ptor antagonist
us d to tr at <b>mod rat to s v r </b>Alzh im r's Dis as , commonly
in conjunction with AChE inhibitors.
1390338695659 1358629116480 {{c1::Ac tylcholin st ras Inhibitors}} ar a cl
ass of drugs us d to tr at <b>mild to mod rat </b> Alzh im r's Dis as .
1390338762400 1358629116480 What is th MOA of T trab nazin ?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Inhibition of V sicular Monoamin Transport r (VMAT), th r by inhib
iting DA r l as from pr synaptic n urons}}</div>
1390338938326 1358629116480 {{c1::T trab nazin }} is a drug us d to tr at th
chor a symptoms in Huntington's by inhibiting VMAT, a monoamin transport r pro
t in r sponsibl to trafficking DA to th synaps .
<br /><div><i><b>R s rpi
n </b> do s this as w ll.</i></div>
1390338979055 1358629116480 How do Dopamin l v ls chang in Huntington's Di
s as ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as }}</div>
1390339011919 1358629116480 How do GABA l v ls chang in Huntinton's Dis as
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as }}</div>
1390339031638 1358629116480 How do ACh l v ls chang in Huntington's Dis as
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as d}}</div>
1390339045876 1358629116480 {{c1::Halop ridol}} is a dopamin antagonist tha
t is us d to tr at th mov m nt disord rs, hallucinations and d lusions in Hunti
ngton's Dis as .
1390353275789 1358629116480 How do B nzodiaz pin s aff ct sl p?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::D cr as sl p lat ncy; Incr as total sl p tim }}</div>
1390354458539 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Zal plon?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::S l ctiv agonism of GABA-A alpha1 r c ptor sit s}}</div>
1390354498070 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Zolpid m?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::S l ctiv agonism of GABA-A alpha1 r c ptor sit s (BZ1 subtyp )}}</div>
1390354505886 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Zopiclon ?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::S l ctiv agonism of GABA-A alpha1 r c ptor sit s}}</div>
1390354514791 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Eszopiclon ?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::S l ctiv agonism of GABA-A alpha1 r c ptor sit s}}</div>
1390354529735 1358629116480 How do th "Z-Hypnotics" (3rd G n ration, Atypic
al Hypnotics) aff ct sl p?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Short ns sl p lat ncy; P
rolongs sl p tim }}</div>
1390354630500 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Ram lt on?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Agonism at M latonin MT1 and MT2 r c ptors}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Sh
ort ns sl p lat ncy</i></div>
1390354715979 1358629116480 {{c1::Ram lt on}} is a 3rd g n ration hypnotic a
nd m latonin agonist that short ns sl p lat ncy by acting as an <b>agonist at M
T1 and MT2 m latonin r c ptors</b>.
1390354755108 1358629116480 What is th only 3rd g n ration hypnotic approv
d for long t rm us ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Eszopiclon }}</div>
1390411634260 1358629116480 {{c1::Atomox tin }} is a non-stimulant s l ctiv
NE r uptak inhibitor that has low abus pot ntial.
1390411682807 1358629116480 {{c1::Guanfacin }} is an alpha2-r c ptor agonist
that is abl to support ADHD tr atm nt and h lp with tics.
1390587690885 1358629116480 R plac m nt of DA with {{c1::L vodopa/L-Dop
a}} in Parkinson's Dis as all viat s symptoms but do s not stop th progr ssion
of th dis as .
1390587750437 1358629116480 As tr atm nt for Parkinson's progr ss s in a pat
i nt, th incr as d s nsitivity to {{c1::L-Dopa/L vodopa}} r sults in invol
untary mov m nts du to an imbalanc b tw n D1 and D2 r c ptors.
<br /><d
iv><i>Can wors n mov m nt probl ms and l ad to falls.</i></div>
1390588019465 1358629116480 What is an "Off P riod" in Parkinson's Dis as ?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::A p riod of incr as d stiffn ss, rigidity and th ina
bility to mov }}</div>
1390588066688 1358629116480 An {{c1::"Off P riod"}} is s n in Parkinson's D
is as and involv s a p riod of incr as d stiffn ss, rigidity and inability to m

ov du to not nough {{c2::L-Dopa/L vodopa}} to tr at th loss of dopamin
rgic n urons.
1390591440935 1358629116480 What class of drugs is us ful for tr ating th p
ostural instability in Parkinson's Dis as ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cholin st
ras Inhibitors}}</div>
1390592142666 1358629116480 What class of drugs is us ful for tr ating th c
ognitiv impairm nt in Parkinson's Dis as ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cholin st
ras Inhibitors}}</div>
1390592313293 1358629116480 {{c1::Dopamin Antagonists}} and {{c2::N urol pt
ics}} ar 2 class s of drugs that can caus Drug-induc d Parkinson's Syndrom .
1390592465618 1358629116480 Dopamin agonists ar only us d in Parkinson's D
is as <b>alon </b> in <b> arly </b>PD or <b>in combination with </b>{
{c1::L vodopa}} in <b>lat , advanc d</b> PD.
1390593782709 1358629116480 Dopamin agonists must b us d prior to {{c
1::L-Dopa}} in ord r to pr v nt dyskin sia in th lat r stag s of PD. <br /><d
iv><i>As this way, tr atm nt with L-Dopa will b d lay d or p rhaps v n pr v nt
d.</i></div>
1390593906162 1358629116480 {{c1::D p Brain Stimulation}} is a surgical th
rapy for Parkinson's that alt rs firing in such a way to mimic a t mporary l sio
n in th GPi and STN, th r by r ducing PD symptoms.
1390594358927 1358629116480 {{c1::L-Dopa}} is a Dopamin pr cursor that must
b d carboxylat d into Dopamin in th Nigrostriatal Pathways to b ff ctiv .
1390595115301 1358629116480 Which nzym conv rts L-Dopa to Dopamin ?<div><b
r />{{c1::DOPA D carboxylas (AADC)}}</div>
1390595371762 1358629116480 {{c1::L-Dopa}} is a Dopamin pr cursor that is t
ak n up at dopamin rgic n urons and conv rt d to Dopamin which activat s D1 and
D2 r c ptors, th r by r storing mov m nt.
1390595459981 1358629116480 What is th most ffici nt tr atm nt of Parkinso
n's Dis as ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L-Dopa}}</div> <br /><div><i>Esp cially
wh n start d b for 65 y/o</i></div>
1390595535850 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Carbidopa?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Irr v rsibl Inhibition of p riph ral DOPA Carboxylas , th r by pr v nt
ing th br akdown of L-Dopa into Dopamin at th p riph ry}}</div>
1390595747945 1358629116480 {{c1::Carbidopa}} is a Dopamin pr cursor that i
rr v rsibly inhibits DOPA Carboxylas at th p riph ry only, th r by blocking th
br akdown of L-Dopa to Dopamin .
1390595788751 1358629116480 {{c1::L vodopa/L-Dopa}} is always giv n in combi
nation with {{c2::Carbidopa}} in Parkinson's pati nts.
1390595815750 1358629116480 {{c1::Carbidopa}} is a drug giv n in combination
with L-Dopa that do s not cross th BBB and allows for mor L-Dopa to nt r th
brain by inhibiting p riph ral DOPA Carboxylas .
1390595879897 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Entacapon ?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of p riph ral COMT, th r by nsuring that L-Dopa is conv rt
d into DA and not a m tabolit }}</div>
1390595927001 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Tolcapon ?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibition of p riph ral COMT, th r by nsuring that L-Dopa is conv rt
d into DA and not a m tabolit }}</div>
1390595934312 1358629116480 {{c1::Entacapon }} and {{c2::Tolcapon }} ar COM
T inhibitors us d in Parkinson's Dis as that nsur L-Dopa is conv rt d into DA
.
<br /><div><i>Th Capon s control th COMTs</i></div>
1390596030352 1358629116480 What is th MOA of S l gilin ?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::S l ctiv , irr v rsibl inhibition of MAO-B; th r by pr v nting th ox
idation of DA into byproducts and incr asing DA l v ls c ntrally}}</div>
1390596104816 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Rasagilin ?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::S l ctiv , irr v rsibl inhibition of MAO-B; th r by pr v nting th ox
idation of DA into byproducts and incr asing DA l v ls c ntrally}}</div>
1390596110977 1358629116480 {{c1::S l gilin }} and {{c2::Rasagilin }} a
r MAO-B inhibitors that pr v nt th oxidation of Dopamin into byproducts, th r
by incr asing DA l v ls c ntrally.
1390596152020 1358629116480 {{c2::S l gilin }} is an MAO-B inhibitors can b

us d alon as initial Tx of Parkinson's or as an adjunct alongsid {{c1::L
-Dopa}} wh n it no long r ff ctiv ly tr ats motor fluctuations in lat PD.
1390596447106 1358629116480 <b>Non-S l ctiv </b> MAO Inhibitors pr s nt
with pot ntial int ractions with {{c1::Tyramin }}, a compound commonly fou
nd in foods such as ch s and win , and may r sult in Hyp rt nsiv Crisis.
<br /><div><i>Du to an inhibition of NE br akdown.</i></div>
1390596537347 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Bromocriptin ?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Partial agonist at c ntral and p riph ral D2 r c ptors}}</div>
1390596590369 1358629116480 What is th MOA of P rgolid ?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Partial agonist at c ntral and p riph ral D2 r c ptors}}</div>
1390596595006 1358629116480 What is th tr atm nt for Hyp rprolactin mia?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bromocriptin ; as it r duc s Prolactin l v ls through D
2 binding}}</div>
1390596656412 1358629116480 Ergotamin Dopamin Agonists ar associat d with
{{c1::Cardiac Valv Fibrosis}} in dos s r quir d to tr at Parkinson's and
ar h nc not pr f rr d for th tr atm nt for PD.
<br /><div><i>Bromocript
in and P rgolid </i></div>
1390596729138 1358629116480 {{c1::Pramip xol }} is a non- rgotamin dopamin
agonist that shows agonism at c ntral D2 and D3 r c ptors.
1390596900960 1358629116480 Which Dopamin r c ptors do s Pramip xol bind t
o?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C ntral D2 and D3}}</div>
1390596916747 1358629116480 {{c1::Ropinirol }} is a non- rgotamin dopamin
agonist that shows agonism at D1 and D2 r c ptors.
1390596944201 1358629116480 Which Dopamin r c ptors do s Ropinirol bind to
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D1 and D2 r c ptors}}</div>
1390596957869 1358629116480 {{c1::Rotigotin }} is a non- rgotamin dopamin
agonist that shows agonism at D3 > D2 > D1 r c ptors.
1390596983479 1358629116480 Which Dopamin r c ptors do s Rotigotin bind to
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D3 > D2 > D1}}</div>
agonist that is administ r d via a transd rmal patch.
1390597020471 1358629116480 {{c1::Apomorphin }} is a non- rgotamin dopamin
agonist that is administ r d intranasally.
1390597035307 1358629116480 {{c1::Apomorphin }} is a non- rgotamin dopamin
agonist that acts as a "r scu drug" for wh n Parkinson's pati nts ar froz n d
uring an Off P riod.
1390597069836 1358629116480 What Dopamin r c ptors do s Apomorphin bind to
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D1 and D2}}</div>
1390597088950 1358629116480 Non- rgotamin dopamin agonists ar us d in th
arly ons t of Parkinson's to pr v nt th lat r ons t of {{c1::dyskin sia}
} by d laying L-Dopa tr atm nt.
agonist that is us ful in tr ating R stl ss L g Syndrom .
1390597227921 1358629116480 {{c1::Bromocriptin }} is an rgotamin dopamin
agonist that is abl to tr at R stl ss L g Syndrom .
1390597254374 1358629116480 What is th 1st lin th rapy of Parkinson's Dis
as in <b>young r, arly ons t</b> pati nts?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Dop
amin Agonists}}</div>
1390597281089 1358629116480 {{c1::Amantadin }} is an anti-viral ag nt that c
an b us d as an adjunct to L-Dopa th rapy as it acts as a w ak NMDA r c ptor an
tagonist.
1390598301722 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Amantadin in th tr atm nt o
f Parkinson's Dis as ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::W ak NMDA r c ptor antagonism}
}</div>
1390598317963 1358629116480 {{c1::B nzotropin }} is an antimuscarinic us d i
n Parkinson's that acts within th striatum on cholin rgic int rn urons, th r by
d cr asing cholin rgic ton .
1390791080447 1358629116480 How do Barbiturat s alt r Cl- chann l op ning vi
a GABA r c ptor binding?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as d duration}}</div>
1390791140928 1358629116480 How do B nzodiaz pin s alt r Cl- chann l op ning

via GABA r c ptors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as d fr qu ncy}}</div>
1390791168220 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Ph nobarbital
as a s dativ ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Long}}</div>
1390791197595 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of P ntobarbitol
as a s dativ ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Int rm diat }}</div>
1390791211809 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of S cobarbitol a
s a s dativ ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Int rm diat acting}}</div>
1390791222545 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Thiop ntol as
a s dativ ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ultra-short}}</div>
1390791236364 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Barbiturat s?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Binds to GABA-A r c ptors and incr as s duration of Cl- chann l op n
ing}}</div>
1390791619756 1358629116480 What is th MOA of B nzodiaz pin s?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Binds to GABA-A and incr as d th fr qu ncy of Cl- chann l op nin
g}}</div>
1390791790509 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Chlorodia
z poxid as a s dativ ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Long}}</div>
1390791807989 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Clonaz pa
m as a s dativ ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Long}}</div>
1390791816813 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Diaz pam
as a s dativ ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Long}}</div>
1390791825497 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Loraz pam
1390791834875 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of T maz pam
1390791845648 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Flunitraz
pam as a s dativ ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Int rm diat }}</div>
1390791858001 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Alprazola
m as a s dativ ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Int rm diat }}</div>
1390791868998 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Oxaz pam
1390791880182 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Triazolam
as a s dativ ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Short}}</div>
1390791893992 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Midazolam
as a s dativ ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Short}}</div>
1390791900606 1358629116480 {{c1::Flunitraz pam}} is an int rm diat acting
b nzodiaz pin that is commonly us d as a dat rap drug.
<br /><div><i>Ro
hypnol aka Roofi s</i></div>
1390792227915 1358629116480 {{c1::Triazolam}} and {{c2::Midazolam}} ar
s dativ s that ar d sirabl for us in g n ral ana sth sia as th y ar short a
cting.
1390792558981 1358629116480 {{c1::Loraz pam}}, {{c2::T maz pam}} and&nb
sp;{{c3::Oxaz pam}} ar int rm diat acting b nzodiaz pin s that ar abl to b
giv n to th ld rly.
1390792625239 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Fluman zil?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Antagonism at B nzodiaz pin binding sit s at GABA-A r c ptors}}</div>
1390792651871 1358629116480 {{c1::Fluman zil}} is a B nzodiaz pin antagonist
that blocks B nzo binding at GABA-A r c ptors (BZ1 and BZ2 subtyp s).
1390792670265 1358629116480 What is th clinical us of Fluman zil?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Manag m nt of B nzo ov rdos }}</div>
1390792683121 1358629116480 {{c1::Midazolam}} is a short acting s dativ b n
zo that is us d for ndoscopy.
1390793069032 1358629116480 {{c1::Buspiron }} is an anxiolytic that acts as
a partial agonist at 5-HT r c ptors (and possibly D2 r c ptors).
1390793110235 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Buspiron ?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Partial agonism at 5-HT<sub>1A</sub> r c ptors and possibly D2 r c ptor
s}}</div>
1390793129156 1358629116480 What is th clinical us of Buspiron ?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::G n raliz d Anxi ty Disord r}}</div>
1391130059209 1358629116480 {{c1::M thylpr dnisolon }} is a glucocorticoid u

s d in MS to tr at acut and r laps attacks of MS.
1391131935873 1358629116480 {{c1::B ta Int rf ron 1a}} and {{c2::B ta I
nt rf ron 1b}} ar immunomodulators us d to manag R lapsing-R mitting MS throug
h th suppr ssion of T c ll function and mov m nt into th CNS.
1391131998578 1358629116480 {{c1::Glatiram r Ac tat }} is an immunomodulator
us d to manag R lapsing-R mitting MS through alt ration of APC action.
1391132045022 1358629116480 {{c1::Fingolimod}} is a Sphingosin modulator us
d as a s cond lin manag m nt in R laps -R mitting MS.
1391132130538 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Fingolimod in th manag m nt
of R laps R mitting MS?<div><br />{{c1::Agonism at S1P r c ptors 1, 3, 4, 5; In
hibits lymphocyt mov m nt from lymph nod s into th CNS}}</div>
1391132171994 1358629116480 What is th pr gnancy cat gory of B ta Int rf ro
n 1a and 1b?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C}}</div>
1391132202355 1358629116480 What is th pr gnancy cat gory of Glatiram r Ac
tat ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::B}}</div>
1391132216802 1358629116480 What is th pr gnancy cat gory of Fingolimod?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::C}}</div>
1391132227705 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Natalizumab in th manag m nt
of R laps -R mitting MS?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Binds to Alpha4-Int grin on
lymphocyt s, th r by blocking th trafficking of T c lls to th CNS}}</div>
1391132318257 1358629116480 {{c1::Natalizumab}} is a monoclonal antibody tha
t acts as a s cond lin manag m nt of R laps R mitting MS by binding to Alpha4Int grin on inflammatory lymphocyt s.
1391132372755 1358629116480 {{c1::Natalizumab}} is a monoclonal antibody us
d in th manag m nt of R laps R mitting MS that can caus Progr ssiv Multifoca
l L uko nc phalopathy (PML).
1391132435607 1358629116480 {{c1::Riluzol }} is a drug us d to slow th prog
r ssion of ALS through th inhibition of NMDA r c ptors and Glutamat r l as .
1391132470712 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Riluzol in th manag m nt of
ALS?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Slowsl dis as progr ssion by inhibiting NMDA r
c ptors and Glutamat r l as }}</div>
1405824434519 1395802358422 {{c1::Butorphanol}} is an opioid that functions
as a <b>partial agonist</b> at mu r c ptors and <b>agonist</b> at kapp
a r c ptors, th r by causing <b>l ss r spiratory d pr ssion than full opioid ago
nists</b>.
1405824590792 1395802358422 What is th MOA of th anti- pil ptic Tiagabin ?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of GABA r uptak }}</div>
1405824742680 1395802358422 What is th MOA of th anti- pil ptic Vigabatrin
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of GABA Transaminas , th r by incr asing
GABA l v ls}}</div>
1405824763570 1395802358422 How do s <b>d cr as d</b> blood solubility
influ nc induction and r cov ry tim of ana sth tics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Short r induction and r cov ry}}</div>
1405825069966 1395802358422 How do s <b>incr as d</b> lipid solubility
influ nc th pot ncy of ana sth tics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as d pot
ncy}}</div>
<br /><div><i>CNS drugs must b lipid solubl to fr ly cross th
BBB. H nc incr as d lipid solubility is a good thing.</i></div>
1405825116808 1395802358422 What is th quation for th pot ncy of an inhal
<br /><d
d ana sth tic?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pot ncy = 1 / MAC}}</div>
iv><i>Wh r <b>MAC = Minimal alv olar conc ntration r quir d to pr v nt 50% of s
ubj cts from moving in r spons to noxious stimuli.</b></i></div>
1405825192889 1395802358422 {{c1::Malignant Hyp rth rmia}} is a rar , lif -t
hr at ning complication of inhal d ana sh tics that involv s <b>f v r and s
v r muscl contraction</b>. <br /><div><i>Nitrous Oxid is th only inhal d
ana sth tic that do s not caus malignant hyp rth rmia.</i></div>
1405825411091 1395802358422 {{c1::Thiop ntal}} is a barbiturat that is us d
for <b>induction</b> of ana sth sia du to its high pot ncy, high lipid so
lubility and rapid ntry into th brain.
<br /><div><i>Th ff ct t rmina
t d by rapid r distribution into tissu .</i></div>
1405825495231 1395802358422 {{c1::Midazolam}} is a b nzodiaz pin most commo

nly us d to ana sth sia during <b> ndoscopy</b>.
<br /><div><i>Us d oft n
adjunctiv ly with inhal d ana sth sia and narcotics.</i></div>
1405825547725 1395802358422 {{c1::K tamin }} is a PCP analog that acts as a
dissociativ ana sth tic by <b>blocking NMDA r c ptors.</b>
1405825587576 1395802358422 How do s Thiop ntal chang c r bral blood flow?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as }}</div>
1405825605202 1395802358422 How do s K tamin chang c r bral blood flow?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as }}</div>
1405825614475 1395802358422 What is th MOA of K tamin ?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Blocking of NMDA r c ptors}}</div>
1405825627808 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Propofol?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Pot ntiation of GABA<sub>A</sub> r c ptors}}</div>
1405825748456 1395802358422 B sid s Malignant Hyp rth rmia, what is th clin
ical us of Dantrol n ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::N urol ptic Malignant Syndrom
}}</div>
<br /><div><i>A toxicity of antipsychotics.</i></div>
1405826258289 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Brimonidin in th tr atm nt
of glaucoma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alpha-2 adr n rgic agonism}}</div>
1405826993312 1395802358422 Which diur tic is us d to tr at glaucoma via <b>
inhibition of carbonic anhydras </b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ac tazolamid }}
</div>
1405827058113 1395802358422 Which cholin rgic is xc ptionally ff ctiv at
op ning th m shwork l ading into th Canal of Schl mm and is h nc us d to tr a
t m rg ncy glaucoma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pilocarpin }}</div>
1405827119956 1395802358422 {{c1::Latanoprost (PGF<sub>2alpha</sub>)}} is a
prostaglandin analog us d to tr at glaucoma.
1405827155419 1395802358422 {{c1::Latanoprost (PGF<sub>2alpha</sub>)}} is a
prostaglandin analog us d to tr at glaucoma that caus s <b>browning/dark ning of
th iris</b>.
1394844877345 1358629116480 {{c1::Mif priston }} is an antihormon that acts
as an antagonist at ut rin Prog st ron r c ptors, th r by <b>inducing d tachm
nt of th blastocyst from th ut rin wall</b>.
1394845544541 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Mif priston ?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Antagonism at Prog st ron r c ptors}}</div>
1394845556652 1358629116480 {{c1::M thotr xat }} is a folat analog/antim ta
bolit that t rminat s pr gnancy by comp titiv ly inhibiting Dihydrofolat R duc
tas and h nc acting as a strong f ticidal ag nt.
1394845773323 1358629116480 What is th MOA of M thotr xat ?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Comp titiv inhibition of Dihydrofolat R ductas }}</div>
1394845796255 1358629116480 {{c1::Misoprostol}} is a prostaglandin that can
t rminat pr gnancy by binding to Prostaglandin R c ptors and trigg ring ut rin
contraction, th r by l ading to th xpulsion of ut rin cont nts.
1394846040695 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Misoprostol in th t rminatio
n of pr gnancy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Agonism at PGE1 r c ptors, th r by tr
igg ring ut rin contraction}}</div>
1394908571453 1358629116480 {{c1::Tocolytics}} ar a typ of drug that r lax
th ut rin musculatur , th r by d cr asing ut rin contractility and d laying
labour.
1394908648957 1358629116480 {{c1::T rbutalin }} is a b2 adr n rgic agonist t
hat d lays labour by r laxing th myom trium.
1394908914243 1358629116480 What is th MOA of T rbutalin ?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Agonism at B ta-2 r c ptors at th ut rus}}</div>
1394908936054 1358629116480 {{c1::Tocolytics}} ar a typ of drug giv n for
up to 48 hours to d lay d liv ry and to allow ant -natal glucocorticoids th opp
ortunity to hav maximal ff ct.
1394909255339 1358629116480 {{c1::Nif dipin }} is a Ca chann l block r that
d lays labour by blocking ut rin Ca chann ls, th r by d cr asing intrac llular
Ca l v ls and trigg ring r laxation of th myom trium.
1394909300791 1358629116480 {{c1::Indom thacin}} is an NSAID that d lays lab
our by d cr asing Prostaglandin synth sis at th ut rus l ading to ut rin r lax
ation.
1394909795910 1358629116480 What cardiac d f ct is at risk of occuring follo
wing Indom thacin us in ut ro?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pr matur closur of
th Ductus Art riosus}}</div>
1394910047803 1358629116480 {{c1::Misoprostol}} and {{c2::Dinoproston }
} ar prostaglandins that induc and maintain labour by binding to Prostaglandin
r c ptors at th c rvix, th r by loos ning and rip ning it.
1394910188018 1358629116480 {{c1::Misoprostol}} is a <b>Prostaglanin E1</b>&
nbsp;analog that is us d to induc and maintain labour.
1394910212685 1358629116480 {{c1::Dinoproston }} is a <b>Prostaglandin E2</b
> analog that can induc and maintain labour.
1394910245455 1358629116480 What is th ROA of Misoprostol and Dinoproston
in th induction and maint nanc of labour?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Intravagi
nal}}</div>
1394910279620 1358629116480 {{c1::Oxytocin}} is a pituitary hormon that ind
uc s and maintains labour by binding to r c ptors at th ut rus, th r by a
ugm nting ut rin contraction forc and fr qu ncy.
1394910941704 1358629116480 {{c1::Oxytocin}} is a pituitary hormon that is
th first lin drug for Postpartum H morrhaging.
1394910981514 1358629116480 {{c1::Oxytocin}} is a pituitary hormon that sto
ps postpartum h morrhaging by augm nting ut rin contractil forc and fr qu ncy
, th r by l ading to compr ssion of ut rin BVs.
1394911018601 1358629116480 What is th first lin drug for Postpartum H mor
rhaging?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oxytocin}}</div>
1394911036544 1358629116480 {{c1::Ergonovin }} is an rgotomin that stops P
ostpartum H morrhag by binding to 5-HT2 and Alpha Adr n rgic r c ptors.
1394911216504 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Ergonovin ?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Partial agonism at 5-HT2 and Alpha Adr n rgic r c ptors}}</div>
1394912511678 1358629116480 {{c1::Misoprostol}} is a prostaglandin us d to s
top Postpartum H morrhag wh n Ergonovin is contraindicat d.
1394913040053 1358629116480 {{c1::M toclopramid }} and {{c2::Domp ridon
}} ar Dopamin antagonists that stimulat lactation by incr asing Prolactin s
cr tion.
1394913230882 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Domp ridon ?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Dopamin antagonist}}</div>
1394913243278 1358629116480 What is th MOA of M toclopramid ?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Dopamin antagonist}}</div>
1394913257152 1358629116480 {{c1::Bromocriptin }} and {{c2::Cab rgolin
}} is a Dopamin agonist that supr ss s lactation by inhibiting Prolactin s cr t
ion.
1394913376882 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Bromocriptin ?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Dopamin Agonist}}</div>
1394913385110 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Cab rgolin ?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Dopamin Agonist}}</div>
1394913393300 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Oral Contrac ptiv s in th tr
atm nt of Endom triosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Induc s d cidualization and
atrophy of ndom trial and ctopic ndom trial tissu }}</div>
1394913570001 1358629116480 What is th first lin drug for Mild Endom trios
is?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Oral Contrac ptiv s}}</div>
1394913584242 1358629116480 {{c1::M droxyprog st ron }} and {{c2::L von
org st rol}} ar prog st ron analogs that induc d cidualization of ndom trial
and ctopic ndom trial tissu , th r by r li ving pain from mild ndom triosis.
1394913653559 1358629116480 What is th ROA of M droxyprog st ron ?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Oral}}</div>
1394913891947 1358629116480 What is th ROA of L vonorg st rol?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::IUD (in ut ro)}}</div>
1394913912810 1358629116480 What is th MOA of L uprolid , Gos rilin and Naf
ar lin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Agonism at GnRH r c ptors}}</div>
<div><br
/></div><b><i>Wh n giv n in continugous fashion, it acts as a GnRH antagonist.<
/i></b><br /><div><i>Caus s downr gulation of GnRH r c ptors and subs qu nt d pr
ssion of LH and FSH s cr tion; D cr as d LH and FSH caus inhibition of ovarian

Estrog n production, th r by l ading to f w r ndom trial implants du to Estro
g n d privation</i></div>
1394914262550 1358629116480 What is th most common sid ff ct of GnRH agon
ists?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bon loss du to th r sultant strog n d priva
tion}}</div>
1394914302848 1358629116480 {{c1::Anastrozol }} is an anti-hormon ag nt tha
t tr ats ndom triosis by comp titiv ly inhibiting Aromatas , sp cially at xtr
a-ovarian/ ctopic ndom trial tissu .
1394914545533 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Anastrozol ?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Comp titiv inhibition of Aromatas }}</div>
1394914560432 1358629116480 {{c1::Danazol}} is an Androg n analog that tr at
s Endom triosis by stablishing a low LH/FSH, high androg n and low strog n nv
ironm nt.
1394914635562 1358629116480 {{c1::Spironolacton }} is a K-sparing diur tic t
hat tr ats th Hirsutism and Acn in PCOD through w ak antagonism at Androg n r
c ptors and w ak inhibition of androg n synth sis.
1394914859721 1358629116480 {{c1::Flutamid }} is an anti-hormon ag nt that
tr ats Hirsutism and Acn in PCOD by acting as an antagonist at Androg n r c pto
rs and inhibits th translocation of th r c ptors to th nucl us.
1394914904165 1358629116480 {{c1::Finast rid }} is an anti-hormon ag nt tha
t tr ats Hirsutism and acn in PCOD by<b> inhibiting 5-Alpha R ductas </b>, th r
by pr v nting conv rsion of t stost ron to DHT.
1394914960031 1358629116480 {{c1::Clomiph n }} is a pro-ovulatory ag nt that
tr ats th <b>inf rtility</b> in PCOD by antagonism at hypothalamic and ant rio
r pituitary Estrog n r c ptors, th r by inhibiting its n gativ f dback.
<br /><div><i>As a r sult, th r is an incr as in LH/FSH and a strong driv tow
ards ovulation</i></div>
1394915295438 1358629116480 {{c1::M tformin}} is an Anti-Diab tic that tr at
s th Hyp rinsulin mia associat d with PCOD
1394915313266 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Clomiph n ?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Antagonism at hypothalamic and ant rior pituitary Estrog n r c ptors}}
</div> <br /><div><i>Th r by blocking normal f dback inhibition from Estrog n
and causing an <b>incr as in LH and FSH</b> from th pituitary.</i></div><
div><i>Associat d with hot flash s, ovarian nlarg m nt, multipl simultan ous p
r gnanci s and visual disturbanc s.</i></div>
1394930065655 1358629116480 {{c1::Glucocorticoids}} ar a class of drugs tha
t ar administ r d ant natally in a pr matur g station to nhanc f tal lung ma
turation and ultimat ly r duc morbidity and mortality associat d with pr matur
labour.
1394930173052 1358629116480 What is th half-lif of Oxytocin?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::F w minut s}}</div>
<br /><div><i>For this r ason, th ff c
ts of OT ar asy to control via rat of infusion</i></div>
1394930694595 1358629116480 Which typ of oral contrac ptiv s ar not r comm
nd d imm diat ly aft r postpartum?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Combin d}}</div>
1394931102246 1358629116480 Oral Contrac ptiv s ar abl to tr at hirsutism
and acn in PCOD through th ir ability to stimulat h patic synth sis of {{
c1::S x Hormon -Binding Globulin (SHBG)}}.
1394933309363 1358629116480 {{c1::Hot Flash s (Vasomotor Symptoms)}} ar a s
ymptom of m nopaus and th most common indication for a short cours of m nopau
sal hormon th rapy.
1394933347296 1358629116480 What is th first lin th rapy for Ost oporosis
(pr v ntion and tr atm nt)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bisphosphonat s}}</div>
1394933767186 1358629116480 What is Add-Back Th rapy in th tr atm nt of End
om triosis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Administration of Estrog ns/Prog stins wh
n a pati nt is taking GnRH analogs to pr v nt bon loss and tr at vasomotor sym
ptoms}}</div>
1394933867231 1358629116480 What typ of canc r is at risk of occurring for
pati nts that r c iv Estrog n-only hormon r plac m nt?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::Endom trial carcinoma (via ndom trial hyp rplasia)}}</div>
1405390519749 1395802358422 Which K-sparing diur tic is abl to inhibit t st

ost ron r l as or its action at th androg n r c ptor?<div><br /></div><div>{{
c1::Spironolacton }}</div>
1405390612593 1395802358422 What is th MOA of M stranol in th tr atm nt of
ovarian failur (or hypogonadism in f mal s)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Agonis
m at strog n r c ptors}}</div>
1405390935238 1395802358422 {{c1::Ethinyl stradiol}}, {{c2::di thylsti
lb strol}} and {{c3::M stranol}} ar 3 strog n analogs that ar us d to tr
at <b>hypogonadism, ovarian failur </b> or <b>m nstrual abnormaliti s</b>.
1405391290190 1395802358422 How do s th risk of ndom trial canc r chang w
ith strog n analogs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as }}</div>
1405391318796 1395802358422 Which canc r s n in young f mal s is associat d
with xposur to Di thylstilb strol (DES) in ut ro?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::
Cl ar c ll ad nocarcinoma of th vagina}}</div>
1405391367911 1395802358422 How do s th risk of thrombi chang with strog
n analogs?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as }}</div>
1405391386814 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Tamoxif n in th tr atm nt an
d pr v ntion of br ast canc r?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antagonism of Estrog n
r c ptors at br ast tissu }}</div>
1405391649365 1395802358422 At which tissu is Tamofix n an strog n r c pto
r <b>agonist</b>?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bon ; Ut rus}}</div>
<br /><d
iv><i>H nc it is associat d with ndom trial carcinoma and thrombo mbolic v nt
s.</i></div>
1405391678562 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Raloxif n ?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Agonist at strog n r c ptors <u>at bon </u>; Antagonist at strog n r
c ptors <u>at th ut rus</u>}}</div>
1405391725556 1395802358422 At which tissu is Raloxif n an strog n r c pt
or agonist?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bon }}</div>
1405391738038 1395802358422 At which tissu is Raloxif n an strog n r c pt
or antagonist?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ut rus}}</div>
1405391752660 1395802358422 {{c1::Raloxif n }} is a s l ctiv strog n r c p
tor modulator (SERM) that is us d to tr at ost oporosis by <b>d cr asing b
on r sorption</b> via <b> strog n r c ptor agonism </b>at bon . <br /><d
iv><i>R m mb r, it is an antagonist at th ut rus.</i></div>
1405391808949 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Ex m stan and Form stan in
th tr atm nt of br ast canc r?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Irr v rsibl inhibiti
on of Aromatas }}</div>
1405392314656 1395802358422 {{c1::Prog stins}} ar a hormon tr atm nt drug
that functions to <b>d cr as th growth</b> and <b>incr as th vascu
larization</b> of th ndom trium by binding to prog st ron r c ptors.
<br /><div><i>Us d in OCPs and in th Tx of ndom trial canc r</i></div>
1405392419548 1395802358422 Which prostaglandin analog is administ r d with
Mif priston ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Misoprostol (PGE<sub>1</sub>)}}</div>
1405392497092 1395802358422 {{c1::Estrog n}} and {{c2::prog stins}} ar
compon nts of OCPs that function to inhibit LH/FSH and pr v nt an strog n surg
<br /><div><i>No strog n surg = no LH surg = no ovulation.</i></div>
.
1405392572509 1395802358422 {{c1::Prog stins}} ar a compon nt of OCPs that
function to <b>thick n th c rvical mucus</b>, th r by limiting acc ss of sp rm
to th ut rus. <br /><div><i>Prog stins also inhibit ndom trial prolif ration,
making it l ss suitabl for implantation.</i></div>
1405392617698 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Danazol in th tr atm nt of E
ndom triosis and H r ditary Angio d ma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Partial agoni
sm at androg n r c ptors}}</div>
1405392919592 1395802358422 How do HDL l v ls chang following Danazol admin
istration?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as }}</div>
1405392940880 1395802358422 How do <b>intrat sticular</b> l v ls of t s
tost ron chang following xog nous t stost ron /m thylt stost ron administrat
ion?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D cr as }}</div>
<br /><div><i>Du to inh
ibition of LH r l as via n gativ f dback and subs qu nt gonadal atrophy.</i><
/div>
1405393070264 1395802358422 How do s t stost ron chang HDL l v ls?<div><br

/></div><div>{{c1::D cr as }}</div>
1405393082240 1395802358422 How do s t stost ron chang LDL l v ls?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Incr as }}</div>
1405393090796 1395802358422 {{c1::Finast rid }} is an antiandrog n ag nt us
d to tr at BPH and mal patt rn baldn ss by <b>inhibiting 5-alpha-r ductas </b>.
1405393165265 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Finast rid ??<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhibition of 5-alpha-r ductas }}</div>
1405393190630 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Flutamid ?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Antagonism at androg n r c ptors}}</div>
1405393221672 1395802358422 {{c1::K toconazol }} is an antifungal ag nt s d
to tr at hirsutism in PCOD by inhibiting <b>17,20-d smolas </b>, an nzym invol
v d in st roid synth sis.
1405393301317 1395802358422 What is th MOA of K toconazol in th pr v ntio
n of hirsutism in PCOD?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of 17,20-d smolas
, an nzym involv d with st roid synth sis}}</div>
1405393339694 1395802358422 {{c1::Spironolacton }} is a K-sparing diur tic u
s d to pr v nt th hirsutism in PCOD by inhibiting <b>17-alpha-hydroxylas </b>&n
bsp;and <b>17,20-d smolas </b>, two nzym s involv d with st roid synth sis.
1405393513378 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Spironolacton in th pr v nt
ion of hirsutism in PCOD?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of st roid bindi
ng; Inhibition of 17-alpha-hydroxylas and 17,20-d smolas }}</div>
1405393550015 1395802358422 Which 2 sid ff cts ar associat d with K tocon
azol and Spironolacton in th pr v ntion of hirsutism in PCOD?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Gyn comastia; Am norrh a}}</div>
1405393578379 1395802358422 {{c1::Tamsulosin}} is an alpha-1 adr n rgic anta
gonist us d to tr at BPH by inhibiting smooth muscl contraction as it is <b>s l
ctiv for th alpha<sub>1A,D</sub> adr n rgic r c ptors found on th prost
at </b>.
<br /><div><i>V rsus th alpha<sub>1B</sub> r c ptor found
on vasculatur .</i></div>
1405393665503 1395802358422 Which sp cific typ of alpha-1 adr n rgic r c pt
or is Tamsulosin s l ctiv for at th prostat ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::alpha
<sub>1A,D</sub>}}</div> <br /><div><i>V rsus th alpha<sub>1B</sub> r c pto
r on vasculatur .</i></div>
1405393702080 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Sild nafil and Vard nafil in
th tr atm nt of r ctil dysfunction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of
Phosphodi st ras 5 (PDE5)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th r by causing an incr as
in cGMP l v ls and subs qu nt smooth muscl r laxation in th corpus cav rnosu
m, incr as d blood flow and p nil r ction.</i></div>
1405393794792 1395802358422 {{c1::Sild nafil}} and {{c2::Vard nafil}} a
r PDE5 inhibitors that ar associat d with <b>h adach , flushing, dysp psia</b>
and <b>impair d blu -gr n colour vision</b>.
<br /><div><i>Th r is a
lso a risk of lif -thr at ning hypot nsion in pati nts that ar also taking nitr
at s.</i></div>
1392944532815 1358629116480 Which signalling pathway is activat d by Alpha I
nt rf ron in th tr atm nt of h patitis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::JAK-STAT sig
naling pathway}}</div>
1392947177308 1358629116480 {{c1::2'5'-OligoA-Synth tas (25-OAS)}} and&nbsp
;{{c2::RNAs L}} ar 2 anti-viral nzym s that ar v ntually activat d fo
llowing th JAK-STAT signaling pathway activat d by Alpha Int rf ron.
1392947238986 1358629116480 {{c1::D pr ssion}} is a s rious CNS adv rs ff
ct of Alpha-Int rf ron du to its pro-inflammatory action and incr as in IL2 an
d TNF-alpha.
1392947287692 1358629116480 What is th pr gnancy cat gory of all Alpha Int
rf ron?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::C}}</div>
1392947314456 1358629116480 {{c1::Poly thyl n Glycol (PEG)}} is a moi ty th
at is add d onto Alpha Int rf ron to incr as half-lif , stability and to d cr a
s m tabolization.
1392947362547 1358629116480 {{c1::Alpha P gint rf ron 2a}} is an Alpha Int r
f ron that is also us d in R nal C ll Carcinoma.
1392947388722 1358629116480 {{c1::Alpha Int rf ron 2b}} is an alpha int rf r

on that is also us d in Kaposi's Sarcoma.
1392947409535 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Ad fovir?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Comp titiv inhibition of HBV R v rs Transcriptas , th r by causing cha
in t rmination of viral DNA}}</div>
1392947446089 1358629116480 What nucl otid is Ad fovir an analog of?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Ad nin }}</div>
1392947640286 1358629116480 Which h patitis is Ad fovir us d to tr at?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::HBV}}</div>
1392947663050 1358629116480 What is th pr gnancy cat gory of Ad fovir?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::C}}</div>
1392947676622 1358629116480 Asid from xac rbation of h patitis upon stoppa
g , what is th black box warning for Ad fovir?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::N phr
otoxicity}}</div>
1392947701470 1358629116480 What nucl otid is Ent cavir an analog of?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Guanin }}</div>
1392947724080 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Ent cavir?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Comp titiv inhibition of all 3 HBV R v rs Transcriptas functions}}</
div>
1392947781034 1358629116480 Which Anti-HBV ag nt is th l ast lik ly to r du
c HBV DNA and s roconv rt HB Ag?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ad fovir}}</div>
1392947829054 1358629116480 What is th pr gnancy cat gory of Ent cavir?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::C}}</div>
1392947854172 1358629116480 B sid s xac rbation of h patitis upon stoppag ,
what is th blackbox warning of Ent cavir?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Lactic Ac
idosis and S v r H patom galy with St atosis}}</div>
1392947883321 1358629116480 What nucl otid is T lbivudin an analog of?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thymidin }}</div>
1392947926427 1358629116480 What is th MOA of T lbivudin ?<div><br />{{c1::
Comp titiv inhibition of HBV r v rs transcriptas , th r by causing viral DNA c
hain t rmination}}</div>
1392947950637 1358629116480 Which anti-HBV ag nt yi lds th high st r sistan
c ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T lbivudin }}</div>
1392947977536 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Lamivudin ?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Comp t s with D oxycytidin Triphosphat for incorporation into viral
DNA, th r by l ading to chain t rmination}}</div>
1392948287305 1358629116480 What is th MOA of T nofovir?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Comp titiv inhibition of HBV r v rs transcriptas , th r by l ading to
chain t rmination}}</div>
1392948322943 1358629116480 {{c1::Ribavarin}} is a purin analog that is tho
ught to int rf r with GTP synth sis, th r by inhibiting GTP-d p nd nt 5' cappin
g of viral mRNA. H nc stopping HCV r plication.
1392948396699 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Ribavirin in th tr atm nt of
HCV?<div><br />{{c1::Int rf r nc with GTP synth sis, th r by inhibiting GTP-d
p nd nt 5' capping of viral mRNA}}</div>
1392948440831 1358629116480 {{c1::T lbivudin }} is an anti-HBV ag nt that ca
n pr s nt with l vat d s rum CK l v ls.
1392948472580 1358629116480 What is th pr gnancy cat gory of T lbivudin ?<d
iv><br />{{c1::B}}</div>
1392948490641 1358629116480 What is th pr gnancy cat gory of Ribavirin?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::X}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Bish s n d 2 forms of con
trac ptiv s; muhfuckas can't hav s x with pr ggo's or wom n wanting to b .</i><
/div>
1392948543878 1358629116480 {{c1::Ribavirin}} is an anti-HCV ag nt that is v
ry contraindicat d in pr gnancy.
1392948563513 1358629116480 What is th m chanism of r sistanc to Ribavirin
?<div><br />{{c1::Failur of c lls to phosphorylat th drug}}</div>
1392948581612 1358629116480 {{c1::Boc pr vir}} is an anti-HCV ag nt that is
a pot nt inhibitor of CYP3A4 and CYP3A5.
1392948606500 1358629116480 What is th MOA of both Boc pr vir and T lapr vi
r in th tr atm nt of HCV?<div><br />{{c1::Inhibition of HCV NS3 and HS4A prot a

s s, th r by inhibiting th cl avag of HCV ncod d polyprot ins into th ir matu
r form}}</div>
1392948657638 1358629116480 Which sp cific typ of HCV is tr at d with Boc p
r vir and T lapr vir?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HCV G notyp 1}}</div>
1392948677026 1358629116480 What is th pr gnancy cat gory of Boc pr vir?<di
1392948693842 1358629116480 What is th pr gnancy cat gory of T lapr vir?<di
1392948702761 1358629116480 {{c1::T lapr vir}} is an anti-HCV ag nt that is
a pot nt inhibitor of CYP3A4 and P-Glycoprot in.
1392948824503 1358629116480 What is th MOA of H2 r c ptor antagonists (-idi
n s) in th tr atm nt of Acid-P ptic Dis as ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Comp ti
tiv inhibition of H2 r c ptors at pari tal c lls, th r by l ading to a d cr as
in gastric acid production and r l as }}</div> <br /><div><img src="past -26207
890440880.jpg" /></div>
1392949457335 1358629116480 What kind of GI drug is Cim tidin , Famotidin a
nd Ranitidin ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H2-R c ptor Antagonist}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Us d in acid-p ptic dis as s.</i></div>
1392949489276 1358629116480 H2-r c ptor antagonists, sp cially Cim tidin ,
can hav anti-androg nic ff cts as th y block {{c1::DHTA}} binding at Andr
og n r c ptors. <br /><div><i>H nc th y can caus <b>prolactin r l as , gyn com
astia, impot nc </b> and <b>d cr as d libido in mal s</b>.</i></div>
1392949538484 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Proton Pump Inhibitors?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Irr v rsibl , suicid inhibition of H+/K+ ATPas , th r by
inhibiting H+ s cr tion into th gastric lum n}}</div> <br /><div><i>via disulf
id bond formation with th nzym .</i></div><div><i><img src="past -26203595473
584.jpg" /></i></div>
1392949609014 1358629116480 Hyp rplasia of {{c1::G-c lls/Fundic Glands}
} is a complication of prolong d Proton Pump Inhibitor us .
1392949662350 1358629116480 What typ of GI drugs ar Esom prazol and Om pr
azol ?<div><br />{{c1::Proton Pump Inhibitor}}</div>
1392950305028 1358629116480 What is th MOA of M thylc llulos ?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Absorbs wat r in th GI lum n, th r by forming a bulky, moli nt
g l that caus s colonic dist nsion and promot s p ristalsis}}</div>
1392950358276 1358629116480 What typ of laxativ is M thylc llulos ?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Bulk-Forming Laxativ }}</div>
1392950377747 1358629116480 What typ of laxativ is Docusat ?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Stool Soft n r}}</div>
1392950387404 1358629116480 {{c1::Docusat }} is a stool soft ning laxativ t
hat nhanc s th incorporation of wat r and fat into stool.
1392950424612 1358629116480 What is th clinical us of Laxativ s?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Constipation}}</div>
1392950439902 1358629116480 {{c1::Min ral Oil}} is a stool soft ning laxativ
that lubricat s f cal mat rial, th r by d laying colonic absorption of f cal w
at r.
1392950477117 1358629116480 What typ of laxativ is Min ral Oil?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Stool Soft n r}}</div>
1392950505345 1358629116480 What typ of laxativ is Poly thyl n Glycol (PE
G)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Osmotic}}</div>
1392950518369 1358629116480 What typ of laxativ is Lactulos ?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Osmotic}}</div> <br /><div><i>May b abus d by bulimics.</i></di
v>
1392950526536 1358629116480 What typ of laxativ is Bisacodyl?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Stimulant}}</div>
1392950543130 1358629116480 What typ of laxativ is S nna (ExLax)?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Stimulant}}</div>
1392950551514 1358629116480 What typ of laxativ is Alvimopan?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Opioid Antagonist}}</div>
1392950569994 1358629116480 What typ of laxativ is M thylnaltr xon ?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Opioid antagonist}}</div>
1392950590341 1358629116480 What typ of laxativ is Lubiproston ?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Chlorid Chann l Activator}}</div>
1392950622899 1358629116480 {{c1::Poly thyl n Glycol (PEG)}} is an osmotic
laxativ that incr as s stool liquidity du to an obligat incr as in f cal flu
id as a r sult of th nonabsorbabl natur of th compound.
1392950744483 1358629116480 {{c1::Lactulos }} is an osmotic laxativ that i
n addition to incr asing stool liquidity, acidifi s th colonic cont nts followi
ng br akdown of th compound. This th n inhibits ammonia diffusion into th bloo
d.
1392950798367 1358629116480 {{c1::Lactulos }} is an osmotic laxativ that is
also us d to tr at and pr v nt H patic Enc phalopathy.
1392950819125 1358629116480 {{c1::Bisacodyl}} and {{c2::S nna}} ar stimulan
t laxativ s that has an unknown MOA, it is thought to stimulat th nt ric n rv
ous syst m.
1392950878174 1358629116480 {{c1::M lanosis Coli}} is a sid ff ct of chron
ic us of S nna and involv s brown pigm ntation of th colon.
1392950907939 1358629116480 {{c1::Alvimopan}} and {{c2::M thylnaltr xon }}&n
bsp;ar opioid antagonists at mu r c ptors at th int stin , th r by incr asing
int stinal motility.
1392950965365 1358629116480 {{c1::M thylnaltr xon }} is an opioid antagonist
that is us d to tr at Opioid induc d constipation .
1392951044550 1358629116480 {{c1::Lubiproston }} is a chlorid chann l activ
ator that stimulat s typ 2 chlorid chann ls (CIC2) in th small int stin , th
r by incr asing int stinal motility and short ning int stinal transit tim .
1392951152676 1358629116480 {{c1::M salamin }} and {{c2::Sulfasalazin }
} ar aminosalicylat s that act as pow rful anti-inflammatori s.
1392951225616 1358629116480 Which 2 aminosalicylat s ar th 1st lin th rap
y in <b>mild to mod rat </b> Ulc rativ Colitis and Crohn's Dis as ?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::M salamin and Sulfasalazin }}</div>
1392951267746 1358629116480 {{c1::Sulfasalazin }} is an aminosalicylat that
is also us d to tr at Rh umatoid Arthritis and Juv nil Rh umatoid Arthritis.
<br /><div><i>Is a combination of Sulfapyradin (antibact rial) and 5-ASA (antiinflammatory).</i></div><div><i>Actvat d by colonic bact ria.</i></div>
1392951314260 1358629116480 {{c1::Bud sonid }} is a glucocorticoid that is p
r f rr d in pati nts with Crohn's Dis as that aff cts th il um and proximal co
lon.
1392951360155 1358629116480 {{c1::Pr dnisolon }} and {{c2::Pr dnison }}
ar 2 glucocorticoids that ar th pr f rr d drugs to tr at mod rat to s v r
IBD, via th oral rout .
1392951408428 1358629116480 What is th MOA of M rcaptopurin and Azathiopri
n in th tr atm nt of IBD?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of d novo pur
in nucl otid synth sis, th r by causing immunosuppr ssion}}</div>
1392951444978 1358629116480 Which nzym activat s M rcaptopurin ?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::HGPRT}}</div>
1392951468357 1358629116480 Which nzym inactivat s M rcaptopurin ?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Thiopurin S-M thyltransf ras (TPMT)}}</div>
1392951531762 1358629116480 {{c1::Azathioprin }} is an antim tabolit that i
s non- nzymatically conv rt d to M rcaptopurin .
1392951549984 1358629116480 What is th MOA of M thotr xat in th tr atm nt
of IBD?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Dihydrofolat R ductas , th r
by blocking THF synth sis from folic acid}}</div>
1392951587928 1358629116480 What is th pr gnancy cat gory of M rcaptopurin
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X}}</div>
1392951609491 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Infliximab?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Binds to and n utraliz s both solubl and m mbran -bound TNF-alpha}}</
div>
<br /><div><i>Us d to tr at IBD, rh umatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondy
litis and psoriasis.</i></div>
1392951657783 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Natalizumab?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Binds to and n utraliz s alpha-4 subunit of Int grin, th r by pr v nt
ing adh sion of inflammatory c lls to th ndoth lium}}</div>

1392951707293 1358629116480 What is th black box warning for Natalizumab?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Risk of Progr ssiv Multifocal L uko nc phalopathy du
to opportunistic JC virus inf ction}}</div>
1392951743756 1358629116480 Which virus is associat d with Progr ssiv Multi
focal L uko nc phalopathy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::JC virus}}</div>
1392951763255 1358629116480 {{c1::Chol styramin }} is an anion- xhang r sin
that binds to bil acids in th int stinal lum n, th r by pr v nting th ir r ab
sorption.
1392952998410 1358629116480 What is th primary clinical us of Chol styrami
n ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyp rlipid mia or Diarrh a caus d by xc ss bil
acid}}</div>
1392953016351 1358629116480 {{c1::Diph noxylat }} and {{c2::Lop ramid }} ar
opioid agonist antidiarrh als that activat s opioid r c ptors, th r by slowing
int stinal activity and incr asing f cal wat r absorption.
1392953081946 1358629116480 {{c1::Atropin }} is an anticholin rgic that is a
dminist r d with th antidiarrh al Diph noxylat to discourag d lib rat opioid
ov rdos via th und rsirabl anticholing ric ff cts.
1392953157563 1358629116480 {{c1::Octr otid }} is a somatostatin analog that
acts as an <b>antidiarrh al</b> through th <b>inhibition of GI s cr tions, slo
wing of GI motility and inhibition of gallbladd r s cr tion</b>.
1392953211443 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Ondans tron in th tr atm nt
of naus a and vomiting?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antagonism of 5-HT3 r c ptors
}}</div>
1392953247117 1358629116480 Which s rotonin r c ptor m diat s naus a and vom
iting?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::5-HT3}}</div>
1392953259144 1358629116480 {{c1::Apr pitant}} and {{c2::Fosapr pitant}
} ar n urokinin antagonists that cross th BBB and antagonis Substanc P/N uro
kinin (NK1) r c ptors at th Ar a Postr ma, th r by causing anti- m sis.
1392953315832 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Drop ridol in th tr atm nt o
f naus a and vomiting?<div><br /></div><div>{{c2::C ntral DA blockad }}</div>
1392953346321 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Prom thazin , Prochlorop razi
n and Thi thylp razin in th tr atm nt of naus a and vomiting?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Antagonism of DA and Muscarinic r c ptors}}</div>
1392953381573 1358629116480 {{c1::Dronabinol}} is a THC analog that is us d
to tr at naus a and vomiting. It also stimulat s app tit .
1392953419278 1358629116480 {{c1::Diph nhydramin }} and {{c2::Dim nhydr
inat }} ar 1st g n ration H1-r c ptor antagonists us d to tr at naus a and vomi
ting in motion sickn ss.
1392953504561 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Diph nhydramin and Dim nhydr
inat ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H1-r c ptor antagonism}}</div>
1392953525688 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Trim thob nzamid in th tr a
tm nt of naus a and vomiting?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antagonism of DA r c pt
ors}}</div>
1392953592122 1358629116480 {{c1::Alos tron}} is a GI drug us d to tr at IBS
through s l ctiv and pot nt antagonism of c ntral and p riph ral 5-HT3 r c pto
rs.
1392953651291 1358629116480 {{c1::Alos tron}} is a GI drug that blocks naus
a, bloating and pain at <b>aff r nt GI</b> 5-HT3 r c ptors in IBS.
1392953687071 1358629116480 {{c1::Alos tron}} is a GI drug that blocks th r
spons to visc ral aff r nt GI stimulation at <b>c ntral</b> 5-HT3 r c pto
rs in IBS.
1392953739694 1358629116480 {{c1::Alos tron}} is a GI drug that inhibits col
onic motility and incr as s colonic transit tim at <b>Ent ric Cholin rgic T rmi
nal</b> n uronal 5-HT3 r c ptors in IBS.
1392953781985 1358629116480 {{c1::Dicyclomin }} is a spasmolytic that nonsp
cifically antagonis s muscarinic r c ptors, th r by d cr asing GI motility and s
cr tions in IBS.
1392953832035 1358629116480 {{c1::Ursodiol}} is an xog nous bil acid that
d cr as s chol st rol cont nt of bil by r ducing h patic chol st rol s cr tion.
1392953895588 1358629116480 {{c1::Lithocolic Acid}} is a h patotoxic m tabol

it of Ursodiol that is mad by colonic flora if Ursodiol is unabsorb d and unco
njugat d.
1405721941177 1395802358422 Which 2 H<sub>2</sub> block rs ar associat
d with a <b>d cr as </b> in th r nal xcr tion of cr atinin ?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::Cim tidin ; Ranitidin }}</div>
1405721984937 1395802358422 Which nt ric bact rial inf ction has an incr as
d risk of occurring in proton pump inhibitor us ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i
>Clostridium difficil </i>}}</div>
1405722062295 1395802358422 {{c1::Bismuth}} and {{c2::Sucralfat }} ar
2 GI drugs that <b>bind to th bas of an ulc r</b> and provid physical pr
ot ction, th r by allowing HCO<sub>3</sub> s cr tion to r - stablish th pH
gradi nt in th mucous lay r.
1405722141529 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Bismuth and Sucralfat ?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Binding to th bas of an ulc r, th r by providing physica
l prot ction and allowing HCO<sub>3</sub> s cr tion to r - stablish th pH
gradi nt in th mucous lay r}}</div>
4.jpg" /></div>
1405722422377 1395802358422 What is th clinical us of Bismuth and Sucralfa
t ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as d ulc r h aling; Trav l r's Diarrh a}}</d
iv>
1405722447932 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Misoprostol?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Agonism at PGE<sub>1</sub> r c ptors, th r by incr asing product
ion and s cr tion of th gastric mucosal barri r; D cr as s gastric acid r l as
}}</div>
1405722510106 1395802358422 {{c1::Misoprostol}} is a PGE<sub>1</sub> an
alog that functions to incr as production/s cr tion of th gastric mucous barri
r and d cr as s acid production.
4.jpg" /></div>
1405722561493 1395802358422 {{c1::Misoprostol}} is a PGE<sub>1</sub> an
alog that can b us d to maintain a pat nt ductus art riosus.
1405722599888 1395802358422 Which somatostatin analog can b us d to tr at a
cut varic al bl ding?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Octr otid }}</div>
1405722644042 1395802358422 Which acid-bas imbalanc can b caus d by all a
ntacids?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hypokal mia}}</div>
1405722674083 1395802358422 Which antacid is associat d with <b>hypophosphat
mia</b> in ov rus ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Aluminum hydroxid }}</div>
<br /><div><i>Also involv s proximal muscl w akn ss, ost odystrophy and s izur
s.</i></div>
1405722919847 1395802358422 Which antacid is associat d with <b>hyp rcalc mi
a</b> and <b>r bound incr as s in acid</b> if ov rus d?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Calcium carbonat }}</div>
1405722949047 1395802358422 Which antacid is associat d with <b>hypor fl xia
, hypot nsion</b> and <b>cardiac arr st</b> if ov rus d?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Magn sium hydroxid }}</div>
1405722985721 1395802358422 Which antacid can possibly <b>ch lat </b> o
th r drugs, th r by r ducing th ir ff ctiv n ss?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cal
cium carbonat }}</div> <br /><div><i>All antacids aff ct absorption, bioavailab
ility or urinary xcr tion of oth r drugs as th y alt r gastric and urinary pH a
nd d lay gastric mptying.</i></div>
1405723056250 1395802358422 To which s rotonin r c ptor do s Ondans tron bin
d to inhibit naus a?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::5-HT<sub>3</sub>}}</div>
1405723228554 1395802358422 What is th MOA of M toclopramid in th tr atm
nt of diab tic/post-surg ry gastropar sis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antagonism
at dopamin D<sub>2</sub> r c ptors; Incr as s th r sting ton , contracti
lity, LES ton and motility of th GI tract}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Obviously
contraindicat d in pati nts with small bow l obstruction or Parkinson Dis as .</
i></div>
1405723332629 1395802358422 {{c1::M toclopramid }} is a Dopamin D<sub>2</su
b> antagonist that is us d to tr at diab tic/post-surg ry gastropar sis and
m sis.
1391311091967 1358629116480 What is th drug of choic to tr at G stational
Diab t s M llitus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Insulin}}</div>
1391311179595 1358629116480 Which location of th body off rs for th most r
apid absorption of an IM inj ction of Insulin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Abdomi
nal wall}}</div>
1391311233989 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Insulin L
ispro?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rapid}}</div>
1391312498398 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Insulin A
spart?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rapid}}</div>
1391312504911 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Insulin G
lulisin ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rapid}}</div>
1391312518426 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of R gular I
nsulin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Short}}</div>
1391312526327 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of NPH Insul
in?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Int rm diat }}</div>
1391312537533 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of L nt Ins
ulin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Int rm diat }}</div>
1391312545356 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Ultra-L nt In
sulin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Long}}</div>
1391312584128 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Insulin Glargi
n ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Long}}</div>
1391312590010 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Insulin D t mi
r?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Long}}</div>
1391312655298 1358629116480 How long must rapid acting Insulin formations b
tak n b for a m al?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::5-15 minut s}}</div>
1391312697392 1358629116480 Which typ of Insulin formulations ar us d to c
ontrol post-prandial hyp rglyc mia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Rapid and Short a
cting}}</div>
1391312728092 1358629116480 Which typ of Insulin formulations ar us d to p
rovid basal l v ls of Insulin throughout a day?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Int
rm diat and Long acting}}</div>
1391312753164 1358629116480 What is th ROA of R gular Insulin?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::SC; IM; IV}}</div>
1391312781171 1358629116480 {{c1::R gular Insulin}} is an insulin formulatio
n that can b giv n through IV. This is vital in th tr atm nt of Diab tic K toa
cidosis and Hyp rglyc mic Em rg ncy.
1391312809742 1358629116480 What is th drug of choic to tr at T1DM?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Insulin}}</div>
1391312933648 1358629116480 Insulin is contraindicat d with {{c1::Nons
l ctiv B ta-Block rs}} du to count r-r gulatory activation of B ta2-adr noc pt
ors in th liv r which l ads to inhibition of glycog nolysis, th r by adding to
hypoglyc mia. <br /><div><i>B ta1 s l ctiv ag nts ar pr f rr d (At nolol).</
i></div>
1391313082499 1358629116480 Why is Insulin contraindicat d alongsid Ethanol
and Salicylat s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Th y pr cipitat hypoglyc mia}}</di
v>
1391313126051 1358629116480 Insulin is contraindicat d with {{c1::Diur
tics}} as th y rais blood glucos and incr as th chanc s of hypokal mia.
1391313182494 1358629116480 {{c1::NPH Insulin}} is an int rm diat acting in
sulin formation that is susp nd d in solution with Protamin which is slowly dig
st d nzymatically to r l as insulin.
1391313258197 1358629116480 {{c1::L nt Insulin}} is an int rm diat acting
insulin formulation that is susp nd d in solution with Zinc, which slowly r l as
d insulin from Zn compl x s.
1391313298631 1358629116480 {{c1::Ultra-L nt Insulin}} is long acting insul
in formulation that is susp nd d in solution with Zinc.
1391313391573 1358629116480 {{c1::Insulin Glargin }} is a long acting insuli
n formulation that cannot b combin d with rapid or short acting insulin formula
tions in th sam syring du to its acidic pH.
1391360617213 1358629116480 What is th initial manag m nt of T2DM?<div><br

/></div><div>{{c1::Di t and x rcis }}</div>
1391360654559 1358629116480 Sulfonylur as ar contraindicat d in {{c1::
T1DM}} du to th lack of functioning b ta c lls.
1391360865872 1358629116480 Sulfonylur as ar contraindicat d in {{c1::
pr gnancy}} du to th ir ability to cross th plac nta.
1391360916142 1358629116480 Sulfonylur as ar contraindicat d alongsid drug
s that pot ntiat {{c1::hypoglyc mia}}.
1391361002165 1358629116480 {{c1::Incr tins}} ar hormon s r l as d from th
upp r and low r GI tract that augm nt "glucos -d p nd nt" insulin s cr tion.
1391361323496 1358629116480 Which typ of diab t s absolut ly r quir s insul
in as a tr atm nt?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T1DM}}</div>
1391361408687 1358629116480 What is th common ROA for Insulin pr parations?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SC}}</div>
1391361445482 1358629116480 What is th main adv rs ff ct of Sulfonylur as
and M glitinid s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hypoglyc mia}}</div>
1391361551141 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Sulfonylur as and M gltinid s
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Binding to and blocking of ATP-s nsitiv K chann ls
, causing op ning of Ca chann ls and insulin r l as via xocytosis}}</div>
1391362429901 1358629116480 What g n ration Sulfonylur a is Tolbutamid ?<div
1391362623942 1358629116480 What g n ration Sulfonylur a is Chloropropamid ?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::1st}}</div>
1391362633123 1358629116480 What g n ration Sulfonylur a is Glyburid ?<div><
1391362638973 1358629116480 What g n ration Sulfonylur a is Glim pirid ?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1391362644795 1358629116480 What g n ration Sulfonylur a is Glipizid ?<div><
1391362650348 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Tolbutamid (1
st g n)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Short}}</div>
1391362672664 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Chloroproprami
d (1st G n)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Long}}</div>
1391362687229 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of 2nd G n ration
Sulfonylur a?<div><br />{{c1::Int rm diat }}</div>
1391362702341 1358629116480 Why do s Sulfonylur a tol ranc d v lop?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Down-r gulation of Sulfonylur a r c ptors}}</div>
1391362752576 1358629116480 Th long r th duration of action of Sulfonylur
a, th high r th risk of th pati nt d v loping {{c1::hypoglyc mia}}.
1391362776126 1358629116480 {{c1::Chloropropramid }} is a Sulfonylur a that
has th high st risk for d v loping hypoglyc mia du to its duration of action.
has som th rap utic us in N urog nic Diab t s Insipidus.
can caus SIADH and has Disulfiram-lik r actions with alcohol.
1391362869094 1358629116480 Which g n ration of Sulfonylur as ar mor pot n
t?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::2nd}}</div>
1391363184353 1358629116480 {{c1::Glyburid }} is a 2nd g n ration Sulfonylur
a that has th high st risk of hypoglyc mia (20-30%).
1391363220817 1358629116480 {{c1::Glipizid }} is a 2nd g n ration Sulfonylur
a that has th <b>l ast</b> risk for d v loping hypoglyc mia.
1391363252990 1358629116480 {{c1::Glipizid }} is a 2nd g n ration Sulfonylur
a that is th pr f rr d drug in th ld rly du to its minimal risk of hypoglyc
mia.
1391363327545 1358629116480 {{c1::R paglinid }} is a M glitinid that is oft
n us d to manag T2DM in pati nts with Sulfa-drug all rgi s.
1391363392477 1358629116480 {{c1::R paglinid }} is a fast-acting M glitinid
that is us d to rapidly to limit Postprandial Hyp rglyc mia.
1391363477984 1358629116480 What is th MOA/ ff cts of M tformin?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::D cr as s H patic glucon og n sis; D cr as s p riph ral insulin
r sistanc }}</div>
1391363522427 1358629116480 What typ of anti-diab tic is M tformin?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Biguanid }}</div>
1391364320425 1358629116480 {{c1::M tformin}} is a Biguanid that is us d to
tr am T2DM, sp cially in ob s pati nts with significant insulin r sistanc .
1391364351247 1358629116480 {{c1::M tformin}} is a Biguanid that cannot cau
s hypoglyc mia or w ight gain on its own.
1391364395231 1358629116480 {{c1::M tformin}} is a Biguanid that do s not d
p nd on functioning b ta-c lls to licit its ff ct as it acts mostly at th li
v r.
1391364430536 1358629116480 {{c1::Lactic Acidosis}} is a pot ntial adv rs
ff ct of M tformin in r nal failur pati nts du to d cr as d drug xcr tion or
in h patic failur du to impair d lactic acid uptak .
1391364524981 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Thiazolidin dion s?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::S l ctiv agonism at PPAR-gamma r c ptors at adipos tissu ; A
ctivation of adipon ctin; both incr as insulin s nsitivity at p riph ral tissu
}}</div>
1391364615643 1358629116480 {{c1::Rosiglitazon }} and {{c2::Pioglitazon
}} ar Thiazolidin dion s that act as s l ctiv agonists at PPAR-gamma r c ptor
s at adipos tissu , th r by r ducing FA influx into muscl .
1391364689310 1358629116480 {{c1::Rosiglitazon }} and {{c2::Pioglitazon
}} ar Thiazolidin dion s that activat th adipokin Adipon ctin.
1391364706169 1358629116480 What is th ff ct of Adipon ctin activation by
Thiazolidin dion s ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as s AMP kinas and th r by
insulin s nsitivity}}</div>
1391364739695 1358629116480 What is th black box warning that com s with Th
iazolidin dion s ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cong stiv H art Failur }}</div>
1391364774605 1358629116480 {{c3::Thiazolidin dion s}} ar a typ of anti-di
ab tic that act as uglyc mics, and h nc do not caus hypoglyc mia.
1391364807261 1358629116480 {{c1::Acarbos }} and {{c2::Miglitol}} ar a
nti-diab tics that comp titiv ly inhibit Alpha-Glucosidas at th int stinal bru
sh bord r, th r by inhibiting th dig stion of starch and disaccharid s.
1391365104466 1358629116480 What is th MOA of th anti-diab tics Acarbos a
nd Miglitol?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Comp titiv inhibition of Alpha-Glucosid
as ; th r by inhibiting dig stions of starch and disaccharid s}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>H nc , blunts th postprandial ris in Glc</i></div>
1391365163398 1358629116480 {{c1::Alpha-Glucosidas Inhibitors}} ar a typ
of anti-diab tic that can b us d in pati nts with a risk of hypoglyc mia and la
ctic acidosis.
1391365201890 1358629116480 {{c1::Ex natid }} is an incr tin mim tic that is
us d in T2DM in pati nts that hav not r c iv d ad quat glyc mic control via o
th r drugs.
1391366594001 1358629116480 {{c1::Ex natid }} is an anti-diab tic that is th
synth tic form of th incr tin Ex ndin-4.
1391366642765 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Ex natid ?<div><br />{{c1::In
cr tin (Ex ndin-4) analog; Incr as s insulin s cr tion and d cr as s glucagon s
cr tion}}</div>
1391366670289 1358629116480 {{c1::Sitagliptin}} is a DPP-4 inhibitor us d in
th tr atm nt of T2DM.
1391367160770 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Stagliptin, Saxagliptin, Lina
gliptin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Dip ptidyl P ptidas 4 (DPP-4)
, th r by inhibiting th d gradation of Incr tins and GLP-1-lik mocs}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th r by it ultimat ly incr as s Glc-m diat insulin s cr tion and
d cr as s glucagon s cr tion</i></div>
1391367252703 1358629116480 {{c1::Sitagliptin}} is an anti-diab tic that can
caus nasopharyngitis and upp r r spiratory tract inf ctions.
1391367276771 1358629116480 What is th ROA of Ex natid ?<div><br />{{c1::SC
}}</div>
1391714722368 1358629116480 {{c1::Dopamin }} is a n urotransmitt r from th
hypothalamus that acts as Prolactin Inhibitory Hormon at th ant rior pituitary
.
1391714823388 1358629116480 Which lob of th pituitary is r f rr d to as th
Ad nohypophysis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ant rior Pituitary}}</div>
1391714863919 1358629116480 Which lob of th pituitary is r f rr d to as th
N urohypophysis?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Post rior Pituitary}}</div>
1391714879753 1358629116480 {{c1::S rmor lin}} is a GHRH analog that may b
us d diagnostically.
1391714933411 1358629116480 {{c1::Laron Dwarfism}} is a form of dwarfism tha
t involv s short-statur du to IGF-1 d fici ncy d spit high GH l v ls.
1391715100276 1358629116480 What is th tiology of Laron Dwarfism?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Mutation or d f ct in GH r c ptors; GHRs do not r spond to GH
}}</div>
1391715150804 1358629116480 Why is GH administ r d to girls with Turn r's Sy
ndrom ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::To achi v normal h ight}}</div>
1391715199933 1358629116480 GH can b giv n to pati nts with {{c1::AIDS
}} to tr at for th wasting associat d with th condition. It h lps with l an bo
dy mass, w ight and physical nduranc .
1391715230410 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Somatropin?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Agonism at GH r c ptors}}</div>
1391716923350 1358629116480 Which intrac llular signalling pathway is involv
d with GH?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Jak2/Stat}}</div>
1391716950960 1358629116480 {{c1::Somatropin}} is a hGH analog that binds to
GH r c ptors, activat s th Jak2/Stat signalling pathway and induc s xpr ssion
of somatom dins, sp cially IGF-1.
1391716997100 1358629116480 How do s GH facilitat hyp rglyc mia?<div><br />
{{c1::Induction of h patic glucon og n sis; d cr as s insulin s nsitivity}}</div
>
1391717951419 1358629116480 {{c1::Scoliosis}} is an adv rs ff ct of Somatr
opin (GH) du to un v n, rapid growth of th v rt bra .
1391717993136 1358629116480 What is th MOA of M cas rmin?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Agonism at IGF-1 r c ptors}}</div>
1391718021892 1358629116480 What is th clinical us of M cas rmin?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Laron Dwarfism}}</div>
1391718035104 1358629116480 {{c1::M cas rmin}} is an IGF-1 analog that is us
d to tr at Laron Dwarfism.
1391718056838 1358629116480 What is th most significant adv rs ff ct of M
cas rmin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hypoglyc mia}}</div>
1391718083904 1358629116480 {{c1::Lanr otid }} is a <b>long-acting</b>
Somatostatin analog.
1391718403096 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Octr otid in th tr atm nt o
f Acrom galy and Gigantism?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Agonism at Somatostatin (
GHIH) r c ptors at th ant rior pituitary, th r by inhibiting GH synth sis and r
l as }}</div>
f Carcinoid Syndrom ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Agonism at Somatostatin r c pto
rs at th GI tract, th r by d cr asing S rotonin r l as }}</div>
1391718488295 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Octr otid in Pancr atic Ad n
omas, such as VIPoma and Gastrinoma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Agonism at Somat
ostatin r c ptors at th GI tract, th r by inhibiting GI s cr tions}}</div>
f Ruptur Esophag al Varic s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Constriction of splanch
nic, h patic and r nal blood v ss ls}}</div>
1391718574157 1358629116480 {{c1::Vit B12 D fici ncy}} is an adv rs ff ct
of Octr otid administration du to d cr as d r l as of intrinsic factor.
1391718607118 1358629116480 {{c1::P gvisomant}} is a GH r c ptor antagonist
us d in Acrom galy wh n Octr otid or oth r Somatostatin analogs ar unabl to c
ontrol th dis as .
1391718966104 1358629116480 What is th MOA of P gvisomant?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Antagonism at GH r c ptors}}</div> <br /><div><i>Not , that it do s
not aff ct GH r c ptors.</i></div>
1391718992186 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Cab rgolin ?<div><br /></div>

<div>{{c1::Agonism at D2 r c ptors}}</div>
1391719024067 1358629116480 {{c1::Cab rgolin }} is a <b>long-acting</b>&nbsp
; rgotamin dopamin agonist us d in Hyp rprolactin mia, Parkinsonism and Acrom
galy.
1391719060340 1358629116480 {{c1::Bromocriptin }} is an rgotamin dopamin
agonist that is pr f rr d in wom n who ar looking to g t pr gnant or ar having
unprot ct d s x.
<br /><div><i>Bromocriptin has l ss t ratog nicity than
cab rgolin .</i></div>
1391719110594 1358629116480 Which r c ptor is involv d with Vasopr ssin/D sm
opr ssin m diat d vasoconstriction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V1 r c ptors at a
rt riolar smooth muscl }}</div>
1391719451015 1358629116480 Which signalling cascad is involv d with V1-r c
ptor m diat s vasoconstriction?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::IP3/DAG and incr as
d [Ca]}}</div>
1391719473423 1358629116480 Which r c ptor is involv d with Vasopr ssin/D sm
opr ssin m diat d incr as in wat r p rm ability & r absorption at th kidn
ys?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::V2}}</div>
1391719529550 1358629116480 What is th r sult of th activation of <b> xtra
r nal</b> V2 r c ptors by Vasopr ssin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::R l as o
f Factor VIIIc and vWF}}</div>
1391719579743 1358629116480 {{c1::D smopr ssin}} is a long-acting vasopr ssi
n analog that has much <b>w ak r</b> vasopr ssiv action.
1391719618674 1358629116480 {{c1::D smopr ssin}} is a vasopr ssin analog tha
t is much mor s l ctiv for {{c2::V2}} r c ptors <br /><div><i>3000:1 V2:
V1 s l ctivity and activity</i></div>
1391719653213 1358629116480 What is th drug of choic in N urog nic Diab t
s Insipidus?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D smopr ssin}}</div>
1391719671557 1358629116480 What is th MOA of D smopr ssin in H mophilia A
and von Will brand's Dis as ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Agonism at <b> xtrar na
l</b> V2 r c ptors, trigg ring th r l as of Factor VIIIc and vWF}}</div>
1391719707998 1358629116480 {{c1::Chloropramid }} is a 1st g n ration Sulfon
ylur a that is us d in th tr atm nt of N urog nic Diab t s Insipidus as it pot
ntiat s ADH action at V2 r c ptors.
1391719977154 1358629116480 {{c1::Amilorid }} is a K-sparing diur tic us d t
o tr at Lithium-induc d N phrog nic Diab t s Insipidus by pot ntiating ADH actio
n at V2 r c ptors.
<br /><div><i>Thiazid s may also b us d in CDI</i></div
>
1391720047615 1358629116480 {{c1::Conivaptan}} is a <b>non-s l ctiv </b>&nbs
p;Vasopr ssin antagonist us d to tr at SIADH.
1391720076696 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Conivaptan?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::<b>Non-s l ctiv </b> antagonism of V1 and V2 (vasopr ssin)}}</div
>
1391720099286 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Tolvaptan?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::<b>S l ctiv </b> antagonism of Vasopr ssin V2 r c ptors}}</div>
1391720125074 1358629116480 {{c1::Tolvaptan}} is a vasopr ssin antagonist th
at is giv n orally.
1391720138686 1358629116480 {{c1::Conivaptan}} is a vasopr ssin antagonist t
hat is giv n via SC, IM and IV.
1391720151994 1358629116480 {{c1::D m cocyclin }} is a t tracyclin antibiot
ic that is us d to tr at SIADH as it int rf r s with ADH activity at th distal
tubul .
1391720186664 1358629116480 {{c1::Oxytocin}} is a post rior pituitary hormon
that stimulat s ut rin contraction during parturition.
that trigg rs milk l tdown during th suckling r fl x arc.
that can caus antidiur sis and vasopr ssion wh n it is at high l v ls.
1391740201119 1358629116480 Which nzym catalyz s th oxidation of iodid ,
organification and coupling st ps in Thyroid hormon synth sis?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Thyroid P roxidas }}</div>

1391740288823 1358629116480 90% of thyroid hormon is r l as d as th {{c1::
T4}} form.
1391740324527 1358629116480 T4 is conv rt d p riph rally to T3 through d iod
ination by th nzym {{c1::5'-D iodinas }}.
1391740392075 1358629116480 R v rs T3 is mad by d iodination of th <b>inn
r ring</b> of T4 by th nzym {{c1::5-D iodinas }}.
1391740439137 1358629116480 {{c1::R v rs T3}} is an inactiv form of th th
yroid hormon T3 mad by d iodination of th inn r ring of T4.
1391740469811 1358629116480 {{c1::Myx d ma Coma}} is a m dical m rg ncy and
is an xtr m complication of s v r , long-standing hypothyroidism.
1391740535556 1358629116480 What is th tr atm nt for Myx d ma Coma?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::IV L vothyroxin or T3}}</div>
1391740602756 1358629116480 {{c1::Thyroid Storm (Thyrotoxic Crisis)}} is an
acut xac rbation of thyrotoxicosis that pr s nts as an acut lif -thr at ning
syndrom .
1391740893804 1358629116480 {{c1::L vothyroxin }} is a r combinant form of T
4 that s rv d as a thyroxin r plac m nt. It has agonist action at thyroid hormo
n r c ptors.
1391741012240 1358629116480 What is th drug of choic in Hypothyroidism?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::L vothyroxin }}</div>
1391741028999 1358629116480 Dos s of L vothroxin must b incr as d in pr gn
ant pati nts du to an incr as d in {{c1::Thyroid-Binding Globulin (TBG)}}
l v ls.
1391741125869 1358629116480 {{c1::Liothyronin }} is a r combinant form of T3
.
1391741147377 1358629116480 {{c1::Propylthiouracil}} is a thioamid that inh
ibits Thyroid P roxidas and 5'-D iodinas at p riph ral tissu .
1391741196490 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Propylthiouracil (PTU)?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Thyroid P roxidas ; Inhibition of 5'-D iodin
as at p riph ral tissu }}</div>
<br /><div><i>Inhibits T3 and T4 product
ion; Inhibits conv rsion of T4 to T3</i></div>
1391741249967 1358629116480 What is th black box warning of Propylthiouraci
l?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H patotoxicity}}</div>
1391741379354 1358629116480 {{c1::Propylthiouracil}} and {{c2::M thymaz
ol }} ar thioamid s us d in hyp rthyroidism that ar associat d with agranulocy
tosis.
1391741411065 1358629116480 {{c1::Propylthiouracil}} is a <b>short acting</b
> thioamid .
1391741429261 1358629116480 {{c1::M thimazol }} is a <b>long acting</b>&nbsp
;thioamid .
1391741442562 1358629116480 {{c1::M thimazol }} is a thioamid that inhibits
Thyroid P roxidas only.
1391741455103 1358629116480 What is th MOA of M thimazol ?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhibition of Thyroid P roxidas }}</div>
1391741468228 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Iodin -131?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Emission of b ta-particl s that induc n crosis in follicular c lls of
th thyroid}}</div>
1391741504928 1358629116480 {{c1::Hypothyroidism}} is a common adv rs ff c
t of Iodin -131 us and is tr at d with L vothyroxin .
1391741539079 1358629116480 {{c1::Potassium Iodid }} is an iodid salt that
inhibits Thyroid hormon r l as , organification and d cr as s th siz of th t
hyroid through th Wolff-Chaikoff Eff ct.
1391741600343 1358629116480 {{c1::Lugol's Solution}} is an iodid salt solut
ion that involv s Iodin and KI in a 1:2 mix.
1391741939819 1358629116480 What is th MOA of P rchlorat and Thiocyanat (
anion inhibitors) in th tr atm nt of hyp rthyroidism?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Comp tition with iodid for uptak into thyroid gland follicular c lls via th
Na-Iodid symport r}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th r by d cr asing intrathyroid su
pply of iodin for thyroid hormon synth sis</i></div>
1391742059172 1358629116480 {{c1::Aplastic Ana mia}} is a significant and s

v r sid ff ct of P rchlorat and Thiocyanat (anion inhibitors) in th tr atm
nt of hyp rthyroidism. <br /><div><i>Th y hav b n discontinu d for this r aso
n.</i></div>
1391742134342 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Ipodat and Iopanoic Acid in
th tr atm nt of Thyroid Storm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of p riph
ral conv rsion of T4 to T3; Inhibition of T3/T4 r l as }}</div> <br /><div><i>No
long r us d in USA</i></div>
1391742289412 1358629116480 What is th pr f rr d b ta-block r in th manag
m nt of Thyroid Storm?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Propranolol}}</div>
vasodilators us d to manag Thyroid Storm wh n b ta-block rs ar contraindicat
d through Ca chann l blockad .
1391742359592 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydrocortison }} is a glucocorticoid us d
in th manag m nt of thyroid storm as it prot cts against cardiovascular shock a
nd inhibits conv rsion of T4 to T3.
1391815351804 1358629116480 {{c1::Corticotropin-R l asing Hormon (CRH)}} is
a hormon from th hypothalamus that trigg rs th r l as of ACTH from th ant
rior pituitary.
1391815468551 1358629116480 Which typ of 11-B ta Hydroxyst roid D hydrog na
s (11-b-HSD) conv rts Pr dnison and cortison into th ir activ forms?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Typ 1}}</div>
1391815559866 1358629116480 Which typ of 11-B ta Hydroxyst roid D hydrog na
s (11-b-HSD) conv rts Pr dnisolon and into its inactiv form?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Typ 2}}</div>
1391815612289 1358629116480 {{c1::D xam thason }} and {{c2::B tam thaso
n }} ar 2 corticost roids that ar poor substrat s for 11-b-HSD 2 in f tal circ
ulation, th r by making th m good choic s for tr ating R spiratory Distr ss Synd
rom .
1391815683724 1358629116480 Glucocorticoids promot th synth sis of {{
c1::lipocortins}} that th n inhibit {{c2::Phospholipas A2}}, an nzym involv s
in prostaglandin and l ukotri n synth sis.
1391815735952 1358629116480 Glucocorticoids can caus {{c1::Diab t s M
llitus}} in at risk pati nts as th y nhanc glucon og n sis and r duc glucos
uptak .
1391815805358 1358629116480 Glucocorticoids can caus {{c1::ost oporosi
s}} by d cr asing Ca absorption from th GI tract through antagonism of Calcitri
ol. Th r sultant continuous PTH r l as caus s ost oporosis.
1391815884984 1358629116480 Glucocorticoids dir ctly inhibit {{c1::ost
oblasts}}, th r by incr asing bon r sorption and causing ost oporosis.
1391815921447 1358629116480 Corticost roids can caus {{c1::p ptic ulc
rs}} du to th incr as d production of gastric acid or suppr ssing th immun r
spons to <i>H licobact r pylori</i>.
1391815966524 1358629116480 Glucocorticoids incr as {{c1::lipog n sis}
}, th r by l ading to incr as d body fat cont nt and storag .
1391816003758 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Hydrocortison
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Short}}</div>
1391816106512 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Cortison ?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Short}}</div>
1391816111347 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Pr dnisolon ?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Int rm diat }}</div>
1391816120653 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Pr dnison ?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Int rm diat }}</div>
1391816126692 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of M thylpr dniso
lon ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Int rm diat }}</div>
1391816135549 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of Triamcinolon ?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Int rm diat }}</div>
1391816145638 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of B tam thason ?
<div><br />{{c1::Long}}</div>
1391816152277 1358629116480 What is th duration of action of D xam thason ?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Long}}</div>
1391816162724 1358629116480 Which corticost roids ar us d to tr at R spirat
ory Distr ss Syndrom ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::B tam thason or D xam thason
}}</div>
1391816207270 1358629116480 Which corticost roid is <b>pr f rr d</b> in
th tr atm nt of R spiratory Distr ss Syndrom ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::B ta
m thason ; du to d cr as d f tal conv rstion by 11-b-HSD 2 and d cr as d plasma
prot in binding}}</div>
1391816247748 1358629116480 {{c1::Fludrocortison }} is a min ralocorticoid u
s d to tr at min ralocorticoid d fici ncy or salt-wasting in CAH.
1391816286130 1358629116480 Which corticost roid is pr f rr d to tr at a Glu
cocorticoid d fici ncy (which v r typ )?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hydrocortiso
n }}</div>
1391816315466 1358629116480 {{c1::Pasir otid }} is a somatostatin analog us
d in Cushing's Dis as wh n pituitary surg ry is not possibl or is not curativ
.
1391816365889 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Pasir otid ?<div><br />{{c1::
Agonism at Somatostatin r c ptors SST 1-5, th r by inhibiting ACTH r l as }}</d
iv>
1391816395754 1358629116480 {{c1::K toconazol }} is an antifungal ag nt that
inhibits CYP450s involv d with st roid hormon synth sis. It is us d in Cushing
's Syndrom .
1391816433569 1358629116480 {{c1::M tyrapon }} is a drug us d in Cushing's S
yndrom as it inhibits 11-b ta-Hydroxylas , th r by inhibiting GC synth sis and
shifting st roids towards androg n synth sis.
1391816484174 1358629116480 {{c1::Mitotan }} is an adr nolytic that is us d
to tr at Adr nal Carcinoma.
1391816503531 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Mitotan in th tr atm nt of
Adr nal Carcinoma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Suppr ssion of th adr nal cort x}
}</div>
1391816522412 1358629116480 {{c1::Mif priston }} is a corticost roid antagon
ist that is us d in Cushing's Syndrom as it antagoniz s GCRs and Prog st ron r
c ptors.
1391816553198 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Mif priston in th tr atm nt
of Cushing's Syndrom ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antagonism of GCRs}}</div>
1391816569609 1358629116480 What is th DOC in Primary Hyp raldost ronism?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Spironolacton }}</div>
1391816584868 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Spironolacton in th tr atm
nt of Primary Hyp aldost ronism?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antagonism at Aldost
ron r c ptors}}</div>
1391816615813 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Epl r non ?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::S l ctiv antagonism of Aldost ron r c ptors}}</div>
1405143831417 1395802358422 {{c1::Pramlintid }} is an amylin analog us d to
tr at T1DM and T2DM by <b>d cr asing gastric mptying</b> and <b>d cr asing
glucagon</b>.
1382220770612 1358629116480 Which bl ding param t r do w us to monitor th
ff ct of H parin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PTT}}</div>
1382222174443 1358629116480 What is th normal primary function of Antithrom
bin III (ATIII)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<b>Irr v rsibl suicid inhibition</
b> of Factors II, IX, X, XI, and XII}}</div>
1382222995429 1358629116480 Which coagulation factors do s Low Mol cular W i
ght H parin (LMWH; Enoxaparin) inhibit?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Factors II an
d X}}</div>
1382223126244 1358629116480 What is th m chanism of action of H parin?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation of Antithrombin III}}</div>
1382230366821 1358629116480 {{c1::L pirudin}} is an anticoagulant that binds
to th activ sit of thrombin, th r by inhibiting it.
1382230393448 1358629116480 {{c1::L pirudin}} is th anticoagulant of choic
to tr at pati nts with H parin Induc d Thrombocytop nia (HIT).
1382230458372 1358629116480 {{c1::Drot gocin alpha}} is an anticoagulant tha
t is r combinant Prot in C.
1382230517743 1358629116480 What is th primary function of Prot in C and Pr
ot in S?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inactivation of Factors Va and VIIIa}}</div>
1382230647283 1358629116480 {{c1::Str ptokinas }} is a bact rial prot in tha
t compl x s with plasminog n, th r by activating it.
1382230759793 1358629116480 What is th primary action of Plasmin?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Dig stion of Fibrin}}</div>
1382230808877 1358629116480 What is th primary action of tissu Plasminog n
Activator (tPA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation of Plasminog n into Plas
min}}</div>
<br /><div><i>R m mb r, Plasmin dig sts Fibrin, th r by d gradin
g clots</i></div>
1382230996429 1358629116480 {{c1::Abciximab}} is a monoclonal antibody antip
lat l t drug that int rf r s with GpIIb/IIIa binding to fibrinog n and oth r lig
ands.
1382231030972 1358629116480 {{c1::D smopr ssin}} is a drug us d to tr at von
Will brand's Dis as by incr asing vWF r l as from W ib l-Palad bodi s.
1382231131156 1358629116480 {{c1::Protamin sulphat }} is a drug us d as an
antidot to H parin as it binds to and n utraliz s H parin.
1382304846016 1358629116480 {{c1::Azathioprin }} is an immunosuppr ssant tha
t is biotransform d to M rcaptopurin which th n inhibits PRPP Synth tas and PR
PP D aminas .
1382305005592 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Azathioprin ?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhibition of PRPP Synth tas and PRPP D aminas }}</div>
1382305074833 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Antithymocyt and Antilymphoc
yt Immunoglobulins?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Binding to and d struction of T
c lls via compl m nt activation}}</div>
1382305117683 1358629116480 {{c1::Muromonab-CD3}} is a monoclonal antibody a
gainst th CD3 compon nt of th T-c ll r c ptor.
1382305193990 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Muromonab-CD3?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Initiation of T-c ll apoptosis via ADCC by binding to CD3}}</div>
1382305228465 1358629116480 What drug is us d to pr v nt Erythroblastosis F
talis?<div><br />{{c1::Rho (D) Immunoglobulin}}</div>
1382305279281 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Cyclosporin ?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Calcin urin}}</div>
1382305456715 1358629116480 What prot in do s Cyclosporin bind to b for in
activating Calcin urin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cyclophilin-A}}</div>
1382305489089 1358629116480 What is a significant adv rs ff ct of Cyclospo
rin ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::N phrotoxicity}}</div>
1382305507536 1358629116480 {{c1::Cyclosporin }} and {{c2::Tacrolimus}} ar
immunosuppr ssants that ar th drugs of choic in organ transplants, GVHD and a
utoimmun disord rs.
1382305575645 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Tacrolimus?<div><br /></div><
div>{{c1::Inhibition of Calcin urin}}</div>
1382305591831 1358629116480 What prot in do s Tacrolimus bind to b for inhi
biting Calcin urin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::FK Binding Prot in (FKBP12)}}</di
v>
1382305629330 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Sirolimus (Rapamycin)?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of mTOR}}</div>
1382306690625 1358629116480 What prot in do s Sirolimus (Rapamycin) bind to
b for inhibiting mTOR?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::FK Binding Prot in (FKBP12)}}
</div>
1382306720854 1358629116480 {{c1::Mycoph nolat mof til}} is an immunosuppr
ssant that is transform d into mycoph nolic acid and inhibits {{c2::Inosin Mono
phosphat D hydrog nas }}.
<br /><div><i>Th r by, sp cifically inhibiting B
and T c ll prolif ration.</i></div>
1382306815712 1358629116480 {{c1::Daclizumab}} is a monoclonal antibody that
targ ts CD25 on activat d T c lls and blocks IL-2 r c ptors.
1382307218851 1358629116480 {{c1::Infliximab}} is a monoclonal antibody that
targ ts TNF-alpha, th r by pr v nting th inflammatory r spons .
1382307260328 1358629116480 {{c1::Infliximab}} is a monoclonal antibody us d
to to tr at Rh umatoid Arthritis and Crohn's Dis as by binding to TNFa.

1382307284273 1358629116480 {{c1::Etan rc pt}} is an immunosuppr ssant that
functions as a solubl TNF-a R c ptor, th r by inhibiting th proinflammatory r
spons .
1382307442922 1358629116480 {{c1::Int rf ron-alpha}} is an immunostimulant t
hat activat s MHC Class I mol cul s.
1382307485835 1358629116480 {{c1::Int rf ron-alpha}} is an immunostimulant u
s d to tr at viral inf ctions, sp cially HBV and HCV.
1382307534965 1358629116480 {{c1::Int rf ron-b ta}} is an immunostimulant us
d to tr at Multipl Scl rosis.
1382307551633 1358629116480 {{c1::Int rf ron-gamma}} is an immunostimulant t
hat promot s th cytotoxic T-c ll r spons .
1382307575045 1358629116480 {{c1::Int rf ron-gamma}} is an immunostimulant u
s d to tr at Chronic Granulomatous Dis as .
1382307596996 1358629116480 {{c1::Filgrastim}} is an immunostimulant that st
imulat s th production of N utrophils. <br><div><i>It is a Granulocyt -CSF.</i>
</div>
1382307681148 1358629116480 {{c1::Sargramostim}} is an immunostimulant that
stimulat s th production of granulocyt s and macrophag s.
<br /><div><i>It
is a GM-CSF.</i></div>
1382307711627 1358629116480 {{c1::Thrombopoi tin}} is an immunostimulant tha
t stimulat s th production of m gakaryocyt s.
1382307781736 1358629116480 {{c1::Imiquimod}} is an immunostimulant giv n to
pically to tr at HPV g nital warts.
1382634840552 1358629116480 {{c1::Cytarabin }} is an antim tabolit canc r c
h moth rapy that blocks DNA strand longation in AML.
1382635055944 1358629116480 Daunorubicin is us d in th Tx of {{c1::L u
k mia}}
1382635071550 1358629116480 {{c1::Topot can}} is a uniqu canc r ch moth rap
y that inhibits {{c2::Topoisom ras -1}}. Th r by pr v nting r -ligation of
bits of DNA h lic s.
<br /><div><i>It caus s th accumulation of singl stran
d d DNA br aks</i></div>
1382636901813 1358629116480 What typ of canc r ch moth rapy is Fulv strant?
<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Anti- strog n}}</div>
1382636931478 1358629116480 {{c1::Anastrozol }} is an Aromatas inhibitor, t
h r by pr v nting strog n formation in strog n-d p nd nt canc rs.
1382636967565 1358629116480 {{c1::Flutamid }} is an androg n antagonist us d
to tr at {{c2::prostat }} canc r.
1382636991422 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Flutamid ?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Inhibits th translocation of st roid r c ptors to th nucl us}}</div>
1382637007296 1358629116480 {{c1::L uprolid }} is a GnRH agonist that shuts
down th HPG axis to tr at {{c2::prostat }} canc r.
<br /><div><i>In
doing so, it inhibits th r l as of LH and FSH</i></div>
1382637048605 1358629116480 {{c1::Rituximab}} is a monoclonal anti-CD20 anti
body us d to tr at Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma.
1382637198689 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Rituximab in th Tx of Non-Ho
dgkin's Lymphoma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Binding to CD20+ follicular B c lls
, causing d struction}}</div>
1382637238585 1358629116480 {{c1::Hydroxyur a}} is a canc r ch moth rapy dru
g that inhibits {{c2::Ribonucl otid R ductas }}.
1382640434654 1358629116480 {{c1::Imatinib m sylat }} is a canc r ch moth ra
py that targ ts th {{c2::BCR-ABL Tyrosin Kinas }} in CML.
1382640494287 1358629116480 All Vinca Alkaloids and Taxols ar {{c1::M}
}-phas sp cific canc r ch moth rap utics.
1382646157579 1358629116480 {{c1::Ald sl ukin}} is an immunostimulant that i
s r combinant IL-2. It promot s lymphoid diff r ntiation into cytotoxic c lls an
d activat s NK c lls.
1382650427627 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Ald sl ukin?<div><br />{{c1::
Promot s diff r ntiation of lymphoid c lls into cytotoxic c lls; Activation of N
K c lls}}</div> <br /><div><i>It is r combinant IL-2</i></div>
1382816783232 1358629116480 What is th combination canc r ch moth rapy 'CMF

' us d to tr at?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Br ast Canc r}}</div>
1382816860648 1358629116480 What is th combination canc r ch moth rapy 'FOL
FOX' us d to tr at?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Color ctal Canc r}}</div>
1382816876708 1358629116480 What is th combination canc r ch moth rapy 'CP'
us d to tr at?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Ovarian Canc r}}</div> <br><i>I want to
b n ar CP's ovari s.</i>
1382816893121 1358629116480 What is th combination canc r ch moth rapy 'PVB
' us d to tr at?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T sticular Canc r}}</div>
1382816921883 1358629116480 What is th combination canc r ch moth rapy 'CHO
P' us d to tr at?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma}}</div>
1382816942954 1358629116480 What is th combination canc r ch moth rapy 'MOP
P' us d to tr at?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hodgkin's Lymphoma}}</div>
1382816972227 1358629116480 What is th combination canc r ch moth rapy "ABV
D" us d to tr at?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hodgkin's Lymphoma}}</div>
1382816990337 1358629116480 What is th combination canc r ch moth rapy 'BEP
' us d to tr at?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::T sticular Canc r}}</div>
1382817045956 1358629116480 What phas of th c ll cycl do anti-m tabolit
ch moth rapi s hav an ff ct on canc r?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::S-Phas }}</div
>
1382817131253 1358629116480 What phas of th c ll cycl do s Hydroxyur a f
f ct canc r?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::S-Phas }}</div>
1382817171515 1358629116480 {{c1::P-Glycoprot in (Pgp)}} is a drug transport
r glycoprot in that off rs canc r c lls multi-drug r sistanc . <br /><div><i>It
is cod d by th <b>mdr</b> g n </i></div>
1382822655942 1358629116480 What typ of canc r ch moth rapy is M thotr xat
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-m tabolit }}</div>
1382835261086 1358629116480 What typ of canc r ch moth rapy is 5-Fluorourac
il?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-m tabolit }}</div>
1382835291656 1358629116480 What typ of canc r ch moth rapy is Cytarabin ?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-m tabolit }}</div>
1382835303875 1358629116480 What typ of canc r ch moth rapy is M rcaptopuri
n ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Anti-m tabolit }}</div>
1382836079369 1358629116480 B sid s my losuppr ssion, what is a s rious adv
rs ff ct of M thotr xat ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::N phrotoxicity}}</div>
1382836169519 1358629116480 What is th MOA of 5-Fluorouracil?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Thymidylat Synthas }}</div>
1382836218205 1358629116480 What is th antidot for 5-Fluorouracil?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Thymidin }}</div>
1382836234832 1358629116480 What is th MOA of M rcaptopurin ?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Inhibition of PRPP-Synth tas and PRPP-Amidotransf ras }}</div>
rs ff ct of M rcaptopurin ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H patotoxic-Chol stasis
}}</div>
1382836785755 1358629116480 What typ of canc r ch moth rapy is Cyclophospha
mid ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::CCNS Alkylating ag nt}}</div>
rs ff ct of Cyclophosphamid ?<div><br />{{c1::H morrhagic cystitis and h matur
ia}}</div>
1382836959937 1358629116480 {{c1::M sna}} is an antidot for Cyclophosphamid
tr atm nt. It conjugat s {{c2::Acrol in}}, a toxic m tabolit , in th uri
n to r duc h morrhagic cystitis and h maturia.
1382837154414 1358629116480 What ar th adv rs ff cts associat d with Bus
ulfan?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary Fibrosis}}</div>
1382837311725 1358629116480 What ar th s rious adv rs ff ct of Cisplatin
tr atm nt?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::N phrotoxicity and Ototoxicity}}</div>
1382837402736 1358629116480 {{c1::Ondans tron}} is an antidot for Cisplatin
that acts as a pow rful anti m tic.
1382837467329 1358629116480 What typ of canc r ch moth rapy is Daunorubicin
?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::Cytotoxic antibiotic}}</div>
1382837483821 1358629116480 What typ of canc r ch moth rapy is Dactinomycin

?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytotoxic antibiotic}}</div>
1382837497625 1358629116480 What typ of canc r ch moth rapy is Bl omycin?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cytotoxic antibiotic}}</div>
1382837584918 1358629116480 B sid s my losuppr ssion, what is th s rious ad
v rs ff ct of Dauno<b>rub</b>icin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cardiotoxicity}}
</div> <br /><div><i>'rub' = ruby = r d = h art</i></div>
1382837884426 1358629116480 {{c1::Bl omycin}} is a <b>bon -marrow sparing</b
> cytotoxic antibiotic us d in canc r ch moth rapy.
1382837928842 1358629116480 What is a s rious adv rs ff ct of Bl omycin tr
atm nt?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary Fibrosis/Toxicity}}</div>
1382839262638 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Vinca Alkaloids in Canc r Ch
moth rapy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Binding to Tubulin and inhibiting MT polym
rization}}</div>
1382839288568 1358629116480 What is a s rious adv rs ff ct of Vincristin ?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::N urotoxicity}}</div>
1382839305101 1358629116480 {{c1::Vinblastin }} is a vinca alkaloid that is
<b>my lotoxic</b>.
<br /><div><i>Vin<u styl ="font-w ight: bold; ">b</u>las
tin = <u styl ="font-w ight: bold; ">B</u>on </i></div>
1382839372026 1358629116480 What is MOA of Etoposid ?<div><br /></div><div>{
{c1::Caus s doubl strand d DNA br aks through DNA Topoisom ras }}</div>
1382839483224 1358629116480 What ar th adv rs ff cts of Paclitax l th ra
py?<br /><br /><div>{{c1::N urotoxicity (P riph ral N uropathy, Muscl Pain)}}</
div>
1382839576721 1358629116480 {{c1::Tomoxif n}} is an anti- strog n canc r ch
moth rapy that blocks th binding of Estrog n to Estrog n R c ptors.
<br><div
><i>Us ful in Estrog n R c ptor positiv br ast carcinoma</i></div>
1382839811135 1358629116480 {{c1::Finast rid }} is an anti-androg n canc r c
h moth rapy that is us d to tr at prostat canc r by inhibiting th nzym
{{c2::5-Alpha R ductas }}
1382839863743 1358629116480 {{c1::Trastuzumab (H rc ptin)}} is a monoclonal
Ab us d to tr at br ast canc r.
1382839906683 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Trastuzumab (H rc ptin)?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::HER-2 R c ptor binding, pr v nting tumour growth}}</div>
1382839947740 1358629116480 What is th MOA of Asparaginas in Canc r Ch mot
h rapy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hydrolyz s Asn to d priv canc r c lls of th
AA}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Causing d ath by apoptosis</i></div>
1382840605501 1358629116480 What is a s rious adv rs ff ct of Asparaginas
in canc r ch moth rapy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acut Pancr atitis}}</div>
1386368459290 1358629116480 What is th most common sid ff ct of Sirolimus
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyp rlipid mia}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Hyp rtrigl
y rid mia and hyp rchol st rol mia.</i></div>
1386378054856 1358629116480 {{c1::Sirolimus}} is an immunosuppr sant that bi
nds to mTOR and xhibits <b>minimal n phrotoxicity and n urotoxicity</b>.
1397226740584 1395802358422 What is th most common adv rs ff ct of H pari
n?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bl ding}}</div>
1397226792260 1395802358422 What is th antidot to H parin?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Protamin Sulfat }}</div> <br /><div><i>A positiv ly charg d moc t
hat binds to n gativ ly charg d H parin.</i></div>
1397226819319 1395802358422 {{c1::H parin Induc d Thrombocytop nia (HIT)}} i
s a possibl adv rs ff ct of H parin administration that involv s th d v lopm
nt of <b>IgG antibodi s against H parin bound to Plat l t Factor 4 (PF4)</b>.
<br /><div><i>Th antibody-h parin-PF4 compl x activat s plat l ts and caus s th
rombosis and subs qu nt thrombocytop nia.</i></div>
1397226981815 1395802358422 What do th IgG antibodi s in H parin-induc d Th
rombocytop nia (HIT) targ t?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::H parin bound to plat l
t factor 4 (PF4)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Th n, th antibody-h parin-pf4 com
pl x activat d plat l ts and thrombosis occurs.</i></div>
1397227212885 1395802358422 Which coagulation factor is primarily targ t d b
y Enoxaparin and Dalt parin (LMWH)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Factor Xa}}</div>
1397227302325 1395802358422 What is th ROA of Low Mol cular W ight H parin

(LMWH)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::SC}}</div>
1397229900324 1395802358422 Which coagulation t st is us d to gaug th acti
on of Warfarin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::PT (and INR)}}</div> <br /><div><i>Wa
rfarin has a gr at r ff ct on th xtrinsic pathway (Factor VII)</i></div>
1397230252842 1395802358422 Which anticoagulant is us d for <b>chronic</b>&n
bsp;anticoagulation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Warfarin}}</div>
1397230448209 1395802358422 What is th pr gnancy cat gory of Warfarin?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::X (contraindicat d)}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Can fr ly
cross th plac nta and is t ratog nic</i></div>
1397230674625 1395802358422 What is th most common adv rs ff ct with Warf
arin us ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bl ding}}</div>
1397231024355 1395802358422 What is th ROA of H parin?<div><br /></div><div
>{{c1::Par nt ral (IV; SC)}}</div>
1397231442011 1395802358422 What is th ROA of Warfarin?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Oral}}</div>
1397231448970 1395802358422 Wh r in th body do s H parin act?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Th blood (via Antithrombin)}}</div>
1397231493931 1395802358422 What is th ons t of action of H parin?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Rapid; within s conds}}</div>
1397231908825 1395802358422 What is th tr atm nt for H parin ov rdos ?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Protamin sulfat }}</div>
1397232149399 1395802358422 What <b>typ </b> of anticoagulant is R t pl
as (rPA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thrombolytic; tissu plasminog n activator
}}</div>
1397232164096 1395802358422 What <b>typ </b> of anticoagulant is t n ct
plas (TNK-tPA)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Thrombolytic; tissu plasminog n ac
tivator}}</div>
1397232264162 1395802358422 What is th MOA of R t plas (rPA)?<div><br /></
div><div>{{c1::Activation/conv rsion of Plasminog n to Plasmin, which th n cl av
s thrombin and fibrin clots}}</div>
1397232281266 1395802358422 What is th MOA of T n ct plas (TNK-tPA)?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Activation/conv rsion of Plasminog n to Plasmin, which th
n cl av s thrombin and fibrin clots}}</div>
1397232290909 1395802358422 How do s PT chang following th administration
of Thrombolytics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as }}</div>
1397232306668 1395802358422 How do s PTT chang following th administration
of Thrombolytics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as }}</div>
1397232319390 1395802358422 How do s plat l t count chang aft r th adminis
tration of Thrombolytics?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No chang }}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>It's logical to think (at l ast for m ) that if you'r br aking down mor
clots that th n mor plat l ts would b us d, but don't fall into that trap.</i>
</div>
1397232405438 1395802358422 Which typ of anticoagulants ar us d in <b> arl
y </b>MI and <b> arly </b><u>isch mic</u> strok ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Thrombolytics}}</div> <br /><div><i>Also us d in th dir ct thrombolysis of s
v r PE.</i></div>
1397232451948 1395802358422 What is th major adv rs ff ct of Thrombolytic
s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Bl ding}}</div>
1397232649422 1395802358422 {{c1::Aspirin}} is an antiplat l t drug that fun
ctions as an anticoagulant by irr v rsibly inhibiting Cyclooxyg nas (both COX1
and COX2) by coval nt ac tylation.
<br /><div><i>Plat l ts do not r -synth
siz n w nzym , h nc th ff ct will last until n w plat l ts ar mad .</i></d
iv>
1397238275210 1395802358422 {{c1::Thromboxan A2}} is a pro-coagulant compou
nd mad by Cyclooxyg nas that stimulat s plat l t aggr gation. <br /><div><i>As
pirin <b>d cr as s</b> TXA<sub>2</sub> l v ls.</i></div>
1397238400351 1395802358422 How do s PT chang in aft r Aspirin administrati
on?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::No chang }}</div>
<br /><div><i>Aspirin in
hibits <b>plat l t aggr gation</b>. PT m asur s coagulation!!</i></div>
1397238478477 1395802358422 {{c1::Aspirin}} is an anti-plat l t drug that is

also us d as an anti-pyr tic, analg sic and anti-inflammatory.
1397238516497 1395802358422 {{c1::Gastric Ulc ration}} is a GI complication
of Aspirin administration du to COX inhibition at th stomach.
1397238739240 1395802358422 {{c1::Tinnitus}} is a n urological complication
of Aspirin du to activation of CN VIII.
<br /><div><i>Salicylat induc s
tinnitus through activation of cochl ar NMDA r c ptors.</i></div>
1397238888269 1395802358422 {{c1::Acut R nal Failur }} and {{c2::Int r
stitial N phritis}} ar possibl r nal complications of chronic Aspirin us .
1397238922792 1395802358422 {{c1::R y Syndrom }} is a pot ntial, s rious co
mplication of Aspirin us in childr n with viral inf ctions.
1397239166107 1395802358422 What typ of antiplat l t/anticoagulant is Ticlo
pidin ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ADP R c ptor inhibitor}}</div>
1397239193191 1395802358422 What typ of antiplat l t/anticoagulant is Prasu
gr l?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ADP r c ptor inhibitor}}</div>
1397239207570 1395802358422 What typ of antiplat l t/anticoagulant is Ticag
r lor?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::ADP R c ptor inhibitor}}</div>
1397239464098 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Ticlopidin ?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhibition of plat l t aggr gation by irr v rsibly blocking ADP r c p
tors; Inhibits fibrinog n binding by pr v nting GpIIb/IIIa from binding to fibri
nog n}}</div> <br /><div><img src="past -8078833484346.jpg" /></div>
1397241697106 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Plat l t ADP R c ptor Inhibit
ors (Clopidogr l; Ticlopidin ; Prasugr l; Ticagr lor)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1
::Inhibition of plat l t aggr gation by irr v sibl blocking of ADP r c ptors; I
nhibitiong of Fibrinog n binding by pr v nting GpIIb/IIIa from binding to fibrin
og n}}</div>
1397241701649 1395802358422 Which typ of anticoagulants ar pr f rr d to b
us d in Acut Coronary SYndrom and Coronary St nting?<div><br /></div><div>{{c
1::ADP R c ptor Inhibitors such as Clopidogr l and Ticlopidin }}</div>
1397241735026 1395802358422 What is a s rious adv rs ff ct associat d with
Ticlopidin (Plat l t ADP R c ptor Inhibitor)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::N utr
op nia}}</div>
1397241765675 1395802358422 Which plat l t disord r may b s n with ADP R c
ptor Inhibitor administration?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::TTP/HUS}}</div>
1397247051047 1395802358422 What is th MOA of th anti-plat l t Cilostazol?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of phosphodi st ras III, th r by incr as
ing [cAMP] in plat l ts and inhibiting plat l t aggr gation}}</div>
1397247754500 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Abciximab?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Binding to GpIIb/IIIa on activat d plat l ts, th r by pr v nting plat l
t aggr gation}}</div> <br /><div><img src="past -10977936409230.jpg" /></div>
1397247855189 1395802358422 {{c1::Abciximab}} is a monoclonal antibody that
function as an anticoagulant as it binds to and blocks GpIIb/IIIa on activat d p
lat l ts.
1397247923785 1395802358422 What typ of anticoagulant is Abciximab?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Antiplat l t; GpIIb/IIIa inhibitor}}</div>
1397247949221 1395802358422 What typ of anticoagulant is Eptifibatid ?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Antiplat l t; GpIIb/IIIa inhibitor}}</div>
1397247992086 1395802358422 Which typ of antiplat l t drugs ar us d in P r
cutan ous Transluminal Coronary Angioplasty?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GpIIb/II
Ia inhibitors}}</div>
1397248068188 1395802358422 What stag of plat l t plug formation is inhibit
d by GpIIb/IIIa inhibitors?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Plat l t aggr gation}}</
div>
1397248700774 1395802358422 Which stag of th c ll cycl do s Bl omycin inh
ibit?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G2}}</div>
368821794.jpg" /></div>
1397248740481 1395802358422 Which stag of th c ll cycl do Antim tabolit s
inhibit?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::S}}</div> <br /><div><img src="past -11974
368821794.jpg" /></div>
1397249086794 1395802358422 Which stag of th c ll cycl do Alkylating ag n
ts inhibit?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G1}}</div>
1397249150344 1395802358422 Which stag of th c ll cycl do Antitumour Anti
biotics inhibit?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::G1}}</div>
1397249213709 1395802358422 {{c1::Antim tabolit s}} ar a <b>typ </b> o
f Antin oplastic drugs that inhibits nucl otid synth sis.
<br /><div><img
src="past -12949326397737.jpg" /></div>
1397251817430 1395802358422 {{c1::Alkylating Ag nts}} ar a <b>typ </b>&nbsp
;of antin oplastic drugs that damag DNA and inhibit c ll prolif ration by <b>cr
oss-linking DNA</b>.
1397251940165 1395802358422 {{c1::Vinca Alkaloids}} ar a <b>typ </b> o
f antin oplastic drugs that inhibit c llular division by inhibiting <b>microtubu
l </b><u styl ="font-w ight: bold; ">formation</u>.
t -12945031430441.jpg" /></div>
1397252015309 1395802358422 {{c1::Taxols}} ar a <b>typ </b> of antin o
plastic drugs that inhibit c llular division by inhibiting <b>microtubul </b><u
styl ="font-w ight: bold; ">disass mbly</u>. <br /><div><img src="past -12945
031430441.jpg" /></div>
1397252691602 1395802358422 What is th MOA of M throtr xat (MTX)?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of Dihydrofolat R ductas (as a Folic Acid analog
)}}</div>
1397252801575 1395802358422 {{c1::M thotr xat (MTX)}} is an antim tabolit
antin oplastic that is us d in abortion and ctopic pr gnancy.
1397252833275 1395802358422 {{c1::M thotr xat (MTX)}} is an antim tabolit
antin oplastic that is us d in Rh umatoid Arthritis, Psoriasis and IBD.
1397252865897 1395802358422 What is th major toxicity of M thotr xat (MTX)
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::My losuppr ssion}}</div>
1397252928057 1395802358422 {{c1::L ucovorin (Folinic Acid)}} is an antidot
/r scu drug that is us d to r v rs th my losuppr ssion s n in M thotr xat (
MTX) us .
1397252958096 1395802358422 Which drug is us d to r v rs th my losuppr ssi
on s n in M thotr xat (MTX) us ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::L ucovorin (Folini
c Acid)}}</div>
1397252999228 1395802358422 {{c1::Choriocarcinoma}} is a g rm c ll tumour th
at can b tr at d with M thotr xat (MTX).
1397253135640 1395802358422 What is th toxicity of M thotr xat (MTX) at th
liv r?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Macrov sicular fatty chang }}</div>
1397253160670 1395802358422 What is th pr gnancy cat gory of M thotr xat (
MTX)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::X; it is t ratog nic and contraindicat d}}</div
>
1397253184826 1395802358422 What is th toxicity of M thotr xat (MTX) at mu
cous m mbran s?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Mucositis}}</div>
<br /><div><i>Ty
pically occurs at th oral mucosa and GI tract.</i></div>
1397253477704 1395802358422 {{c1::5-Fluorouracil}} is an antim tabolit anti
n oplastic that acts as a pyrimidin analog and is bioactivat d into 5F-dUMP whi
ch compl x s with Folic Acid and inhibits <b>thymidylat synthas </b>.
1397258876210 1395802358422 What typ of antin oplastic is M thotr xat (MTX
)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antim tabolit }}</div>
1397259231830 1395802358422 What typ of antin oplastic is 5-Fluorouracil (5
FU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antim tabolit }}</div>
1397259315746 1395802358422 {{c1::Basal C ll Carcinoma}} is a skin canc r th
at can b tr at d with 5-Fluorouracil (5FU).
1397259332699 1395802358422 What is th ROA of 5-Fluorouracil in th tr atm
nt of Basal C ll Carcinoma?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Topical}}</div>
1397259356097 1395802358422 What is th primary toxicity of 5-Fluorouracil (
5FU)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::My losuppr ssion}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b
>Cannot </b>b r v rs d with L ucovorin (Folinic Acid)</i></div>
1397259437077 1395802358422 What drug is us d as an antidot for 5-Fluoroura
cil ov rdos ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Uridin }}</div>
1397259468090 1395802358422 {{c1::Uridin }} is a drug that can b us d as an
antidot to tr at 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) ov rdos .
1397259503084 1395802358422 {{c1::Photos nsitivity}} is a n urological compl

ication of 5-Fluorouracil that involv s an incr as d s nsitivity to light.
1397259526801 1395802358422 What is th n urological complication of 5-Fluor
ouracil?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Photos nsitivity}}</div>
1397259564920 1395802358422 {{c1::Cytarabin }} is an antim tabolit antin op
lastic that acts as a pyrimidin analog and inhibits DNA Polym ras .
1397259995584 1395802358422 Cytarabin is a pyrimidin analog antim tabolit
antin oplastic. What nzym do s it inhibit?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::DNA Pol
ym ras }}</div>
1397260040926 1395802358422 What is th primary toxicity of Cytarabin ?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Pancytop nia}}</div>
<br /><div><i><b>CYT</b>arabin
caus s pan<b>CYT</b>op nia.</i></div>
1397260144994 1395802358422 {{c1::Azathioprin }} and {{c2::6-M rcaptopu
rin }} ar purin analog antim tabolit antin oplastics that d cr as d novo pu
rin synth sis.
1397260268342 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Azathioprin ?<div><br /></div
><div>{{c1::Inhibition of d novo purin synth sis}}</div>
1397260302797 1395802358422 What is th MOA of 6-Thioguanin (6-TG)?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of d novo purin synth sis}}</div>
1397260321228 1395802358422 Which nzym activat s th purin analog antim t
abolit antin oplastics (such as Azathioprin , 6-M rcaptopurin and 6-Thioguanin
)?<div><br></div><div>{{c1::HGPRT}}</div>
1397260398889 1395802358422 {{c1::Azathioprin }} is a purin analog antim ta
bolit that is th prodrug form of 6-M rcaptopurin .
1397260514715 1395802358422 Which purin analog antim tabolit is th prodru
g form of 6-M rcaptopurin ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Azathioprin }}</div>
1397260531558 1395802358422 Which antim tabolit antin oplastics ar us d as
immunosuppr ssants in organ r j ction, Rh umatoid Arthritis and SLE?<div><br />
{{c1::Purin analogs (Azathioprin ; 6-M rcaptopurin ; 6-Thioguanin )}}</div>
1397260585122 1395802358422 Which purin analog antim tabolit is us d to tr
at SLE?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Azathioprin }}</div>
1397260606162 1395802358422 What is th primary toxicity of Azathioprin and
6-M rcaptopurin ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::My losuppr ssion and bon marrow t
oxicity}}</div>
1397261065760 1395802358422 How do s th drug Allopurinol aff ct Azathioprin
and 6-M rcaptopurin toxicity?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Incr as d; Allopurin
ol inhibits Xanthin Oxidas which m taboliz s both Azathioprin and 6-M rcaptop
urin }}</div>
1397261255815 1395802358422 Which phas of th c ll cycl do Antim tabolit
antin oplastics act in?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::S-phas }}</div>
1397261596392 1395802358422 {{c1::Dactinomycin (Actinomycin D)}} is an antit
umour antibiotic that acts through int rcalating into DNA.
1397261936434 1395802358422 What is th major toxicity of Daunorubicin?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Cardiotoxicity (Dilat d Cardiomyopathy)}}</div> <br /><d
iv><i>Doxo<b>RUB</b>icin; rub = r d = h art</i></div>
1397261951093 1395802358422 What cutan ous complication is associat d with D
oxorubicin and Daunorubicin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Alop cia}}</div>
1397262023586 1395802358422 {{c1::D xrazoxan }} is an iron ch lating ag nt t
hat is us d to pr v nt th cardiotoxicity s n in Doxorubicin and Daunorubicin u
s .
1397262046055 1395802358422 Which drug is us d to pr v nt th cardiotoxicity
associat d with Doxorubicin and Daunorubicin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::D xraz
oxan ; an iron ch lator}}</div>
1397262289432 1395802358422 {{c1::Bl omycin}} is an antitumour antibiotic th
at functions by <u>only</u> inducing fr radical formation that th n caus
br aks in DNA strands.
at is us d to tr at t sticular canc r and Hodgkin lymphoma.
1397262337906 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Bl omycin?<div><br /></div><d
iv>{{c1::Induction of fr radical formation; fr radicals th n caus br aks in
DNA strands}}</div>
1397262359216 1395802358422 What typ of antin oplastic is Dactinomycin?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antitumour antibiotic}}</div>
1397262382820 1395802358422 What typ of antin oplastic is Daunorubicin?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Antitumour antibiotic}}</div>
1397262390625 1395802358422 What typ of antin oplastic is Bl omycin?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::Antitumour antibiotic}}</div>
1397262398330 1395802358422 What is th primary toxicity of Bl omycin?<div><
br /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary fibrosis}}</div>
at involv s minimal my losuppr ssion.
1397262783452 1395802358422 What typ of antin oplastic is Busulfan?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Alkylating ag nt}}</div>
1397262796369 1395802358422 What is th only <b>r v rsibl </b> Platl t
ADP r c ptor inhibitor?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ticagr lor}}</div>
1397263103342 1395802358422 {{c1::M sna}} is a thiol drug that is us d to pa
rtially pr v nt th H morrhagic Cystitis caus d by Cyclophosphamid and Ifosfami
d by binding to toxic m tabolit s.
1397263141753 1395802358422 What drug is us d to partially pr v nt th H mor
rhagic Cystitis caus d by Cyclophosphamid and Ifosfamid ?<div><br /></div><div>
{{c1::M sna; a thiol drug that binds to toxic m tabolit s}}</div>
1397263975407 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Nitrosour a antin oplastics?<
div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cross-linking of DNA, th r by causing DNA damag }}</d
iv>
1397264026308 1395802358422 What typ of alkylating antin oplastic ag nt is
Lomustin ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nitrosour a}}</div>
S mustin ?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nitrosour a}}</div>
Str ptozocin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Nitrosour a}}</div>
1397264123070 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Busulfan?<div><br /></div><di
v>{{c1::Cross-links DNA}}</div>
1397264224128 1395802358422 What is th clinical us of Busulfan?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::CML; ablation of pati nt's bon marrow b for bon marrow trans
plant}}</div>
1397264259109 1395802358422 {{c1::Busulfan}} is an alkylating antin oplastic
ag nt us d to tr at CML.
1397264272133 1395802358422 {{c1::Busulfan}} is an alkylating antin oplastic
ag nt that is us d to ablat a pati nt's bon marrow b for bon marrow transpl
antation.
1397264293644 1395802358422 What is th primary toxicity of Busulfan?<div><b
r /></div><div>{{c1::<b>S v r </b> my losuppr ssion in almost all cas s}}</
div>
<br /><div><i>H nc th clinical us of this drug to ablat a pati nt's
bon marrow prior to bon marrow transplantation</i></div>
1397264354869 1395802358422 What is th toxicity of Busulfan at th lungs?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pulmonary Fibrosis}}</div>
1397264379516 1395802358422 What is th toxicity of Busulfan at th skin?<di
v><br /></div><div>{{c1::Hyp rpigm ntation}}</div>
1397264397671 1395802358422 What typ of antin oplastic drug is Vincristin ?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vinca Alkaloid; Microtubul inhibitor}}</div>
1397264651924 1395802358422 What is th primary toxicity of Vincristin ?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::N urotoxicity (ar fl xia, p riph ral n uritis); and also
paralytic il us}}</div>
1397265007699 1395802358422 {{c1::Paclitax l}} is a microtubul inhibiting a
ntin oplastic drug that hyp rstabiliz s <b>polym riz d microtubul s</b> in
th M phas , th r by <b>inhibiting th br akdown of th mitotic spindl </b>.
<br /><div><i>i. . anaphas cannot occur</i></div>
1397265133414 1395802358422 Which microtubul inhibiting antin oplastic drug
s inhibiting th <b>polym rization</b> of microtubul s and h nc mitotic sp
indl formation?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Vinca Alkaloids (Vincristin ; Vinbla
stin )}}</div>
1397265543108 1395802358422 What is th MOA of th antin oplastic Carboplati
n?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cross-linking of DNA}}</div>
1397265559077 1395802358422 What is th toxicity of Cisplatin and Carboplati
n at th CNS?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Acoustic N rv Damag (CNVIII)}}</div>
1397265684731 1395802358422 What ar th toxiciti s associat d with Cisplati
n and Carboplatin?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::N phrotoxicity; Acoustic N rv Dam
ag }}</div>
1397265739968 1395802358422 {{c1::Amifostin }} is a fr radical scav nging
drug that can pr v nt th n phrotoxicity associat d with Cisplatin and Carboplat
in.
1397265776525 1395802358422 {{c1::Chlorid Diur sis}} is a r nal proc dur t
hat can b p rform d to pr v nt th n phrotoxicity caus d by Cisplatin and Carbo
platin.
1397266201743 1395802358422 What is th MOA of th antin oplastic Irinot can
?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of <b>Topoisom ras I</b>, th r by pr v
nting DNA unwinding and r plication}}</div>
1397266567111 1395802358422 What is th MOA of th antin oplastic Topot can?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of <b>Topoisom ras I</b>, th r by pr v n
ting DNA unwinding and r plication}}</div>
1397266588386 1395802358422 What is th clinical us of Irinot can?<div><br>
</div><div>{{c1::Colon Canc r}}</div>
1397266600091 1395802358422 {{c1::Topot can}} is an antin oplastic that inhi
bits Topoisom ras I and is us d in Ovarian and Small C ll Canc r of th lung.
1397266627884 1395802358422 {{c1::Irinot can}} and {{c2::Topot can}} ar
antin oplastic drugs that inhibit <b>Topoisom ras I</b>, th r by pr v nting D
NA unwinding and r plication.
1397266669857 1395802358422 What is a s v r adv rs ff ct of Irinot can an
d Topot can?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::S v r my losuppr ssion}}</div>
1397266685873 1395802358422 What is th toxicity of Irinot can and Topot can
at th GI tract?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Diarrh a}}</div>
1397266698423 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Hydroxyur a?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhibition of Ribonucl otid R ductas , th r by l ading to a d cr as
in DNA synth sis}}</div>
<br /><div><i>S-phas sp cific</i></div>
1397266784741 1395802358422 Which phas of th c ll cycl do s Hydroxyur a a
ct in?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::S-phas }}</div>
1397266799597 1395802358422 Which nzym involv d in nucl otid synth sis is
inhibit d by Hydroxyur a?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ribonucl otid r ductas }}
</div>
1397266922262 1395802358422 {{c1::Hydroxyur a}} is an antin oplastic drug th
at inhibits Ribonucl otid R ductas and is us d in M lanoma, CML and Sickl C l
l Dis as .
1397266966185 1395802358422 {{c1::Hydroxyur a}} is an antin oplastic ag nt t
hat is us d to tr at Sickl C ll Dis as as it incr as s th l v ls of HbF.
1397267009730 1395802358422 What is th toxicity of Hydroxyur a at th GI tr
act?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::GI ups t}}</div>
1397267045475 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Pr dnison and Pr nisolon in
th tr atm nt of canc r?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::May trigg r apoptosis; pot
ntially v n on nondividing c lls}}</div>
1397267106891 1395802358422 What ar th most commonly us d Glucocorticoids
in canc r ch moth rapy?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Pr dnison ; Pr dnisolon }}</d
iv>
1397267303517 1395802358422 {{c1::Pr dnison /Pr dnisolon }} is a glucocortic
oid that is commonly us d in canc r ch moth rapy, typically in CLL and non-Hodgk
in lymphomas.
1397267347990 1395802358422 What is group of adv rs ff cts ar s n follow
ing Pr dnison and Pr dnisolon tr atm nt?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cushling-l
ik symptoms (w ight gain, c ntral ob sity, muscl br akdown, cataracts, acn , o
st oporosis, HTN, p ptic ulc rs, hyp rglyc mia, psychosis)}}</div>
1397267464624 1395802358422 {{c1::Tamoxif n}} and {{c2::Raloxif n }} ar
s l ctiv strog n r c ptor modulators (SERMs) that ar us d to tr at strog n

-s nsitiv canc rs.
<br /><div><i>Antagonists at th br ast but agonists at
th bon .</i></div>
1397267678418 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Tamoxif n at th br asts?<div
><br /></div><div>{{c1::Estrog n r c ptor antagonist}}</div>
1397267698725 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Tamoxif n at bon ?<div><br />
</div><div>{{c1::Estrog n r c ptor agonist}}</div>
1397267714608 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Raloxif n at bon ?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Estrog n r c ptor agonist}}</div>
1397267727279 1395802358422 {{c1::Tamoxif n}} is a s l ctiv strog n r c pt
or modulator (SERM) antin oplastic drug that is us d to tr at br ast canc r.
1397267756614 1395802358422 What is th clinical us of Tamoxif n?<div><br /
></div><div>{{c1::Br ast canc r via strog n r c ptor <b>antagonism</b>&nbs
p;at th br asts}}</div>
1397267767012 1395802358422 What is th clinical us of Raloxif n ?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::Pr v ntion of ost oporosis via strog n <b>agonism</b> a
t bon }}</div>
1397267809885 1395802358422 What is th toxicity of Tamoxif n?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Incr as d risk of ndom trial canc r and hot flash s du to partia
l strog n r c ptor agonism at th ndom trium}}</div>
1397267857963 1395802358422 {{c1::Tamoxif n}} is a s l ctiv strog n r c pt
or modulator (SERM) antin oplastic that is associat d with an incr as d risk of
ndom trial canc r du to partial agonism at th ndom trium. <br /><div><i>Th
r is also an incr as in "hot flash s"</i></div>
1397267925694 1395802358422 {{c1::Raloxif n }} is a s l ctiv strog n r c p
tor modulator that <b>do s not</b> involv an incr as in th risk of ndom
trial carcinoma as it acts as an antagonist at th ndom trium.
1397268193761 1395802358422 {{c1::Trastuzumab (H rc ptin)}} is a monoclonal
antibody against HER-2, a tyrosin kinas r c ptor commonly ov r xpr ss d in br
ast canc r.
<br /><div><i>Th r is also an l m nt of antibody-d p nd nt cyt
otoxicity involv d.</i></div>
1397268248606 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Trastuzumab (H rc ptin)?<div>
<br /></div><div>{{c1::Targ ts and inhibits HER-2, a tyrosin kinas r c ptor co
mmonly ov r xpr ss d in br ast canc r}}</div> <br /><div><i>Th r is also an
l m nt of antibody-d p nd nt cytotoxicity involv d.</i></div>
1397268280408 1395802358422 {{c1::HER-2 (<i>c- rbB2</i>)}} is a tyrosin kin
as r c ptor that is commonly ov r xpr ss d in br ast canc r and is targ t d in
br ast canc r tr atm nt.
1397268368640 1395802358422 What is th primary clinical us of Trastuzumab
(H c ptin)?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::HER-2 <b>positiv </b> br ast canc r}
}</div>
1397268429007 1395802358422 What is th toxicity of Trastuzumab (H rc ptin)?
<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cardiotoxicity}}</div>
<br /><div><i>H rc ptin
= <b>HEART</b>c ptin = damag d th h art</i></div>
1397268466696 1395802358422 {{c1::Imatinib (Gl v c)}} is a tyrosin kinas
inhibitor us d in CML and GI Stromal Tumours as it targ ts th tyrosin kinas i
nhibitor of <i>bcr-abl</i> and <i>c-Kit</i> r sp ctiv ly.
1397268525599 1395802358422 What fusion g n in CML yi lds th ov ractiv ty
rosin kinas r c ptor s n?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>bcr-abl</i>}}</div>
1397268551772 1395802358422 What common g n mutation in GI stromal tumours
yi lds an ov ractiv tyrosin kinas r c ptor?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::<i>c-K
it</i>}}</div>
1397268577642 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Imatinib in both CML and GI s
tromal tumours?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Inhibition of tyrosin kinas }}</div>
<br /><div><i>CML = bcr-abl fusion g n </i></div><div><i>GI stromal tumours = cKit</i></div>
1397268641170 1395802358422 What is th toxicity of Imatinib?<div><br /></di
v><div>{{c1::Fluid r t ntion}}</div>
1397269160245 1395802358422 {{c1::Rituximab}} is a monoclonal antibody again
st CD20 and is h nc us d in many B-c ll n oplasms.
1397269215213 1395802358422 What is th MOA of Rituximab?<div><br /></div><d

iv>{{c1::MAb against CD20, th r by trigg ring antibody m diat d c ll toxicity}}<
/div>
1397269244240 1395802358422 What is th toxicity of Rituximab?<div><br /></d
iv><div>{{c1::Incr as d risk of Progr ssiv Multifocal L uko nc phalopathy (PML)
}}</div>
1397269990742 1395802358422 {{c1::Progr ssiv Multifocal L uko nc phalopathy
(PML)}} is a CNS disord r that has an incr as risk of manif sting following Ri
tuximab administration.
1397270041509 1395802358422 What is th primary clinical us of Rituximab?<d
iv><br /></div><div>{{c1::Non-hodgkin lymphoma (CD20+ B-c ll typ s)}}</div>
1397270066726 1395802358422 {{c1::V muraf nib}} is a small mol cular antin o
plastic drug that inhibits forms of th B-Raf kinas with V600E mutations.
1397270110826 1395802358422 What is th clinical us of V muraf nib?<div><br
/></div><div>{{c1::M tastatic m lanoma}}</div>
1397270124124 1395802358422 What is th MOA of V muraf nib?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::Inhibition of B-Raf kinas with V600E mutations}}</div>
1397270144009 1395802358422 {{c1::B vacizumab}} is a monoclonal antibody aga
inst VEGF that is us d in solid tumours to inhibit angiog n sis.
<br /><d
iv><i>Esp cially us d in color ctal canc r and r nal c ll carcinoma.</i></div>
1397270182702 1395802358422 What is th MOA of B vacizumab?<div><br /></div>
<div>{{c1::MAb against VEGF, th r by inhibiting angiog n sis in solid tumours}}<
/div>
1397270205347 1395802358422 What is th toxicity of B vacizumab?<div><br /><
/div><div>{{c1::H morrhag and impair d wound h aling as it binds to VEGF and in
hibits angiog n sis}}</div>
1397270521149 1395802358422 What ch motoxicity is associat d with Trastuzuma
b?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Cardiotoxicity}}</div>
t -29867202577011.jpg" /></div>
1380510726611 1358629116480 M thicillin, nafcillin and oxacillin ar all xa
mpl s of {{c1::B ta-lactamas }}-r sistant p nicillins.
<br /><div><i>I
<b>m t</b> a <b>na</b>sty <b>ox</b> with a b ta-lactam ring around its
n ck.</i></div>
1384098813086 1358629116480 What ar th 2 major clinical cons qu nc s of hy
p rlipid mia?<div><br /></div><div>{{c1::Ath roscl rosis and Acut Pancr atitis}
}</div>
1451849814305 1438033936302 What is a sup rantig n? It caus s non-sp cific b
inding of MHCII to TCRs. This caus s ov ractivation and possibl cytokin storm,
which can b fatal.
1451849858601 1438033936302 What is PBP?
P nicillin-binding prot in, whic
h in staphylococcus aur us h lps construct th c ll walls. MRSA has an alt r d f
orm of PBP that conf rs r sistanc . <div><br /></div><div><img src="past -3
6837934497793.jpg" /></div><div>Pharoah with work rs = MRSA (r sistanc from p n
icillin-binding prot in, PBP).</div>
1451850024078 1438033936302 What is us d to tr at MRSA?
Vancomycin
1451850047034 1438033936302 If a staphylococcus aur us strain is NOT m thici
llin r sistant, what should b us d to tr at it?
An appropriat p nicilli
n d rivativ lik nafcillin.<div><br /></div><div><br /></div>
1451850096676 1438033936302 What is th curr nt guid lin for tr atm nt of s
taphylococcus pid rmydis?
Vancomycin
1451851050454 1438033936296 All of th staphylococci ar catalas -{{c1::posi
tiv }}. <i>Unlik str ptococci.</i>
1451851067119 1438033936296 {{c1::P nicillin}} is th tr atm nt for str ptoc
occus pyog n s
1451865505754 1438033936302 Which pathog n has th app aranc of a bundl of
grap s und r a microscop ?
<i>Staphylococcus aur us</i>
1451865526451 1438033936302 {{c1::MRSA}} xhibits an alt r d form of PBP tha
t conf rs antibiotic r sistanc
1451865548621 1438033936302 What color ar staphylococcus aur us coloni s on
blood agar?
Y llow-gold
1451865573638 1438033936296 {{c1::Staphylococci and str ptococci}} ar grampositiv

1451865584489 1438033936296 Staphylococcus aur us has a {{c1::positiv }
} catalas t st.
<i>M aning th pathog n poss ss s catalas , which d toxi
fi s H2O2.</i>
1451865708801 1438033936296 Str ptococci hav a {{c1::n gativ }} catala
s t st.
<i>M aning th s pathog ns lack catalas .</i>
1451865734007 1438033936296 Coagulas conv rts {{c1::fibrinog n into fibrin}
}
<i>Staphylococcus aur us poss ss s coagulas </i><div><i><br /></i></div>
1451865759804 1438033936296 Staph aur us is {{c1::b ta}} h molytic
1451865792200 1438033936302 D scrib mannitol salt agar.
S l ctiv
for staphylococcus sp ci s; shows wh th r or not a pathog n can f rm nt mannit
ol. If y s, agar b com s y llow. If no, agar is pink. Staphylococcus aur us can
f rm nt mannitol.<div><br /></div><div><img src="past -36837934497793.jpg" /></d
iv>
1451865847057 1438033936302 What is th main virul nc factor of staphylococ
cus aur us?
Prot in A, which is in th c ll wall and can bind th Fc r gion
of immunoglobulins. This pr v nts compl m nt from binding that Fc r gion, and th
us pr v nts opsonization/phagocytosis.
1451865900542 1438033936296 Staphylococcus aur us lik s to coloniz th &nbsp
;{{c1::nar s}}
1451865939998 1438033936302 Nam th common inflammatory dis as s caus d by
<i>staphylococcus aur us</i>.
1) Pn umonia charact riz d by patchy inf
iltrat s on rads; 2) S ptic arthritis (not that s.aur us is th numb r on caus
of this in adults); 3) Skin inf ctions pr s nting with c llulitis, imp tigo, f
uruncl s/carbuncl s, abc ss s; 4) Rapid ons t ndocarditis, oft n right sid d or
involving th tricuspid valv and oft n in IV drug us rs; 5) Ost omy litis (s.
aur us is th numb r on caus of this in adults)
1451866073936 1438033936302 What is th most common caus of ost omy litis i
n adults?
1451866095986 1438033936302 What is th most common caus of s ptic arthriti
s in adults?
1451866115653 1438033936302 D scrib th common toxin-m diat d dis as s asso
ciat d with staphylococcus aur us.
1) Scald d skin syndrom : pr s n
ts with p ling skin, m diat d by a prot as call d xfoliativ toxin; 2) Toxic
Shock Syndrom : m diat d by TSS toxin (TSST), which is a sup rantig n; 3) Rapid
ons t food poisoning: toxin is pr -form d, found in m ats/custards/cr am-bas d f
oods <div><img src="past -36837934497793.jpg" /></div>
1451866271076 1438033936296 Staphylococcus saprophyticus and staphylococcus
pid rmydis ar gram {{c1::positiv }}
1451866279085 1438033936296 Staph saprophyticus and staph pid rmydis ar bo
th ur as - and catalas - {{c1::positiv }}
1451866299285 1438033936296 Staph saprophyticus and staph pid rmydis ar bo
th coagulas {{c1::n gativ }}
1451866315338 1438033936302 What sp ci s is call d "th n my of orthop dic
surg ons" and why?
<i>Staphylococcus pid rmydis.</i> Oft n inf cts ar
tificial joints and oth r implant d hardwar . Also inf cts in-dw lling cath t rs
. This pathog n cov rs our skin and is abl to nt r wh n that barri r is punctu
r d.
1451866395694 1438033936302 What is th most common caus of ndocarditis in
volving artificial h art valv s?
<i>Staphylococcus pid rmydis</i>
1451866415800 1438033936302 Why is <i>s. pid rmydis</i> abl to adh r
to m tal or oth r slick surfac s lik implant d hardwar ?
It produc s adh
r nt biofilms compos d of polysaccharid s. Th s also act as a prot ctiv cov ri
ng against antibiotics and c lls of our immun syst ms. Th s biofilms ar th s
am r ason that s. pid rmydis is som what r sistant to antibiotics.
1451866486605 1438033936302 What usually happ ns to artificial joints inf ct
Th y n d to b r plac d
d with staph pid rmydis?
1451866513731 1438033936296 {{c1::Staphylococcus pid rmydis}} oft n contami
nat s blood cultur s du to b ing part of our normal skin flora.
1451866544291 1438033936302 Is <i>staphylococcus pid rmydis</i> or <i>

staphylococcus saprophyticus</i> novobiocin-r sistant?
<i>Staphylococcu
s saprophyticus</i>
1451866597852 1438033936302 What is a common caus of UTIs in s xually activ
f mal s?
<i>Staphylococcus saprophyticus</i>
1451866613927 1438033936296 {{c1::Ur as }} conv rts ur a into ammonia
1451866619183 1438033936296 {{c1::Str ptococcus pyog n s}} t nd to grow in l
ong chains or pairs.
1451866658741 1438033936296 {{c1::Str ptococcus pyog n s}} is ncapsulat d w
ith hyaluronic acid, which is not immunog nic!
1451866683073 1438033936296 <i>Str ptococcus pyog n s</i> is {{c1:
:b ta}}-h molytic
1451866725430 1438033936302 Nam th pyog nic inf ctions caus d by <i>str pt
ococcus pyog n s.</i> 1) Imp tigo, which app ars hon y-crust d and can also b
caus d by <i>staph aur us</i>; 2) Pharyngitis, which is commonly call d str p t
hroat; 3) C llulitis; 4) Erysip las, which is v ry sup rificial c llulitis with
w ll-d marcat d bord rs (not <i>str p pyog n s </i>is th numb r on caus )
1451866953639 1438033936302 D scrib th toxin-m diat d dis as s associat d
with <i>str ptococcus pyog n s</i>.
1) Scarl t f v r, which is m dia
t d by sup rantig ns Sp A or Sp C; 2) Toxic-shock-lik syndrom or TSLS, m diat
d by Sp A or Sp C; 3) N crotizing fasciitis, m diat d by th prot as Sp B.&nbsp
;
1451867122044 1438033936302 D scrib th pr s ntation of scarl t f v r.
R dd ning and sw lling of tongu call d "strawb rry tongu ," pharyngitis, wid sp
r ad r d rash that spar s th fac .
1451867151026 1438033936302 D scrib n crotizing fasciitis. Inf ction of th
sup rficial fascia by <i>str ptococcus pyog n s </i>via th prot as Sp B. Surg
ical m rg ncy d/t rapid spr ad (may r quir amputation).
1451867206470 1438033936302 D scrib rh umatic f v r.
M prot in is a h
ighly antig nic prot in in th group A str p c ll wall. It is th main virul nc
factor in RF, and binds factor H, which d stroys C3 conv rtas and d cr as s op
sonization (thus it's anti-phagocytic). Mol cular mimicry of cardiac myosin can
r sult in autoimmun damag , oft n to th mitral valv . This can caus mitral st
nosis. RF only app ars aft r pharyngitis ( sp cially if not tr at d promptly) a
nd NOT aft r skin inf ctions. Typ II hyp rs nsitivity r action.
1451867423452 1438033936302 What ar th JONES crit ria for rh umatic f v r?
Joints (polyarthritis), O (h art probl ms lik valv damag , myocarditis, p rica
rditis), Nodul s (subcutan ous on xt nsor surfac s of for arms or lbows/kn s)
, Eryt ma marginatum (rash with thick r d bord rs), Syd nham's chor a (rapid inv
oluntary mov m nts of fac and hands)
1451867494127 1438033936302 D scrib post-str p glom rulon phritis (PSGN).
A Typ III hyp rs nsitivity r action, wh r circulating antibody-antig n compl x
s ar d posit d in glom ruli. Pr s nts with dark-brown or cola-color d urin as
w ll as puffy or swoll n fac du to d ma. Crops up around 2 w ks aft r str p
inf ction. Unlik RF, can app ar aft r pharyngitis OR skin inf ctions. Early tr
atm nt can't pr v nt.
1451867623905 1438033936302 What is str ptolysin o? A virul nc factor of <i
>str ptococcus pyog n s</i>. It can lys RBCs and is th basis for th b ta h mo
lysis. W mak ASO antibodi s that can b d t ct d in our blood to confirm a r c
nt str ptococcus pyog n s inf ction.
1451867668467 1438033936302 What is str ptokinas ? A virul nc factor of <i
>str ptococcus pyog n s.</i> Conv rts plasminog n to plasmin. It's actually
administ r d to som pati nts to lys clots in th cas of an MI or isch mic st
rok .
1451867711489 1438033936302 What is str ptodornas ? A DNas that d polym riz
s DNA and can h lp str ptococcus pyog n s vad NETs.
1451867747480 1438033936302 What is M prot in?
A virul nc factor of <i
>Str ptococcus pyog n s</i> that binds human factor H. M prot in inhib
its opsonization by th alt rnativ compl m nt pathway by binding to host compl
m nt r gulators. Th M prot in found on som s rotyp s is also abl to pr v nt o
psonization by binding to fibrinog n.

1451867807226 1438033936302 Is group-A or group-B str p bacitracin s nsitiv
?
Group A.
1451867846108 1438033936296 {{c1::Str ptococcus Agalactia }} is in Group B S
tr p.
1451867856543 1438033936296 <i>Str ptococcus agalactia </i>is gram-{{c1::po
sitiv }}
1451867871616 1438033936296 <i>Str ptococcus agalactia </i> has a
{{c1::positiv }} hippurat t st.
<i>This m ans it hydrolyz s sodium hippu
rat .</i>
1451867899896 1438033936302 What is th cont nt of str p agalactia 's capsul
?
Polysaccharid s.
1451867911584 1438033936302 What is th CAMP t st? Id ntifi s <i>str ptococ
cus agalactia </i>(among oth r sp ci s), which s cr t s CAMP factor. CAMP
factor is diffusabl , xtrac llular, and th rmostabl . If GBS is plat d with sta
ph aur us, an ar a of incr as d h molysis is obs rv d du to syn rgistic action
b tw n CAMP factor and staphylococcal b ta-lysin.
1451868032996 1438033936302 What is this? What pathog n might it indicat ?<d
iv><img src="past -6137508266424.jpg" /></div> A positiv CAMP t st; GBS (<i>st
r ptococcus agalactia </i>)
1451868070476 1438033936296 <i>Str ptococcus agalactia </i>(GBS) is {{
c1::b ta}}-h molytic
1451868078489 1438033936296 <i>Str ptococcus agalactia </i> is bacitrac
in-{{c1::r sistant}}
1451868109713 1438033936302 What is th numb r on caus of m ningitis in n
wborns? <i>Str ptococcus agalactia </i>
1451868115784 1438033936302 What ar thr typ s of dis as caus d by GBS?
N onatal m ningitis, n onatal s psis, pn umonia
1451868140032 1438033936302 Wh r do n wborns acquir GBS? From th moth r'
s vaginal canal during d liv ry. For this r ason, pr gnant wom n should hav th
ir anus s and vaginas swabb d and cultur d at 35 w ks. If positiv , intrapartum
p nicillin is giv n.
1451868198521 1438033936296 <i>Str ptococcus pn umonia </i>and <i>viridans<
/i> ar {{c1::alpha}}-h molytic.
1451868198955 1438033936296 {{c1::Alpha h molysis}} is partial, and app ars
as a gr n ar a on a blood agar plat du to oxidation of h moglobin.
1451868225523 1438033936296 <i>Str ptococcus pn umonia </i>has a {{c1:
:polysaccharid }} capsul .
<i>This is also a major virul nc factor
.</i>
1451868297479 1438033936296 {{c1::Str ptococcus viridans}} is optochin-r sis
tant
1451868310753 1438033936296 {{c1::Str ptococcus pn umonia }} is optochin-s n
sitiv
1451868334113 1438033936302 What is th app aranc of <i>s. pn umonia </i>&n
bsp;und r th microscop ?
Lanc t-shap d diplococcus.
1451868344263 1438033936302 Is <i>str ptococcus pn umonia </i>or <i>str pto
coccus viridans</i> bil -s nsitiv ?
<i>Str ptococcus pn umonia </i>.
1451868372911 1438033936302 D scrib th patt rn of pn umonia commonly s n
with <i>s. pn umonia </i>.
Charact ristically lobar (of th low r l
ob s), with production of rust-color d sputum.
1451868409221 1438033936302 What antibotics ar <i>str ptococcus pn umonia <
/i> inf ctions s nsitiv to?
Macrolid s, third-g n ration c phalospor
ins (i. . c ftriaxon ).
1451868443758 1438033936302 What is th numb r 1 caus of community-acquir d
pn umonia in adults? <i>Str ptococcus pn umonia </i>bruh
1451868458926 1438033936302 Of which four pathologi s is <i>s. pn umonia </i
> th most common caus ? MOPS: m ningitis, otitis m dia, pn umonia, sinus
itis.
1451868491357 1438033936302 What virul nc factor do s <i>str ptococcus pn u
monia </i> poss ss that allows it to invad mucosal surfac s?
A prot a
s that cl av s IgA
1451868519009 1438033936302 What typ of pati nts ar highly susc ptibl to
<i>s. pn umonia </i>? Spl n ctomy pati nts (including auto-spl n ctomy cas s l
ik SCA).
1451868541507 1438033936302 D scrib two important vaccin s for pr v ntion o
f <i>s. pn umonia .</i> 1) A 23-val nt polysaccharid for adults that invok s a
T-ind p nd nt IgM r spons . 2) A 7-val nt antig n conjugat d to a prot in for ch
ildr n that invok s a T-d p nd nt r spons
1451868600427 1438033936296 <i>Str ptococcus viridans</i> is {{c1:
:alpha}}-h molytic
1451868630505 1438033936302 Do s <i>str ptococcus viridans </i>hav a capsul
?
No.
1451868650361 1438033936296 <i>Str ptococcus viridans</i> is optochin-{
{c1::r sistant}}
1451868658218 1438033936296 <i>Str ptococcus viridans</i> is bil -{{c1:
:r sistant}}
1451868675166 1438033936302 Which two strains of <i>str ptococcus viridans</
i> ar associat d with d ntal cari s?
<i>Str ptococcus mutans</i>&nbsp
;and <i>str ptococcus sanguinous</i>
1451868702532 1438033936302 Nam and d scrib th pathophysiology of a compl
ication associat d with <i>str ptococcus mutans </i>or <i>sanguinous</i>.
Transi nt bact r mia can caus subacut ndocarditis in pr viously damag d h art
valv s. This usually involv s th mitral valv (a common sit of h art damag i
n th population), and r sults from th bact ria adh ring to fibrin/plat l t agg
r gat s in th damag d tissu via d xtrans mad from glucos .
1451868806568 1438033936302 What was form rly call d group D str p? <i>Ent r
ococcus</i>
1451868833872 1438033936296 <i>Ent rococcus </i>is gram-{{c1::positiv }}
1451868902657 1438033936302 Of th two <i> nt rococcus</i> sp ci s
to know, which sp ci s is mor common and which is mor s rious?
<i>E. fa
calis</i> is mor common, <i> . fa cium</i> is mor s rious.
1451868948233 1438033936296 <i>Ent rococci</i> ar abl to grow in m di
a with up to {{c1::6.5%}} NaCl.
1451868961621 1438033936296 <i>Ent rococci</i> ar bil -{{c1::r sistant
}}.
1451868975792 1438033936296 <i>Ent rococci</i> can b {{c1::vancom
ycin}}-r sistant.
<i>Call d VREs, which ar tr at d with lin zolid or tig
cyclin . </i>
1451869035443 1438033936302 What thr inf ctious dis as s ar associat d wi
th <i> nt rococci</i>? 1) UTIs, 2) ndocarditis, 3) inf ctions of th biliary t
r
1451869063701 1438033936302 What is us d to tr at VREs?
Lin zolid, tig c
yclin .
1451876130370 1438033936296 {{c1::MRSA}} xhibits an alt r d form of PBP tha
t conf rs antibiotic r sistanc
1452010896122 1438033936302 What pathog n is associat d with cutan ous black
schars?
<i>Bacillus anthracis</i>
1452010906412 1438033936302 D scrib a black schar. Black, n crotic
cutan ous l sion with an ryth matous ring. Oft n s n in <i>bacillus anthracis<
/i> inf ctions.
1452010929061 1438033936302 What do s <i>bacillus anthracis</i> look li
k und r th mircoscop ?
Larg gram positiv rods and chains.
1452010969695 1438033936296 {{c1::Bacillus anthracis}} is an ncapsulat d la
rg gram-positiv rod
1452010993986 1438033936302 What is uniqu about bacillus anthracis's capsul
?
It is mad of prot in; sp cifically poly-D-glutamat .
1452011012248 1438033936302 D scrib spor s. Th y ar a sturdy prot c
tiv cov ring that is associat d with a form of hib rnation in which a pathog n
is r sistant to t mp ratur and ch micals and xhibits low r than normal m tabol
ic activity.
1452011068307 1438033936296 Bacillus anthracis is an obligat {{c1::a r

ob }}
1452011094431 1438033936302 Can <i>bacillus anthracis</i> form spor s?
Y s
1452011113215 1438033936296 All {{c1::clostridium}} sp ci s ar spor f
orm rs
1452011133201 1438033936302 What ar th main toxins of bacillus anthracis?
L thal factor and d ma factor, both of which must b pr s nt to caus symptoms.

1452011153840 1438033936302 What is d ma factor? A toxin produc d by <i>b
acillus anthracis </i>that functions as an ad nylat cyclas that incr as s
intrac llular cAMP, which caus s fluid to l av th c ll and nt r th xtrac l
lular spac . This d ma d cr as s ff ctiv n ss of host d f ns s and indir ctly
inhibits phagocytosis.
1452011216973 1438033936302 What is l thal factor? A xotoxin produc d by <
i>bacillus anthracis</i> that is a prot as that cl av s MAPK. B caus MAPK
is involv d in c ll growth, LF is ultimat ly r sponsibl for th tissu n crosi
s und rlying th charact ristic black schars.
1452011272538 1438033936302 What is "woolsort r's dis as "? Pulmonary anthra
x in a p rson who inhal d <i>bacillus anthracis</i> spor s. Symptoms ar no
n-sp cific at first and includ a dry cough. Must b caught and tr at d right aw
ay or it may progr ss ot h morrhagic m diastinitis, which has a n arly 100% mort
ality rat .
1452011351060 1438033936302 What is h morrhagic m diastinitis?
A progr
ssion of pulmonary anthrax to m diastinal lymph nod s du to <i>bacillus anthrac
is</i>. Pr s nt on x-ray as a wid n d m diastinum. N arly 100% mortality rat .&n
bsp;
1452011419381 1438033936302 What ar th tr atm nts of choic for <i>bacillu
s anthracis</i>?
1: fluoroquinolon s. 2: doxycyclin
1452011439927 1438033936302 D scrib th cology of b<i>acillus c r us</i>.&
nbsp; A robic, spor -forming.
1452011472163 1438033936302 What pathology is associat d with <i>bacillus c
r us</i>?
Food poisoning: vomiting and diarrh a aft r ating r h at d fri
d ric .
1452011497431 1438033936302 What pathog n is th caus of t tanus? <i>Clost
ridium t tani</i>
1452011514944 1438033936302 D scrib th cology of <i>clostridium t tani.</
i>
Obligat ana rob (cannot surviv in oxyg n). Spor forming, oft n found
in soil.
1452011574236 1438033936302 Wh r ar spor -forming bact ria oft n found?
Th soil
1452011593841 1438033936302 What must happ n in ord r for <i>clostridium t t
ani</i> to caus inf ction?
A spor must g t und r th skin into an
ana robic compartm nt of th body. This is commonly accomplish d aft r a for ign
obj ct cr at s a punctur wound and d posits a spor . Th spor can b gin g rmi
nating aft r th punctur wound is s al d off from air.
1452011673902 1438033936302 Who ar th classical xampl s of <i>clostridium
t tani</i> pati nts?
Construction work rs or childr n playing n ar co
nstruction sit s who com in with n uromuscular symptoms aft r r c iving a punct
ur wound from rusty nails or barb d wir .
1452011719728 1438033936302 D scrib th r s rvoir and th transmission of <
i>clostridium t tani</i>. Soil and rusty nails ( .g.) r sp ctiv ly.
1452011742006 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of t tanus?
Spastic
paralysis with r l ntl ss muscl contractions l ading to rigidity. A common mani
f station of this in th fac is lockjaw and "rh sus sardonicus," th " vil monk
y grin" du to t ns mass t r muscl s. Pati nts may also pr s nt with opisthoto
nus, which is xagg rat d arching of th back du to pow rful spasms of th musc
l s.
1452011825395 1438033936302 What is th pathog n sis of t tanus?
<i>Clost
ridium t tani</i> spor s g rminat in a punctur sit . Th y produc and r l
as t tanus toxin (also call d "t tanospasmin"), which is r sponsibl for th s

ymptoms. T tanospasmin trav ls r trograd up motor axons to th spinal cord, wh
r it acts as a prot as for SNAREs in R nshaw c lls (inhibitory int rn urons).
Thus, th R nshaw c lls cannot r l as GABA and glycin , th inhibitory n urotra
nsmitt rs that pr v nt alpha motor n uron contraction.
1452011915350 1438033936302 D scrib R nshaw c lls. Inhibitory int r
n urons in th spinal cord that r l as GABA or glycin as inhibitory n urotrans
mitt rs. Th s c lls s ns and r spond to activity in n arby alpha motor n urons
. Th s c lls ar pr v nt d from xocytosis of th ir NTs by t tanospasmin.
1452012002396 1438033936302 D scrib th t tanus vaccin .
Consists
of toxoid conjugat d to a prot in to incr as immunog nicity/g n rat m mory. T
his r sults in an antibody r spons to th toxin, NOT <i>Clostridium t tani </i>
its lf.
1452012044222 1438033936302 What is opisthotonus? A symptom of <i>clostrid
ium t tani</i> inf ction that pr s nts as xagg rat d arching of th back d
u to back muscl spasm.
1452012183939 1438033936296 <i>Clostridium botulinum </i>is gram {{c1::
positiv }}
1452012188341 1438033936296 <i>Clostridium botulinum</i> is oft n trans
mitt d by {{c1::improp r canning of foods}}.
<i>Eith r improp r or in
suffici nt h ating cycl s for killing of spor s.</i>
1452012646839 1438033936302 D scrib th cology of <i>clostridium botulinum
</i>.
Obligat ana rob , spor form r.
1452012734790 1438033936302 Why is <i>clostridium botulinum</i> associa
t d with cann d food? It's a spor -forming obligat ana rob , so th canning c
ycl may fail to kill th spor s and th can its lf provid s an xc ll nt oxyg n
-fr g rmination nvironm nt.
1452012892883 1438033936302 Why ar w told to cook cann d food thoroughly?
<i>Clostridium botulinum</i> is abl to g rminat from spor s in cann d foo
d, wh r it produc s a r lativ ly h at-stabl toxin which caus s all th symptom
s of botulism. Not that adults do not b com inf ct d with <i>clostri
dium botulinum</i> its lf b caus our guts can out-comp t th spor s, but
must ing st pr -form d toxin to b com ill.
1452012936398 1438033936302 What is a classical xampl of a <i>clostridium
botulinum</i> pati nt?
A family or group of camp rs with v ry similar n
uro symptoms who can b assum d to hav shar d food r c ntly.
1452012977329 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms caus d by <i>clostridium b
otulinum</i> toxin?
Flaccid paralysis (abs nc of muscl contraction
) which d sc nds. Ey probl ms lik diplopia or ptosis may app ar first.
1452013054678 1438033936302 What shap is <i>clostridium t tani</i> und
r th microscop ?
Classically t nnis-rack t or drumstick-shap .
1452013071230 1438033936302 What shap is <i>clostridium botulinum </i>und r
th microscop ?
Rod-shap d. (Also motil )
1452013092855 1438033936302 What is th pathophysiology of th symptoms of <
i>clostridium botulinum</i> inf ction?
Th toxin, a prot as that is of
t n consum d pr -form d in food, is absorb d via th gut. It trav ls to th p ri
ph ral n rvous syst m via th blood, and ONLY aff cts th p riph ral n rvous sys
t m b caus it cannot cross th blood-brain barri r. It cl av s SNARE prot ins,
pr v nting v sicl fusion and thus xocytosis of ac tylcholin from alpha motor
n urons.
1452013189703 1438033936302 What is "floppy baby syndrom "? Th flaccid para
lysis caus d by <i>clostridium botulinum</i> toxin in babi s. Unlik a
dults, whos normal gut flora out-comp t s clostridium botulinum and pr v nts in
f ction by th organism, babi s' guts can g rminat spor s. Thus, babi s who ing
st <i>clostridium botulinum </i>spor s from hon y (which contains many) can b c
om inf ct d. FBS is actually mor common than adult botulism.
1452013459263 1438033936302 What pathog n is r f rr d to as "th king of dia
rrh a"? <i>Clostridium difficil </i>
1452013513550 1438033936302 What pathog n is r f rr d to as "th b dpan's wo
rst nightmar "? <i>Clostridium difficil </i>
1452013529001 1438033936302 What do s "nosocomial diarrh a" m an? Diarrh a

that originat s in a hospital
1452013557497 1438033936302 Do s c<i>lostridium difficil </i>form spor s?
Y s, and th s ar v ry asily transmitt d b tw n pati nts. Th y ar not susc p
tibl to alcohol.
1452013648219 1438033936302 What is th b st way to pr v nt <i>clostridium d
ifficil </i> spor transmission b tw n pati nts? Thorough handwashing wit
h soap and wat r, as alcohol do s not kill th m.
1452013678469 1438033936302 How is <i>clostridium difficil </i>acquir d?
P opl may b coloniz d but unaff ct d b caus <i>c.diff</i> can't comp t
with normal gut flora. Antibiotic us can lif comp tition, how v r, and allow <
i>c. diff</i> to prolif rat .
1452013728550 1438033936302 What antibiotic is <i>most</i> associat d w
ith <i>clostridium difficil </i> inf ction?
Clindamycin
1452013742362 1438033936302 D scrib <i>clostridium difficil 's </i> xo
toxin A.
Exotoxin A targ ts and binds th brush bord r nzym s of th int
stin s. It caus s inflammation and c ll d ath, as w ll as wat ry diarrh a.&nbsp
;
1452013827194 1438033936302 D scrib xotoxin B that is produc d by <i>clost
ridium difficil </i>. Exotoxin B disrupts cytosk l tal int grity by d polym ri
zing actin. This l ads to nt rocyt d ath and n crosis, as w ll as th formatio
n of a y llow-gray xudat that cov rs th colonic mucosa. This giv s ris to th
nam "ps udom mbranous colitis" for <i>c. diff</i>.
1452013891671 1438033936302 How can <i>clostridium difficil </i> inf ct
ion b diagnos d?
Th y llow-gray xudativ ps udom mbran can b visualiz
d ( ith r histologically or on ndoscopy), or th toxin can b found in stool (
usually assay d via PCR). Not that finding th organism in stool is not diagnos
tic as many p opl ar coloniz d.
1452013967227 1438033936296 N arly {{c1::1/3}} of hospital pati nts ar
coloniz d with c<i>lostridium difficil </i>.
<i>Only th toxin caus s
dis as . </i>
1452014006997 1438033936302 D scrib th cology of <i>clostridium difficil
.</i> Obligat ana rob , spor forming.
1452014030891 1438033936296 <i>Clostridium difficil </i>is gram {{c1::
positiv }}
1452014060918 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i>clostridium diffici
l </i>? 1) Oral vancomycin. IV vancomycin is l ss us ful b caus you ar targ ti
ng th int stin s. Additionally, vancomycin has poor absorption orally, so f w r
sid aff cts wh n administ r d by this rout !<div>2) M tronidazol </div>
1452014148108 1438033936296 It is said th som nurs s can id ntify {{c
1::<i>clostridium difficil </i>}} in th stool of pati nts by sm ll.
1452014195462 1438033936302 D scrib th cology of c<i>lostridium p rfring
ns</i>. Obligat ana rob , spor -forming. Oft n found in dirt and soil.
1452014267566 1438033936302 What ar th two classic vign tt s giv n for <i>
clostridium p rfring ns</i> inf ction?
Motorcycl accid nts and d p, p
n trating military combat wounds. Th commonaliti s ar a larg amount of fl sh
b ing xpos d to dirt and dust (<i>c. p rfring ns</i> is a spor -forming s
oil obligat ana rob ).
1452014486025 1438033936302 What two dis as s ar associat d with <i>clostri
dium p rfring ns</i> inf ction?
1) Gas gangr n and 2) Food poisoning
1452014522161 1438033936302 What shap is <i>clostridium p rfring ns</i>&nbs
p;und r th microscop ? Rod-shap d
1452014571821 1438033936296 <i>Clostridium p rfring ns</i> is gram&nbsp
;{{c1::positiv }}
<i>And catalas n gativ .</i>
1452014752286 1438033936302 D scrib gas gangr n .
A soft tissu in
f ction caus d by <i>clostridium p rfring ns</i>. It is also call d "clostr
idial myon crosis." It can pr s nt as cr pitus or crackling on palpation. Gas pr
oduction occurs as <i>clostridium p rfring ns</i> consum s carbohydrat s. T
h n crosis involv d is caus d by a clostridial alpha toxin call d l cithinas w
hich caus s m mbran damag .
1452014838173 1438033936302 What is a uniqu f atur of <i>clostridium p rfr

ing ns</i> plat d on blood agar? A doubl zon of h molysis. Not that th
is is caus d by l cithinas , an alpha toxin that damag s m mbran s and lys s myo
cyt s (m diating th myon crosis of gas gangr n ) as w ll as RBCs in vivo and vi
tro.
1452014908778 1438033936302 What organism mak s this patt rn wh n plat d?<di
v><img src="past -9436043149551.jpg" /></div> This is th doubl zon of h mol
ysis charact ristic of <i>clostridium p rfring ns </i>plat d ana robically on bl
ood agar
1452014996263 1438033936302 What is th numb r 1 tr atm nt for <i>clostridiu
m p rfring ns</i>?
IV p nicillin G
1452015022184 1438033936302 D scrib th food poisoning caus d by <i>clostri
dium p rfring ns</i>.
Uniqu ly lat -ons t du to ing stion of a larg
amount of spor s, which must g rminat and mak toxin to caus th symptom of wa
t ry diarrh a. This diarrh a is oft n transi nt and may not r quir antibiotics.

1452015132437 1438033936296 <i>Coryn bact rium diphth ria </i> is gram&
nbsp;{{c1::positiv }}
1452015151328 1438033936302 What pathog n is th caus of diphth ria?
<i>Coryn bact rium diphth ria </i>
1452015161675 1438033936302 What is th app aranc of <i>coryn bact rium dip
hth ria </i> und r th microscop ? Club-shap d in a Y or V formation. Conta
ins m tachromatic granul s that stain r d with anilin dy s (whil th r st of t
h c ll is stain d blu ).
1452015218182 1438033936302 What pathog n is this?<div><img src="past -10140
417786188.jpg" /></div> <i>Coryn bact rium diphth ria </i>. Not th Y and V for
mations, as w ll as th slight club shap of individual organisms.
1452015292755 1438033936302 D scrib th xotoxin produc d by<i> coryn
bact rium diphth ria </i>.
It has A (activ ) and B (binding) subunits
. It caus s ADP ribosylation of mammalian EF2, which inhibits ribosomal prot in
synth sis. This l ads to c ll d ath, which can contribut to ps udom mbran form
ation.
1452015417379 1438033936302 D scrib th ps udom mbran formation associat d
with <i>coryn bact rium diphth ria </i>.
Caus d by c ll d ath du to toxi
n-m diat d inhibition of ribosomal prot in synth sis. Th ps udom mbran is a th
ick grayish xudat ov rlying th mucosal surfac of th oropharynx.
1452015484711 1438033936302 Why is <i>coryn bact rium diphth ria </i> a
ssociat d with ps udom mbran formation in th throat and tonsils?
<i>Clost
ridium diphth ria </i> is transmitt d by r spiratory dropl ts, thus first c
olonizing th oropharynx. Th m mbran can spr ad to th larynx and trach a, cau
sing airway obstruction.
1452015549052 1438033936302 What is "bull's n ck"? A charact ristic thick n
ing of th n ck du to lymphad nopathy associat d with <i>coryn bact rium diphth
ria </i> inf ction.
1452015571350 1438033936302 What is th m chanism of transmission of <i>cory
n bact rium diphth ria </i>?
Inhaling th r spiratory dropl ts of an inf ct d
p rson.
1452015604918 1438033936302 What syst mic ff cts ar associat d with <i>cor
yn bact rium diphth ria </i> bact r mia? H art probl ms (myocarditis, arr
hythmias, h art block), and local paralysis ( sp cially of th post rior pharynx
) that may spr ad to caus oth r cranial n rv d ficits (du to d my lination).&
nbsp;
1452015712419 1438033936302 How is <i>coryn bact rium diphth ria </i> d
iagnos d?
Via cultur , wh r m mbran s ar swabb d and plat d on two sp ci
al agars: T llurit agar or Lo ffl r's m dium. Can also b don via an assay for
th toxin.
1452015778945 1438033936302 How can toxig nic and non-toxig nic strains of <
i>coryn bact rium diphth ria </i> b diff r ntiat d?
Via El k's t st:
an in vitro assay on filt r pap r coat d with anti-toxin. If toxin is pr s nt,
it binds th pap r and caus s a r action.
1452015889034 1438033936302 Who is most lik ly to g t diphth ria? Immigran

ts who may not hav b n vaccinat d! D v lop d countri s vaccinat .
1452015907236 1438033936302 D scrib th vaccin for <i>coryn bact rium diph
th ria </i><i>.</i>
Toxoid conjugat d to prot in; produc s a pow rful IgG r
spons .
1452015951683 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i>coryn bact rium dip
hth ria </i> inf ction?
Administ r passiv antibodi s.
1452015974556 1438033936302 D scrib th app aranc of <i>list ria monocytog
n s</i> und r a microscop . Gram-positiv bacillus.
1452015999963 1438033936302 What group of p opl is associat d with <i>list
ria monocytog n s</i> inf ction? Pr gnant wom n (20x mor lik ly to g t i
t than th g n ral population)
1452016046737 1438033936302 Why ar pr gnant wom n discourag d from ating s
oft ch s s?
<i>List ria monocytog n s</i> is oft n found in soft ch s
s. If wom n ar inf ct d arly in pr gnancy, this can l ad to arly t rmina
tion. If lat r on in pr gnancy, can caus dis as in th n wborn.
1452016110345 1438033936302 What is th 3rd most common caus of m ningitis
in n wborns?
<i>List ria monocytog n s</i> (aft r group B str p and <i>E
. coli</i>).
1452016135088 1438033936302 What is <i>list ria monocytog n s</i> oft n
r sponsibl for in adults ov r sixty? M ningitis.
1452016153584 1438033936302 How is adult m ningitis tr at d?
Usually
with vancomycin and c ftriaxon to cov r gram-n gativ s and gram-positiv s, but
in adults ov r sixty ampicillin should b add d to cov r <i>list ria monocytog n
s</i>.
1452016187743 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt of choic for <i>list ria
monocytog n s</i>?
Ampicillin
1452016208465 1438033936296 <i>List ria monocytog n s </i>is catalas {
{c1::positiv }}
1452016271011 1438033936302 What is uniqu about th cology of <i>list ria
monocytog n s</i>?
It can surviv and v n multiply in n ar-fr zing t mp r
atur s. This m ans it can contaminat food it ms v n if th y ar r frig rat d (
.g. soft ch s , unpast uriz d milk, packag d m at).
1452016301870 1438033936296 <i>List ria monocytog n s </i>is {{c1::b ta
}} h molytic.
<i>Forms a narrow zon of h molysis wh n plat d.</i>
1452016324332 1438033936302 D scrib th cology of <i>list ria monocytog n
s.</i> Motil , facultativ ana rob and facultativ intrac llular bacillus.&nbs
p;
1452016376429 1438033936302 How do s <i>list ria monocytog n s </i>mov ?
Wh n outsid th c ll, with flag lla. Call d "tumbling motility." Wh n intrac ll
ular, rapidly polym riz s actin to prop l its lf in th opposit dir ction. Can
v n us this "actin rock t" m thod to jump from c ll to c ll.
1452173941535 1438033936302 D scrib acid-fast stain and nam on sp ci s th
at xhibits it. Th acid-fast proc dur involv s staining und r warm con
ditions with th lipid-solubl dy carbolfuschin, which can nt r th waxy, oth
rwis imp rm abl c ll wall of <i>mycobact rium tub rculosis. </i>Th mixtur is
th n rins d with a v ry strong d coloriz r, which r mov s th carbolfuschin sta
in from all but thos bact ria with th imp n trabl c ll wall d scrib d abov .
Th d coloriz d non-acid-fast c lls tak up count rstain. Oth r mycobact ria t n
d to also b acid-fast.
1452174124586 1438033936302 Why ar acid-fast organisms highly r sistant to
disinf ctants and dry conditions?
Organisms lik <i>mycobact ria</i>
contain high amounts of mycolic acids in th c ll wall. Th s ar waxy fatty aci
ds that contribut to r lativ imp n trability of th m mbran .
1452174196101 1438033936302 What sp cial cultur is us d for <i>mycobact riu
m tub rculosis</i>?
Th Low nst in J ns n m dium, which has starch, gg, and
oth r substanc s to inhibit growth of oth r bact ria.
1452174230930 1438033936296 <i>Mycobact rium tub rculosis</i> is an obl
igat {{c1::a rob }}
1452174238146 1438033936296 <i>Mycobact rium tub rculosis</i> cultur s
v ry slowly, on th ord r of {{c1::2-6}} w ks.

1452174274969 1438033936302 How is <i>mycobact rium tub rculosis </i>transmi
tt d? From inf ct d human to human via r spiratory dropl ts, or possibly from
th milk of inf ct d cows in th cas of oropharyng al TB.
1452174304453 1438033936296 <i>Mycobact rium tub rculosis</i> primarily
r sid s and prolif rat s in {{c1::macrophag s}}
1452174335613 1438033936302 What ss ntial virul nc factor of <i>mycobact r
ium tub rculosis</i> is pr s nt in th m mbran ? Glycolipids call d "cord
factor" that ar r sponsibl for clumping of bact ria into a s rp tin formatio
n. That shap is ss ntial for virul nc , such that a strain of <i>mycobact rium
tub rculosis</i> that do sn't form it is not virul nt!
1452174396458 1438033936302 What is th prot ctiv rol of cord factor for <
i>mycobact rium tub culosis</i>?
Its rol is to prot ct th bact ria via
liciting granuloma formation. This is m diat d via TNF-alpha ( .g.) r l as by
th host's macrophag s to activat oth r macrophag s.
1452174449049 1438033936302 What purpos do tub rculous granulomas s rv ?
<i>Mycobact rium tub rculosis</i> is wall d off insid and cannot prolif ra
t .
1452174506030 1438033936302 What rol do sulfatid s play in <i>mycobact rium
tub rculosis</i> inf ction?
Sulfatid s, a sulfat d galactosylc ramid
, allow <i>mycobact rium tub rculosis</i> to surviv insid c lls lik mac
rophag s. Th y pr v nt phagolysosom fusion by int rf ring with calcium signalli
ng, cr ating incomp t nt s condary lysosom s which can't fus .
1452174595001 1438033936302 What ar th thr possibl progr ssions of <i>m
ycobact rium tub rculosis</i>? Primary inf ction can proc d to ith r 1) a h a
l d lat nt inf ction; 2) syst mic inf ction (call d "miliary TB"); 3) r activati
on TB.
1452174641654 1438033936302 Which ar a of th lung do s primary inf ction wi
th <i>mycobact rium tub rculosis</i> typically involv ?
Th low r or mid
dl lob s.
1452174672074 1438033936302 Which ar a of th lung do s r activation TB usua
lly involv ?
Th upp r lob s/th apical r gions.
1452174686576 1438033936302 What is th Ghon compl x?
Visibl calcific
ations of lung par nchyma combin d with hilar lymphad nopathy that is charact ri
stic of <i>mycobact rium tub rculosis</i> inf ction on x-ray. Typically, th
granulomatous l sion is in th low r or middl lob with primary TB.
1452174798758 1438033936302 How do primary TB l sions h al? With fibrosis an
d v ntual calcification (which may includ r gional draining lymph nod s).
1452174823018 1438033936302 Why do cas ating granulomas form in primary TB?
Th y form in an att mpt to wall off th <i>mycobact rium</i> <i>tub rculosi
s</i>.
1452174866245 1438033936302 What ar th charact ristics of th cas ating gr
anulomas s n in <i>mycobact rium tub rculosis</i> inf ction?
A c ntra
l ar a of cas ating n crosis with activat d macrophag s, Lang rhans giant c lls,
and lymphocyt s at th out r dg . Th s oft n d v lop fibrosis and scarring.
1452174944357 1438033936302 What is th nam for a granuloma with a c ntral
ar a of cas ous n crosis surround d by a scar? A tub rcl
1452174960491 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of primary <i>mycobact riu
m tub rculosis</i> inf ction?
Most common app ar in childr n; prolong
d f v r. Most cas s r solv , h al by fibrosis, and b com lat nt.
1452180429027 1438033936302 Nam four ways that IFN-gamma nhanc s phagocyt
s' abiliti s to fight <i>m. tub rculosis </i>( .g.).
1) Up-r gulat s NOS and
RNS production. 2) Stimulat s maturation of th phagolysosom . <div>3) Prod
uction of antimicrobial p ptid s call d d f nsins. </div><div>4) Stimulatio
n of autophagy to s qu st r and d stroy damag d organ ll s. </div>
1452180596233 1438033936302 Why is <i>m. tub rculosis</i> abl to b so
inf ctious?
It is transmitt d by r spiratory dropl ts but is so r sistant to
drying that it can surviv in "dropl t nucl i," which can b com susp nd d coll
oidally in th air!
1452180664350 1438033936302 What color do AFB stain?
R d (non-fluor s
c nt).
1452180721316 1438033936302 What stain for AFB is gold and fluor sc nt?
Auramin
1452180857880 1438033936296 Som vaccin s conf r gr at r lasting immunity th
an {{c1::an actual activ inf ction}}
1452180861940 1438033936296 {{c1::PCR}} is commonly us d as a diagnostic ass
ay for bact ria.
1452180883696 1438033936296 Acid-fast bacilli is basically synonymous with&n
bsp;{{c1::mycobact ria}}
1452180932649 1438033936296 {{c1::IL-1}} is a trophic cytokin , wh r as IL-1
2 is mor r gulatory
1452180964686 1438033936302 What do pathologists call TB on stains? R d snap
p rs
1452180977234 1438033936302 Why don't w administ r BCG vaccinations in th
US?
Not only is our att nuat d <i>m. bovis</i> strain fairly in ff ctiv
, vaccination with BCG conf rs a positiv PPD r spons , which invalidat s th u
s of PPD as a scr ning tool. Using th PPD is mor ff ctiv for us b caus w
ar a low-incid nc population.
1452181103167 1438033936302 Why ar HIV pati nts so susc ptibl to TB?
Th y los th ability to mak Th1 r spons s, which ar n c ssary for containing
th inf ction. Th ir r spons s, if pr s nt at all, ar Th2 polariz d. TB in th s
pati nts pr s nt without granuloma formation and as pn umonia.
1452181153749 1438033936302 What do s a positiv PPD look lik ? Who will hav
on ? A wh al. P opl with lat nt or activ TB, p opl who hav r c iv d th B
CG vaccin , p opl who hav had <i>m. bovis</i> inf ction.
1452184453695 1438033936302 What is th ff ctiv n ss of th <i>m. bovis</i>
vaccin (BCG)?
0-80%, with variabl r ports.
1452184489644 1438033936302 D scrib th progr ssion of TB to syst mic dis a
s . What is this call d?
TB can s d almost any organ via h matog nous sp
r ad (bact r mia). Commonly inf cts bon , liv r, and lymphatics. Acut , possibly
fatal, with variabl pr s ntation d p nding on th organs aff ct d. Call d "mil
iary TB."
1452184621267 1438033936302 What should you k p in mind if you s fulminan
t multi-organ failur in an immigrant to th US?
Miliary tub rculosis
1452184654408 1438033936302 What p rc nt of lat nt <i>mycobact rium tub rcul
osis </i>inf ctions r activat ? 5-10%. Associat d with immunosuppr ss d stat (H
IV pati nts, transplant pati nts, canc r pati nts, th ld rly). Th common m ch
anism is d cr as d r l as of TNF-alpha, r sulting in d cr as d contamination of
th inf ction.
1452184752234 1438033936302 What is a TNF-alpha inhibitor? Inflixumab.&nbsp
;
1452184802768 1438033936302 What should you do b for starting som on on a
TNF-alpha inhibitor?
Scr n with PPD
1452184856435 1438033936302 What r gion of th lungs do s r activation TB ty
pically involv ?
Upp r lob s/apical r gions
1452184877945 1438033936302 What ar th thr classic symptoms of r activat
ion TB? Cough, night sw ats, h moptysis. Many also xp ri nc cach xia du to th
TNF alpha mad in r spons to cord factor.
1452184942088 1438033936302 What is Pott's dis as ? <i>Mycobact rium tub rcu
losis </i>aff cting th spinal column. Pr s nts with multipl v rt bra involv d
, bon d min ralization, and soft tissu sw lling that can b painful. Can progr
ss to absc ss formation with spinal d formiti s and w akn ss d/t loss of suppor
t.
1452185011786 1438033936302 What typ of CNS involv m nt in s n in r activa
tion TB?
CNS involv m nt is s n in 10-15% of pati nts with r activation.
Can manif st as m ningitis or a tub rculoma.
1452185044879 1438033936302 What is a tub rculoma? A cavitary l sion in th
brain.
1452185054267 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for TB? Th r ar multidrug-r sistant strains (MDR-TB) and tr atm nt is v ry long, so mor r sistanc c
an d v lop. Tr at with RIPE: rifampicin, isoniazid, pyrazinamid , and thambutol

. R and I ar also us d for prophylaxis for 9 months with lat nt TB.
1452294686924 1438033936302 D scrib th app aranc of <i>actinomyc s</i>&nb
sp;<i>isra lii</i> und r th microscop .
A gram-positiv filam nt
ous branching rod.
1452294726984 1438033936296 <i>Actinomyc s isra lii</i> is gram {{
c1::positiv }}
1452294729689 1438033936296 <i>Actinomyc s isra lii</i> is an obligat &
nbsp;{{c1::ana rob }}
1452294743610 1438033936302 What is <i>actinomyc s isra lii</i>'s normal r l
ationship with humans? Comm nsal flora of th oral cavity.
1452294761386 1438033936302 What typically pr cipitat s inf ction with <i>ac
tinomyc s isra lii</i>? Jaw trauma, aft r which tissu injury may allow th bact
rium to spr ad throughout th h ad and n ck. Call d "c rvicofacial actinomyc s.
"
1452294805121 1438033936302 What typ of proc dur is oft n us d as a pr cip
itating v nt for <i>actinomyc s isra lii</i> inf ction in qu stion st ms?
D ntal proc dur s, som of which includ jaw trauma
1452294834738 1438033936302 D scrib c rvicofacial actinomyc s inf ction.&nb
sp;
This is typically s n aft r jaw trauma including d ntal proc dur s. T n
ds to hav a fairly slow cours , and usually b gins with th formation of a nont nd r lump on th jaw. This lump v ntually forms an absc ss, follow d by th a
pp aranc of sinus tracts that drain through th skin. Drainag is a thick y llo
w pus that ow s its color to sulfur granul s.
1452294915323 1438033936302 How is <i>actinomyc s isra lii</i> inf ctio
n tr at d?
With p nicillin G and surgical drainag if n c ssary.
1452294932453 1438033936302 What do s <i>nocardia ast roid s</i> look l
ik und r th microscop ?
Gram-positiv filam ntous branching rod. How v r
, contains mycolic acids in th m mbran and so can stain faintly acid-fast.&nbs
p;
1452294977498 1438033936296 <i>Nocardia ast roid s</i> is catalas -{{c1
::positiv }}
1452294985638 1438033936296 <i>Nocardia ast roid s</i> is ur as -{{c1::
positiv }}
1452295000842 1438033936302 D scrib th cology of <i>nocardia ast roid s.<
/i>
Obligat a rob that is typically found in th soil but do s NOT form sp
or s.
1452295027793 1438033936296 <i>Nocardia ast roid s</i> is an obligat &n
bsp;{{c1::a rob }}
1452295036571 1438033936296 P opl with {{c1::chronic granulomatous dis
as }} ar at incr as d risk of inf ction with {{c2::catalas -positiv }} organis
ms
1452295073351 1438033936296 <i>Nocardia ast roid s</i> inf ctions typic
ally aff ct {{c1::immunocompromis d}} pati nts.
<i>Sp cifically thos wi
th impair d c ll-m diat d immunity. Also th ld rly, HIV pati nts, transplant p
ati nts, or p opl on glucocorticoids. </i>
1452295133442 1438033936302 Which obligat a rob typically aff cts m n mor
than wom n?
<i>Nocardia ast roid s</i>
1452295147861 1438033936302 What ar th thr main sit s aff ct d by <i>noc
ardia ast roid s</i> inf ction?
Lungs, CNS, skin.
1452295173005 1438033936302 D scrib pulmonary nocardiosis. Pn umonia with a
bsc ss formation/cavitary l sions in lungs. From lungs nocardia can spr ad anywh
r in th body, but it has a particular affinity for n ural tissu . Thus, can s
brain absc ss s
1452295226413 1438033936302 D scrib cutan ous nocardiosis. Any activity xp
osing op n wounds to dirt can caus this inf ction (gard ning, construction work
, car accid nts, carp ntry). Pati nts typically xhibit a pyog nic r spons &nbs
p;with indurat d l sions.
1452295280445 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i>nocardia ast roid s
</i> inf ction?
Sulfonamid s
1452295291598 1438033936302 Why do s <i>mycobact rium l pra </i> hav a

pr dil ction for th xtr miti s?
It thriv s in t mp ratur s that ar cool
r than that of th cor .
1452295321889 1438033936302 What is r sponsibl for th AFB staining of <i>m
ycobact rium l pra </i>?
Th num rous waxy mycolic acids in th m mbran .

1452295347505 1438033936302 What is th r s rvoir of <i>mycobact rium l pra
</i> in th Unit d Stat s? Th armadillo. Go figur .
1452295363694 1438033936302 What ar th two classical pr s ntations of <i>m
ycobact rium l pra </i> inf ction? Tub rculoid l prosy, which is m
diat d by a Th1 r spons , and L promatous l prosy du to a Th2 r spons . Not th
at actual pati nts may fall on a sp ctrum b tw n th s .
1452295415056 1438033936302 What und rli s tub rculoid l prosy? What is its
pr s ntation? This is <i>mycobact rium l pra </i>inf ction with a Th1 host r
spons (c ll-m diat d immunity). Th body can contain th bact ria in macrophag
s. Symptoms ar thus r lativ ly mild. Pati nts may hav w ll-d marcat d, hairl s
s, hypoa sth tic skin plaqu s that can occur anywh r on th body.
1452295510502 1438033936302 How can you t st for tub rculoid l prosy?
Th L promin's skin t st, which is an intrad rmal inj ction of bact rial antig n
s to t st for an immun r aciton. A wh al is a positiv sign for a good c ll-m d
iat d (i. . Th1) r spons .
1452295545739 1438033936302 What is th tiology of l promatous l prosy?
Inf ction with <i>mycobact rium l pra </i> against which th host has mount
d a Th2 r spons (humoral immunity). P opl who r spond this way to l prosy typ
ically hav a v ry w ak Th1 r spons , which pr v nts containm nt within macropha
g s. This is th classically known form of l prosy.
1452295619907 1438033936302 What is th m chanism of transmission of l prosy
?
Human-to-human, still unknown but possibly through r spiratory dropl ts.

1452295641112 1438033936302 Which form of l prosy is mor asily transmissib
l ?
L promatous l prosy.
1452295650217 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of l promatous l prosy?
B caus distal xtr miti s ar typically low r in t mp ratur than th cor , n u
ropathy is s n symm trically in th "stocking-glov distribution." Pati nts wil
l also pr s nt with num rous poorly-d marcat d rais d l sions that can b all ov
r th body but sp cially app ar on xt nsor surfac s (which all g dly fac awa
y from our body and ar thus cool r). Also, can caus profound facial d fo
rmity.
1452295769259 1438033936302 D scrib th "l onin faci s" of l prosy.
Thick ning of th skin, loss of y brows and y lash s, collaps of nos , format
ion of nodular arlob s. All g dly, pati nts look lik lions.
1452295802379 1438033936302 What would you s on a biopsy of a skin l sion
in a p rson with l promatous l prosy? Larg amounts of bact ria (which is v ry
diff r nt from TB in which biopsi s show f w bact ria d/t good containm nt in m
acrophag s).
1452295840765 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for tub rculoid l prosy?
Rifampin plus dapson for six months.
1452295901172 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for l promatous l prosy?
Rifampin plus dapson plus clofazamin for 2-5 y ars. D formiti s and n uropathi
s caus d by this inf ction ar not n c ssarily r v rsibl .
1452455603375 1438033936302 What is th app aranc of <i>n iss ria m ninigit
idis and n iss ria gonhorro a </i> und r th microscop ? Gram-n gativ di
plococci.
1452456791835 1438033936296 <i>N iss ria</i> ar gram {{c1::n gativ }}
1452456800641 1438033936296 <i>N iss ria </i>ar oxidas {{c1::positiv
}}
1452456807615 1438033936296 "Gram-n gativ diplococci" is basically synonymo
us with {{c1::<i>n iss ria</i>}}
1452457247374 1438033936302 What ar th uniqu cultur m dia r quir d by <i
>n iss ria m ningitidis </i>and <i>n iss ria gonorrho a </i>? 1) Chocolat aga
r, an nrich d m dium mad from h at d blood agar (so it's call d "burnt blood")
. <i>N iss ria </i> ar inhibit d by lipids pr s nt in blood agar, so th y
can't grow on it. H ating th m dium inactivat s th inhibitors. <div>2) VP
N agar, so-call d b caus it contains vancomycin, polymyxin, and nystatin. Also
call d Thay r-Martin agar. </div>
1452457374510 1438033936302 What typ of pati nts ar sp cially susc ptibl
to inf ction with <i>n iss ria m ningitidis </i>and<i> n iss ria gonorrho
a </i>? Pati nts with compl m nt d fici ncy, sp cifically of C5-C9 (can't form t
h MAC).
1452457429548 1438033936302 What ar th two major virul nc factors common
to <i>n iss ria m ningitidis</i> and <i>n iss ria gonorrho a </i>? 1) Pili/
Fimbria that allow attachm nt to mucosal surfac s and xhibit antig nic variati
on (and ar thus hard for our immun syst ms to targ t), and <div>2) an IgA
prot as that cl av s IgA mol cul s at th hing r gion. This also facilitat s
survival on mucosal surfac s.</div>
1452457510485 1438033936302 Why is it difficult for our immun syst ms to fo
rm a lasting r spons to <i>n iss ria m ningitidis </i>and <i>n iss ria gonorrho
Th ir pili and fimbria display antig nic variation.
a </i>?
1452457543017 1438033936302 D scrib a classical pati nt with <i>n iss
ria m ningitidis</i>.
<i>N iss ria m ningitidis </i>is transmitt d via
clos contact/r spiratory dropl ts, so it is asily spr ad in coll g dorm-lik
situations. You should thus b suspicious of m ningococcal tiology in a coll g
-ag d kid with m ningitis.
1452457675591 1438033936302 Do s <i>n iss ria m ningitidis</i> or <i>n
iss ria gonorrho a </i> f rm nt maltos ? <i>N iss ria m ningitidis</i>.&n
bsp;
1452457698769 1438033936302 Do s <i>n iss ria m ningitidis </i>or <i>n iss r
ia gonorrho a </i> f rm nt glucos ?
Both.
1452457721015 1438033936302 Is <i>n iss ria m ningitidis </i> ncapsulat d?
Y s, capsul is mad of polysaccharid s.
1452457746780 1438033936302 What is th first sit of colonization by <i>n i
ss ria m ningitidis</i>?
Th nasopharynx (it is transmitt d by inhal d r
spiratory s cr tions).
1452457778459 1438033936302 What pr v nts phagocytosis of <i>n iss ria m nin
gitidis</i>?
Its polysaccharid capsul .
1452457794962 1438033936302 Why do s th strain of <i>n iss ria m ningitidis
</i> with a typ B capsul caus most inf ctions in th US/oth r d v lop d
countri s?
It is not includ d in th vaccin , which conf rs prot ction agai
nst typ A, C, and D capsul s.
1452457845932 1438033936302 What typ of pati nts ar susc ptibl to <i>n is
s ria m ningitidis</i> mor than <i>n iss ria gonorrho a </i>?
Spl n ct
omy pati nts (and SCA pati nts) b caus <i>m ningitidis</i> is ncapsulat d
and <i>gonorrho a </i> is not.
1452457896338 1438033936302 D scrib th pathog n sis of <i>n iss ria m ning
itidis</i> inf ctions.
Coloniz s nasopharynx first, th n spr ad
s h matog nously. L ads to a massiv inflammatory r spons onc in th blood. Th
n, a charact ristic p t chial rash d v lops (of which th m chanism is not cl a
r). Pati nts can b com hypovol mic or nt r shock. Wat rhous -Fridr richs n syn
drom can d v lop and can b fatal.
1452458082608 1438033936302 What is th ov rall mortality rat of pati nts w
ith <i>n iss ria m ningitidis </i>inf ction?
Ev n with appropriat tr atm nt,
mortality can b 15%. Early tr atm nt still improv s outcom s.
1452458121716 1438033936302 What is th mpiric tr atm nt of choic for m ni
ngitis caus d by <i>n iss ria m ningitidis</i>? A third-g n ration c phalosporin
that can p n trat th blood-brain barri r, .g. c ftriaxon .
1452458151998 1438033936302 Why is it important to giv clos -contacts proph
ylaxis in <i>n iss ria m ningitidis</i> cas s? What is CCP?
Th inf
ction is spr ad asily by r spiratory dropl ts. A clos contact is d fin d as so
m on who sp nt mor than 8 hours with th pati nt during th 7 days prior to on
s t.
1452458297079 1438033936302 What is th most commonly us d drug in clos -con

tacts prophylaxis for <i>n iss ria m ningitidis</i>?
Rifampin
1452458330478 1438033936302 What is th instigator of th massiv host infla
mmatory r spons to <i>n iss ria m ningitidis</i>?
Lipooligosaccharid (LOS
) is an antig nic nv lop prot in that is <i>n. m ningitidis's</i> v rsion
of LPS. <i>N. m ningitidis</i> mak s so much LOS that it ov rgrows th sur
fac ar a of th bact ria and bl bs off. Th bl bs th ms lv s caus th host r s
pons , which includ s incr as d capillary p rm ability and l akag of fluid into
xtrac llular spac . Th latt r can r sult in hypovol mia.
1452459855596 1438033936302 What is th origin of th charact ristic p t chi
al rash in<i> n. m ningitidis</i> inf ction? Th origin is uncl ar. T
h p t chia corr spond to thrombocytop nia in th pati nt and can progr ss to p
urpura and cchymos s indicativ of DIC.
1452459895759 1438033936302 What would you xp ct of a pati nt with <i>n iss
ria m ningitidis</i> inf ction that progr ss s to DIC?
Th p t chial ra
sh will progr ss to purpura and cchymos s. Th pati nt will also lik ly hav oo
zing at v nipunctur sit s and bl ding gums.
1452460002191 1438033936302 What should b at th top of your diff r ntial w
h n you s a m ningitis pati nt with a p t chial rash? <i>N iss ria m ningitidi
s</i> inf ction
1452460042394 1438033936302 What happ ns as a <i>n iss ria m ningitidis </i>
pati nt b com s hypovol mic?
P riph ral vasoconstriction r ach s a ma
ximum to maintain blood pr ssur . Th adr nals can b com poorly p rfus d and in
farct, which furth r contribut s to shock and is oft n fatal.
1452460109889 1438033936302 What is Wat rhous -Fridr ichs n syndrom ?
Adr nal infarction du to vasoconstriction (to maintain BP to comp nsat for sho
ck) in <i>n iss ria m ningitidis </i>pati nts. R sulting adr nal insuffici ncy c
an furth r contribut to shock and is oft n fatal.
1452460176510 1438033936296 <i>N iss ria gonorrho a </i> is a {{c1
::s xually}} transmitt d inf ction.
<i>"STI"</i>
1452460230134 1438033936296 <i>N iss ria gonorrho a </i> is gram {
{c1::n gativ }}
1452460242576 1438033936296 <i>N iss ria gonorrho a </i> is a facultati
v {{c1::intrac llular parasit }}. <i>Lik s to invad PMNs</i>
1452460273245 1438033936302 What do s <i>n iss ria gonorrho a </i>look lik
und r th microscop ? Gram-n gativ diplococci.
1452460298524 1438033936302 What typ of whit blood c ll do s <i>n iss ria
gonorrho a </i> lik to invad ?
N utrophils
1452460331508 1438033936296 <i>N iss ria gonorrho a </i> {{c1::is not}}
ncapsulat d.
1452460340814 1438033936302 What is th first sit <i>n iss ria gonorrho a <
/i> aff cts?
Th g nitals (it's s xually transmitt d).
1452460359697 1438033936302 How do s <i>n iss ria gonorrho a </i> pr s
nt in m n?
As ur thritis that can trav l up th tract to caus prostatitis
and orchitis. Can s th sam whit , purul nt discharg as in wom n.
1452460384545 1438033936302 How do s <i>n iss ria gonorrho a </i> inf c
tion pr s nt in wom n? With charact ristic whit , purul nt discharg . Th inf c
tion can asc nd to caus p lvic inflammatory dis as (PID).
1452460429270 1438033936302 What do s PID ntail? PID is p lvic inflammato
ry dis as . It can caus scarring in th f mal r productiv tract that can r su
lt in inf rtility or ctopic pr gnancy. May its lf b a r sult of asc nding <i>n
. gonorrho a </i> inf ction.
1452460497382 1438033936302 D scrib th diff r nc in discharg s b tw n go
norrh a and chlamydia.
Gonorrh a has a thick whit purul nt discharg ,
whil th discharg s n in chlamydia is thinn r and mor wat ry.
1452460556321 1438033936302 What ar thr common complications of PID?
1) Inf rtility from scarring, 2) Ectopic pr gnanci s, 3) Fitz-Hug -Curtis syndro
m
1452460832282 1438033936302 What is Fitz-Hugh-Curtis Syndrom ?
A compli
cation of PID in which inf ction spr ads to th p riton um, and adh sions form b
tw n it and th capsul of th liv r. Th s adh sions ar call d "violin strin

g adh sions" b caus th y ar long and thin.
1452460903260 1438033936302 What is a pati nt pr s ntation that should mak
you think of <i>n iss ria gonorrho a </i> inf ction?
A sid ff ct of
<i>n. gonorrho a </i> inf ction can b polyarthritis, usually asymm tric a
nd most commonly in th kn . Thus, if you s a young s xually activ mal or f
mal with asymm tric arthritis, k p gonorrh a in mind.
1452460998744 1438033936302 What will a joint tap of th kn show in som on
with gonorrh a?
Purul nt synovial fluid that will not gram stain b caus
th pathog n is intrac llular!
1452461025677 1438033936302 How do n onat s acquir <i>n iss ria gonorrho a
</i>? From th ir moth rs during d liv ry.
1452461063304 1438033936302 How do s <i>n iss ria gonorrho a </i> pr s
nt in infants? Purul nt conjunctivitis that usually app ars within th first fi
v days of lif .
1452461183544 1438033936302 How do s chlamydia pr s nt in infants? Conjunct
ivitis that has a d lay d ons t at about a w k aft r birth (unlik n onatal con
junctivitis caus d by <i>n. gonorrho a , </i>which mainf sts within th fir
st 5 days of lif ).
1452461243540 1438033936302 How can you distinguish b tw n a n onatal conju
nctivitis caus d by <i>n. gonorrho a </i> or on caus d by <i>chlamydi
a </i>? Gonococcal conjunctivitis typically has a short r cours to ons t (withi
n 5 days of lif vs. aft r 1 w k for <i>chlamydia </i>)
1452461335711 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i>n iss ria gonorrho
a </i> inf ction? C ftriaxon is suffici nt, but is always accompani d wit
h a macrolid ( .g. azithromycin) or doxycyclin for possibl co-inf ction with
<i>chlamydia </i>.
1453050459269 1438033936302 What ar th 2 most common dis as s caus d by <
i>nt robact r</i>, <i>s rratia</i>, and <i>kl bsi lla pn umonia </i>? Pn umoni
a and UTIs.
1453051087214 1438033936302 What is an important sourc of <i>kl bsi lla</i>
, <i>s rratia</i>, and<i> nt robact r</i> inf ctions?
Th y'r
nosocomial, m aing th y ar oft n hospital-acquir d inf ctions.
1453051204444 1438033936302 Wh n you h ar som thing is a "nosocomial" inf ct
ion, what should you think?
"This might xhibit multi-drug r sistanc ."
1453051254798 1438033936296 {{c1::Carbap n ms}} ar oft n us d to tr at <i>
nt robact r,</i> <i>kl bsi lla, </i>and <i>s rratia</i> b caus r sist
anc to this class of antibiotics is not oft n s n.
1453051277302 1438033936296 <i>Ent robact r</i> is gram-{{c1::n gativ }
}
1453051298626 1438033936296 <i>Kl bsi lla pn umonia </i> is gram {
{c1::n gativ }}
1453051316668 1438033936296 <i>S rratia </i>is gram {{c1::n gativ }}
1453051322953 1438033936296 Ent rics t nd to b bacillary in shap and gram&
nbsp;{{c1::<i>n gativ </i>}}
1453051385344 1438033936296 <i>S rratia, kl bsi lla pn umonia , </i>and <i>
nt robact r</i> f rm nt {{c1::lactos }}
1453051388660 1438033936296 <i>E. coli</i> f rm nts {{c1::lactos }
}
1453051396385 1438033936296 Lactos f rm nt rs form {{c1::pink}} coloni
s on {{c2::MacConk y}} agar.
1453051419740 1438033936302 Why might <i>S rratia</i> hav a fals n ga
tiv lactos f rm ntation t st on MacConk y agar?
It f rm nts v ry slowly.

1453051451481 1438033936296 <i>Ent robact r </i>and <i>S rratia</i> ar
{{c1::motil }}
1453051454757 1438033936296 Unlik <i>Ent robact r </i>and <i>S rratia</i>,&
nbsp;<i>Kl bsi lla </i>is not {{c1::motil }}
1453051495754 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>S rratia</i>}} produc s a r d pigm nt w
h n cultur d.
1453051516717 1438033936296 {{c1::S rratia}} produc s a r d pigm nt that can

b r sponsibl for th pink ring oft n s n in show rs.
1453051565475 1438033936302 What ar th 3 A's of <i>Kl bsi lla pn umonia </
i>?
(inf cts) Alcoholics, (forms) Absc ss s, and (occurs from) Aspiration.&n
bsp;
1453051601819 1438033936296 <i>Kl bsi lla </i>has a {{c1::polysaccharid
}} capsul .
1453051613245 1438033936302 What bact rial inf ction is associat d with pati
nts who cough up "currant j lly" sputum?
<i>Kl bsi lla pn umonia </i>
1453051630432 1438033936302 D scrib th clinical pr s ntation of <i>kl bsi
lla pn umonia </i> inf ction.
Pn umonia wh r pati nts cough up "curra
nt j lly" sputum; forms absc ss s (i. . cavitary l sions that can b s n on CXR
). May b confus d for TB at first.
1453051670090 1438033936296 <i>Kl bsi lla pn umonia </i> is ur as &nbsp
;{{c1::positiv }}.
1453051681645 1438033936296 Both <i>salmon lla typhi </i>and <i>salmon lla
nt ritidis</i> ar {{c1::motil }}
1453051721041 1438033936296 <i>Salmon lla typhi</i> and <i>salmon lla</
i> <i> nt ritidis</i> ar both H2S {{c1::positiv }}. <i>All nt rics
that ar motil ar H2S positiv . </i>
1453051861880 1438033936302 How can an H2S-positiv sp ci s b r cogniz d? W
hat sp ci s t nd to b H2S positiv ?
All nt rics that ar motil ar H2S pos
itiv . Th y grow black coloni s on H kto n agar.
1453051897154 1438033936302 Ar <i>salmon lla typhi</i> and <i>salmon l
la nt ritidis</i> ncapsulat d? Y s.
1453051945110 1438033936296 <i>Salmon lla </i>sp ci s ar acid {{c1::la
bil }} <i>M aning th y g t d grad d in th stomach, so a high dos is n c ssary
to caus inf ction</i>
1453051962549 1438033936302 What do s "acid-labil " m an? Not stabl in ac
id, i. . d grad d in stomach so high dos s ar r quir d to caus inf ction.&nbsp
;
1453051985893 1438033936302 Why can <i>shig lla</i> caus inf ction wit
h f w r organisms than <i>salmon lla typhi</i> or <i>salmon lla nt ritidis
</i>?
Shig lla is not acid-labil , so f w r organisms ar lost to th
stomach. Th r for , shig lla can nt r th int stin asily and caus inf ction
with 10-100 organisms (wh r as 10,000 ar n d d for salmon lla).
1453052025441 1438033936302 Who is at risk for <i>salmon lla</i> inf ct
ions? P opl with d cr as d stomach acidity (i. . p opl on imiprazol , p opl
with p rnicious an mia).
1453052069517 1438033936302 How do w acquir <i>salmon lla nt ritidis</i>?
By ating und rcook d chick n (chick ns ar th main r s rvoir).
1453052116972 1438033936302 What is th main r s rvoir of <i>salmon lla nt
ritidis?</i>
Chick ns.
1453052128872 1438033936302 What is th main symptom of <i>salmon lla nt ri
tidis </i>inf ction?
Inflammatory diarrh a.
1453052165495 1438033936296 Chronic carri rs of <i>salmon lla typhi</i>&nbsp
;hav it in th ir {{c1::gallbladd rs}}
1453052176960 1438033936296 About 25% of pati nts with <i>salmon lla typhi</
i> hav {{c1::"ros spots," or r d macul s}} on th ir abdom ns.
1453052198503 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>Salmon lla typhi</i>}} is th numb r on
caus of ost omy litis in SCA pati nts. <i>It's ncapsulat d</i>.
1453052240241 1438033936296 Ent ric f v r is also known as {{c2::typhoi
d f v r}}, and is caus d by <i>salmon lla typhi.</i>
1453052280922 1438033936296 Typhoid f v r is usually associat d with {{
c1::constipation}}, but it can caus diarrh a too.
1453052308534 1438033936302 What is "p a soup" diarrh a associat d with?
<i>Salmon lla typhi</i> inf ction.
1453052320666 1438033936302 How is <i>salmon lla typhi</i> inf ction mo
st oft n tr at d?
With a fluoroquinolon ( .g. Ciprofloxacin).
1453052342191 1438033936302 What typ of vaccin xists for <i>salmon lla ty
phi</i>?
A liv , att nuat d vaccin .
1453052398813 1438033936302 What is an important virul nc factor of <i>salm
on lla nt ritidis </i>that is shar d with <i>shig lla</i> and <i>y rsinia
p stis</i>?
It contains a typ III s cr tion syst m, which is a prot in that
d t cts ukaryotic c lls and s cr t s a prot in to h lp with inf ctivity.
1453052536687 1438033936302 D scrib th pathog n sis of both <i>salmon lla
typhi</i> and s<i>almon lla nt ritidis</i> inf ctions. Th y'r
ing st d and pass through th stomach, small int stin , and into th colon. Th y
invad th lymphatics in th colon, and ar tak n up into macrophag s and carri
d into th blood.
1453052592900 1438033936296 <i>Salmon lla typhi</i> and s<i>almon lla
nt ritidis</i> ar facultativ {{c1::intrac llular}}
1453052603856 1438033936302 What c lls ar <i>salmon lla typhi</i>&nbsp
;and <i>salmon lla nt ritidis</i> abl to liv within?
Macrophag s.&nbs
p;
1453052634051 1438033936296 <i>Shig lla sonn i </i>and <i>shig lla dys nt ri
a </i> ar gram {{c1::n gativ }}
1453052695403 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of s<i>hig lla sonn i </i>
and <i>shig lla dys nt ria </i> inf ction? Gastro nt ritis l ading to blood
y diarrh a.
1453052722514 1438033936302 Which <i>shig lla</i> sp ci s is by far th
most common in th US? <i>Shig lla sonn i</i>
1453052737004 1438033936296 <i>Shig lla</i> forms {{c1::gr n}} co
loni s on H kto n agar. <i>Gr at way to diff r ntiat from th black col
oni s of salmon lla sp ci s</i>
1453052759700 1438033936296 <i>Shig lla</i> sp ci s ar acid-{{c1::stab
l }}
1453052782826 1438033936302 What is on way to diff r ntiat <i>shig lla</i>
sp ci s from s<i>almon lla</i> sp ci s?
<i>Shig lla</i> for
ms gr n coloni s on H kto n agar and <i>salmon lla </i>sp ci s form black colon
i s.
1453052837508 1438033936302 Is <i>shig lla</i> motil ? No.
1453052898749 1438033936302 How do s <i>shig lla </i>caus inf ction?
It induc s th M c lls in P y r's patch s that ar constantly sampling antig ns
to phagocytos it. It th n scap s th phagolysosom b for it can b d grad d,
and onc in th M c ll's cytoplasm us s actin from th host's cytosk l ton to cr
at a tail to prop l its lf from c ll to c ll.
1453052997445 1438033936296 <i>Shig lla </i>is facultativ {{c1::intrac
llular}}
1453053015117 1438033936302 What do M c lls do?
R sid abov P y r's pat
ch s in th int stin s. Th y act as scouts by constantly sampling antig ns, whic
h th y ndocytos and d liv r to c lls of th immun syst m in P y r's patch s.&
nbsp;
1453053050346 1438033936302 What do s <i>shig lla</i> do aft r it has i
nvad d nt rocyt s?
It invad s th und rlying lymphoid tissu and r l as s c
ytokin s which can trigg r a larg immun r spons . F cal blood and l ukocyt s c
an b s n.
1453053109920 1438033936302 What do l ukocyt s in f c s indicat ? Und rlyi
ng inflammation.
1453053127841 1438033936302 What is a complication of shig llosis in a child
inf ct d with th <i>shig lla dys nt ria </i> strain?
H molytic ur mic
syndrom (although it is mor commonly caus d by . coli).
1453053170756 1438033936302 What do s HUS look lik in childr n with shig ll
osis? A prodromal diarrh a follow d by acut r nal failur about a w k lat r.

1453053190667 1438033936302 What is th pathog n sis of HUS?
Onc <i>
shig lla</i> invad s, it can r l as shiga toxin (stx). Wh n stx g ts into
th bloodstr am, it can induc ndoth lial damag (including within th glom rul
i). Endoth lial damag activat s and d pl t s plat l ts, which sh ar and lys RB
Cs in th microvasculatur . This is call d microangiopathic h molytic an mia (MA
HA).
1453053255839 1438033936296 HUS is most common in pati nts {{c1::und r
t n y ars old}}
1453053267341 1438033936302 What would you xp ct on a p riph ral blood sm a
r in a pati nt with HUS?
Schistocyt s du to MAHA.
1453053317156 1438033936302 What is th m chanism of tissu damag caus d by
<i>shiga</i> toxin?
<i>Shiga </i>toxin binds th 60s subunit of host
c ll ribosom s and inhibits translation of prot ins.
1453053356162 1438033936296 <i>Shig lla</i> has a typ {{c1::III}}
s cr tion syst m.
1453053363664 1438033936296 <i>Esch richia coli</i>, EHEC, and ETEC ar gram
{{c1::n gativ }} rods.
1453053387902 1438033936296 <i>E. coli, </i>EHEC, and ETEC f rm nt {{c1
::lactos }}
<i>Mak pink coloni s on MacConk y agar</i>
1453053444035 1438033936302 Is <i> . coli </i> ncapsulat d? Y s.
1453053456088 1438033936302 What is important about <i> . coli's</i> ca
psul ? It contains a mol cul call d K antig n that is us ful for s rotyping.&n
bsp;
1453053478265 1438033936302 What is th significanc of a m tallic gr n sh
n on osin-m thyl n blu (EMB) agar ? <i>E. coli </i>produc s this sh n. It i
ndicat s that th bact rium is catalas positiv .
1453053547667 1438033936296 <i>E. coli </i>is catalas {{c1::positiv }}
1453053615423 1438033936302 What sp ci s produc d this? What agar is b ing u
s d?<img src="past -5712306504436.jpg" />
This is osin-m thyl n blu aga
r (EMB agar). E. coli mak s this charact ristic m tallic gr n sh n, indicating
it is catalas positiv .
1453053645274 1438033936302 What is an important virul nc factor of <i> . c
oli</i>?
Its fimbria (or "pili"). Th s nabl th bug to caus UTIs.&nb
sp;
1453053679027 1438033936302 What is th numb r 1 caus of UTIs?
<i>E. co
li</i> (caus s 80%!).
1453053695181 1438033936302 What is th l ading caus of gram-n gativ s psi
s?
<i>E. coli</i>, du to LPS ndotoxin locat d in th otu r c ll m mbran .

1453053714249 1438033936296 {{c1::LPS}} is a non-sp cific virul nc factor f
or all gram-n gativ s.
1453053728506 1438033936296 Only <i> . coli</i> that is positiv for&nb
sp;{{c1::th K capsular antig n}} can caus n onatal m ningitis.
1453053783202 1438033936302 What can <i> . coli</i> caus in n onat s?
M ningitis, if it is a strain with th capsular K antig n.
1453053794542 1438033936302 How is EHEC most commonly transmitt d? Und rcoo
k d m at, usually hamburg r.
1453053812972 1438033936302 What do s EHEC caus ? Bloody diarrh a
1453053838375 1438033936302 What is on way to t ll you hav isolat d nt ro
h morrhagic E. coli (EHEC)?
It is th only <i> . coli </i> that do sn't
f rm nt sorbitol.
1453053862883 1438033936302 D scrib EHEC toxin.
Virtually th sa
m as shiga toxin; inhibits th 60s ribosomal subunit and stops prot in translat
ion. Call d shiga-lik toxin.
1453053887496 1438033936302 Nam two sp ci s that can caus HUS.
<i>Shig
lla dys nt ria </i>, <i>EHEC</i>
1453053903899 1438033936302 What do s shiga-lik toxin do? Just lik shiga
toxin, it stops prot in translation by inhibiting th 60s subunit of th ribosom
. Damag s th ndoth lial c lls of glom rular capillari s, and is thrombog nic
du to this damag . Thus, MAHA.
1453053950900 1438033936302 Which EHEC s rotyp is known to caus massiv ou
tbr aks?
Th O157:H7 s rotyp .
1453053967256 1438033936302 What is ETEC also known as?
Also call d "Tra
v l r's diarrh a," or "Mont zuma's r v ng ."
1453053991766 1438033936302 What is th main symptom of ETEC?
Wat ry d
iarrh a.
1453054006386 1438033936302 How is ETEC transmitt d?
Wat r sourc s.&n
bsp;
1453054018678 1438033936302 What is a classic history for a pati nt pr s nti
ng with ETEC? R c nt trav l to M xico, wh r th y drank th wat r.
1453054033812 1438033936302 D scrib th two toxins of ETEC.
1) A h a
t-labil toxin that incr as s intrac llular cAMP (lik chol ra toxin). 2) A h at
stabl toxin that incr as s cGMP.
1453054060190 1438033936302 Who discov r d <i>y rs nia p stis?</i> Al xand
r Y rsin, a Swiss-Fr nch physician.
1453054087486 1438033936302 What pathog n caus s th black plagu ? <i>Y rsi
nia p stis</i>
1453054124677 1438033936296 <i>Y rsinia p stis</i> and <i>y rsinia nt
rocolitica</i> ar gram {{c1::n gativ }}
1453054156220 1438033936302 What shap is <i>y rsinia p stis?</i> Coccobac
illus
1453054171666 1438033936302 What shap is <i>y rsinia nt rocolitica</i>?
Rod-shap d (bacillus)
1453054183724 1438033936302 Ar <i>y rsinia sp ci s</i> ncapsulat d?
Y s.
1453054192064 1438033936302 How is <i>y rsinia nt rocolitica </i>transmitt
d?
Through puppy f c s or contaminat d milk products.
1453054205962 1438033936302 Who ar most commonly aff ct d by <i>y rsinia n
t rocolitica</i>?
Toddl rs or small childr n playing with puppy f c s or r
c iving contaminat d milk products.
1453054246360 1438033936302 What ar <i>list ria</i> sp ci s and <i>y r
sinia nt rocolitica</i> r sistant to?
Cold t mp ratur s (thus, can con
taminat milk)
1453054286954 1438033936302 What typ of staining do s <i>y rsinia nt rocol
itica</i> display? Bipolar or "saf ty-pin" staining: stains most int ns ly
at nds.
1453054337597 1438033936302 What is th main symptom of <i>y rsinia nt roco
litica</i>?
Diarrh a. B caus it is an invasiv organism, can s blood in s
tool.
1453054369630 1438033936302 What ar th syst mic ff cts of <i>y rsinia</i>
<i> nt rocolitica</i>?
F v r, l ukocytosis, absc ss s. Sp cifically in
th abdom n, can l ad to int stinal p rfusion, intussusc ption, paralytic il us,
n crotic small bow l, and oth r int stinal complications. Th s ar rar .
1453054432348 1438033936302 Th manif station of what pathog n is known to m
imic app ndicitis?
<i>Y rsinia nt rocolitica</i> inf ction. May s a
toddl r with RLQ pain and oth r classic symptoms lik f v r, l vat d WBC count
. This is wh r a history can b h lpful (puppi s, oth r sick kids, .g. can rul
out app ndicitis).
1453054521406 1438033936296 <i>Y rsinia p stis</i> is a facultativ &nbs
p;{{c1::ana rob }}
1453054541042 1438033936302 How is <i>y rsinia</i> <i>p stis</i> t
ransmitt d?
W ar incid ntal hosts ("d ad nd" hosts). W g t it via fl as
biting rats and th n us.
1453054567868 1438033936302 What is th main r s rvoir of <i>y rsinia p stis
</i> in th US?
Commonly associat d with rats but in US is prairi dogs.

1453054587498 1438033936302 What is th v ctor for <i>y rsinia p rstis</i>?
Fl as.
1453054593510 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of <i>y rsinia p stis</i>&
nbsp;inf ction? Charact ristic bubas, which ar swoll n, t nd r lymph nod s. Onc
bact ria hav stablish d inf ction, can s absc ss s in organs, DIC, and cut
an ous h morrhag s.
1453054633610 1438033936302 What caus s DIC in <i>y rsinia p stis</i> i
nf ction? What can this DIC l ad to?
Endotoxin. Can l ad to n crosis of digit
s, black ning and d ath of tissu (h nc "black plagu ").
1453054684032 1438033936302 What ar virul nc factors of <i>y rsinia p stis

</i> b sid s LPS? Exotoxins and y rsinin-associat d-out r-prot ins (YAOPs)
. YAOPs caus macrophag and PMN dysfunction by inhibiting phagocytosis and cyto
kin production, which allows th pathog n to r plicat rapidly and spr ad.&nbsp
;
1453054735181 1438033936302 What sp ci s ar YAOPs associat d with and what
do th y us ?
Th y ar associat d with <i>y rsinia p stis</i> and ar inv
olv d with a typ III s cr tion syst m.
1453054772845 1438033936302 What is us d to tr at <i>y rsinia</i> sp ci
Aminoglycosid s ( .g. str ptomycin) plus t tracyclin s.
s?
1453054798825 1438033936302 What typ of vaccin xists for <i>y rsinia p st
is</i>? A kill d vaccin that is not routin ly us d.
1453054825508 1438033936296 <i>Campylobact r j juni</i> is gram {{
c1::n gativ }}
1453054847872 1438033936302 What shap is c<i>ampylobact r j juni</i>?
It is a curv d gram-n gativ rod.
1453054851127 1438033936302 What do s <i>campylobact r j juni</i> usual
ly pr s nt with?
Gastro nt ritis plus diarrh a.
1453054904142 1438033936302 What is a complication of <i>campylobact r j jun
i</i>? Guillain-Barr syndrom .
1453054925630 1438033936302 What should <i>campylobact r j juni</i>&nbs
p;b intrinsically link d to in your mind?
H at. It is th rmophilic and pr
f rs to grow at t mp ratur s abov 42 C.
1453054963709 1438033936302 What is th main r s rvoir of <i>campylobact r j
juni?</i>
Th int stinal tract of oth r animals lik poultry.
1453055021082 1438033936302 What is th transmission of <i>campylobact r j j
uni?</i>
Sinc it t nds to liv in th int stinal tract of oth r animals,
transmission is t chnically f cal-oral. Can occur during slaught r, wh r guts
ar p rforat d and cont nts can contaminat m at.
1453055054544 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of <i>campylobact r j juni
</i> inf ction?
Lots and lots of diarrh a that is oft n bloody. Bact r m
ia du to invasiv <i>campylobact r</i> p n trating gut mucosa and nt
ring blood, r activ arthritis.
1453055126740 1438033936302 What is a common charact ristic of all thr cur
v d gram-n gativ nt ric rods? Th y (<i>h. pylori</i>, <i>vibrio chol ra , camp
ylobact r j juni</i>) ar all oxidas positiv .
1453055194645 1438033936302 What is R it r syndrom ?
A triad consisti
ng of r activ arthritis (a s ron gativ spondyloarthropathy, involv s SI joints
and kn s most commonly), uv itis, and ur thritis.
1453055294677 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>Campylobact r j juni</i>}} inf ction ca
n pr cipitat R it r syndrom .
1453055310258 1438033936302 D scrib Guillain-Barr syndrom . Occurs a
ft r som bact rial or viral inf ctions (most classically aft r c<i>ampylobact r
j juni</i>). Body has an autoimmun r spons that caus s d my lination of p rip
h ral n rv s and asc nding paralysis that b gins in th low r xtr miti s (oppos
it of botulism).
1453055369542 1438033936302 What shap ar <i>vibrio chol ra , vibrio paraha
molyticus, </i>and <i>vibrio vulnificus</i>? Curv d rods.
1453055425381 1438033936296 <i>Vibrio </i>sp ci s ar all gram {{c1::n
gativ }}
1453055433860 1438033936296 Chol ra is nd mic to {{c1::d v loping coun
tri s}}
1453055444575 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>Vibrio </i>sp ci s}} ar d scrib d as b
ing "comma-shap d."
1453055476790 1438033936302 Nam two g nus s with similar shap s to <i>vibri
o chol ra </i>. <i>H. pylori </i>(mor h lical) and <i>campylobact r j j
uni </i>(mor spiral).
1453055511757 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>Vibrio vulnificus </i>and <i>vibrio par
aha molyticus</i>}} can contaminat s afood.
1453055532888 1438033936302 What is th pr s ntation of <i>vibrio chol ra </
i> inf ction?
Profus wat ry diarrh a, said to hav "ric -wat
r" consist ncy.
1453055556184 1438033936302 What is th transmission of <i>vibrio</i> <
i>chol ra </i>? F cal-oral. Poor sanitation in d v loping countri s oft n l ads
to contamination of food and wat r sourc s.
1453055586969 1438033936302 What condition pr s nts with "ric -wat r" diarrh
a?
<i>Vibrio chol ra </i> inf ction.
1453055612793 1438033936296 <i>Vibrio chol ra </i> is oxidas {{c1
::positiv }}
1453055628006 1438033936302 D scrib th pathog n sis of chol ra.
<i>Vibrio chol ra </i> do s not invad th mucosa. It us s fimbria to atta
ch to gangliosid r c ptors in th int stinal wall, and th n s cr t s chol ra to
xin (which caus s all th symptoms).
1453055660812 1438033936302 D scrib chol ra toxin. It incr as s int
rac llular cAMP by binding and constitutiv ly activating ad nylat cyclas (in G
s prot ins). Incr as d cAMP incr as s s cr tion of H2O into th lum n of th int
stin s (thus causing th wat ry diarrh a)
1453055700211 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt of chol ra?
Antibiot
ics hav b n shown to r duc th duration of symptoms, but th primary tr atm n
t is oral r hydration with l ctrolyt s.
1453055743351 1438033936296 <i>Vibrio chol ra </i> is acid {{c1::l
abil }} <i>Thus, tough tim surviving stomach. Pr f rs alkalin m dia. </i>
1453055767761 1438033936296 <i>H licobact r pylori </i>is gram {{c
1::n gativ }}
1453055809019 1438033936302 Wh r is <i>h. pylori </i> found? Th antr
um of th stomach.
1453055827895 1438033936296 {{c1::80%}} of adults in d v loping countri s ar
inf ct d with <i>h. pylori</i> at som point in th ir liv s.
1453055842101 1438033936296 {{c1::50%}} of US adults hav b n carri rs for
<i>h. pylori</i> in th ir lif tim s.
1453055881878 1438033936296 <i>H. pylori</i> is ur as {{c1::posit
iv }}
1453055895128 1438033936296 Ur as splits ur a into {{c2::ammonia and C
O2}}
1453055920139 1438033936302 Why is ur as an adaptation?
It h lps r duc
nvironm ntal acidity by producing ammonia.
1453055935327 1438033936302 D scrib th motility of <i>H. pylori.</i>
It has flag lla that it spins and whips to mov around th stomach.
1453055961127 1438033936302 What shap is <i>h. pylori</i>? A curv d rod tha
t is mor h lical than <i>campylobact r</i> or <i>vibrio</i> sp ci s.&
nbsp;
1453056001144 1438033936296 {{c1::Ur as }} is n c ssary for <i>h. pylori</i>
to invad th stomach.
1453056012816 1438033936302 What ar th two scr ning t sts for <i>h. pylor
i</i>? 1) th ur a br ath t st (pati nt swallows radiolab l d ur a, will xhal
radioactiv CO2 if ur as -positiv organism is pr s nt in stomach). 2) Biopsy d
on during ndoscopy can th n b ch ck d with a rapid t st.
1453056084910 1438033936296 All thr curv d rod gram-n gativ nt ric g nus
s ar oxidas {{c1::positiv }}
<i>Campylobact r</i>, <i>vibrio, and h l
icobact r</i>
1453056123492 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>H. pylori</i>}} caus s 95% of all duod
nal ulc rs.
<i><br /></i>
1453056151019 1438033936302 What is th m chanism of duod nal ulc r formatio
n in <i>h. pylori </i>inf ction?
Not und rstood, but sugg st d m chanism
is that chronic inflammation incr as s acid production by r ducing somatostatin
produc d and or incr asing gastrin production.
1453056229806 1438033936302 D scrib th ulc rs caus d by <i>h. pylori</i>.
Rough bord rs, oft n found in th duod num.
1453056269299 1438033936296 {{c1::50%}} of gastric ad nocarcinomas ar link
d to <i>h. pylori</i>.
1453056290862 1438033936302 What pathog n is associat d with "MALT-omas"?

<i>H. pylori</i>
1453056301022 1438033936302 What is a "MALT-oma"? A lymphoma of MALT tissu
associat d with <i>h. pylori</i> inf ction. If you succ ssfully tr at <i>
h. pylori</i>, th MALToma t nds to go away.
1453056344507 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i>h. pylori</i>?
It is notoriously difficult to accomplish. R quir s at l ast tripl and som tim
s quadrupl th rapy. Standard is 1) a proton pump inhibitor to count r incr as d
acid production; 2) amoxicillin; 3) a macrolid (sp cifically clarithromycin).&
nbsp;
1453056403384 1438033936302 What shap is <i>ps udomonas</i>?
A rod.&n
bsp;
1453056434042 1438033936302 What is <i>ps udomonas </i>positiv for?
Oxidas and catalas .
1453056446518 1438033936302 D scrib th cology of <i>ps udomonas</i>.
It is a gram-n gativ rod-shap d nt ric that thriv s in aqu ous nvironm nts.&n
bsp;
1453056500146 1438033936296 <i>Ps udomonas</i> is oxidas {{c1::po
sitiv }}
1453056502750 1438033936296 <i>Ps udomonas</i> is catalas {{c1::p
ositiv }}
1453056513248 1438033936296 <i>Ps udomonas</i> is an obligat {{c1
::a rob }}
1453056532247 1438033936302 Which pati nts ar most at risk for <i>ps udomon
as</i> inf ction? CGD pati nts (it's catalas positiv )
1453056547214 1438033936302 What ar uniqu f atur s of <i>ps udomonas</i>&n
bsp;that can b "d ad giv aways"?
1) Blu -gr n pigm nt wh n plat d d/t py
ocynin and pyov rdin. May v n turn wounds blu ! 2) Fruity, grap -lik odor. 3)
Only obligat a rob among th nt robact racia , which ar mostly facultativ a
na rob s.
1453056614050 1438033936296 <i>{{c1::Ps udomonas}}</i> is th only obli
gat a rob among th nt robact racia , which ar mostly facultativ ana rob s.

1453056639227 1438033936302 What is th numb r 1 caus of gram-n gativ noso
comial pn umonia?
<i>Ps udomonas</i>.
1453056687236 1438033936302 What is th numb r on caus of r spiratory fail
ur in CF pati nts?
<i>Ps udomonas</i>
1453056700086 1438033936302 D scrib CF pati nts' d fici ncy.
Th y hav
a mutation in th CFTR g n that cod s for a nonfunctional CFTR chlorid trans
port r. Th y can't prop rly r gulat th l v ls of chlorid insid and outsid t
h c ll.
1453056765356 1438033936302 Who is at risk for ost omy litis in <i>ps udomon
as</i>? IV drug us rs (may dir ctly introduc it into th ms lv s) and diab tics
(mor lik ly to d v lop traumatic injuri s du to p riph ral n uropathy, sp cia
lly in f t).
1453056893884 1438033936302 Is <i>ps udomonas </i> ncapsulat d?
Y s.&nbs
p;
1453056899948 1438033936302 If a qu stion st m d scrib s a burn pati nt, wha
t ar th y lik ly trying to g t you to think of and why?
<i>Ps udomonas&n
bsp;</i>inf ction, which is a f ar d complication of burn injuri s b caus it is
oft n fatal and unr sponsiv to antibiotics.
1453056938871 1438033936302 What ar two nosocomial inf ctions caus d by <i>
ps udomonas</i>?
UTIs in indw lling cath t rs, pn umonia.
1453056965148 1438033936302 What two typ s of skin l sions ar caus d by <i>
ps udomonas</i>?
1) Pruritic, papular-pustular folliculitis associat d wi
th p opl using und rchlorinat d hot tubs; 2) Cutan ous n crosis call d " cthyma
gangr nosum" from toxin r l as d in s psis with <i>ps udomonas.</i>
1453057049858 1438033936302 D scrib cthyma gangr nosum.
Cutan ou
s n crosis that loocks black. Caus d by a toxin r l as d by <i>ps udomonas</i>&n
bsp;if it b com s syst mic/pati nt is s ptic.
1453057083078 1438033936302 What is a common caus of otitis xt rna/swimm r

's ar? <i>Ps udomonas</i>. It is
1453057102984 1438033936302 D scrib th toxin of <i>ps udomonas</i>.
Exotoxin A. N arly id ntical to diphth ria toxin, which is an ADP-ribosyltransf
ras targ ting EF-2. Inhibits prot in synth sis.
1453057143029 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i>ps udomonas</i>?
1) an anti-ps udomonal p nicillin (pip racillin plus tazobactam), th n 2) aminog
lycosid s (p rhaps in combination with b ta lactams) and/or 3) fluroquinolon s i
n th cas of UTIs.
1453057210423 1438033936302 D scrib <i>prot us mirabilis</i>.
Gram-n g
ativ , facultativ ana rob . Wh n plat d, d monstrat s "swarming motility."
1453057269588 1438033936296 <i>Prot us mirabilis</i> is gram-{{c1:
:n gativ }}
1453057279339 1438033936296 <i>Prot us mirabilis</i> is a facultativ &n
bsp;{{c1::ana rob }}
1453057291571 1438033936302 If you s "staghorn calculi," what should b in
your diff r ntial? Why?
<i>Prot us mirabilis</i> inf ction. It is u
r as positiv , and in alkalinizing th urin it forms th s charact ristically
shap d kidn y ston s (crystals ar struvit s).
1453057360066 1438033936302 What is th composition of struvit ston s?
Ammonium, magn sium, and phosphat .
1453057374930 1438033936302 Why ar th kidn y ston s s n in <i>prot us mir
abilis</i> inf ction probl matic? Th y ar painful, caus kidn y damag , a
nd ar nidus s for th bact rium to caus r curr nt inf ctions.
1453057414872 1438033936296 <i>Prot us mirabilis</i> is ur as {{c
1::positiv }}
1453057426329 1438033936302 What is a fishy sm ll in a UTI charact ristic fo
r?
<i>Prot us mirabilis</i> inf ction.
1453057453482 1438033936302 What is th first-lin tr atm nt for <i>prot us
mirabilis</i> inf ction? Sulfonamid s
1453057471148 1438033936302 What inf ction caus s th "hundr d day cough"?
<i>Bord t lla p rtussis</i>
1453057648563 1438033936302 What caus s whooping cough?
<i>Bord t lla p
rtussis</i>
1453057659418 1438033936302 How is <i>bord t lla p rtussis</i> transmit
t d?
It is highly contagious and spr ad by r spiratory dropl ts. It is abl t
o inf ct us by attaching to r spiratory pith lium via pili call d "filam ntous
h magglutinins."
1453057707370 1438033936296 Antibodi s against {{c1::filmam ntous h mag
glutinins}} h lp prot ct against <i>bord t lla p rtussis </i>inf ction.
1453057736746 1438033936302 What caus s th symptoms of <i>bord t lla p rtus
sis</i> inf ction? Its thr toxins, which hav syst mic ff cts.
1453057751694 1438033936302 What ar th thr toxins of <i>bord t lla p rtu
ssis</i>?
1) P rtussis toxin, which ADP-ribosylat s and inactivat s th Gi
prot in, so it incr as s intrac llular cAMP. It also disabl s ch mokin r c pto
rs of lymphocyt s (which thus can't nt r th lymphoid tissu and g t stuck in b
loodstr am), so it caus s lymphocytosis. 2) Ad nylat cyclas toxin, which also
incr as s cAMP l v ls by acting as an ad nylat cyclas . Sam m chanism as d ma
factor of b. anthracis. 3) Trach al toxin, which is a part of th p ptidoglycan
wall. Damag s ciliat d c lls of r sp. pith lium.
1453057870720 1438033936302 D scrib th microscopic app aranc and cology
of <i>bord t lla p rtussis. </i> Gram-n gativ rod-shap d coccobacillus.
Encapsulat d, a robic.
1453057926940 1438033936302 D scrib th pr s ntation of whooping cough.&nbs
p;
Non-sp cific symptoms initially lik lachrymation and conjunctivitis (ca
ll d th "catarrhal" phas , which lasts 1-2 w ks). Th n, paroxysmal stag (from
2wks-2mos), with charact ristic cough with whooping sound. Third stag is conva
lsc nt stag (lasts up to thr months), which is a gradual d cr as in symptoms
.
1453058072108 1438033936302 Why do s bord t lla p rtussis hav such a charac
t ristic cough? Pati nt is out of br ath and th n br ath s <i>in</i> to mak

th whooping sound.
1453058099365 1438033936302 Who typically g ts bord t lla p rtussis?
Childr n.
1453058111178 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i>bord t lla p rtussi
s</i>? Macrolid s (good at r moving th organism, but if toxin ar alr ady circ
ulating will not all viat th symptoms). Thus, starting tr am nt arly is id al
.
1453058143438 1438033936302 How is <i>bord t lla p rtussis</i> inf ctio
n pr v nt d?
With 2 vaccin s. 1) Kill d vax is not availabl in US. 2) Ac llu
lar p rtussis is purifi d antig n, giv n to kids as part of DTAP vaccin .
1453058197918 1438033936296 <i>Ha mophilus influ nza </i> is gram
{{c1::n gativ }}
1453058211832 1438033936302 What shap is <i>ha mophilus</i> <i>influ n
za </i>?
Coccobacilliary. This is som what charact ristic.
1453058229221 1438033936302 How is <i>ha mophilus</i> <i>influ nza </i
>transmitt d? A rosol. Dropl ts first go to th r spiratory tract wh r th y c
an caus pn umonia.
1453058282688 1438033936302 What ar th r quir m nts for growing <i>h. infl
u nza </i>?
Chocolat agar with factor V (NAD) and factor X (h matin). Also
not it is facultativ ana robic.
1453058344388 1438033936302 B sid s pn umonia, what dis as proc ss s ar as
sociat d with <i>h. influ nza </i>?
1) Epiglottitis, 2) Otitis m dia, 3) M n
ingitis, and 4) S psis/S ptic arthritis
1453058378489 1438033936302 D scrib th piglottitis associat d with <i>h.
influ nza </i>. Inflam d piglottis, inspiratory stridor, drooling, "ch
ry r d piglottis." Usually in kids.
1453058419453 1438033936302 Which form of <i>h. influ nza </i> can caus
m ningitis? Th ncapsulat d typ B strain. Vaccination fforts ar aim d at
this strain.
1453058459726 1438033936302 Which pati nts ar susc ptibl to s ptic arthrit
is caus d by <i>h. influ nza </i>?
SCA or spl n ctomy pati nts! It's ncaps
ulat d.
1453058571844 1438033936302 D scrib th <i>ha mophilus</i> <i>influ nz
a </i>vaccin . Typ B capsular antig n conjugat d to diphth ria toxoid to incr
as immunog nicity. Vaccin has all but radicat d ha mophilus m ningitis in th
US. B st tim to vaccinat is 2-18 months of ag .
1453058624976 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i>ha mophilus influ n
za </i> m ningitis or syst mic dis as ?
C ftriaxon .
1453058644792 1438033936302 What is th b st tr atm nt for non-syst mic <i>h
. influ nza </i>inf ction?
A b ta lactam.
1453058661186 1438033936302 What is us d for clos contacts prophylaxis in <
i>h. influ nza </i>m ningitis? Rifampin
1453058701521 1438033936296 <i>L gion lla</i> is gram {{c1::n gati
v }}
1453058746512 1438033936302 What stain is us d for <i>l gion lla</i>?
It is t chnically gram-n gativ but do sn't stain w ll, so a silv r stain is us
d.
1453058785092 1438033936302 What is r quir d to grow l gion lla?
Buff r d
charcoal-y ast xtract in th pr s nc of iron and cyst in (charact ristic!).&
nbsp;
1453058819287 1438033936302 What sp ci s charact ristically r quir s iron an
d cyst in to grow?
<i>L gion lla</i>
1453058835724 1438033936302 D scrib L gionnair 's dis as . V ry s r
ious, pot ntially fatal atypical pn umonia. Mor common in smok rs. Patchy infil
trat with consolidation of 1 lob . Not that CXR is not that sp cific and can b
highly variabl (looking lik oth r typ s of pn umonia). Charact ristically, h
yponatr mia, n uro symptoms lik h adach and confusion, high f v r (ov r 104F),
and diarrh a.
1453058967767 1438033936302 What is pn umonia with hyponatr mia and diarrh a
charact ristic of?

<i>L gion lla</i>
1453058989229 1438033936302 Which thr pathog ns caus atypical pn umonia?
<i>Mycoplasma</i>, <i>chlamydophila</i>, and <i>l gion lla</i>
1453059012628 1438033936302 If you s a BMP with Na+ und r 130 in som on w
ith pn umonia, what should you think? <i>L gion lla</i>
1453059036315 1438033936302 What is Pontiac f v r? <i>L gion lla inf ction<
/i>. Pr s nts with f v r, malais , and is usually s lf-limit d.
1453059057240 1438033936302 Who is most at risk for L gionnair 's dis as ?
Smok rs.
1453059076144 1438033936302 What labs can b us d to t st for <i>L gion lla<
/i>?
Cultur of r spiratory sputum (d finitiv but tak s 3-5d); rapid urin a
ntig n t st (l ss s nsitiv ).
1453059105563 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i>l gion lla</i>?
Macrolid s. Fluoroquinolon s ar us d som tim s as th y ar qually ff ctiv an
d may hav f w r complications.
1453059141743 1438033936296 <i>L gion lla </i>is oxidas {{c1::positiv
}}
1453059152192 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>Barton lla H ns la </i>}} is th caus
of cat scratch f v r
1453059765447 1438033936296 <i>Barton lla h ns la </i> is gram {{c
1::n gativ }}
1453059793669 1438033936302 <i>Barton lla h ns la </i> is t chnically g
ram-n gativ but do sn't stain w ll. What is th sp cial stain us d to visualiz
it?
Warthrin-Starry stain (a silv r stain).
1453059817287 1438033936302 What 2 dis as s ar caus d by b<i>arton lla h ns
Cat scratch dis as and bacillary angiomatosis.
la </i>?
1453059834912 1438033936302 D scrib cat scratch dis as . Transmitt d via
cat scratch s. F v r, painful and larg r gional ( sp cially axillary) lymph nod
s. Usually s lf-limiting.
1453059898768 1438033936296 Cat scratch dis as occurs in {{c1::immunoc
omp t nt}} pati nts
1453059911623 1438033936296 Bacillary angiomatosis occurs in {{c1::immu
nocompromis d}} pati nts
1453059927846 1438033936302 D scrib bacillary angiomatosis.
Only occ
urs in immunocompromis d pati nts (common in HIV pati nts) du to <i>barton lla
h ns la </i> transmitt d via cat bit s or scratch s. F v r, chills, h adach
s, and rais d, r d vascular l sions on skin.
1453059991215 1438033936302 How is bacillary angiomatosis diagnos d?
Stain (Warthin-Starry) and skin l sion biopsy. Important b caus Kaposi's sarcom
a is ALSO common in HIV pati nts and also pr s nts with r d, vascular l sions.&n
bsp;
1453060038930 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for bacillary angiomatosis
?
Doxycyclin , or macrolid s.
1453060055103 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for cat scratch dis as ?
Usually s lf limiting, but can giv azithromycin or macrolid s if lymphad nopath
y is s v r .
1453060078146 1438033936302 D scrib th transmission of <i>bruc lla</i>.&nb
sp;
<i>Bruc lla</i> is a zoonotic pathog n with diff r nt sp ci s havin
g diff r nt farm animals as r s rvoirs. Thus, pati nt will hav dir ct animal co
ntact or indir ct contact via unpast uriz d milk or ch s products.
1453060190381 1438033936296 <i>Bruc lla</i> is gram-{{c1::n gativ }}
1453060195175 1438033936296 Th cow is a r s rvoir for {{c1::bruc lla a
bortus}}
1453060209018 1438033936302 What thr typ s of jobs ar associat d with <i>
bruc llosis</i> pati nts? V t rinarian, ranch r, slaught rhous work r.&nb
sp;
1453060241205 1438033936296 <i>Bruc lla</i> is facultativ {{c1::i
ntrac llular}}
1453060244400 1438033936296 <i>Bruc lla</i> can surviv in {{c1::m
acrophag s.}} <i>Pr v nts phagolysosom fusion. </i>
1453060267544 1438033936302 D scrib th pathog n sis of b<i>ruc lla </i>inf

ction. Facultativ IC, so can liv in macrophag s by pr v nting phagolysosom f
usion. Thus can trav l through blood to organs of th r ticulo ndoth lial syst m
(spl n, LN, liv r). Can r plicat intrac llularly and caus c ll lysis b for
spr ading syst mically.
1453060318501 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of b<i>ruc lla</i> in
f ction?
Non-sp cific at first (f v r, chills, anor xia). Rising, falling
t mp ratur is charact ristic "undulant" f v r. Enlarg m nt of r ticulo ndoth l
ial organs (LN, spl n, liv r). Can also s ost omy litis in chronic inf ction.

1453060373801 1438033936302 What pathog n is an "undulant" f v r sp cific fo
r?
<i>Bruc lla</i>
1453060385212 1438033936302 Waht is th tr atm nt for b<i>ruc lla</i>?
T tracyclin s ( .g. doxy) but rar ly us d alon . Usually accompani d with rifamp
in.
1453060406673 1438033936302 Wh r is <i>past ur lla</i> <i>multocida</i
> found? In th r spiratory tracts of small mammals (cats, dogs). Dogs al
so hav <i>past ur lla canis</i>.
1453060466810 1438033936302 How is <i>past ur lla multocida</i> transmi
tt d? Via dog or cat bit .
1453060479438 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of <i>past ur lla multocid
a</i> inf ction? Soft tissu inf ction/c llulitis may occur within th fi
rst 24 hours aft r th bit . Soft tissu inf ction its lf can b r lativ ly b ni
ng but may b com n crotizing fasciitis. Mor commonly, b com s ost omy litis. L
ymphad nopathy. May spr ad syst mically in pr dispos d pati nts.
1453060551085 1438033936302 Who is pr dispos d to syst mic dis as with&nbsp
;<i>past ur lla multocida</i>? Pati nts with liv r dis as , COPD
1453060568580 1438033936302 What should you think of if you s c llulitis a
nd ost omy litis aft r dog or cat bit s?
<i>Past ur lla multocida</i>
1453060597148 1438033936296 <i>Past ur lla multocida</i> is catalas &nb
sp;{{c1::positiv }}
1453060605448 1438033936296 <i>Past ur lla multocida</i> is oxidas &nbs
p;{{c1::positiv }}
1453060622539 1438033936302 How do s <i>past ur lla multocida s</i>tain?
With bipolar "saf ty pin" gram-n gativ staining, just lik <i>y rsinia</i>.&nbs
p;
1453060670583 1438033936302 What do s <i>past ur lla multocida</i> grow
w ll on?
5% sh ps' blood agar.
1453060689288 1438033936302 What is th mpiric tr atm nt for <i>past ur lla
multocida</i>? P nicillin, mayb with an add d b ta lactamas inhibitor (clavul
anat , .g.).
1453060712660 1438033936302 What caus s tular mia? <i>Francis lla tular nsi
s</i>
1453060763597 1438033936302 What is th main r s rvoir of <i>francis lla tul
ar nsis</i>?
Rabbits
1453060774962 1438033936302 How is <i>francis lla tular nsis</i> transm
itt d? It's a zoonotic, so from dir ct contact (handling or ating) with rabbit
s or indir ct contact via a tick v ctor.
1453060820760 1438033936302 Which ticks transmit <i>francis lla tular nsis</
i>?
D rmac ntor ticks.
1453060832618 1438033936302 What ticks transmit<i> borr lia burgdorf ri
</i>? Ixod s scapularis
1453060846682 1438033936302 Why might <i>francis lla tular nsis</i> b
abl to b us d in biot rrorism?
It is actually abl to b a rosoliz d. T
hus, cas s must b r port d to th CDC.
1453060878101 1438033936302 What shap is <i>francis lla tular nsis</i>?
Coccobacilliary.
1453060901439 1438033936296 <i>Francis lla tular nsis</i> is gram
{{c1::n gativ }}
1453060903512 1438033936296 <i>Francis lla tular nsis </i>is facultativ &nbs
p;{{c1::intrac llular}} <i>Thus, r cov ry from inf ction d p nds on c ll-m diat
d immunity</i>
1453060945331 1438033936302 D scrib th pathog n sis of tular mia.
Bact ria nt r at sit of tick bit ( .g.), caus a painful ulc r. Ent r macroph
ag s, trav l via lymph to r ticulo ndoth lial organs lik LN. Caus lymphad niti
s and granulomas with cas ating n crosis! Can th n spr ad syst mically.
1453060996715 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i>francis lla tular n
sis</i> inf ction? Str ptomycin (an aminoglycosid ).
1453061022535 1438033936302 What shap is <i>borr lia burgdorf ri</i>?
Spiral-shap d.
1453061088143 1438033936302 What pathog n caus s Lym dis as ?
<i>Borr
lia burgdorf ri</i>.
1453061097776 1438033936302 What is th primary g ographic distribution of <
i>borr lia burgdorf ri</i>?
North ast rn USA lik NH and CT.
1453061118554 1438033936302 What is som thing in th history that might mak
you think of <i>borr lia burgdorf ri</i>?
Som on back from camping or hik
ing in th for st, sp cially in th north ast rn US.
1453061151904 1438033936302 Of what 3 dis as s is <i>ixod s scapularis</i>&n
bsp;r sponsibl for transmission?
<i>Borr lia burgdof ri</i>/Lym , rlichi
osis, bab siosis (protozoal)
1453061192865 1438033936302 D scrib th lif cycl of <i>ixod s scapularis<
/i>.
In its larval stag it f asts on th whit -foot d mous (th r s rvoir).
In its adult stag it liv s off of th whit -tail d d r (th obligatory host).
W 'r just incid ntal hosts.
1453061250049 1438033936296 {{c1::Spirocha t s}} don't gram stain du to th
ir thin walls.
1453061286981 1438033936302 What stains ar us d for <i>borr lia burgdorf ri
</i> visualization und r th microscop ? 1) Wright stain and 2) Gi msa st
ain.
1453061289296 1438033936302 D scrib th thr stag s of Lym dis as .
1) Charact ristic bulls y rash call d " ryth ma chronica migrans." Not painful
or pruritic, occurs within about a month aft r tick bit . Flu-lik illn ss accom
pani s it (f v r and chills). <div>2) H art block caus d by myocarditis wit
h bilat ral B ll's palsy. </div><div>3) Arthritis of larg joints lik kn
(although can also aff ct small r joints or mov from joint to joint), call d "
migratory polyarthritis." Subtl CNS ff cts lik m mory d ficit, cognitiv slow
ing, lymphocytic m ningitis ("subtl nc phalopathy"). </div>
1453061437870 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for Lym dis as ? Id ally
should b start d in stag 1. Doxycyclin is ff ctiv . C ftriaxon us d in mor
s v r or lat r-stag cas s.
1453061470098 1438033936302 What is B ll's palsy? An idiopathic facial n r
v palsy
1453061495197 1438033936302 Wh r is <i>l ptospira</i> <i>int rrogans</
i> nd mic?
Tropical r gions (Hawaii is high st conc ntration in US)
.
1453061537634 1438033936302 D scrib th shap of <i>l ptospira int rrogans<
/i>.
Spirocha t , so spiral shap d. Small and thin. Also charact ristically r
f rr d to as having a "qu stion-mark" shap .
1453061594721 1438033936302 How is <i>l ptospira int rrogans</i> transm
itt d? Commonly found in animals lik rod nts and dogs, who xcr t it in th ir
urin . Humans usually th n swim or do oth r wat rsports in th contaminat d wat
r.
1453061630016 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of <i>l ptospira int rroga
ns</i> inf ction? Early on, flu-lik (f v r, int ns h adach s). Also arl
y on can s conjunctival suffusion. Wh n mor s v r , is call d W il's dis as
(r nal dysfunction plus jaundic d/t liv r damag ).
1453061688227 1438033936302 D scrib th conjunctival suffusion charact rist
ic of <i>l ptospira int rrogans</i>.
Uniqu ly lacks th xudat s n in norma
l conjunctivitis. Just dry r d y s.
1453061724870 1438033936302 D scrib th spr ad of <i>l ptospira int rrogans
.</i> Trav ls through bloodstr am (h matog nous spr ad), abl to s d and &nbs
p;multiply in various organs. R nal dysfunction and liv r damag with jaundic a
r th most common, and ar call d W il's dis as .
1453061793455 1438033936302 What should you consid r in a pati nt with f v r
, high cr atinin , azot mia, and a history playing wat rsports? W il's dis as d
u to <i>l ptospira int rrogans</i>
1453061821528 1438033936302 D scrib th shap of <i>tr pon ma pallidum</i>.
Spirocha t , so spiral-shap d.
1453061865636 1438033936302 How can <i>tr pon ma pallidum</i> b visual
iz d dir ctly? Darkfi ld microscopy from a dir ct sampl of a pati nt's l sion.

1453061892390 1438033936302 How is <i>tr pon ma pallidum</i> transmitt
d?
S xually. L ss common than chlamydia and gonorrh a though.
1453061910807 1438033936302 What pathog n is call d th "gr at imitator"?
Syphilis (<i>t. pallidum)</i>. Many of its symptoms look lik oth r dis as s.&nb
sp;
1453061932477 1438033936302 B caus darkfi ld microscopy is xp nsiv and ti
m -consuming, what blood t sts xist for <i>tr pon ma pallidum?</i>
1) Th V
n r al Dis as R s arch Lab t st (VDRL). Not sp cific for <i>tr pon ma</i>. T s
ts for antibodi s to cardiolipin chol st rol l cithin in pati nt's s rum. Can al
so us 2) th Rapid Plasmin R ag nt (RPR) scr n in thos with high st risk or
xisting symptoms.
1453062033320 1438033936302 What is th dang r with <i>tr pon ma pallidum</i
> scr ning t sts? Fals positiv s du to cross-r activity with oth r antig
ns lik mono, rh umatoid factor, SLE, l prosy, or in IV drug us rs.
1453062079757 1438033936302 What is th confirmatory t st for <i>tr pon ma p
allidum</i>?
th FTA-Ab t st. D t cts antibodi s against <i>tr pon ma pallidu
m</i>. Mor sp cific than VDRL.
1453062114222 1438033936302 D scrib th timing of th stag s of syphilis.
Early (in first y ar): primary, s condary, and arly lat nt stag s. Lat (aft r
1 y ar): t rtiary, lat -lat nt stag s.
1453062156356 1438033936302 D scrib primary syphilis.
Painl ss g nital
chancr that app ars a f w w ks aft r acquisition. Caus s chancr by locally i
nvading small blood v ss ls and damaging th m. This l ads to ar as of isch mic n
crosis, which tak out th n rv s (h nc painl ssn ss). H als in 3-6 w ks but
if not tr at d can progr ss.
1453062232518 1438033936302 Why do s syphilis oft n scap tr atm nt arly o
n?
Th primary stag is painl ss.
1453062243664 1438033936302 D scrib s condary syphilis.
"Syst mic." No l
ong r localiz d to g nitals. Rash d v lops v rywh r , including on th hands an
d f t (which is rar for a rash). Condyloma latum ("a lotta bumps") d v lops on
mucous m mbran s. Th r ar oth r symptoms but th s two ar th most important
. Not condyloma latum is flat-topp d.
1453062329089 1438033936302 Distinguish condyloma latum from condyloma accum
ulata. Condyloma latum = flat-topp d bumps of <i>tr pon ma pallidum</i>. Condyl
oma accumulata = wart-lik bumps of HPV.
1453062364389 1438033936302 D scrib t rtiary syphilis.
Formation of gum
mas, which ar soft growths with firm, n crotic c nt rs. Th s can occur anywh r
(skin, organs, bon ). Aorititis (particularly of th asc nding thoracic aorta)
with tr barking (looks thick and wrinkl d). Syphilis caus s this by d stroyin
g th vasa vasorum. Can l ad to asc nding thoracic an urysm. Tab s dorsalis also
. Argyll-Robinson pupils.
1453062466608 1438033936302 D scrib tab s dorsalis.
Part of t rtiary
syphilis. D my lination of n rv s in th dorsal columns of th spinal cord, los
s of proprioc ption, position, vibration, and discriminativ touch. Can s odd
gait and pain all ov r.
1453062509393 1438033936302 D scrib Argyll-Robinson pupils.
Accomoda
t but don't r act to light. Also call d "prostitut 's pupil."
1453062539493 1438033936302 D scrib cong nital syphilis. Not as promin nt
as in past b caus of routin scr ning in pr gnant wom n. May s in d v lopin
g countri s. Const llation of symptoms in kids: Sab r shins, Saddl nos , Hutchi
nson's t th, Mulb rry molars, d afn ss, h patom galy, rhinitis, and rash.
1453062606646 1438033936302 What ar Sab r shins? S n in kids with cong n
ital syphilis. Ant rior bowing of tibia.
1453062619045 1438033936302 What ar Saddl nos s? S n in kids with cong n
ital syphilis. Stubby with an ind nt d bridg .
1453062638087 1438033936302 What ar Hutchinson's t th?
S n in kids wit
h cong nital syphilis. Notch d incisors.
1453062650255 1438033936302 What ar Mulb rry molars?
S n in kids wit
h cong nital syphilis. Enam l outgrowths.
1453062660303 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for syphilis?
P nicill
in in v ry stag , for v ryon . If all rgic, t tracyclin s work. How v r, b tt
r to d s nsitiz pati nts to p nicillin and us it inst ad.
1453062694928 1438033936296 {{c1::T tracyclin s}} ar contraindicat d in pr
gnant wom n.
1453062711356 1438033936302 What is th Jarisch-H rxh im r r action?
May occur hours aft r tr atm nt of syphilis, indicat s tr atm nt is working. Dyi
ng spirocha t s r l as a lot of LPS, caus cytokin r l as and f v r, chills,
h adach .
1453063277521 1438033936296 <i>Chlamydia </i> and <i>chlamydophila</i>&
nbsp;ar obligat {{c1::intrac llular}} g nus s. <i>Can't mak th ir own
ATP, must st al from host. </i>
1453063304008 1438033936296 <i>Chlamydia </i> lacks {{c1::muramic
acid}} in its c ll wall.
<i>Thus, wall-targ t d antibiotics won't work.&n
bsp;</i>
1453063341598 1438033936302 What ar th two forms of th <i>chlamydia</i>&n
bsp;organism? 1) Th inf ctious xtrac llular form, call d l m ntary bodi s,
and 2) th activ , r plicating intrac llular form call d r ticular bodi s. "El m
ntary nt rs, r ticular r plicat s."
1453063409420 1438033936302 How do<i> chlamydia</i> multiply?
Binary fission
1453063419959 1438033936302 What would you s und r th microscop in <i>ch
lamydia </i>inf ction? If you us d Gi msa stain you would s inclusion bodi s
in inf ct d c lls. Th s ar bunch s of r ticular bodi s.
1453063456853 1438033936302 What is th most common diagnostic t st for <i>c
hlamydia</i>? Nucl ic Acid Amplification T st (NAAT). "Fancy word for PCR."
1453063481056 1438033936302 What is th most common pathog n of <i>chlamydia
trachomatis, chlamydophila pn umonia , </i>and <i>chlamydophila</i> <i>psi
ttaci</i>?
<i>Chlamydia trachomatis</i>.
1453063509176 1438033936302 D scrib th symptoms of inf ction with D-K <i>c
hlamydia trachomatis</i>
Can oft n r main asymptomatic, and symptoms may
vary. Oft n s thin, wat ry discharg (contrast with gonorrh a). Asymptomatic p
ati nts actually hav it wors as it can progr ss unnotic d to PID in f mal s, o
r b pass d on in d liv ry to n onat s.
1453063601210 1438033936302 D scrib n onatal inf ction with <i>chlamydia tr
achomatis </i>s rovars D-K.
N onatal conjunctivitis and n onatal pn umonia w
ith staccato cough. Conjunctivitis app ars 1-2wks aft r birth (wh r as in gonorr
h a, app ars within 2-4 days).
1453063656195 1438033936302 What is a staccato cough?
Occurs in short,
sudd n bursts.
1453063663908 1438033936302 D scrib th symptoms of inf ction with <i>chlam
ydia trachomatis</i> s rovars L1-L3. "Lymphogranuloma v n r um," or L
GV. L ss common than D-K s rovars. Inf ction of lymphatics, sp cifically of ingu
inal nod s. Starts out with painl ss g nital ulc r (lik syphilis), but w ks to
months lat r pr s nts with t nd r lymphad nopathy of draining nod s.
1453063742223 1438033936302 D scrib inf ction with s rovars A-C of <i>chlam
ydia trachomatis</i>. Syndrom call d "trachoma" which is th l ading caus of
blindn ss in th world. Mn monic is "ABC," as in you SEE with your y s. Transm
ission is hand to y contact or fomit s.
1453063794722 1438033936302 What is a complication of <i>c. trachomatis</i>?
R it r Syndrom : r activ arthritis, uv itis, ur thritis. "Can't s , can't p ,

can't climb a tr ."
1453063834080 1438033936302 What is th pathophysiology of R it r's syndrom
?
R activ arthritis is du to a maladaptiv cross-r activ antibody. Comm
only manif sts in SI joints, kn .
1453063862040 1438033936302 What do s <i>chlamydophila pn umonia </i> c
aus ? Atypical or walking pn umonia in adults. Similar to mycoplasma and l gio
n lla. Mor common in th ld rly than in young adults.
1453063900085 1438033936302 What do s <i>c. psittaci</i> caus ?
Pn umonia. Transmitt d by birds, oft n parrots. Thus can s in p t stor work r
s, bird own rs pr s nting with r spiratory probl ms.
1453063933581 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i>chlamydia </i>or <i
>chlamydophila</i>?
Antibiotics ar v ry ff ctiv . Can't us drugs that tar
g t th c ll wall, how v r, so macrolid s ( .g. azithromycin) ar common. Topica
l macrolid s ar NOT ff ctiv for chlamydial conjunctivitis, how v r, so must g
iv oral. T tracyclin s can also b giv n ( sp cially for pn umonia, wh r first
lin is a t tracyclin and s cond lin is a macrolid ).
1453064034632 1438033936302 Why do s mpiric tr atm nt for <i>chlamydia</i>&
nbsp;includ a dos of c ftriaxon ?
To tr at gonorrh a as w ll, which common
ly caus s a co-inf ction.
1453064072171 1438033936296 {{c1::Coxi lla burn tti}} was originally part of
th rick ttsial g nus du to similariti s.
1453064095318 1438033936296 {{c1::Coxi lla burn tti}} is th caus of Q f v
r.
1453064101695 1438033936296 <i>Coxi lla burn tti</i> is gram {{c1:
:n gativ }}
1453064110775 1438033936296 Unlik <i>rick ttsia </i>, {{c1::<i>Coxi ll
a burn tti</i>}} do s NOT caus a rash.
1453064138223 1438033936296 <i>Coxi lla burn tti </i>is an obligat {{c
1::intrac llular}} organism.
1453064152646 1438033936302 How is <i>coxi lla burn tti </i>transmitt d?
Forms a spor -lik structur that is v ry sturdy. Can surviv dig stiv tracts o
f animals to xist in th ir f c s in soil. A rosol transmission from that point.

1453064192128 1438033936302 What is th major r s rvoir of <i>coxi lla burn
tti</i>?
Farm animals.
1453064207355 1438033936302 Who might pr s nt with <i>coxi lla burn tti</i>?
Farm rs, v t rinarians ( sp cially if th y d liv r d a baby farm animal and w r
xpos d to plac ntal xcr tions).
1453064231090 1438033936302 What is th clinical pr s ntation of c<i>oxi lla
burn tti</i>? Q f v r has pn umonia and h adach plus f v r. Th s ar non-sp
cific. Uniqu ly, h patitis is pr s nt.
1453064279656 1438033936302 Wh n you s a farm r or v t rinarian with pn um
onia and h patitis symptoms, what two inf ctions should b on your diff r ntial?
How do you distinguish th m? <i>Coxi lla burn tti </i>(Q f v r) and <i>bruc l
la</i>. <i>Bruc lla</i> will hav undulant f v r.
1453064331322 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for Q f v r?
Usually
s lf-limiting within 2 w ks so no antibiotics n d d. Rar ly, chronic Q f v r c
an b com ndocarditis though ( sp cially in th immun compromis d or thos wit
h pr vious valvular damag ).
1453064381169 1438033936302 How is <i>coxi lla burn tti</i> inf ction p
r v nt d?
Vaccin s (ac llular) for v t rinarians; past urization.
1453064400762 1438033936302 What is th major caus of bact rial vaginosis?
<i>Gardn r lla vaginalis</i>.
1453064429834 1438033936302 What do s thin gray-whit vaginal discharg with
a fishy odor sugg st? <i>Gardn r lla vaginalis</i> inf ction.
1453064450595 1438033936296 <i>Gardn r lla vaginalis</i> is a gram&nbsp
;{{c1::variabl }} rod.
<i>Can stain gram positiv or n gativ . </i
>
1453064472341 1438033936302 What is th m chanism of <i>gardn r lla vaginali
s</i> inf ction? Normal vaginal flora consists mostly of lactobacilli. Mi

nority of organisms ar ana robic gram n gativ s. If this minority incr as s in
numb r and lactobacilli d cr as , th nvironm nt is mor suitabl for gardn r l
la growth.
1453064517102 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of bact rial vaginosis d/t
<i>gardn r lla</i>?
Thin, gr y-whit discharg with fishy odor that will hav
pH ov r 4.5 (usually 5-6.5).
1453064553019 1438033936302 How can bact rial vaginosis d/t <i>gardn r lla</
i> b diagnos d? Tr at discharg with 10% KOH pr p. If this int nsifi s t
h fishy odor, that's a positiv "Whiff t st." Or, microscopy showing clu c lls
.
1453064622788 1438033936302 What ar clu c lls?
Epith lial c lls with a
diffus coating of bact ria. Sugg st bact rial vaginosis d/t gardn r lla. <
img src="past -23051089477962.jpg" /><div><br /></div>
1453064710691 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i>gardn r lla vaginos
is?</i> M tronidazol
1453064727580 1438033936302 What do s <i>mycoplasma pn umonia </i> caus
Atypical (walking) pn umonia, in with CXR may look much wors than th p
?
ati nt's clinical pr s ntation. Can't cultur or isolat th microb . Patchy inf
iltrat (r ticulo-nodular). Contrast this with <i>str p pn umo</i> pn umoni
a, in which th pati nt would lik ly b b dridd n.
1453064764782 1438033936302 Why can't <i>mycoplasma pn umonia </i> gram
stain? No c ll wall!
1453064778129 1438033936302 What is uniqu about <i>mycoplasma pn umonia </i
>'s c ll wall? No c ll wall but rath r sp cial plasma m mbran with chol st rol
(only bact ria to hav this). Th s st rols stabiliz th m mbran <i>and</i>&n
bsp;provid fl xibility.
1453064830447 1438033936296 All {{c1:: ukaryotic}} c lls hav chol st r
ol in th ir m mbran s <i>This is why mycoplasma pn umonia 's m mbran is uniqu
among prokaryot s</i>
1453064915891 1438033936302 Who is at risk for <i>mycoplasma pn umonia </i>&
nbsp;inf ction? Young adults in ar as of clos contact. Military r cruits ar of
t n us d in qu stions.
1453064945545 1438033936302 How is <i>mycoplasma pn umonia </i> diagnos
d?
50-70% of pati nts will d monstrat IgM-m diat d cold agglutinins (not s
up r s nsitiv ); may also b cultur d slowly (1wk) on Eaton's agar.
1453064996866 1438033936302 D scrib cold agglutinins.
IgM caus s clump
ing of RBCs in cold t mp ratur s (4C). P ntam rs of IgM can activat compl m nt
and lys RBCs.
1453065034740 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i>mycoplasma pn umoni
a </i>? A macrolid lik azithromycin or rythromycin b caus c ll wall dir ct d
antibiotics won't work.
1453065074843 1438033936296 <i>Rick ttsia </i> sp ci s ar t chnically
gram {{c1::n gativ }}
1453065089165 1438033936296 <i>Rick ttsia </i> sp ci s don't tak up gr
am stains b caus th y ar obligat {{c1::intrac llular}} organisms.
1453065104813 1438033936296 <i>Rick ttsia </i> can't mak {{c1::NA
D or CoA}}, so th y st al from th ir host c lls.
1453065119915 1438033936296 <i>Rick ttsia </i> ar {{c1::coccobaci
lliary}} in shap .
1453065149816 1438033936302 What is th W il-F lix t st?
Agglutination t
st us d to diagnos rick ttsial inf ctions. T sts for cross-r activity to prot u
s vulgaris. Not v ry s nsitiv or sp cific.
1453065172190 1438033936302 What is th prodrom s n in inf ction with &nbs
p;<i>rick ttsia </i>? H adach and f v r in arly inf ction. Uniqu ly pr s nts
with vasculitis (inflammation and d struction of small blood v ss ls) and th g
ranular, bumpy rash associat d with vasculitis.
1453065229609 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i>rick ttsia </i>?
G n rally susc ptibl to doxycyclin and oth r t tracyclin s.
1453065245601 1438033936302 D scrib <i>Rick ttsia prowaz ckii</i>.
Obligat intrac llular bact rium (can't mak its own NAD or CoA for growth). Poo
rly gram-n gativ coccobaccilli.
1453065281454 1438033936302 D scrib th rash s n in<i> Rick ttsia pro
waz ckii</i> inf ction.
Starts at trunk, spr ads outwards towards xtr m
iti s. Spar s hands, f t, and h ad.
1453065308268 1438033936302 Who is at risk for <i>rick ttsia prowaz ckii </i
>inf ction?
Military camp r cruits and prison rs of war: clos contact and p
oor hygi n allows th arthropod v ctor to spr ad from human to human. Can thus
asily caus an pid mic.
1453065342673 1438033936302 What is th v ctor for <i>rick ttsia prowaz ckii
</i>? Lic . Th y usually poop n ar f ding sit s (f d on blood). Th bact ria
ar introduc d into th bloodstr am wh n th human host scratch s th lous bit
s.
1453065377210 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of typhus?
Typhus i
s caus d by<i> rick ttsia prowaz ckii</i>. It pr s nts with rash, myalgia,
arthralgia, pn umonia, nc phalopathy, dizzin ss, confusion. May progr ss to com
a.
1453065420760 1438033936302 Contrast " pid mic" and " nd mic."
End mic m ans a dis as is localiz d to a particular r gion. Has no implications
w/r/t magnitud of population aff ct d. Epid mic m ans "wid spr ad, rampant."&n
bsp;
1453065460305 1438033936302 What pathog n caus s Rocky Mountain Spott d F v
r?
Obligat IC <i>Rick ttsia Rick ttsia </i>.
1453065497980 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i>rick ttsia rick tts
ia </i> and RMSF? Doxycyclin .
1453065512047 1438033936302 What stain is b st for visualizing <i>Rick ttsia
rick ttsia </i>?
Gi msa.
1453065521455 1438033936302 How is <i>rick ttsia rick ttsia </i> transm
itt d? D rmac ntor ticks, via dir ct biting.
1453065568837 1438033936302 D scrib th progr ssion of th rash in Rocky Mo
untain Spott d F v r. Not imm diat ; has an incubation p riod of 2-14 days. B
gins on ankl s and wrists and mov s mor c ntrally. Lat r stag dis as charact
ristically has spots all ov r, including hands and f t. B com s full body rash.
Will also s h adach , f v r, and myalgias with RMSF (non-sp cific symptoms).&
nbsp;
1453325220520 1438033936302 Why do most fungal inf ctions r quir th sam t
r atm nt protocols?
Fungi hav many ov rlapping charact ristics. Thus, funga
l inf ction symptoms ar oft n nonsp cific.
1453325267914 1438033936296 Fungi caus th most profound dis as in th &nbs
p;{{c1::immunocompromis d}}
<i>Thus, qu stion st ms oft n d scrib fungal dz
in immunocompromis d pati nts</i>
1453325406328 1438033936302 What is oft n th b st diff r ntiating factor b
tw n tiologi s of syst mic fungal inf ctions? G ographical distribution of th
fungus (so, location and r c nt trav l history ar hug ). If a sp cific locatio
n is m ntion d in a qu stion st m, mak sur to consid r fungal inf ctions.&nbsp
;
1453325450172 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>Histoplasma capsulatum</i>}} caus s his
toplasmosis
1453325469296 1438033936296 <i>Histoplasma capsulatum</i> is most pr va
l nt in {{c1::Indiana, midw st rn and c ntral US along Mississippi and Ohio
Riv r Vall ys}}
1453325554486 1438033936302 What is histoplasma capsulatum associat d with?&
nbsp; Bird or bat droppings. Thus, may us history of sp lunking or farm r wit
h chick n coop xposur to sugg st proximity to guano/bird droppings.
1453325590728 1438033936302 D scrib th transmission of <i>histoplasma caps
ulatum</i>.
Spor s in bird or bat droppings ar inhall d, go to lung
s. Th s spor s ar ing st d by macrophag s.
1453325637196 1438033936302 What fungal inf ction would b sugg st d by r sp
iratory tissu macrophag s with small intrac llular oval/ovoid bodi s visibl on
a slid with KOH pr p? Histoplasmosis caus d by <i>histoplasma capsulatum</i>.&
nbsp;
1453325703117 1438033936302 What is th b st diagnostic t st for <i>histopla
sma capsulatum</i> inf ction?
A rapid urin or s rum antig n t st
1453325723320 1438033936302 How big is <i>histoplasma capsulatum</i> r
lativ to an RBC?
Much small r. This is why multipl y ast forms can fit i
nsid on macrophag (which is not much bigg r than an RBC).
1453325758391 1438033936302 Why not us cultur to diagnos fungi? It is po
ssibl but v ry tim -consuming.
1453325810260 1438033936302 What is a dimorphic fungus?
A fungus that ca
n assum ith r th y ast or mold form r v rsibly in r spons to chang s in its
surroundings. Most sp ci s ob y th adag "a mold in th cold but a y ast in th
h at," m aning th y tak th mold form in th nvironm ntal r s rvoir ( .g. soi
l) and th y ast form in inf ct d tissu s (us). Th r ar xc ptions though.&nbs
p;
1453325883542 1438033936296 All {{c1::syst mic fungal pathog ns}} ar d
imorphic. <i>Histoplasma capsulatum, blastomyc s d rmatitidis, coccidioid
s immitis, paracoccidioid s brasili nsis</i>
1453325923763 1438033936296 At 37 d gr s C, <i>histoplasma capsulatum</i>&n
bsp;is in th {{c2::y ast}} form
1453325957728 1438033936302 D scrib th shar d asp cts of th clinical pr s
ntations of th syst mic fungal inf ctions.
In g n ral, syst mic fun
gal inf ctions ar asymptomatic or subclinical in most p opl . Th y can caus lu
ng granuloma formation and pn umona in som , along with coughing. Th s granulom
as can calcify and l ad to chronic pulmonary issu s.
1453326029608 1438033936302 D scrib th clinical pr s ntation of chronic hi
stoplasmosis. Chronic histoplasma can look lik TB, with cavitary l sions in t
h upp r lung lob s, and calcifi d nodul s with fibrotic scarring. It can also c
aus ryth ma nodosum, which ar painful r d nodul s usually found on th shins.

1453326087009 1438033936302 What happ ns wh n an immun -compromis d p rson g
ts histoplasmosis?
Th fungus nt rs th lungs and is tak n up by macrophag
s. It can th n diss minat to organs of th r ticulo ndoth lial syst m (liv r,
spl n, lymph nod s). Thus, h patospl nom galy is s n, with possibl calcificat
ions in thos organs. Skin and n urological findings ar also possibl .
1453326151990 1438033936302 How is histoplasmosis tr at d? For local inf ct
ions, -azol drugs (k toconazol and fluconazol ). For syst mic inf ctions, amph
ot ricin B.
1453326249259 1438033936302 Why is amphot ricin B only us d to tr at lif -th
r at ning diss minat d fungal inf ctions (mostly in th immuno-compromis d)?
It has many sid ff cts and is a v ry strong drug.
1453330428584 1438033936302 What is this?<div><img src="past -16466904613127
.jpg" /></div> Diap r rash, which is a fungal inf ction with <i>candida albican
s</i>
1453330588468 1438033936302 D scrib diap r rash. Raw, r d with a whitish
xudat . Sat llit l sions.
1453331164211 1438033936296 Ps udohypha , g rm tub s (short tru hypha ) and
chlamydoconidia sugg st {{c1::c. albicans}}
1453331181540 1438033936296 {{c1::Candida albicans}} is a part of normal flo
ra but is not call d an opportunistic pathog n b caus it do sn't r quir a comp
romis d host
.jpg" /></div> Asp rgillus (not th s ptum and acut -angl branching)
1453331675109 1438033936296 Conidiophor s sugg st {{c2::asp rgillus}}
.jpg" /></div> Mucor: as ptat hypha with right-angl branching.
.jpg" /></div> Eryth ma nodosum, a poorly charact riz d d lay d-typ hyp rs nsi
tivity r action s n in coccidioidomycosis, ARF (aft r <i>s. pyog n s</i>), tc.
Probably immun -compl x m diat d.
.jpg" /></div> A sporotrichoid patt rn of l sions. H r , sh actually has <i>sp

orothrix sh nckii</i> inf ction.
1453332048351 1438033936302 St. Louis, Mississippi Vall y, Ohio Vall y, bird
droppings, guano, and "in monocyt s/macrophag s" ar all buzzwords for what fun
gal inf ction? Histoplasma
1453332191028 1438033936302 "Carolina," "Michigan," and "skin" ar buzzwords
for what fungal inf ction?
Blastomyc s
1453332204610 1438033936302 "Southw st," "d s rt," "r d shins," and "pr gnan
t" ar all buzzwords for what fungal inf ction? Coccidioid s
1453332231733 1438033936302 "Ros gard n r" and "lymphatic spr ad" ar buzzw
ords for what fungal inf ction? Sporothrix
1453334686768 1438033936296 {{c1::Conjugation}} is th most ffici nt m thod
of horizontal transmission
1453336426533 1438033936296 {{c1::Blastomyc s d rmatitidis}} caus s blastomy
cosis
1453336445283 1438033936302 What is th g ographical distribution of <i>blas
tomyc s d rmatitidis</i>?
South ast rn US. Som ov rlap with <i>histoplasm
a </i>w/ "Ohio Riv r Vall y" b ing a buzzword, but "Gr at Lak s" is a clu for <
i>blasto</i>
1453336484859 1438033936302 What is th transmission of <i>blastomyc s d rma
titidis</i>?
It liv s in th soil in th mold form (it's dimorphic), and spor
s can b com a rosoliz d and inhal d. It th n assum s th y ast form in th lun
gs.
1453336546769 1438033936296 <i>Blastomyc s d rmatitidis</i> is a {
{c1::dimorphic }} fungus.
<i>Mold in th cold, y ast in th h at. </i
>
1453336565236 1438033936296 Singl , broad-bas d budding of th y ast form is
associat d with {{c1::<i>blastomyc s d rmatitidis</i>}} <i>Think th two
budding cannonballs from th pictur </i>
1453336616060 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>Blastomyc s d rmatitidis</i>}} is th s
am siz as an RBC
1453336651744 1438033936296 Macrophag s can contain {{c1::10s to 100s}}
of <i>histoplasma </i>y ast.
1453336678852 1438033936302 D scrib th pr s ntation of <i>blastomyc s d rm
atitidis</i> pn umonia on CXR.
"Hazy" lungs that hav a patchy
alv olar infiltrat . L sions or caviti s may b pr s nt.
1453336713325 1438033936302 Wh n might th local pn umonia caus d by <i
>blastomyc s d rmatitidis</i> progr ss to syst mic dis as ?
In an im
munocompromis d pati nt
1453336756248 1438033936296 Th majority of <i>blastomyc s d rmatitidis</i>&
nbsp;inf ctions ar {{c1::asymptomatic/subclinical}}
1453336760901 1438033936296 In immunocompromis d pati nts, blastomycosis oft
n spr ads to th {{c1::skin and bon }}
<i>Ost omy litis is a common pro
gr ssion. </i>
1453336860956 1438033936302 How is <i>blastomyc s d rmatitidis</i> inf
ction diagnos d?
KOH pr p of tissu sampl will show round y ast with sin
gl broad-bas d buds. Urin antig n t sts also xist.
1453336898527 1438033936302 How is <i>blastomyc s d rmatitidis</i> inf
ction tr at d? If a local inf ction, tr at d with -azol s (itraconazol ). If di
ss minat d, amphot ricin B.
1453336922265 1438033936302 What is th g ographic distribution of <i>coccid
ioid s immitis</i>?
Common in California, Southw st rn US.
1453336971383 1438033936302 How is <i>coccidioid s immitis </i>transmit
t d?
As f w as on inhal d arthroconidium can caus inf ction. Th s usually
r sid in dust. Thus, chanc s of inf ction ar gr atly incr as d wh n larg amou
nts of dust ar disp rs d into air (dust storms, arthquak s).
1453337033323 1438033936302 Why is <i>coccidioid s immitis</i> inf ctio
n oft n call d "San Joaquin Vall y F v r"?
Th arthroconidia of <i>coc
cidioid s immitis </i>ar oft n found in dust. Wh r dust storms ar pr va
l nt and disp rs dust and conidia into th air (as in th San Joaquin Vall y),
coccidioidomycosis is also pr val nt.

1453337122522 1438033936302 Which syst mic fungus is a mold in th cold but
a sph rul of ndospor s in th h at? <i>Coccidioid s immitis</i>.
1453337137313 1438033936302 How do s <i>coccidioid s immitis</i> spr ad
throughout th body? Th "sph rul of ndospor s" that compris s its form in
th lungs v ntually ruptur s. Th s ndospor s can th n spr ad throughout th l
ungs and possibly furth r.
1453337371732 1438033936296 <i>Coccidioid s immitis </i>sph rul s ar {
{c1::larg r than}} RBCs.
1453337389886 1438033936302 D scrib th pr s ntation of <i>coccidioid
s immitis</i> inf ction.
Asymptomatic/subclinical in th majority
of h althy p opl . In som , it can pr s nt as a s lf-limit d acut pn umonia wi
th f v r, sw ats, and arthralgias. This may last a f w w ks. Eryth ma nodosum c
an also commonly b s n. In th immunocompromis d, syst mic inf ction can d v l
op. Skin and lungs ar th most common sit s, but can s diss mination to bon
and to m ning s (h adach + stiff n ck of m ningitis).
1453337627343 1438033936296 Eryth ma nodosum is most associat d with {{
c1::<i>coccidioid s immitis</i>}}, but <i>histoplasma capsulatum</i> inf ct
ions may pr s nt with it as w ll.
1453337665998 1438033936302 D scrib th CXR xp ct d of a coccy pati nt.
May b unr markabl or may show caviti s and/or nodul s.
1453337683451 1438033936302 D scrib ryth ma nodosum.
R d, xt
r m ly t nd r nodul s that ar usually on th shins of aff ct d pati nts. Most a
ssociat d with <i>coccidioid s immitis</i>; symboliz s a robust immun r spons
(so, only s n in h althy pati nts).
1453337731408 1438033936302 How is coccidioidomycosis diagnos d?
Hx, PE.
Also KOH pr p of a tissu sampl . Cultur can b don but is v ry slow. Can also
s nd out antibody tit r s rology (wh r IgM against coccy indicat s a r c nt in
f ction).
1453337811671 1438033936302 How is <i>coccidioid s immitis</i> inf ctio
n tr at d?
-Azol s for local lung inf ction (k toconazol ), amphot ricin B
if diss minat d b caus it can b a fatal inf ction in th immunocompromis d.&nb
sp;
1453337858485 1438033936302 What is th g ographic distribution of <i>paraco
ccidioid s brasili nsis</i>?
Brazil and oth r parts of South Am rica
1453338068598 1438033936302 What fungal inf ction is som tim s call d "Brazi
lian blastomycosis"?
<i>Paracoccidioidomycosis</i>
1453338086526 1438033936302 Which fungus looks lik a "captain's wh l" in y
ast form?
<i>Paracoccidioid s brasili nsis. </i>It has multipl buds that
radiat out from a c nt r vacuol . Th buds ar round and bulbous in shap .&nbsp
;
.jpg" /></div> <i>Paracoccidioid s brasili nsis</i>
1453338172435 1438033936296 <i>Paracoccidioid s brasili nsis </i>is {{c
1::dimorphic}} <i>Mold in th cold, y ast in th h at</i>
1453338193342 1438033936296 <i>Paracoccidioid s brasili nsis</i> is&nbs
p;{{c1::much larg r}} than an RBC.
<i>About th sam siz as coccy.
</i>
1453338221882 1438033936302 How is <i>paracoccidioid s brasili nsis </i>tran
smitt d?
Through r spiratory dropl ts
1453338233895 1438033936302 What is th progr ssion of <i>paracoccidioidomyc
osis</i>?
Coughing; aft r drops ar inhal d th y can diss minat and caus
lymphad nopathy ( sp cially in th chains of c rvical LN, th axillary LN, and
th inguinal nod s). As it progr ss s it mov s downward to th upp r r spiratory
syst m and lungs, wh r it caus s granulomas and d v lopm nt of mucosal ulc rs
in th URT and mouth/gums.
1453338318964 1438033936302 What do th mucocutan ous l sions of paracoccidi
oidomycosis look lik and wh r can th y b found?
Th y'r ulc rs with ragg
d bord rs and small h morrhag spots. Th y can b found in th upp r r spirator
y tract and sp cially th gums in th mouth.
1453338358775 1438033936302 What's th tr atm nt for paracoccidioidomycosis?

Itraconazol for mild inf ctions, amphot ricin B for s v r inf ctions.
1453338381430 1438033936302 Which fungus pr s nts with mucocutan ous l sions
and looks lik a captain's wh l und r th microscop ? <i>Paracoccidoid s brasi
li nsis</i>
1453392232759 1438033936302 Which pathog n is d scrib d as having a "spagh t
ti and m atballs" app aranc on KOH pr p of skin scrap s?
<i>Malass zia fu
rfur</i>
1453392593795 1438033936296 <i>Malass zia furfur</i> thriv s und r&nbsp
;{{c1::hot and humid}} conditions
1453392673454 1438033936296 <i>Malass zia furfur </i>chang s its form in r s
pons to {{c1::h at/humidity}}
1453392820742 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>Malass zia furfur</i>}} caus s pityrias
is v rsicolor.
1453392909987 1438033936296 Pityriasis v rsicolor can occur in {{c1::h
althy}} individuals
1453392933522 1438033936302 D scrib th pr s ntation of pityriasis v rsicol
or in h althy individuals.
Caus d by <i>malass zia furfur. </i>Hypo- or hyp
rpigm nt d patch s g n rally locat d on th back and ch st, sp cially on thos
who sp nd tim in th sun. Mostly d scrib d as a "simpl d rmatological annoyan
c " for oth rwis h althy pati nts. L sions ar typically not pruritic.
1453393311955 1438033936302 What is th m chanism of action of pityriasis v
rsicolor l sions caus d by <i>malass zia furfur</i>?
Lipid d gradatio
n cr at s acid that damag s m lanocyt s. Thus, pigm ntation issu s. B caus this
is a cutan ous mycosis, it g n rally r mains confin d to th skin (stratum corn
um).
1453393678492 1438033936296 Pityriasis v rsicolor is g n rally confin d to t
h {{c1::stratum corn um}} <i>Malass zia furfur sits on th skin, thus inf
cts th top lay r wh n it is abl to conv rt forms d/t h at and humidity. <
/i>
1453393880020 1438033936302 D scrib syst mic <i>malass zia</i> fung mi
a.
Can caus s psis, thrombocytop nia.
1453393880323 1438033936302 Who is at risk for <i>malass zia </i>fung mia?
N onat s r c iving TPN, which com s with an accompanying lipid infusion taht can
trav l through cath t rs into th body. Lipids ar a favorabl nutritional cond
ition for <i>malass zia</i>. Can also b s n in adults r c iving lipid transfus
ions, but symptoms ar l ss s v r .
1453393992986 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for pityriasis v rsicolor
caus d by <i>malass zia furfur</i>?
Topical s l nium sulfid ("s lsun blu ")
. This proomot s sh dding of th stratum corn um (wh r th fungus liv s)
1453394081944 1438033936296 <i>Sporothrix sh nckii</i> caus s {{c1
::ros gard n r's dis as }}
1453394092124 1438033936296 Th subcutan ous inf ction caus d by <i>sporothr
ix sh nckii</i> is r f rr d to as {{c1::sporotrichosis}}
1453394115578 1438033936302 What is th classical pati nt history giv n for
contraction of <i>sporothrix sh nckii</i>?
Cuts from th thorns of a ros bu
sh, tc. It is also found on thr bark, oth r bush s, and oth r plants.
1453394161370 1438033936296 <i>Sporothrix sh nckii</i> is a {{c1::
dimorphic}} fungus
1453394167854 1438033936296 At 25 d gr s C, <i>sporothrix sh nckii</i>&nbsp
;is s n to hav {{c1::branching hypha }} in cultur .
1453394203591 1438033936296 <i>Sporothrix sh nckii</i> has {{c1::c
igar-}}shap d y ast
1453394233940 1438033936302 How is <i>sporothrix sh nckii</i> transmitt
d?
Most commonly introduc d und r th skin by trauma (i. . a thorn cut).&nb
sp;
1453394254223 1438033936302 How do s sporotrichosis progr ss?
Aft r b
ing induc d und r th skin, it can r sult in a local pustul or ulc r at th tra
uma sit . Furth r nodul s th n d v lop in an asc nding patt rn along th path of
th draining lymphatics (th asc nding cutan ous "tracks" th lymphatics).&nbsp
;
1453394319438 1438033936302 "Think of th lymphatics as a n twork of vin s t
hroughout th body, ros buds sprouting up along th vin s." What inf ction do s
this d scrib ? <i>Sporothrix sh nckii</i>. R d bumps on th skin track th inf
ction of th lymphatics.
1453394372203 1438033936302 How is diagnosis of sporotrichosis confirm d?
Cultur is th gold standard. Can also do a biopsy. Will s granulomas consisti
ng of histiocyt s, multinucl at d giant c lls, and cigar-shap d budding y ast. T
h asc nding lymphangitis is v ry sugg stiv .
1453394460729 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt of lymphocutan ous sporotr
ichosis?
Itraconazol is th drug of choic . Until th 90s, standard of c
ar was saturat d solution of potassium iodid . Not us d anymor .
1453394506735 1438033936302 What group of fungi caus s th tin as? Th d rm
atophyt s (<i> pid rmophyton</i>, <i>trichophyton</i>, and <i>microsporum</i>)
1453394649199 1438033936296 A d rmatophyt is a fungus that coloniz s th &nb
sp;{{c1::skin}}
1453394659439 1438033936302 How ar th tin as cat goriz d? Th y hav basica
lly th sam pathology so th y ar classifi d by aff ct d location (tin a capiti
s on h ad and scalp, tinia cruris on th groin, tin a corporis on th body, tin
a p dis is athl t 's foot).
1453394798171 1438033936296 "D rmatophyt " is Gr k for {{c1::"skin pla
nt."}} <i>Thus, th d rmatophyt s liv on th skin. Th y rar ly invad . </
i>
1453394823885 1438033936296 Tin a is commonly r f rr d to as {{c1::ring
worm}} <i>Tin a com s from th Latin for worm. </i>
1453394854832 1438033936302 What shap ar th l sions in th tin as?
Circl s.
1453394868700 1438033936296 Th {{c1::crura}} is th structur that att
ach s th bas of th p nis to th ischiopubic ramus.
1453394880496 1438033936296 {{c1::Tin a crura}} is commonly r f rr d to as "
jock itch."
1453394890460 1438033936296 {{c1::Athl t s}} ar at risk for th tin as.&nbs
p;
1453394908868 1438033936302 What should you think of if pr s nt d with ringshap d l sions on a wr stl r or swimm r walking bar foot in a lock r room?
D rmatophyt s (tin a p dis, tc.).
1453394955515 1438033936302 How is d rmatophyt inf ction transmitt d?
Dir ct contact with inf ct d animals, contact with sw at/s cr tions containing d
rmatophyt s (i. . sw at on a wr stling mat, th fungus on th floor of a lock r
room)
1453395004411 1438033936302 D scrib th l sions common to th tin as.
Circular, pruritic l sions.
1453395024266 1438033936302 How is d rmatophyt inf ction diagnos d?
1) Illumination Woods lamp will show fluor sc nc (only of <i>microsporum</i>);
2) KOH pr p of skin scrap will show s ptat hypha
1453395164414 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for th cutan ous d rmatop
hytos s?
Topical azol s lik clotrimazol for tin a. If s v r , oral gris
ofulvin.
1453395186536 1438033936302 What is onychomycosis? Fungal inf ction of th
nails. Usually caus d by d rmatophyt s.
1453395202587 1438033936302 How is onychomycosis tr at d? It is difficult
to tr at and usually must b oral to b succ ssful (us an oral antifungal lik
t rbinafin ). For mor s v r inf ctions can us oral gris ofulvin, which lik s
to d posit in k ratin-containing tissu s lik skin and nails.
1453395267013 1438033936296 Oral gris ofulvin typically is not w ll-tol rat
d du to {{c1::GI}} sid ff cts.
1453395297188 1438033936296 {{c1::Candida alba}} is th most common caus of
opportunistic mycos s. <i>Caus s both cutan ous and syst mic inf ction. </
i>
1453395713047 1438033936302 Who is at risk for candidiasis? Pati nts with n
utrop nia, HIV/AIDS, diab t s m llitus (pr s nting with a fungal inf ction).&nbs
p;
1453395747714 1438033936302 D scrib th dimorphism xhibit d by c<i>andida
albicans</i>.
Unlik oth r dimorphic fungi which ar "molds in th col
d, y ast in th h at," <i>candida </i>is a y ast in th cold (20 d gr s C) and
a mold with g rm tub s/hypha in th h at (at 37 d gr s C).
1453395811540 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>Candida albicans</i>}} is catalas -posi
tiv .
1453395822896 1438033936302 What do s candida look lik at 20 C?
Budding
y ast with ps udohypha .
1453395836488 1438033936302 What do s c<i>andida albicans</i> look lik
in th h at? A mold with hypha /g rm tub s.
1453395848291 1438033936302 What group of p opl is sp cially susc ptibl t
o c<i>andida albicans</i> ov r oth r fungi?
P opl with CGD (it's ca
talas positiv ).
1453395870000 1438033936302 How is c<i>andida albicans</i> transmitt d?
It's normal flora of th GI tract (including th oral cavity) in up to 40% of p
opl . As long as th host is immunocomp t nt, no probl ms. How v r, DM, Abx/OCP
us , and immunosuppr ssion can allow <i>candida</i> to fluorish.
1453395969293 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>Candida albicans</i>}} oft n contaminat
s sputum cultur s
1453395997887 1438033936302 What caus s diap r rash? How do s it pr s nt?
<i>Candida albicans. </i>S v r r dn ss in a diap r distribution (ar a is xpos
d d/t h at and humidity).
1453396043959 1438033936302 D scrib oral candidiasis.
Can pr s nt in a
ny ag , but g n rally s n in th immunocompromis d (HIV/AIDS, thos who us st
roids). Thos who don't rins th ir mouths aft r using inhal d st roids can d v
lop it. Pr s nts as whit patch s/ whit "ps udom mbran " in mouth that can asi
ly b scrap d off. Can also xt nd down into sophagus in mor s v r cas s.&nbs
p;
1453396101341 1438033936302 What caus s whit plaqu s in th mouth that ar
NOT asy to scrap off? Oral hairy l ukoplakia (as compar d to oral candidiasis,
which CAN asily b scrap d off).
1453396146901 1438033936302 What pr p is us d for oral tissu sampl s to ch
ck for <i>candida</i>? KOH
1453396200985 1438033936302 At what T C ll count do s oral candidiasis b gin
to app ar in AIDS pati nts?
Around 100.
1453396221366 1438033936302 What ar th risk factors for vaginal candidiasi
s?
Diab t s m llitus, antibiotic us (can kill normal vaginal bact ria), OC
P us .
1453396267616 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>Candida albicans</i>}} do s not chang
th pH of vaginal s cr tions. <i>In contrast, Gardn r lla do s. </i>
1453396302613 1438033936302 What is th pH of th vaginal mucosa in candidal
vulvovaginitis?
3.8-4.2.
1453396332450 1438033936302 What candidal inf ction is associat d with IV dr
ug us rs?
Candidal ndocarditis. <i>Candida albicans</i> is oft n found in
c rtain typ s of h roin, which if inj ct d IV can s d h art valv s. Th tricus
pid valv is th first valv ncount r d and thus is commonly inf ct d.&nb
sp;
1453396414218 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for local or minor candidi
as s? -Azol s.
1453396432216 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for s v r or diss minat d
candidias s? Amphot ricin B. For v ry s v r or drug-r sistant inf ctions, ca
psofungin is add d (may s in th ICU).
1453396491654 1438033936302 What drug is us d for sophag al or oral candidi
asis? Nystatin (liquid us d as swish-n-spit or swish-n-swallow, d p nding on t
h location).
1453396528237 1438033936302 What typ of fungal pn umonia is sp cifically as
sociat d with AIDS pati nts?
PCP, or <i>pn umocystis jirov cii </i>pn umonia.

1453396587033 1438033936302 What is th transmission of <i>pn umocystis jiro

v cii</i>?
R spiratory.
1453396607258 1438033936302 What CD4 count is PCP associat d with? <200.
This is th r for th valu at which you should start prophylaxis.
1453396666695 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>Pn umocystis jirov cii</i>}} can occur
in h althy p opl but is asymptomatic.
1453396693861 1438033936302 D scrib th pr s ntation of PCP.
Diffus
int rstitial pn umonia, cough (not productiv lik bact rial pn umonia coughs ar
), dyspn a, f v r.
1453396833809 1438033936302 What do s PCP look lik on CXR? Won't s th co
nsolidation s n in bact rial pn umonia. May s nothing at all. If you DO, you
should s a wispy, diffus infiltrat with "ground glass" app aranc .
1453396875513 1438033936302 Which fungal pn umonia pr s nts with a "ground g
lass" app aranc on CXR?
<i>Pn umocystis jirov cii</i>
1453396895764 1438033936302 How is PCP diagnos d? 1) G t a lung tissu sam
pl with bronchoalv olar lavag ; 2) Biopsy (mor involv d/invasiv ). Stain th s
ampl with m thamin silv r to ID th fungus, which has ovoid/disc-shap d y asts
. 3) CXR with "ground-glass" app aranc
1453397016135 1438033936302 What is BAL?
Bronchoalv olar lavag , which is
ss ntially a bronchoscopy proc dur that obtains lump sampl s through fluid ri
ns s.
1453397038351 1438033936302 What shap ar th y asts of <i>pn umocystis jir
ov cii</i>?
Disc/ovoid
1453397051690 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for PCP? B gin prophylaxi
s in HIV pati nts with a CD4 count <200. Bactrim is th drug of choic (trim
thoprim+sulfam thoxazol ). In pati nts with sulfa all rgy, giv p ntamidin .&nbs
p;
1453397433271 1438033936296 Lik <i>candida</i>, {{c1::<i>asp rgillus f
umigatus</i>}} is also catalas -positiv
<i>Thus, p opl with CGD ar sus
c ptibl </i>
1453397463032 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>Asp rgillus flavus</i>}} mak s aflatoxi
ns, which ar oft n found associat d with p anuts and grain crops.
1453397484329 1438033936296 Aflatoxins ar carcinog nic, and ar sp cially
associat d with {{c1::h patoc llular carcinoma}}
1453397518871 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>Asp rgillus flavus</i>}} has s ptat hy
pha that xhibit acut -angl branching
1453397542827 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>Asp rgillus fumigatus</i>}} forms conid
iophor s (fruiting bodi s that sit at tops of stalks and bud off).
1453397616609 1438033936302 What is th transmission of <i>asp rgillus fumig
atus</i>?
It forms conidiophor s, which r l as conidia to th air. Th co
nidia ar inhal d by humans. So, inhalation.
1453397687277 1438033936302 What ar th thr major typ s of inf ctions cau
s d by <i>asp rgillus fumigatus</i>?
1) All rgic bronchopulmonary asp rgillos
is (ABPA), 2) Asp rgilloma formation, 3) Angioinvasiv asp rgillosis
1453401580639 1438033936302 D scrib all rgic bronchopumonary asp rgillosis
(ABPA). Typ I hyp rs nsitivity r action that pr s nts with wh zing, f v r, mig
ratory pulmonary infiltrat . Cystic Fibrosis pati nts can g t this. Blood t sts
will show incr as d IgE.
1453401628298 1438033936296 {{c1::Cystic fibrosis}} pati nts ar at risk for
all rgic bronchopulmonary asp rgillosis.
1453401707740 1438033936302 D scrib th asp rgillomas that can b form d by
<i>asp rgillus fumigatus</i>. Solid "fungus balls" in lungs. P opl who may al
r ady hav caviti s in th lungs (<i>kl bsi lla </i>or <i>mycobact rium tub rcul
osis</i> pati nts, canc r pati nts, p opl with oth r fungal inf ctions) ar
susc ptibl . Th fungus balls ar gravity-d p nd nt, so on an upright CXR th y
will s ttl to th bottoms of caviti s.
1453401784611 1438033936302 D scrib angioinvasiv asp rgillosis.
Aff cts immunocompromis d pati nts, particularly thos with n utrop nia du to l
uk mia or lymphoma. <i>Asp rgillus fumigatus</i> invad s blood v ss ls and
diss minat s quickly throughout body. F v r, cough, h moptysis. Kidn ys, h art
can b aff ct d as w ll as brain (charact ristic ring- nhancing l sions). Can sp

r ad to paranasal sinus s and caus n crosis n ar th nos .
1453401881277 1438033936302 What would you s on light microscopy xaminati
on of a blood v ss l tissu sampl from a pati nt with angioinvasiv asp rgillos
is?
Form of fungus will hav s ptat hypha at acut angl s, will b invadin
g BV and surrounding tissu s.
1453401940721 1438033936296 Ring- nhancing l sions in th brain sugg st diss
minat d {{c1::angioinvasiv asp rgillosis}}
1453402023487 1438033936302 If a pati nt (who may hav had TB in th past) p
r s nts with pn umonia symptoms and has ring- nhancing l sions visibl on brain
CT, what should you consid r? Angioinvasiv asp rgillosis
1453402075670 1438033936302 What two fung mias would caus n crosis n ar th
nos ? <i>Asp rgillus fumigatus</i> and <i>mucor</i>
1453402101461 1438033936302 What do th hypha of <i>mucor</i> look lik
?
Branch at 90 d gr s, ar as ptat
1453402121585 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i>asp rgillus fumigat
us</i> inf ction? Voriconazol if local, amphot ricin B if angioinvasiv .
Not that asp rgillomas r quir surgical d brid m nt in addition to voriconazol
th rapy.
1453402196086 1438033936296 {{c1::Cryptococcus n oformans}} is a h avily- nc
apsulat d fungus
1453402245663 1438033936302 If a fungus is d scrib d as "h avily ncapsulat
d," what sp ci s should you think of? <i>Cryptococcus n oformans</i>
1453402260050 1438033936302 D scrib th capsul of <i>cryptococcus n oforma
ns. </i> Capsul has r p ating polysaccharid capsular antig ns. It is th
main virul nc factor of th sp ci s d/t making it anti-phagocytic.
1453402304772 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>Cryptococcus n oformans</i>}} is ur as
-positiv
1453402314005 1438033936296 <i>Cryptococus n oformans</i> is normally f
ound in th {{c1::soil, and oft n in pig on droppings}}
1453402358293 1438033936302 D scrib th pathog n sis of <i>cryptococcus n o
formans</i> inf ction.
It is found in th soil and inhal d. It
s ttl s in th lungs as its primary focus and th n can diss minat . Opportunisti
c, so mostly s n in immunocompromis d pati nts (HIV, malignancy, high-dos st r
oid th rapi s).
1453402404859 1438033936302 D scrib th clinical pr s ntation of <i>cryptoc
occus n oformans </i>inf ction. Can b asymptomatic aft r s ttling in lungs but
can also caus f v r, cough, dyspn a, oth r s rious lung issu s. Unlik ly to b
caught at this stag , so it can progr ss to th CSF and caus m ningitis.
1453402532270 1438033936302 What is th most common caus of fungal m ningit
is?
<i>Cryptococcus n oformans</i> (can b l thal!). R quir s a long tr
atm nt cours .
1453402555279 1438033936302 How is c<i>ryptococcus</i> inf ction diagno
s d?
Can cultur on Saboraud's agar (tak s w ks, so not that h lpful); Bronc
hopulmonary washing of lung tissu can b stain d with mucicarmin (r d) or m th
namin silv r stain; lumbar punctur to obtain CSF, which can b stain d with i
ndia ink; lat x agglutination t st.
1453402660363 1438033936302 D scrib th india ink stain us d in diagnosis o
f cryptococcal m ningitis. What would it show? Background is dark, organism is
transpar nt, so a "n gativ " stain t chniqu . <i>Cryptococcus </i>would b 5-10
microns with wid capsular halos.
1453402714408 1438033936302 What pathog n would show a wid capsular halo on
india ink stain?
<i>Cryptococcus n oformans</i>
1453402730278 1438033936302 What do s a positiv lat x agglutination t st su
gg st? It d t cts th polysaccharid capsular antig n of <i>cryptococcus n ofor
mans</i> and agglutinat s th m.
1453402769866 1438033936302 What would you susp ct in th cas of an HIV pat
i nt with "soap bubbl l sions" in th gr y matt r of th brain?
<i>Crypt
ococcus n oformans</i> inf ction that had progr ss d to m ningitis.
1453402822405 1438033936302 What ar th s ?<div><img src="past -348150049022
08.jpg" /></div>
Soap bubbl l sions in th gray matt r of th brain caus
d by c<i>ryptococcus n oformans</i>
1453402900576 1438033936302 How is <i>cryptococcus n oformans</i> m nin
gitis tr at d? V ry laborious; us amphot ricin B plus flucytosin , th n do mai
nt nanc th rapy with fluconazol .
1453402934886 1438033936302 Which two fungi caus mucomycosis?
Mucor an
d rhizopus
1453402946308 1438033936302 Who is at risk for mucormycosis?
Th immu
nocompromis d, particularly p opl with n utrop nia du to l uk mia or lymphoma,
p opl with diab t s m llitus ( sp cially p opl in DKA!).
1453403015493 1438033936302 How is mucormycosis acquir d? Spor inhalation
. Not that Rhizopus is a br ad mold.
1453403042427 1438033936302 How do s mucormycosis progr ss? Aft r b ing inha
l d, fungi lik to prolif rat in blood v ss l walls, sp cially und r condition
s of xc ss glucos and k ton s (thus, DKA pr dispos s). Th fungus is abl to p
n trat th cribiform plat of th skull and nt r th brain. It continu s to p
rolif rat in th v ss ls and caus n crosis, l ading to rhinoc r bral mucormyco
sis and frontal cort x absc ss s. Surrounding n crotic tissu can pr s nt as a b
lack schar on th fac and in nasal cavity.
1453403073886 1438033936302 What is th most common pr disposing factor to<i
> </i>mucormycosis?
DKA: hyp rglyc mia and k ton mia ar favorabl c
onditions for th fungi.
1453403096412 1438033936302 What do th fungi that caus mucormycosis look l
ik ?
Tir irons. Hav cross-shap d structur wh r as ptat hypha xhibit 90
d gr branching.
1453403190477 1438033936302 What is th cribiform plat ?
A structur of t
h skull with multipl p rforations that allows for passag of olfactory n rv f
ib rs.
1453403208498 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt of mucormycosis? N crotic
tissu must b surgically d brid d. Drug th rapy with amphot ricin B. Not that
prognosis in cas s of rhinoc r bral mucormycosis is bad--fungus is lik ly alr a
dy in brain causing absc ss s if visibl in nos and y s.
7.jpg" /></div> Th atypical CD8+ lymphocyt s call d "Down y" c lls that ar s
n in inf ctious mononucl osis caus d by EBV.
1454268699296 1438033936296 Picornavirus s ar {{c1::positiv -s ns , si
ngl -strand d}} RNA virus s.
1454268953903 1438033936302 How did th picornavirus family g t its nam ?
Pico (small) + RNA = picorna
1454268982837 1438033936302 How ar RNA virus s subdivid d? Bas d on wh th r
th y hav positiv or n gativ s ns strands of RNA.
1454269007468 1438033936302 What ar th g n ral charact ristics of th pico
rnavirus family?
Th y ar nak d, mostly transmitt d by th f cal-oral rou
t , positiv -s ns singl -strand d RNA virus s.
1454269068658 1438033936302 What do s a "nak d" virus look lik ?
It lacks
an out r viral nv lop . Th virion is th nucl ocapsid.
1454269098797 1438033936302 D scrib th g n ral f cal-oral rout of transmi
ssion of most picornavirus s. Virus s sh d in th f c s of an inf ct d animal/
human nd up in food or wat r, or on th hands ( sp cially in childr n) and ar
introduc d into th mouth.
1454269144428 1438033936302 What picornavirus is th xc ption to th family
's common mod of transmission? Rhinovirus s: th s ar transmitt d via inhalati
on/th r spiratory rout , wh r as th oth r picornavirus s ar f cal-oral.
1454269190510 1438033936302 D scrib th r plication strat gy of + s ns RNA
virus s.
Th positiv s ns RNA of th virus is alr ady structur d lik h
ost mRNA (i. . has sam s ns dir ction), so it may us host ribosom s to transl
at prot ins right away. Th s virus s s don't usually n d any viral machin ry
for translation.
1454269321633 1438033936296 N gativ -s ns RNA virus s n d to bring along {
{c1::an RNA-d p nd nt RNA polym ras }} in ord r to translat prot ins.
1454269351313 1438033936302 How do picornavirus s translat th ir RNA?

On host ribosom s into a long polyprot in product. Whil this r mains uncl av d,
it can't s rv any function. Thus, viral prot as s cl av it into th activ vi
ral prot in subunits.
1454269433180 1438033936296 All positiv -s ns RNA virus s r plicat in th &
nbsp;{{c1::cytoplasm}} <i>Host c ll mRNA is analogous to viral RNA, and both ar
proc ss d in th cytoplasm. </i>
1454269465674 1438033936296 Almost all n gativ -s ns RNA virus s r plicat &
nbsp;{{c1::in th cytoplasm}} <i>With th xc ption of orthomyxovirus s</i>
1454269768326 1438033936302 What ar th thr main subgroups of th picorna
virus family? H patitis A, th nt rovirus s, and th rhinovirus s
1454269781404 1438033936302 D scrib h patitis A.
It is a picornav
irus (+ss RNA). Caus s h patospl nom galy. R plicat s in th cytoplasm.
1454269821928 1438033936302 D scrib th nt rovirus s.
Subgroup of Pico
rnavirus s, so th y ar +ssRNA and r plicat in th cytoplasm. Th y'r th #1 ca
us of as ptic m ningitis. This group contains poliovirus, coxsacki virus A and
B, chovirus, and hundr ds mor .
1454269896483 1438033936302 What do s "as ptic" m ningitis m an?
M ningit
is caus d by a non-bact rial organism. CSF will show no organisms. If th tiolo
gy is viral, CSF prot in will b l vat d and glucos will b normal.
1454269943215 1438033936302 What ag group is most aff ct d by m ningitis of
nt rovirus tiology? Childr n
1454269958571 1438033936302 D scrib th CSF findings in a viral m ningitis.
CSF glucos is normal, CSF prot in is l vat d, no organisms found.
1454269987468 1438033936302 What is th numb r on caus of as ptic m ningit
is?
Th nt rovirus subgroup of Picornavirida
1454270008077 1438033936302 What is th primary caus of th common cold?
Rhinovirus s
1454270021086 1438033936302 How ar rhinovirus s transmitt d?
Via th
r spiratory rout . Thus, th y primarily caus upp r r spiratory tract inf ctions
.
1454270050736 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of poliovirus. Nak d, +
ssRNA. M mb r of th nt rovirus subgroup of th picornavirus family. Caus s pol
io, which has larg ly b n radicat d du to vaccination fforts.
1454270117900 1438033936302 Wh r do cas s of polio still aris naturally?
Africa, Asia.
1454270134730 1438033936302 How is poliovirus transmitt d? F cal-oral rout
, just lik oth r nt rovirus s. Thus, it is acid-stabl b caus it must withsta
nd th stomach.
1454270167896 1438033936296 In ord r to b transmitt d via th f cal-oral ro
ut , a virus must b {{c1::acid-stabl }}
1454270174632 1438033936302 D scrib th clinical cours of poliovirus inf c
tion. Th virus nt rs th GI tract and initially r plicat s in lymphoid tissu
s lik th tonsils and P y r's patch s. This stag lasts about 2-3 w ks. From
th aggr gat d lymphoid tissu s, th virus spr ads to wh r it caus s th most d
amag : th ant rior horn of th spinal cord (sp cifically, low r motor n urons).
It can thus caus paralysis 2-3 w ks aft r th initial inf ction.
1454270269177 1438033936302 D scrib P y r's patch s.
Coll ctions of l
ymphoid tissu (similar to th tonsils) locat d in th submucosa of th il um.&n
bsp;
1454270299625 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of polio? Asymm tric paral
ysis that is usually conc ntrat d in th low r l gs. It can also caus myalgias
and d cr as d d p t ndon r fl x s. Th paralysis can asc nd to th diaphragm an
d caus r spiratory insuffici ncy. Lik all oth r nt rovirus s, it can also cau
s as ptic m ningitis.
1454270384797 1438033936302 What is oft n th caus of d ath in fatal poliov
irus inf ctions?
R spiratory insuffici ncy du to paralysis of th diaphr
agm.
1454270507465 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for polio?
No tr at
m nt. Pr v nt with vaccination.
1454270535752 1438033936302 D scrib th Salk vaccin for polio.

First va
ccin for polio. Inactivat d/kill d vaccin giv n via inj ction. Downsid is tha
t it bypass s th GI tract, so no mucosal immunity is g n rat d. Only forms IgG.

1454270596470 1438033936302 D scrib th Sabin vaccin for poliovirus.
Liv att nuat d vaccin giv n orally. Conf rs both IgA (mucosal immunity) and Ig
G. How v r, it can sh d in th f c s and may r v rt to a virul nt form (thus, co
uld caus paralysis in oth rs). This is why w us th kill d vaccin .
1454270653479 1438033936302 What is th primary antibody on mucosal surfac s
?
IgA
1454270664286 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of Coxsacki virus s.
Th y ar nt rovirus s (a subgroup of Picornavirida ). Thus, th y'r nak d and h
av +ssRNA, which m ans th y r plicat in th cytoplasm.
1454270851935 1438033936296 Coxsacki virus A and B hav {{c1::similar}}
pr s ntations. <i>Can b diff r ntiat d bas d on c rtain classic symptoms thoug
h.</i>
1454270873385 1438033936296 Hand, foot, and mouth dis as is caus d by
{{c1::Coxsacki virus A}}
1454270893389 1438033936302 What do s th rash of hand/foot/mouth dis as lo
ok lik ?
R d and v sicular.
1454270904399 1438033936302 Nam two pathog ns b sid s Coxsacki virus A that
caus a rash on th hands and f t.
<i>Tr pon ma pallidum</i>, <i>rick ttsia
rick ttsia </i>.
1454270978285 1438033936302 B sid s hand/foot/mouth dis as , what dis as pr
oc ss is associat d with Coxsacki virus A?
Asp tic m ningitis (lik all nt
rovirus s). No organisms will b visibl on a Gram stain of CSF.
1454271024047 1438033936302 Wh n is Coxsacki virus inf ction most common?
It occurs most oft n during th summ r months.
1454271045317 1438033936302 What is a d vastating s qu lla of inf ction with
Coxsacki virus B?
Dilat d cardiomyopathy.
1454271073056 1438033936302 D scrib two s rious symptoms of Coxsacki virus
B inf ction.
Dilat d cardiomyopathy may r sult. May also s "th D vil's gri
p" (Bornholm's dis as , or pl urodynia). This is charact riz d by xtr m , sharp
pain in th low r ch st that is oft n unilat ral and mak s it difficult to br a
th .
1454271145334 1438033936302 What pathog n is associat d with "th D vil's gr
ip," also call d "Bornholm's dis as " and "pl urodynia"?
Coxsacki virus B
.
1454271178522 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt of th coxsacki virus s?
Supportiv tr atm nt only
1454271189864 1438033936302 Why ar th rhinovirus s th "black sh p" of th
Th y ar transmitt d via inhalation inst ad of th usual
picornavirida ?
f cal-oral rout that oth r picornavirus s us . Th y can also b transmitt d th
rough fomit s.
1454271231077 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of th rhinovirus s.
Th y ar picornavirus s, so th y ar nak d +ssRNA (which m ans th y r plicat in
th cytoplasm).
1454271265781 1438033936302 Why is it important to wash your hands to pr v n
t contracting a cold? Rhinovirus s can b transmitt d via fomit s, including "
grubby hands."
1454271295617 1438033936302 What host c ll r c ptor do rhinovirus s bind for
ntry? I-CAM1
1454271306084 1438033936302 What t mp ratur do rhinovirus s pr f r for grow
th?
33 d gr s C (cool r than th av rag body t mp ratur ). Thus, it is fou
nd in th upp r r spiratory tract du to th constant cooling air flow th r .&nb
sp;
1454271357591 1438033936302 What is th singl pr s ntation of rhinovirus in
f ction?
Upp r r spiratory tract inf ction.
1454271387599 1438033936302 Why is th "ridiculous" numb r of rhinovirus s r
otyp s clinically r l vant?
Th lack of cons nsus antig nic d t rminants mak
s it difficult to d sign a vaccin to cov r th m all. Thus, w hav no vaccin

for th common cold.
1454271432490 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for rhinovirus inf ction?
No sp cific tr atm nt xists.
1454271446223 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of H patitis A.
It is a picornavirus, so it is nak d with +ssRNA (thus, r plicat s in th cytopl
asm). Lik most picornavirus s, it is acid-stabl and can surviv th stomach wi
th r lativ as .
1454271510434 1438033936302 Why is acid stability important in th f cal-ora
l transmission rout ? Organisms must b abl to surviv th stomach to b sh d
in a virul nt form in th f c s.
1454271535792 1438033936302 How is H patitis A spr ad?
F cal-oral rout
, so it can b sh d in f c s and contaminat wat r suppli s. This sp cially occ
urs in d v loping countri s wh r th r is a lack of wat r purification. In th
US, w oft n contract HAV from consuming und rcook d sh llfish caught in contami
nat d wat r.
1454271639036 1438033936302 What groups of p opl ar commonly us d in qu st
ion st ms as HAV pati nts?
Trav l rs to H p A nd mic ar as ( sp cially in
th South rn H misph r ), who may hav ing st d contaminat d wat r th r .
1454271677648 1438033936302 What m thods ar us d to purify wat r to pr v nt
transmission of H patitis A? Chlorination, bl ach, ultraviol t radiation, or
boiling to 85 d gr s C for gr at r than on minut s.
1454271717021 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of inf ction with H patiti
s A virus?
Can b sil nt or subclinical, or may caus acut viral h patitis
with f v r, h patom galy, and jaundic ( sp cially in adults). Can b anict ric
in th young. In smok rs, may s a sudd n av rsion to smoking tobacco products
.
1454271821437 1438033936302 If a smok r d v lops a sudd n av rsion to smokin
g tobacco products, what could you consid r?
H patitis A inf ction
1454271837926 1438033936302 What is th duration of H patitis A inf ction?
Usually s lf-limit d to about a month. No carri r or chronic stat .
1454271853491 1438033936302 Which h patitis virus lacks a carri r or chronic
stat ? H p A.
1454271863554 1438033936302 How is H patitis A pr v nt d? With an inactiva
t d vaccin giv n to pati nts in high-risk circumstanc s ( nd mic ar as, alr ady
hav chronic liv r dis as , or ar m n who hav s x with m n).
1454271892393 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for H patitis A? Th inf
ction is oft n s lf-limit d at about a month's duration.
1454271915645 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of calicivirus. It is a
picornavirus, so it's nak d with +ssRNA. It thus r plicat s in th cytoplasm.&nb
sp;
1454271974532 1438033936302 D scrib translation by calicivirus.
It is a
picornavirus that us s host ribosom s to produc on larg polyprot in that must
b proc ss d and cl av d by viral prot as s into small r, activ constitut nts.

1454272018785 1438033936302 What is th most commonly clinically r l vant ca
licivirus?
Norovirus, or "Norwalk" virus.
1454272035436 1438033936302 Wh r do calicivirus outbr aks happ n? Anywh r
th r ar lots of p opl in clos quart rs. For xampl , common on cruis ships
. Also associat d with young childr n in daycar faciliti s or schools.
1454272068406 1438033936296 {{c1::Norovirus, a calicivirus}} is r sponsibl
for >90% of all outbr aks of diarrh al illn ss s on cruis s.
1454272111252 1438033936302 How is norovirus transmitt d? Via consumption
of sh llfish, oyst rs, or oth r foods handl d and s rv d raw. How v r, any situa
tion wh r food is touch d by p opl can transmit illn ss (so, buff ts ar hotsp
ots).
1454272171604 1438033936302 Nam thr groups of p opl associat d with cali
civirus outbr aks.
1) Cruis ship pass ng rs 2) Childr n 3) Sh llfish at r
s
1454272191873 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of norovirus inf ction?
It's a diarrh al illn ss that pr s nts as an xplosiv viral gastro nt ritis.&nb

sp;
1454272216097 1438033936302 D scrib th structur common to flavivirus s.
Th y ar nv lop d with non-s gm nt d +ssRNA.
1454272264502 1438033936302 What do s a "non-s gm nt d" g nom m an?
Having a singl s gm nt of RNA (or DNA).
1454272281927 1438033936302 Nam four clinically r l vant flavivirus s.
D ngu f v r, y llow f v r, W st Nil virus, and H patitis C.
1454272310497 1438033936302 How is d ngu f v r transmitt d?
It us s
th <i>a d s gypti</i> mosquito as a v ctor.
1454272332959 1438033936302 D scrib th symptoms of d ngu f v r. H morrha
gic f v r, inf ction of th bon marrow, thrombocytop nia with incr as d risk of
bl ding, can l ad to r nal failur , s ptic shock, and d ath.
1454272372791 1438033936302 What is also call d "br akbon f v r"? D ngu f
v r
1454272379607 1438033936302 What is on of th mor s rious complications of
d ngu f v r? R nal failur
1454272390323 1438033936302 How many typ s of d ngu f v r xist? 4, but t
yp 2 is th most important
1454272408230 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt of d ngu f v r? Mostly s
upportiv including making sur pati nts ar w ll hydrat d
1454272424145 1438033936302 What is th m thod of transmission of y llow f v
r?
Th <i>a d s gypti </i>mosquito (lik d ngu f v r).
1454272445935 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of y llow f v r? Jaundic
, backach , blood stool/diarrh a, and may s bloody vomit.
1454272475662 1438033936296 Unlik d ngu f v r, a liv att nuat d {{c1::y l
low f v r}} vaccin is availabl for trav l rs.
1454272519353 1438033936302 What is th r s rvoir of W st Nil virus?
Birds
1454272522458 1438033936302 Y llow f v r and W st Nil virus both b long to
what virus family?
Flavivirus s; thus, th y ar nv lop d +ssRNA virus s.&n
bsp;
1454272545489 1438033936302 What is th structur of d ngu virus? Env lop
d, +ssRNA. (It's a flavivirus)
1454272561405 1438033936302 What is th v ctor for W st Nil Virus? Th Cul
x mosquito.
1454272616764 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of W st Nil virus?
Enc phalitis (th major complication), my litis (which can l ad to flaccid paral
ysis), m ningitis and associat d n ck rigidity. Can l ad to v ntual s izur s an
d coma.
1454272660470 1438033936302 How is W st Nil virus diagnos d?
Via PCR
or s rology on CSF sampl s.
1454272685689 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for W st Nil Virus?
Supportiv tr atm nt only.
1454272695045 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of H patitis C. It's a f
lavivirus, so it is nv lop d with +ssRNA.
1454272727240 1438033936302 How is H patitis C transmitt d? Most commonly vi
a xposur to inf ct d blood, so transfusions ( sp cially b for 1990) or IV dru
g us rs sharing n dl s. Oth r bodily fluids as w ll (transplac ntal, s xual, br
astf ding).
1454272774104 1438033936302 What w r pati nts who r c iv d blood transfusio
ns in th 1970s and 1980s at risk for? H patitis C.
1454272807878 1438033936302 Which h patitis is mor lik ly to b acquir d vi
a s xual contact?
HBV (although HCV can also b transmitt d this way)
1454272827317 1438033936302 Is HCV or HIV mor inf ctious? HCV
1454272837855 1438033936302 What is a chall ng to th cr ation of a vaccin
for HCV?
Env lop prot ins und rgo antig nic variation, so our immun sys
t m can't k p up. Vaccin s can b com obsol t quickly.
1454272871480 1438033936302 Why do s antig nic variation happ n in HCV?
Th virion- ncod d RNA polym ras lacks th proofr ading 3' to 5' xonucl as th
at mammalian polym ras s hav . Thus, it is pron to fr qu nt mutation. This r su

lts in chang s in prot in structur .
1454272939756 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for HCV inf ction?
Th old tr atm nt program was ribavirin plus int rf ron alpha. Now, prot as inh
ibitors or a n w polym ras inhibitor.
1454273049103 1438033936302 What is th l ading caus of liv r transplants?
HCV
1454273065362 1438033936302 What must you do b for b ginning HCV tr atm nt?
T st th g notyp of th virus to s l ct ff ctiv drug cominations.
1454273090976 1438033936302 D scrib th clinical findings of th acut phas
of HCV inf ction.
Liv r inf ction, possibl jaundic , right upp r
quadrant pain/discomfort, h patom galy, incr as d liv r nzym s.
1454273167359 1438033936302 Which h patitis virus is mor lik ly to b com a
chronic inf ction?
HCV: 60-80% of cas s b com chronic. In contrast, most c
as s of HBV inf ction r solv aft r acut attack. Can think "H p <u>C</u> f
or <u>c</u>hronic"
1454273222872 1438033936302 D scrib th inflammation s n in chronic HCV in
f ction. Lymphocyt s infiltrat th portal tract, liv r c lls and par nch
yma ar chronically irritat d. As a r sult, h patocyt s di . Thus, th liv r mus
t quickly r plac th m. Som ar as may succumb to fibrosis and cirrhosis, and ot
h r ar as may b com malignant as th y r produc . Can l ad to h patoc llular car
cinoma.
1454273355633 1438033936302 What is th numb r on caus of h patoc llular c
arcinoma?
HCV inf ction
1454273364877 1438033936302 Why is it important to d t rmin th stag of a
pati nt's HCV inf ction?
Chronic HCV inf ctions ar th numb r 1 caus of
h patoc llular carcinoma
1454273407709 1438033936302 What is a d vastating cons qu nc of som HCV in
f ctions?
H patoc llular carcinoma.
1454273421488 1438033936302 D scrib s rology findings in acut HCV inf ctio
n.
Viral RNA will b pr s nt in s rum for th first 6 mos. ALT ris s and wi
ll fall by 6 mos. In pati nts who r solv th inf ction, anti-HCV antibodi s wil
l b pr s nt by 2-3 mos. Th s antibodi s can b pr s nt in chronic inf ctions a
s w ll (sinc th virus mutat s).
1454273510083 1438033936302 Why do som antibodi s against HCV conf r no las
ting prot ction?
Antig nic variation on th part of th virus
1454273531226 1438033936302 Why is th r a lag in production of anti-HCV ant
ibodi s?
N w mutant strains of th virus ar b ing produc d as a r sult o
f antig nic variation
1454273777269 1438033936302 What ar th s rology findings in chronic HCV in
f ction?
Viral RNA p rsists in s rum aft r 6mos. Liv r biopsy will show l
ymphocyt s in th portal tract. You may also s cryoglobulins.
1454273837763 1438033936302 What ar cryoglobulins and what pathog n ar th
y associat d with?
Th y ar s rum prot ins containing immunoglobulins (usua
lly IgM) that will pr cipitat out at cold r t mp ratur s. Th y can occur during
th cours of chronic HCV inf ction.
1454273876437 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of togavirus s. Th y ar
nv lop d with +ssRNA. Thus, th y r plicat in th cytoplasm.
1454273920724 1438033936302 What ar th two typ s of togavirus s? Arboviru
s s and rub lla.
1454273940080 1438033936302 Wh r do s th nam "arbovirus" com from?
<u>Ar</u>thropod-<u>bo</u>rn virus s. Commonly, th arthropod in qu stion is a
mosquito.
1454273970407 1438033936302 What ar thr clinically r l vant arbovirus s?
Th s ar a subs t of Togavirus s. Th thr most clinically r l vant ar W st r
n Equin Enc phalitis, East rn Equin Enc phalitis, and V n zualan Equin Enc ph
alitis.
1454274023653 1438033936302 Wh r is East rn Equin Enc phalitis found?
Th East rn Unit d Stat s
1454274037161 1438033936302 Wh r is W st rn Equin Enc phalitis found?
Th W st rn Unit d Stat s
1454274046451 1438033936302 Wh r is V n zualan Equin Enc phalitis found?
C ntral and South Am rica
1454274059164 1438033936302 What ar th common symptoms of th arbovirus s?
Enc phalitis (which can pr s nt with h adach , f v r, alt r d m ntal status, foc
al n uro d ficits).
1454274090247 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for th arbovirus s?
No tr atm nt. Focus inst ad on pr v ntion with n tting, bug spray, prot ctiv cl
othing.
1454274108753 1438033936302 What virus is also call d "G rman m asl s"?
Rub lla.
1454274118372 1438033936302 What is a childhood xanth m? A pathog n that
produc s rash s in childr n.
1454274151893 1438033936302 What is th pr s ntation of rub lla as a childho
od xanth m?
T nd r post-auricular and occipital lymphad nopathy, distinct ma
culopapular rash that b gins on th fac and spr ads downwards. Prodrom with mi
ld f v r, lymphad nopathy, fatigu .
1454274221459 1438033936302 How can th rash s of rub lla and m asl s b dis
tinguish d?
Rub lla is a maculopapular rash that b gins on th fash and spr
ads downward. it mov s mor quickly than m asl s and do s not dark n or coal sc
. Th rash of rub lla t nds to b pr s nt for only 3 days.
1454274273782 1438033936302 How is rub lla spr ad? R spiratory dropl ts, v
rtically from moth r to f tus.
1454274281477 1438033936302 D scrib th pr s ntation of cong nital/n onatal
rub lla (a ToRCH S inf ction). Th const llation of symptoms: m ntal r tardatio
n, microc phaly, d afn ss, blindn ss, cataracts, jaundic , pat nt ductus art rio
sus, pulmonic st nosis, purpuric blu b rry muffin rash, radioluc nt bon l sions
.
1454274374430 1438033936302 What is th main triad of symptoms in cong nital
rub lla?
Cong nital cataracts, s nsorin ural d afn ss, and pat nt ductus
art riosus. (Also jaundic ).
1454274407757 1438033936302 What ar th ToRCH S inf ctions?
Th y ar
v rtically transmitt d from moth r to f tus in ut ro. Th y consist of <u>TO</u>
xoplasma gondii, <u>R</u>ub lla, <u>C</u>MV, <u>H</u>IV/<u>H </u>rp sSV, <u>S</u
>yphilis. VZV and parvovirus ar also transmitt d v rtically but ar not includ
d in th mn monic.
1454274499353 1438033936302 D scrib th pr s ntation of rub lla in adults.
Lymphad nopathy, f v r, arthralgias, arthritis
1454274516295 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for rub lla?
No tr at
m nt. Pr v nt d with th liv att nuat d MMR vaccin (m asl s, mumps, rub lla).&
nbsp;
1454274538292 1438033936302 What is th b n fit of liv , att nuat d vaccin s
?
Th y induc both humoral and c ll-m diat d immunity. Th y should NOT b
giv n to pr gnant or immunocompromis d pati nts.
1454274564482 1438033936302 What typ of vaccin s should not b giv n to pr
gnant or immunocompromis d pati nts?
Liv , att nuat d vaccin s.
1454274577190 1438033936302 How long should wom n giv n th MMR vaccin wait
to b com pr gnant?
At l ast on month. R duc s risk of transmission to f tu
s.
1454274594110 1438033936302 Abov what CD4 count is th MMR vaccin saf to
giv to HIV pati nts? CD4 count >200 indicat s th y can probably tol rat t
h vaccin .
1454274624106 1438033936302 D scrib th translation proc ss of togavirus s.
Lik picornavirus s, th y produc a singl long polyprot in pr cursor that must
b cl av d by viral and host prot as s.
1454274652852 1438033936302 What pathog n should you think of if a r c ntly
immigrat d child pr s nts with a d sc nding rash and lymphad nopathy? Rub lla.
"Immigrant" can b us d to sugg st "unvaccinat d."
1454274694675 1438033936302 What is a clinically r l vant coronavirus?
SARS.
1454274714067 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of coronavirus s.

Encapsulat d with +ssRNA. H lical shap (som what uniqu to coronavirus s).&nbsp
;
1454274774119 1438033936302 What dis as proc ss s can coronavirus s caus b
sid s SARS?
Lik rhinovirus s, coronavirus s can caus th common cold. th y
can also caus acut bronchitis that can l ad to ARDS.
1454274828150 1438033936302 What typ of virus is Middl East R spiratory Sy
ndrom (MERS)? Lik SARS, MERS is a coronavirus.
1454274888043 1438033936302 How is SARS diagnos d? WIth a SARS antibody t s
t. Can b confirm d with PCR. If no antibodi s ar found ov r 28 days, this is a
p rtin nt n gativ for th dis as .
1454274951630 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for SARS? It can includ b
road-sp ctrum antibiotics, ribavirin, corticost roids. Efficacy of all thr var
i s.
1454274975604 1438033936302 Wh r do coronavirus s r plicat ?
Th cyto
plasm, lik all +ssRNA virus s
1454274988557 1438033936302 What is th major clinical s qu la of HIV?
Acquir d Immun D fici ncy Syndrom (AIDS), a quint ss ntial stat of immunosupp
r ssion.
1454275350427 1438033936302 What is th r plicativ strat gy of HIV?
It is a r trovirus, which is a +ssRNA virus that is conv rt d into a DNA int rm
diat by an accompanying nzym call d r v rs transcriptas (RT). Th DNA int r
m diat can b int grat d into th host c ll chromosom s and r plicat for v r w
ithout killing th c ll.
1454275415403 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of HIV. It is an ncapsu
lat d diploid +ssRNA virus (i. . it has two copi s of its +ssRNA g nom p r viri
on). Th prot in capsul of HIV is con -shap d (lik a wizard's hat)
1454275447121 1438033936302 What ar th thr most important g n s for r pl
ication of HIV? gag, pol, and nv
1454275461201 1438033936302 D scrib th gag g n of HIV. It mak s p24, wh
ich is th capsul prot in.
1454275509995 1438033936302 What is a r trovirus? A +ssRNA virus that r pl
icat s via conv rsion to a DNA int rm diat by th viral nzym r v rs transcri
ptas (RT). Th DNA int rm diat can b incorporat d into th host c ll's g nom
.
1454275547742 1438033936302 Which virus has a conical prot in capsul shap d
lik a wizard's hat? HIV
1454275564723 1438033936302 D scrib th nv g n of HIV. Env is short for
" nv lop ." This g n mak s gp160, which is cl av d into gp41 and gp120. Th s
ar pr s nt in th viral nv lop . gp41 is a transm mbran prot in that h lps wi
th fusion, and gp120 contacts host c ll r c ptors.
1454275633074 1438033936302 D scrib th pol g n of HIV. Pol is short for
"polym ras ." R trovirus s don't hav a simpl polym ras , so this g n ncod s
r v rs transcriptas (an RNA-d p nd nt DNA polym ras that conv rts RNA to DNA
).
1454275681953 1438033936302 What is th m thod of transmission of HIV?
S xual contact primary, but also via blood (transfusion, IV drug us rs or hospit
al work rs sharing n dl s) and v rtical moth r to child transmission.
1454275727155 1438033936302 What host c lls ar targ t d by HIV?
Macropha
g s (via CCR5) and h lp r T c lls (via CXCR4).
1454275762684 1438033936302 Which c lls ar targ t d first by HIV? Macropha
g s, THEN h lp r T c lls.
1454275825324 1438033936302 D scrib th prodrom of HIV inf ction. Th prim
ary inf ction has flu- or mono-lik symptoms, with c rvical lymphad nopathy, nl
arg d tonsils, f v r. This can last for s v ral w ks and will v ntually r solv
on its own.
1454275862524 1438033936302 D scrib th clinical lat ncy stag of HIV inf c
tion. This follows th primary inf ction and can last up to t n y ars. Th vir
us r plicat s in lymph nod s. Aft r t n y ars, a st p drop in CD4 count is s n
.
1454275913297 1438033936302 What ar th two r quir m nts for a diagnosis of

AIDS? CD4 count < 200 and th pr s nc of an AIDS-d fining illn ss.
1454275936438 1438033936302 What typ of B c ll lymphoma is most associat d
with HIV inf ction?
Diffus larg B c ll lymphoma
1454275991800 1438033936302 What is th m chanism of inf ction of HIV?
Th virus fus s with host macrophag s (via CCR5) or h lp r T c lls (with CXCR4).
Onc it binds th s , it nt rs, uncoats, und rgo s r v rs transcription, g ts
incorporat d into host DNA, and can mak n w virions on host machin ry.
1454276043480 1438033936302 How is HIV inf ction diagnos d? Scr ning t st f
irst (ELISA) to look for antibodi s. Scr ning too soon aft r xposur can r sul
t in a fals n gativ , so pati nts should b scr n d multipl tim s until 6 mos
aft r xposur . Positiv ELISA is confirm d with W st rn blot.
1454276112518 1438033936302 What two t sts ar important to p rform on a pat
i nt who has b n diagnos d with HIV? CD4 count and viral load (PCR). Th s ar
us d to monitor th progr ss of th dis as .
1454276150073 1438033936302 Why is ELISA a poor choic of scr ning t st for
v rtical transmission of HIV? It looks for antibodi s in th pati nt's s rum.
Thus, it will c rtainly b positiv b caus th moth r pass s down anti-HIV IgG
antibodi s (which can cross th plac nta). A b tt r t st is an HIV RNA/DNA nucl
ic acid amplification t st (NAAT) on th n onat . This t st looks for th virus
its lf.
1454276253432 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for HIV? Highly Activ An
ti-R troviral Th rapy (HAART). Combo is ALWAYS b tt r than monoth rapy, b caus
th virus is pron to mutation and r sistanc . Cours s vary bas d on strain and
pati nt.
1454276290385 1438033936302 D scrib NRTIs. Th s ar Nucl osid /Nucl otid
R v rs Transcriptas Inhibitors. Th y ar th "backbon " of HAART. Th y pos as
nucl otid s and g t incorporat d into proviral DNA by r v rs transcriptas . Th
is halts chain longation.
1454276360995 1438033936302 What class of drug is AZT?
AZT, or zidovudi
n , is an NRTI. It was th first anti-r troviral drug approv d for us against H
IV.
1454276383641 1438033936302 What NRTI is th b st drug to us during pr gnan
cy, labor, and post-partum to pr v nt v rtical transmission of HIV?
Zidovudi
n (AZT). R duc s risk of transmission by 2/3. Moth rs can start it at 14 w ks
g station and tak it through until 6 w ks post-partum.
1454276439658 1438033936302 D scrib NNRTIs.
Th y ar non-nucl otid
r v rs transcriptas inhibitors us d to tr at HIV inf ction. Th y ar not nucl
otid analogs and thus do not incorporat th ms lv s into th chain (which is th
MOA of NRTIs). Th y thus ar non-comp titiv inhibitors of RT.
1454276508603 1438033936302 What ar prot as inhibitors? Th y ar us d as
anti-viral th rapy (particularly against HIV). Th y inhibit th viral prot as
r sponsibl for cl aving and activating prot ins n c ssary for viral r plication
.
1454276549661 1438033936302 What is maraviroc?
An anti-viral that block
s CCR5. CCR5 is th r c ptor us d by HIV to nt r macrophag s in th arly stag
s of HIV. Blocking it pr v nts fusion and ntry of th virus into host c lls.&nb
sp;
1454276584371 1438033936302 What must b don b for b ginning HAART?
G notyping of th HIV strain to choos th b st tr atm nt combination.
1454276603695 1438033936302 Which HIV-positiv pati nts should g t HAART?
Curr nt r comm ndation is all pati nts. This is don to pr v nt an incr as in v
iral load and d cr as in CD4 count. This r comm ndation is strong st for thos
with CD4 count of <350, pr gnant wom n, and thos with high viral load.
1454276651943 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of th orthomyxovirus s.
Env lop d, with -ssRNA. Must bring th ir own RNA-d p nd nt RNA polym ras s along
insid capsids to b abl to transcrib positiv -s ns RNA to translat prot in
s.
1454285460893 1438033936296 All -ssRNA virus s must bring {{c1::th ir o
wn RNA polym ras s}} along to b abl to synth siz prot ins on host ribosom s.
<i>In contrast to +ssRNA virus s, which can b r ad by ribosom s dir ctly.

</i>
1454285526834 1438033936302 What is th only clinically r l vant dsRNA virus
?
R ovirus
1454285544176 1438033936296 -RNA virus s ar all {{c1::singl -strand d}
}
<i>So wh n you h ar "RNA," d fault to thinking "singl -strand d." Only d
sRNA virus of clinical r l vanc is r ovirus.</i>
1454285592566 1438033936296 All RNA virus s r plicat in th {{c1::cyto
plasm}}, xc pt for th {{c2::orthomyxovirus s}} <i>Orthomyxovirus s r pl
icat in th nucl us</i>
1454285626660 1438033936302 Wh r do orthomyxovirus s r plicat ?
In th n
ucl us (unlik all oth r RNA virus s, which r plicat in th cytoplasm)
1454285638849 1438033936302 What is th most important virus of th orthomyx
ovirida ?
Influ nzavirus (so important that it is ss ntially synonymous w
ith "orthomyxovirus."
1454285704793 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of th influ nza virus s.
All strains ar nv lop d with -ssRNA. Th g nom is s gm nt d into 8 pi c s.&nb
sp;
1454285734200 1438033936302 What ar th thr typ s of influ nza virus?
Influ nza A, Influ nza B, and Influ nza C
1454285772929 1438033936302 What four virus famili s hav s gm nt d g nom s?
Bunyavirus, Orthomyxovirus, Ar navirus, R ovirus (BOAR mn monic)
1454285806532 1438033936302 What is uniqu about th BOAR virus s? Bunyavir
us, Orthomyxovirus, Ar navirus, and R ovirus all hav s gm nt d g nom s.
1454285824849 1438033936302 What is th significanc of a s gm nt d g nom ?
S gm nts allow for r assortm nt of whol g n s b tw n strains, which is a typ
of rapid and significant mutation.
1454285887812 1438033936302 What ar th two broad cat gori s of mutation?
Antig nic drift and antig nic shift.
1454285900984 1438033936302 D scrib antig nic drift using influ nza as an
xampl . Point mutations in th viral g nom l ad to chang s in th h magglutinin
or n uraminidas viral prot ins. This is th r ason why w n d a n w fl w shot
v ry y ar, and is r sponsibl for pid mics.
1454285995973 1438033936296 An {{c1:: pid mic}} is an outbr ak of dis a
s limit d to a singl g ographic location.
1454286042660 1438033936302 D scrib antig nic shift using influ nza virus a
s an xampl .
Mor s rious than th slow point mutations of antig nic
drift. Whol s gm nts (containing whol g n s, including h magglutin or n uramin
idas ) of th s gm nt d RNA g nom ar shar d b tw n diff r nt sp ci s. A n w v
irus can b form d with surfac antig ns of two diff r nt strains. Ag shift is r
sponsibl for pand mics.
1454286142654 1438033936302 What typ of mutational proc ss is r sponsibl f
or pid mics? Antig nic drift
1454286155716 1438033936302 What typ of mutational proc ss is r sponsibl f
or pand mics? Antig nic shift (virus s with s gm nt d g nom s ar capabl of t
his)
1454286184136 1438033936296 A {{c1::pand mic}} is an outbr ak of dis as
that is spr ad ov r multipl contin nts or occurs worldwid .
1454286231656 1438033936302 What is th m chanism und rlying th s asonal fl
u pid mic?
Antig nic drift of viral prot ins, which chang s antig nic d t r
minants slowly by point mutations
1454286251728 1438033936302 Explain th H#N# classification of influ nza vir
us s. H# r f rs to th variant of h magglutinin prot in pr s nt ( .g. H1) and
N# r f rs to th typ of n uraminidas prot in pr s nt ( .g. N1).
1454286307705 1438033936302 What strain of influ nza caus d th 2009 pand mi
c?
H1N1, call d "swin flu." This virus was a r sult of antig nic shift b t
w n human, avian, and swin influ nza virus s.
1454286346332 1438033936302 What ar th thr main influ nza virus s?
A (most important, do s ag shift and drift, caus s pi- and pand mics), B (usual
ly just do s ag drift, caus s nd mic outbr aks). C is l ss important.
1454286456017 1438033936302 D scrib h magglutinin. A glycoprot in found on

th surfac of influ nzavirus s that binds sialic acid r sidud s on th m mbran
s of RBCs or c lls in th upp r r spiratory tract. Call d "h magglutinin" b caus
it caus s RBCs to clump in t st tub s.
1454286543232 1438033936302 Which h magglutinins nabl influ nzavirus strai
ns to inf ct humans?
HA 1, 2, and 3 ar abl to inf ct human RBCs and
c lls of th upp r r spiratory tract by binding sialic acid r sidu s. This is
ss ntially why only c rtain strains can aff ct us, and can only invad c rtain o
f our c lls (th "tropism" of th virus).
1454286613029 1438033936302 What is th initial st p of viral inf ction?
Binding a host c ll. Which c lls th virus can bind ar th "tropism" of th vir
us, which is d t rmin d by th sp cificity of viral surfac prot ins.
1454286651238 1438033936302 What typ of antibodi s prot ct us against inf c
tion with th sam strain of influ nza in th futur ? Anti-h magglutinin (anti
-HA).
1454286713957 1438033936302 What is a virus's c ll tropism? Th coll ction o
f c lls that can b inf ct d by that virus. Can b limit d to on sp ci s or v
n a singl tissu typ within that sp ci s.
1454286753856 1438033936302 D scrib th first st ps of inf ction of a host
c ll by a particl of influ nzavirus. H magglutinin binds sialic acid r sidu
on host c ll m mbran . Virus is th n ndocytos d. Viral uncoating occurs within
an ndosom .
1454286988028 1438033936302 What do s an influ nza virus hav to do to uncoa
t insid a host c ll ndosom ?
Th pH must b at th right l v l for th
is proc ss. This is accomplish d by th viral M2 prot in, which acts as a proton
chann l. M2 is thus a drug targ t: inhibiting th pH chang inhibits unc
oating.
1454287240142 1438033936302 What is th common targ t of th antiviral drugs
amantadin and rimantadin ?
M2, th viral prot in of influ nza virus s that
chang s th pH of th ndosom to allow viral uncoating.
1454287286767 1438033936302 Why ar n't amantadin and rimantadin us d to tr
at influ nza virus inf ctions anymor ? Th y ar fairly old and a high l v l of
r sistanc now xists. Also, th y only work against influ nza A b caus influ nz
a B lacks M2.
1454287333129 1438033936302 What is a us of amantadin outsid of antiviral
th rapy?
It has b n us d to h lp tr at Parkinson's dis as by incr asing
dopamin r l as in th CNS via an unknown m chanism.
1454287366894 1438033936302 What pr v nts th prog ny of influ nza virus s f
rom b ing r l as d from host c lls?
Aft r th virus r plicat s in th nucl u
s and th prog ny ar nv lop d, th y b com bound to host c ll sialic acid r si
du s on th way out. Viral n uraminidas cl av th SA r sidu s to r l as th p
rog ny.
1454287463496 1438033936302 What ar th two major virul nc factors of infl
u nza virus A? HA (h magglutinin, important for ntry) and NA (n uraminidas , i
mportant for r l as )
1454287499193 1438033936302 What is th common drug targ t of os ltamivir an
d zanamivir?
N uraminidas
1454434179147 1438033936302 What is th trad nam of os ltamivir? Tamiflu
1454434192150 1438033936302 How do os ltamivir and zanamivir work? By inhib
iting n uraminidas , and th r for th r l as of daught r virions from host c l
ls.
1454434209094 1438033936302 Wh n should os ltamivir b administ r d?
Within 72 hours of inf ction/v ry arly in th cours of influ nzavirus inf ctio
n. Giving aft r 72hrs will not b ff ctiv b caus th virions hav alr ady b
n r plicat d and r l as d.
1454434246033 1438033936302 How ar th influ nzavirus s spr ad?
Via r sp
iratory dropl ts.
1454434258540 1438033936302 Wh n is flu s ason in th US? D c mb r to F br
uary (qu stion st ms may us th s months as indicators).
1454434279978 1438033936302 Wh n should th influ nza vaccin b giv n?
Around Octob r so that pati nts hav tim to build ad quat immunity to th viru
s. Not that flu s ason is D c mb r to F bruary in th US.
1454434314388 1438033936302 What ar th two typ s of influ nza vaccin ?
Liv , att nuat d nasal spray and a kill d form giv n IM.
1454434333667 1438033936302 What ar th two forms of th kill d inj ctibl
influ nza vaccin ?
Th trival nt form (with 1 influ nza B and 2 influ nza A
strains) or th quadrival nt form (with two of ach).
1454434375956 1438033936296 Childr n ov r {{c1::6mos}} can r c iv th
influ nza vaccin .
1454434400331 1438033936302 What is a fr qu nt and major complication of inf
lu nza inf ction?
Pn umonia.
1454434409895 1438033936302 What bact rial sp ci s commonly caus a sup rinf
ctions with pn umonia on top of influ nzavirus inf ction?
S. aur us and st
r p pn umonia
1454434451541 1438033936302 An ld rly pati nt pr s nts with myalgias, f v r
, and non-productiv cough for 7 days. Cough abat s but th n r app ars as
productiv . What should you susp ct?
Influ nzavirus inf ction complicat d by
pn umonia (may b a sup rinf ction with staph aur us or str p pn umo)
1454434550908 1438033936302 What drug should a moth r avoid giving a child w
ith influ nzavirus inf ction? Aspirin.
1454434567053 1438033936302 Why should par nts avoid giving aspirin to child
r n with th flu?
Aspirin is contraindicat d in kids with viral illn ss s
b caus th y can d v lop R y 's syndrom , which is lif -thr at ning. It should n
ot v n b giv n during r cov ry from a viral illn ss.
1454434604852 1438033936302 D scrib R y 's syndrom .
It can d v lop i
n childr n with viral illn ss s who ar giv n aspirin. Th y can pr s nt with liv
r failur /fatty liv , nc phalitis, and possibl f v r, rash, and vomiting. Lif
-thr at ning.
1454434649500 1438033936302 What is th pathog n sis of R y 's syndrom ?
Aspirin is an uncoupl r of oxidativ phosphorylation (it disrupts th proton gra
di nt along th l ctron transport chain). This occurs in h patic mitochondria o
f childr n with viral illn ss giv n aspirin. Liv r mitochondria ar thus damag d
, and this damag can b s n on microscopy.
1454434733520 1438033936302 B sid s pn umonia, what is a complication associ
at d with influ nzavirus inf ction?
Guillain-Barr Syndrom .
1454434768105 1438033936302 D scrib Guillain-Barr Syndrom .
An asc nding par
alysis that starts in th low r limbs ( .g. f t) and mov s upward. It can b fa
tal if r spiratory muscl s ar paralyz d. It is associat d with <i>camplyobact r
j juni </i>and also with influ nzavirus inf ction.
1454434810340 1438033936302 What would you find on a blood pan l of a pati n
t with Guillain-Barr Syndrom ? High prot in, low whit blood c ll count. This i
s known as albumino-cytologic dissociation.
1454434850806 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of paramyxovirus s.
(-)ssRNA, r plicat in cytoplasm. Th s ar nv lop d virus s.
1454434905589 1438033936302 What is th natur of th MMR vaccin ? It cov r
s m asl s, mumps, and rub lla and is a liv , att nuat d vaccin .
1454434918557 1438033936302 How ar all paramyxovirus s spr ad?
R spirat
ory dropl ts.
1454434929251 1438033936302 Is th MMR vaccin saf for pr gnant wom n?
No. Lik all liv att nuat d vaccin s, it should not b giv n to pr gnant wom n.

1454434998983 1438033936302 Why has th incid nc of m asl s ris n in th US
r c ntly?
Th r has b n a d cr as in par nts cons nting to th MMR vacci
n for th ir childr n. Th y ar call d "anti-vaxx rs."
1454435032634 1438033936302 What is anoth r nam for "rub ola"?
M asl s.

1454435047202 1438033936302 What childhood xanth m is known as " xanth m su
bitum"? Th viral illn ss with rash that is caus d by Human H rp svirus-6 (HHV-6
). This is also call d "ros ola" or "6th dis as ."
1454435153982 1438033936302 What ar th four C's of m asl s inf ction?
Th s r pr s nt th arly/prodromal symptoms: cough, conjunctivitis, coryza, and

Koplik spots (a "c" sound).
1454435183969 1438033936302 What is coryza? A symptom of th prodrom of m a
sl s, which is runny or stuffy nos du to inflammation of th upp r airway.&nbs
p;
1454435201849 1438033936302 What ar Koplik spots? Th s ar small, "bluish
-whit " spots on a r d background found on th buccal mucosa. Th y ar pathognom
onic for m asl s. Not that t hs may not look v ry blu , but may pr s nt as sma
ll spots with surrounding ryth ma.
1454435222927 1438033936302 What inf ction do th s spots sugg st?<div><img
src="past -4883377815818.jpg" /></div> Th s (difficult to appr ciat ) spots ar
an arly pathognomonic sign of m asl s.
1454435331116 1438033936302 Wh r is th buccal mucosa?
Insid th ch k
n ar th s cond molars.
1454435376285 1438033936302 D scrib th f v r of m asl s. Fairly high (gr
at r than 40 d gr s C or 104 d gr s F), lasts four days.
1454435412653 1438033936302 D scrib th rash of m asl s. 1-2 days aft r t
h app aranc of Koplik spots on th buccal mucosa, pati nts will d v lop a macu
lopapular rash that can start n ar th back of th ars. It will th n spr ad to
th fac and n ck b for trav ling downward to th r st of th body. It is itchy
, and may b com conflu nt.
1454435459627 1438033936302 What is a conflu nt rash, and what is an inf cti
on lik ly to caus on ? A conflu nt rash m ans that l sions b gin as small spots
and th n bl nd tog th r. M asl s inf ction is lik ly to caus a conflu nt rash.

1454435486774 1438033936302 What ar th complications of m asl s? Pn umoni
a (viral or bact rial), subacut scl rosing pan nc phalitis (SSPE).
1454435526722 1438033936302 What is subacut scl rosing pan nc phalitis (SSP
E)?
SSPE is inf ction and scl rosing of th brain that is a complication of
p rsist nt m asl s inf ction. 5-15 y ars aft r initial inf ction, will s p rso
nality chang s, s izur s, myoclonus, ataxia, and possibl coma/d ath.&nbsp
;
1454435588123 1438033936302 How is SSPE tr at d?
No ff ctiv tr atm nt,
although vitamin A has b n us d to d cr as mortality and th risk of complicat
ions in m asl s inf ctions.
1454435644067 1438033936302 What typ of pati nt population may b us d to s
ugg st a lack of vaccination against MMR?
Immigrants to th US. Th y may b
us d as SSPE pati nts, tc.
1454435674271 1438033936302 How is SSPE diagnos d? Anti-m asl s antibodi s
will b found in th CSF. This complication is v ry rar .
1454435688776 1438033936302 D scrib th virul nc factors of th paramyxovi
rus family.
Th y poss ss ith r h magglutinin, n uraminidas , fusion prot in
s, or all of th abov .
1454435742071 1438033936302 D scrib th fusion prot ins that ar virul nc
factors of th paramyxovirus family.
Th y play a rol in th formation of syn
cytia.
1454435771028 1438033936302 What ar syncytia?
Multinucl at d giant c l
ls. May b sugg stiv of inf ction with a paramyxovirus du to fusion prot ins p
r s nt in som sp ci s.
1454435792295 1438033936302 What ar Warthin-Fink ld y c lls?
Th y ar
multinucl at d giant c lls that ar s n in lymphoid tissu in m asl s inf ctio
n. Th y will hav charact ristic cytoplasmic and nucl ar osinophilic inclusion
bodi s, and ar pathognomonic for m asl s.
1454435892335 1438033936302 What ar th s c lls?<div><img src="past -692348
7281828.jpg" /></div> Th s ar Warthin-Fink ld y multinucl at d giant c lls.
Th y ar s n in m asl s inf ction.
1454435960409 1438033936302 What common virul nc factor of paramyxovirus s
is abs nt in m asl s? N uraminidas (NA)
1454435988903 1438033936302 What virus family do s mumps b long to? Th para
myxovirus s. This m ans it is a -ssRNA that r plicat s in th cytoplasm and has
an nv lop .
1454436036982 1438033936302 What is th structur of th m asl s virus?
-ssRNA with an nv lop ; r plicat s in th cytoplasm.
1454436047661 1438033936302 Wh r do s th mumps virus r plicat ? In th p
arotid glands (a typ of salivary gland). It can also b found in th t st s.
1454436068317 1438033936302 What is a major complication of mumps inf ction?
Orchitis, as th virus can b found in th t st s.
1454436078180 1438033936302 What is orchitis?
Inflammation of th pid
idymis
1454436104439 1438033936302 In what ag groups is orchitis s n as a complic
ation of mumps? In t n or adult mal s with mumps inf ctions.
1454436144224 1438033936302 D scrib th orchitis that may complicat mumps
inf ction.
Usually unilat ral, but can b bilat ral. Can r sult in t sticul
ar atrophy and impair d f rtilization. St rility is rar , and occurs mor oft n
in mal s who pr s nt with bilat ral orchitis.
1454436180998 1438033936302 What virul nc factors common to th paramyxovir
us s ar pr s nt in th mumps virus?
HA, NA, and fusion prot ins
1454436204152 1438033936302 B sid s orchitis, what is a possibl complicatio
n of mumps inf ction? M ningitis, as th virus can r plication in th CNS.&nbs
p;
1454436235145 1438033936302 D scrib th vaccin for mumps. Cov r d
by th liv , att nuat d MMR vaccin .
1454436245202 1438033936302 What family of virus s do s r spiratory syncytia
l virus (RSV) b long to?
Th paramyxovirus s, which m ans that it is nv
lop d with -ssRNA. It r plicat s in th cytoplasm.
1454436267880 1438033936302 What ag group pr s nts with RSV?
Infants
und r six months.
1454436278463 1438033936302 How do s RSV initiat an inf ction?
Virions
attach to th r spiratory pith lium via th viral nv lop G prot in.
1454436400889 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of RSV inf ction? Pharyngi
tis, rhinitis, bronchiolitis, pn umonia.
1454436425302 1438033936302 What is th most common caus of pn umonia and b
ronchiolitis in infants?
R spiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV).
1454436465930 1438033936302 What would b s n on th CXR of an infant with
RSV inf ction? Pulmonary infiltrat s.
us family do RSV virions hav ? Only th fusion prot in.
1454436500478 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt of RSV? Ribavirin in adu
lts (contraindicat d in childr n or pr gnant f mal s). Palivizumab as prophylaxi
s in infants at risk.
1454436536543 1438033936302 What infants ar sp cially at risk for RSV inf
ction? Pr matur infants.
1454436545512 1438033936302 What is th m chanism of action of palivizumb?
It is a monoclonal antibody against th RSV fusion prot in.
1454436560617 1438033936302 What is ribavirin?
A nucl osid analog us d
as an antiviral. It has b n us d to tr at RSV inf ction in adults.
1454436581955 1438033936302 What family do s parainflu nzavirus b long to?
Th paramyxovirus s, which m ans it is nv lop d with -ssRNA and r plicat s in t
h cytoplasm.
1454436616300 1438033936302 What is th caus of croup?
Parainflu nzavir
us.
1454436625731 1438033936302 What sounds ar charact ristic of croup?
A s al-bark cough and inspiratory stridor.
us family ar pr s nt in parainflu nzavirus?
HA, NA, and fusion prot in.&nbsp
;
1454436659911 1438033936302 What is th "st pl sign"?
A narrowing of t
h subglottic r gion on CXR that mak s th ar a look lik a st pl . It is chara
ct ristic of croup (parainflu nzavirus inf ction).
1454436695551 1438033936302 What ag group ar pati nts with parainflu nzavi
rus inf ction pr s nting as croup?

Childr n.
1454436731774 1438033936302 What do s parainflu nzavirus inf ction look lik
in adults?
A s v r cold.
1454436741547 1438033936302 What is a folk nam for laryngotrach obronchitis
?
Croup
1454436751127 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of rhabdovirus. -ssRNA w
ith an nv lop .
1454457384078 1438033936302 What pathog n is th caus of rabi s? Rhabdovi
rus
1454457390583 1438033936302 Which pathog n is d scrib d as having a "bull tshap d" capsul ?
Rhabdovirus. This capsul can b s n on l ctron micros
copy.
1454457496407 1438033936302 What is th most common carri r of rhabdovirus i
n th US?
Th bat
1454457512777 1438033936302 What is th shap of th nucl ocapsid of rhabdov
irus? H lical (don't confus with th "bull t"-shap d <i>capsul </i>)
1454457532877 1438033936302 What is a zoonotic dis as ?
A pathog n carri
d by animals that is transmitt d to humans.
1454457552541 1438033936302 What is th most common carri r of rhabdovirus i
n d v loping countri s? Dogs
1454457565129 1438033936302 What ar carri rs of rhabdovirus in th US b sid
Squirr ls, skunks, fox s, raccoons.
s th bat?
1454457584194 1438033936302 What c lls do s rhabdovirus targ t?
It binds
th nicotinic ac tylcholin r c ptor of sk l tal muscl c lls at th n uromuscu
lar junction. It r plicat s in th muscl c lls initially and th n trav ls r tro
grad to th CNS via th p riph ral n rv s.
1454457860261 1438033936302 What is th incubation p riod of rhabdovirus inf
ction? W ks to months may pass b for th symptoms b com appar nt. Th l ngth
of th p riod d p nds on th distanc from th sit of innoculation to th CNS.

1454457980063 1438033936302 How do s rhabdovirus spr ad within th body?
From th n uromuscular junction it nt rs th p riph ral n rvous syst m and trav
ls r trograd up p riph ral n rv axons to th CNS at a sp d of 1-3mm p r day.
It can th n spr ad to th salivary glands, dorsal root ganglia, and brain.&nbsp
;
1454458045079 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of rhabdovirus inf ction?
As th virus trav ls along th n rv s, it caus s tingling and muscl spasms. Onc
it spr ads to th salivary glands, saliva production incr as s and xcruciatin
g spasms of th throat and larynx muscl s can occur. Th s pr s nt as dysphagia
and foaming at th mouth. Finally, as it nt rs th CNS high f v r, nc pahlitis
, n uronal d ath, and host d ath ar s n (th virus is almost invariably fatal)
.
1454458178123 1438033936302 Do s rhabdovirus inf ct c lls of th dorsal root
ganglia or th brain first?
Th DRG.
1454458224701 1438033936302 How is rhabdovirus inf ction g n rally diagnos d
?
Clinically, with a positiv history of xposur . It can b confirm d on
biopsy or autopsy by finding N gri bodi s in n urons.
1454458247825 1438033936302 What ar N gri bodi s and what pathog n ar th y
associat d with?
Th y ar osinophilic cytoplasmic inclusions found ith
r within th soma of Purkinj c lls in th c r b llum or in th pyramidal c lls
of th hippocampus. Th y ar diagnostic for rhabdovirus inf ction.
1454458302246 1438033936302 What is timing of rhabdovirus tr atm nt?
Antidot must b administ r d prior to th ons t of symptoms, and as quickly as
possibl aft r xposur . Only a f w known survivors xist among thos who didn't
imm diat ly g t an antidot .
1454458383339 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for rhabdovirus inf ction?
Passiv immunization with pr form d human immunoglobulins against rabi s. Th s
should b administ r d to pati nts bitt n by animals that w r lik ly to b inf
ct d. Th y should also b activ ly immuniz d with th kill d vaccin aft r b ing
bitt n.
1454458450538 1438033936302 Why should som on who wak s up in a room with a

bat b administ r d a rhabdovirus vaccin , v n if th y hav no visibl bit ma
rks?
Bats carry rhabdovirus, which caus s rabi s. Inf ction is almost invaria
bly fatal. Tr atm nt b com s in ff ctiv wh n symptoms aris .
1454458517038 1438033936302 Why isn't rhabdovirus inf ction much of a probl
m in th US?
Dogs ar routin ly vaccinat d against it, and w hav pr form d
immunoglobulins availabl for human tr atm nt.
1454458558157 1438033936302 What family of virus s do s bolavirus b long to
?
Th filovirus s.
1454458617555 1438033936302 What is th structur of bolavirus?
Env lop
d with a -ssRNA g nom . Thus, it r plicat s in th cytoplasm. Its nucl ocapsid i
s h lical in shap .
1454458643615 1438033936302 Which virus caus s symptoms v ry similar to Ebol
avirus? Marburg virus (anoth r filovirus)
1454458662049 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms common to bolavirus and M
arburg virus? F v r, p t chial rash which can pr s nt as s v ral microh morrha
g s (not always pr s nt). Progr ss s to a h morrhagic f v r and nd-organ failur
(kidn ys, liv r) and d ath.
1454458728678 1438033936302 What is th incubation p riod for bolavirus?
Days to w ks aft r contraction.
1454458741067 1438033936302 What is a common caus of d ath in bolavirus ca
s s?
Th many cas s that ar fatal ar usually du to s v r blood loss l adi
ng to hypovol mic shock. This can occur within days of showing symptoms.
1454458771050 1438033936302 Who is at risk for bolavirus inf ction?
It is said to b transmitt d from dir ct contact with an inf ct d animal ( .g. a
monk y, oth r primat , or fruit bat), thus anyon in contact with th s animals
in an nd mic ar a. Also, US h althcar work rs caring for inf ct d pati nts.&n
bsp;
1454458952505 1438033936302 How is Ebola spr ad?
Via dir ct contact with
an inf ct d animal or via contact with bodily fluids ( sp cially aft r th d ath
of an inf ct d p rson). Tr atm nt and disposal of bodi s must b don car fully
.
1454458988294 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of bunyavirus. Env lop
d, with a s gm nt d -ssRNA g nom .
1454466074157 1438033936302 Wh r do daught r virions in th bunyavirus fami
ly d riv th ir m mbran nv lop s?
Th Golgi apparatus s of th ir host c ll
s. This is unlik oth r nv lop d virus s, which mostly us th c ll's cytoplasm
ic m mbran .
1454466141252 1438033936302 How many s gm nts do s th bunyavirus g nom hav
?
3 total circular s gm nts.
1454466350942 1438033936302 What is th mod of transmission of most bunyavi
rus s? Most ar arbovirus s, or <u>ar</u>thropod-<u>bo</u>rn virus s.
1454466384547 1438033936302 Nam a virus in th bunyavirus family that is no
t transmitt d by an arthropod. Hantavirus, which is transmitt d via contact wit
h rod nts of th ir urin and f c s. This mak s it a robovirus, or <u>ro</u>d nt<u>bo</u>rn .
1454466430370 1438033936302 What is th r s rvoir of hantavirus?
Th d r
mous
1454466444933 1438033936302 Yos mit had an outbr ak of a robovirus in 2012
du to rod nt f c s. What was th virus?
Th <i>sin nombr </i> typ
of Hantavirus (Spanish for "no-nam ").
1454466524909 1438033936302 D scrib th symptoms of hantavirus.
It caus
s pulmonary d ma via pulmonary capillary l akag as w ll as pr -r nal azot mia,
and may caus h morrhagic f v r.
1454466558264 1438033936302 How do s pulmonary capillary l ak l ad to pr -r
nal azot mia? Capillary l ak caus s a loss of fluids and low fluid volum , l a
ding to pr r nal azot mia.
1454466692779 1438033936302 Nam two arbovirus s in th bunyavirus family.
1) Rift Vall y F v r and 2) California Enc phalitis
1454466722799 1438033936302 What is th common m chanism of transmission of
Rift Vall y F v r and California Enc phalitis? Both ar arbovirus s spr ad by t

h <i>a d s </i>mosquito.
1454466746126 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of Rift Vall y F v r and C
alifornia Enc phalitis? Most cas s of th s ar not fatal but caus n urol
ogical probl ms (s izur , nc phalitis) on top of myalgias and f v r.
1454466783138 1438033936302 How can inf ction with bunyavirus s b pr v nt d
?
DEET bug spray plus long sl v s whil in th California for st (for Cal
ifornia Enc phalitis and Rift Vall y F v r); avoid mous urin and f c s (hantav
irus).
1454466849153 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of ar navirus. Env lop
d with a s gm nt d RNA g nom that is t chnically -ssRNA but has th capacity to
ncod both +/- RNA. Thus, it may b call d "ambi-s ns ." Th nucl ocapsid has
a h lical shap .
1454466949516 1438033936302 Nam thr virus s or famili s that hav capsids
with a h lical shap . Filovirus s, rhabdovirus, ar navirus
1454466984853 1438033936302 What virus is t chnically classifi d as -ssRNA b
ut actually has th ability to b ambi-s ns ? Ar navirus
1454467002732 1438033936302 What do s "ambi-s ns " m an?
Having th abili
ty to ncod both positiv - and n gativ -s ns RNA.
1454467098987 1438033936302 Wh r do s ar navirus r plicat ?
Th cyto
plasm
1454467125840 1438033936302 How many s gm nts ar pr s nt in th ar navirus
g nom ? 2
1454467141328 1438033936296 B caus it has a s gm nt d g nom , ar navirus is
capabl of {{c1::r assortm nt}} <i>And thus is capabl of antig nic shif
t</i>
1454467176478 1438033936302 What virus's out r capsid has a charact ristic "
sandy" app aranc on l ctron microscopy?
Ar navirus. Not : "ar na" is Lat
in for "sand." This sandy app aranc is also d scrib d as b ing grainy or granul
ar.
1454467237560 1438033936302 How is ar navirus transmitt d in th US?
Via rod nts, which ar inf ct d first and th n pass th virus on to humans.&nbsp
;
1454467272454 1438033936302 What typ of virus is lymphocytic choriom ningit
is virus?
An ar navirus (thus, can b ambi-s ns and is s gm nt d).
1454467304370 1438033936302 D scrib th symptoms of LCV inf ction. F bril
as ptic m ningitis.
1454467320194 1438033936302 What is th r s rvoir of ar navirus s? Rod nts
1454467328239 1438033936302 How is LCV inactivat d in th nvironm nt?
By h ating, low pH, radiation, and d t rg nts
1454467362627 1438033936296 {{c1::R ovirus}} has a uniqu dsRNA g nom
1454467375448 1438033936302 Wh r do r ovirus s r plicat ? In th cytoplasm
.
1454467391491 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of r ovirus s. Nak d, w
ith a uniqu s gm nt d dsDNA g nom .
1454467405620 1438033936302 How many s gm nts do s a r ovirus typically hav
in its g nom ? B tw n 9 and a maximum of 12 with an av rag of 11.
1454467423280 1438033936302 How is rotavirus transmitt d? F cal-oral rout
1454467433099 1438033936302 D scrib rotavirus inf ction. Rotavirus inf ct
ion is a toxin-m diat d s cr tory dis as with diarrh a that is wat ry and can b
fairly xplosiv (lik that of norovirus). A classic tim of y ar for a rotavi
rus outbr ak is wint r.
1454467506170 1438033936302 D scrib th toxin that caus s th symptoms of r
otavirus inf ction.
It is a viral nt rotoxin call d NSP4 that incr as s chl
orid p rm ability and l ads to s cr tory diarrh a.
1454467601870 1438033936296 R ovirus s ar oft n {{c1::s asonal}}
1454467611862 1438033936302 What population is at a high risk of rotavirus i
nf ction?
Infants and young childr n ( sp cially if in daycar ).
1454467630198 1438033936302 What is th #1 caus of s v r diarrh a in infan
ts and childr n?
Rotavirus
1454467647124 1438033936296 {{c1::Rotavirus}} is th numb r on caus of s v

r diarrh a in infants and childr n.
1454467662237 1438033936302 D scrib th symptoms of Colorado tic virus.
F v r, vomiting, myalgia, but <i>no</i> rash (which is how it can b diff r
ntiat d from RMSF)
1454467685093 1438033936302 How can Rocky Mountain Spott d F v r and Colorad
o Tic Virus b diff r ntiat d? RMSF will pr s nt with a rash and CTV will not.&
nbsp;
1454467706328 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt of rotavirus?
Supporti
v . Oral r hydration is usually suffici nt.
1454467719391 1438033936302 D scrib th vaccin for rotavirus.
Liv , at
t nuat d oral vaccin that is now part of th standard sch dul . Th first dos
should b giv n b for 3mos of ag b caus as ag incr as s, ff ctiv n ss d cr
as s and sid ff cts may b mor lik ly.
1454467773739 1438033936302 What is a complication associat d with a v rsion
of th rotavirus vaccin ?
Intussusc ption du to stimulation and nlarg m
nt of P y r's patch s, which th n act as a l ad point. This is analogous to t l
scoping of th bow l.
1454544467664 1438033936296 Onc you'r inf ct d with {{c1::HSV}}, you
will always hav it.
<i>It n v r "go s away." </i>
1454544508086 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of HSV.
Env lop
d with a lin ar dsDNA g nom .
1454544524125 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of th h rp svirus family
.
Env lop d with lin ar dsDNA g nom s, all r plicat in th nucl us.
1454544552153 1438033936296 Most DNA virus s r plicat {{c1::in th nuc
l us}}
1454544575241 1438033936302 What ar Cowdry bodi s? Larg , r d osinophilic
intranucl ar inclusion bodi s that look lik targ ts. Th y sugg st inf ction wit
h a virus in th h rp s family (HSV, CMV, VZV)
1454545003983 1438033936302 What ar th s and what pathog n do th y sugg st
?<div><img src="past -1305670058660.jpg" /></div>
Th s ar Cowdry bodi s.
Th y sugg st a h rp svirus inf ction (CMV, VZV, HSV, tc.)
1454545029484 1438033936302 Distinguish Cowdry bodi s from th inclusion bod
i s s n in poxvirus inf ctions.
Cowdry bodi s ar larg osinophilic<i>&
nbsp;nucl ar</i> inclusion bodi s s n in h rp svirus inf ctions (CMV, VZV,
HSV, tc). Poxvirus inclusion bodi s look similar but ar locat d in th cytopl
asm.
1454545129132 1438033936302 How is HSV transmitt d? Thr mod s: s xually, v
ia saliva, and v rtically (it's a ToRCH S inf ction)
1454545185486 1438033936296 Manif stations of HSV-1 ar usually confin d to&
nbsp;{{c1::th upp r half of th body}}.
1454545202004 1438033936296 Gingivostomatitis is th usually th first manif
station of {{c1::HSV-1}} inf ction
1454545237142 1438033936302 D scrib gingivostomatitis.
L sions in th m
outh that ar mor painful and mor aggr ssiv than cold sor s.
1454545254001 1438033936302 In what ag group is gingivostomatitis a common
manif station of HSV-1 inf ction?
Infants
1454545284480 1438033936302 D scrib th progr ssion of HSV-1.
Gingivos
tomatitis, wid spr ad inflammation of th lips and gums ar first signs. This wi
ll v ntually turn into cold sor s. It may also caus k ratoconjunctivitis, t mp
oral lob nc phalitis, ryth ma multiform , or whitlow.
1454545400810 1438033936302 What is h rp s labialis?
Cold sor s caus
d by HSV-1 inf ction
1454545415952 1438033936302 What is th most common viral inf ction of th m
outh? HSV-1
1454545424052 1438033936302 If you susp ct k ratoconjunctivitis caus d by HS
V-1, what should you do?
This is a fairly s rious inf ction and warrants
an valuation by an ophthalmologist. Th y will do a fluor sc in-stain d slit-lam
p xam to ch ck for ulc rs on th corn a.
1454545481361 1438033936302 D scrib th corn al ulc rs that may b s n wit
h k ratoconjunctivitis caus d by HSV-1. Th ar "s rpiginous" (snak -lik

).
1454545517131 1438033936302 What pathog n can caus t mporal lob nc phalit
is?
HSV-1
1454545536773 1438033936302 D scrib th t mporal lob nc phalitis caus d b
y HSV-1.
HSV-1 caus s h morrhag and n crosis of inf rior and m dial t mp
oral lob s. Symptoms includ th usual f v r, h adach , alt r d m ntal status, a
nd s izur s xp ct d of nc phalitis but also com with bizarr b havior and olf
actory hallucinations.
1454545600218 1438033936302 What two symptoms ar r lativ ly uniqu manif st
ions of t mporal lob nc phalitis caus d by HSV-1?
Olfactory hallucinations
and bizarr b havior (ov rall chang in p rsonality).
1454545625941 1438033936302 What is th most common caus of sporadic nc ph
alitis in th US?
HSV-1 inf ction
1454545646066 1438033936302 Wh r do s HSV-1 r main lat nt? Th trig minal g
anglia.
1454545655964 1438033936302 What ar stimuli that might caus r activation o
f HSV-1?
Str ss, immunocompromis d status.
1454545684550 1438033936302 Wh r is r activation of HSV-1 usually confin d
to?
Th fac
1454545694163 1438033936302 D scrib th rash caus d by HSV-1.
"D w dro
ps on a ros p tal" app aranc , m aning on or multipl cl ar v sicl s sitting o
n an ryth matous bas .
1454545731605 1438033936302 If you s v sicl s on th groin or th lips, wh
at should you consid r? HSV
1454545743637 1438033936302 What ar v sicular l sions on th fing r call d
wh n th y ar caus d by HSV-1 or -2?
H rp tic whitlow
1454545762432 1438033936302 In whom is h rp tic whitlow most common?
D ntists or oth r p opl who sp nd th ir tim with th ir hands in oth rs' mouths
.
1454545783927 1438033936296 {{c1::HSV-2}} can b transmitt d from g nitals t
o hands.
1454545790560 1438033936296 Eryth ma multiform is mor common in HSV-{{c1::
1}}
1454545810462 1438033936302 D scrib ryth ma multiform .
A hyp rs
nsitivity r action with small targ t l sions. Usually app ars on th backs of t
h hands and f t and th n mov s mor c ntrally. Usually app ars 1-2 w ks aft r
viral or bact rial inf ction ( .g. with HSV).
1454546037431 1438033936296 {{c1::HSV-2}}: transmitt d by actions "down th r
," mostly aff cts "down th r ."
<i>Transmitt d via s xual or obst tric a
ctiviti s. </i>
1454546103472 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of HSV-2? H rp s g nitalis
consists of painful inguinal lymphad nopathy and a rash with clust rs of v sicl
s on a r d bas .
1454546134857 1438033936302 What is a distinguishing f atur of g nital l si
ons caus d by HSV-2?
Th y ar painful (wh r as l sions caus d by oth r pathog
ns may not caus pain, lik <i>tr pon ma pallidum</i>).
1454546178114 1438033936302 "V sicular" is a buzzword for what pathog n?
HSV
1454546191926 1438033936302 Wh r do s HSV-2 r main lat nt? Th sacral gangl
ia.
1454546205476 1438033936296 {{c1::HSV-2}} is associat d with as ptic m ningi
tis in adol sc nts and adults.
1454546225012 1438033936302 What is th t st of choic for diagnosing an inf
ction caus d by th h rp svirus family?
PCR.
1454546244343 1438033936302 B for PCR, what was us d to diagnos an HSV inf
ction? Scraping an ulc r and p rforming a Tzanck sm ar.
1454546282085 1438033936302 What would you b looking for on a Tzanck sm ar
for HSV?
Multinucl at d giant c lls
1454546301221 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for HSV inf ction?
You will always hav th lat nt virus, th r is no cur . Br akouts can b pr v n

t d with acyclovir or valcyclovir.
1454546326751 1438033936302 D scrib EBV. It is a m mb r of th h rp sviru
s family. It has dsDNA, an nv lop , and r plicat s in th nucl us.
1454546358451 1438033936302 What pathog n caus s inf ctious mononucl osis ("
th kissing dis as ")? Epst in-Barr Virus.
1454546380505 1438033936302 How is EBV primarily transmitt d?
Drinking
, kissing, or oth rwis sharing saliva with an inf ct d p rson.
1454546400513 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of inf ctious mononucl osi
s du to EBV? F v r, hurts to swallow (pharyngitis), t nd r post rior c rvical
lymphad nopathy (but also can s g n ral lymphad nopathy). Lymphocytosis and s
pl nom galy. Can also s copious tonsillar xudat s.
1454546470005 1438033936302 What c lls ar r sponsibl for th r activ lymp
hocytosis of EBV inf ction?
CTLs.
1454546510065 1438033936302 What distinguish s inf ctious mononucl osis du
to EBV from oth r caus s of pharyngitis?
Lymphad nopathy can b g n ral a
nd not just localiz d to th pharynx.
1454546566834 1438033936302 D scrib th atypical Down y c lls s n in EBV i
nf ction. Th y ar larg with lots of cytoplasm and hav an oval, fold d,
or ind nt d nucl us. Th y can b s n outsid of EBV inf ction as w ll. Th y ar
pr dominantly CD8+ CTLs, but can also b NK c lls.
1454546646475 1438033936302 Why ar spl nom galy and larg lymph nod s s n
in inf ctious mononucl osis?
T c ll prolif ration in r spons to th virus.&n
bsp;
1454546691571 1438033936296 Som cas s of EBV inf ction also hav {{c1:
:h patom galy}} in addition to spl nom galy and larg lymph nod s.
1454546706507 1438033936296 Wh n EBV ncount rs a n w host, it targ ts
{{c1::B c lls}}
1454546718400 1438033936296 {{c1::B c lls}} ar th whit blood c lls that b
com plasma c lls and mak antibodi s. <i>Th y can also r main dormant.
</i>
1454546746602 1438033936296 EBV r mains lat nt in {{c1::B c lls}}
1454546883606 1438033936302 How do s EBV nt r th human host c lls that it
targ ts?
It inf cts CD21 on B lymphocyt s via a glycoprot in on its own
nv lop .
1454546947621 1438033936302 What is CD21? It is a B c ll mark r that is al
so known as th r c ptor for compl m nt compon nt C3d.
1454546983049 1438033936296 CD21 is a mark r for {{c1::B c lls}}
<i>Must "B" 21 to drink. </i>
1454547047875 1438033936302 What is th "whit junk" in th back of th thro
at in EBV inf ction?
Tonsillar xudat
1454547068285 1438033936302 Nam th four k y f atur s of EBV inf ction.&nbs
p;
F v r, lymphad nopathy, spl nom galy, pharyngitis.
1454547104143 1438033936302 How would you distinguish b tw n str p pharyngi
tis and mononucl osis? Str p pharyngitis is mor oft n s n in childr n and ado
l sc nts wh r mono (which can occur in kids) is usually asymptomatic at a young
ag . Mono also will not r spond to antibiotics.
1454547142634 1438033936302 At what ag ar you mor lik ly to b symptomati
c wh n inf ct d with EBV?
Lat t ns or adulthood. Thus, childr n ar usua
lly asymptomatic.
1454547194813 1438033936302 If you s a pati nt r c iving amoxicillin or IV
ampicillin for susp ct d str p pharyngitis who th n d v lops a maculopapular ra
sh, what should you susp ct?
EBV inf ction inst ad of str p. Pati nts with EB
V who g t amoxicillin or ampi (or som oth r antibiotics) g t this rash. Th m c
hanism, whil not und rstood, is not all rgic.
1454547265661 1438033936302 What is th m chanism of th maculopapular rash
s n in EBV pati nt who r c iv amoxicillin or ampicillin?
It is not und rs
tood, but is not an all rgic r action.
1454547293201 1438033936302 For which thr canc rs is EBV inf ction a risk
factor? 1) B c ll lymphoma in pati nts with w ak n d immun syst ms (non-Hodgkin
's and th mix d-c llularity subtyp of Hodgkin's), 2) Burkitt lymphoma, 3) Naso
pharyng al carcinoma
1454547361216 1438033936302 What c lls charact riz Hodgkin's lymphoma?
R d-St rnb rg c lls, which look lik owl's y s.
1454547443577 1438033936302 With what virus is th mix d c llularity subtyp
of Hodgkin lymphoma associat d?
Epst in-Barr virus. It's s n in ov r 70
% of cas s.
1454547484489 1438033936296 {{c1::EBV}} inf ction is found in >70% of cas
s of mix d-c llularity Hodgkin's lymphoma.
1454547636953 1438033936302 What is this?<div><img src="past -7808250544290.
jpg" /></div> This is a R d-St rnb rg c ll. Charact ristic of Hodgkin lymphom
a.
1454547738541 1438033936296 {{c1::Burkitt}} lymphoma is a typ of non-Hodgki
n lymphoma.
1454547752474 1438033936302 What virus is d v lopm nt of Burkitt lymphoma as
sociat d with? EBV
1454547762021 1438033936302 How do s nd mic (African) Burkitt lymphoma pr s
With a larg jaw l sion and sw lling.
nt?
1454547788967 1438033936302 Wh r do s non- nd mic (sporadic) Burkitt lympho
ma d v lop?
In th ilioc cum and p riton um (i. . not th jaw, which is wh r
th nd mic variant d v lops).
1454547827149 1438033936302 What is th most common chromosomal translocatio
n s n in Burkitt lymphoma?
t(8;14)
1454547842979 1438033936302 In what group of p opl is nasopharyng al carcin
oma with und rlying EBV inf ction oft n s n? P opl of Asian anc stry
1454548099220 1438033936302 In what typ of pati nts is oral hairy l ukoplak
ia s condary to EBV oft n s n? HIV pati nts
1454548123129 1438033936296 {{c1::Oral hairy l ukoplakia}}, associat d with
HIV pati nts who also hav EBV, is NOT a pr -canc rous l sion.
1454548145793 1438033936302 D scrib oral hairy l ukoplakia.
Oft n s
n in HIV pati nts who also hav EBV. This is not a pr -canc rous l sion. It usu
ally occurs on th lat ral portions of ht tongu and may look lik candida. It
cannot b asily scrap d off though.
1454548184258 1438033936302 What do s EBV activat B c lls to s cr t during
th arly phas of inf ction? H t rophil anti-sh p-RBC antibodi s. Th s agg
lutinat sh p RBCs in vitro, which can b us d to diagnos EBV inf ction.
1454548234897 1438033936302 What is a rapid diagnostic t st for EBV inf ctio
n?
Th monospot t st, which tak s advantag of th h t rophil anti-sh p R
BC antibodi s s cr t d by EBV-inf ct d B c lls.
1454548270946 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for EBV inf ction?
Supportiv . Pati nts must b instruct d to avoid contact sports du to th risk
of spl nic ruptur .
1454548302184 1438033936296 Spl nom galy occurs in 50-60% of {{c1::EBV}
} inf ction cas s.
1454548880352 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of cytom galovirus (CMV).
It is a m mb r of th h rp svirus family, so it has lin ar dsDNA and an nv lop
. It r plicat s in th nucl us.
1454548910295 1438033936296 All virus s in th {{c1::h rp svirus}} fami
ly hav th ability to r main lat nt.
1454548925496 1438033936296 CMV r mains lat nt in {{c1::mononucl ar c l
ls}}
<i>WBCs with 1 nucl us, i. . lymphocyt s, monocyt s, macrophag s</i>
1454548955139 1438033936302 Which WBCs ar mononucl ar c lls?
Lymphocy
t s, monocyt s, and macrophag s (i. . c lls with on nucl us).
1454548969732 1438033936302 In what c lls do s CMV hav th ability to r mai
n lat nt?
B and T lymphocyt s, monocyt s, and macrophag s.
1454548991654 1438033936302 Wh n is CMV r activat d from lat ncy? Wh n th
pati nt xp ri nc s immunosuppr ssion.
1454549004116 1438033936302 How is CMV transmitt d? Via fluid xchang (bloo
d, br ast milk, saliva, urin ), s xually, and v rtically. Thus, it's a ToRCH S i
nf ction.
1454549151960 1438033936302 What is th most common f tal viral inf ction?

CMV
1454549169059 1438033936302 D scrib th symptoms of cong nital CMV inf ctio
n.
Blu b rry muffin rash, h patospl nom galy, jaundic , s nsorin ural h ari
ng loss, structural abnormaliti s in th brain, intracranial calcifications, v n
triculom galy.
1454549220265 1438033936302 What is a blu b rry muffin rash?
A p t ch
ial rash that r sults from thrombocytop nia. It can b a symptom of cong nital r
ub lla or cong nital CMV inf ction.
1454549256918 1438033936302 D scrib th intracranial calcifications s n in
cong nital CMV inf ction.
Th y can occur around th v ntricl s (p
riv ntricular calcifications) or in th par nchyma its lf.
1454549307722 1438033936302 What two inf ctions ar associat d with intracra
nial calcifications in n wborns?
Toxoplasma gondii and CMV.
1454549323217 1438033936302 What ar s qu la of th chang s in brain struct
ur s n in cong nital CMV inf ctions? M ntal r tardation or s izur s.
1454549353874 1438033936296 Whil d vastating if symptomatic, cong nital&nbs
p;{{c1::CMV}} inf ction is actually asymptomatic in 80-90% of n wborns.
1454549371219 1438033936296 15% of infants with cong nital {{c1::CMV}}
inf ction lat r d v lop progr ssiv h aring loss. <i>Usually unilat ral bu
t can b bilat ral. </i>
1454549526955 1438033936302 Why is it important to scr n childr n for h ari
ng d ficits both at birth and as th y g t old r?
Cong nital CMV inf ction
d v lops into progr ssiv h aring loss (usually unilat ral but occasionally bil
at ral) in 15% of cas s.
1454549557116 1438033936302 What trim st r is associat d with th gr at st r
isk of cong nital CMV? Th s cond
1454549572529 1438033936302 What is hydrops f talis?
H art failur l
ading to s v r d ma with fluid accumulation in multipl compartm nts. Most oft
n l ads to spontan ous abortion. Can b associat d with CMV inf ction in ut ro.

1454549646140 1438033936302 What is th numb r on caus of m ntal r tardati
on from cong nital viral inf ction?
CMV
1454549667987 1438033936302 What is th numb r on caus of s nsorin ural h
aring loss?
Cong nital CMV inf ction
1454549680526 1438033936302 With what population of pati nts is CMV commonly
associat d?
Th immunocompromis d (HIV+ or transplant pati nts on immunosupp
r ssants).
1454549705661 1438033936302 What ar transplant pati nts at risk for with CM
V?
Pn umonia.
1454549717616 1438033936302 How is CMV d t ct d in transplant pati nts?
A Buffy Coat cultur .
1454549730802 1438033936302 What is a Buffy coat cultur ? Th Buffy coat c
ontains whit blood c lls and plat l ts. Th s c lls can b incubat d with antiCMV fluor sc nt antibodi s to d t ct th virus.
1454549774352 1438033936302 At what CD4 count ar AIDS pati nts at risk for
CMV?
CD4 count und r 50.
1454549865053 1438033936302 What should you do with an AIDS pati nt at a CD4
count of <50?
Look out for CMV inf ction.
1454549922565 1438033936302 What is th most common pr s ntation of CMV inf
ction in an AIDS pati nt?
CMV r tinitis.
1454549936802 1438033936302 D scrib CMV r tinitis in an AIDS pati nt.
Full-thickn ss r tinal n crosis that is som tim s d scrib d as "pizza pi r tino
pathy." Sypmtoms includ blind spots, flashing lights, and v n vision loss. Thi
s is typically unilat ral but without tr atm nt can involv th oth r y as w l
l.
1454550069914 1438033936302 What viral inf ction is associat d with "pizza p
i " r tinopathy?
CMV inf ction pr s nting as r tinitis, sp cially in AID
S pati nts.
1454550102864 1438033936302 B sid s th r tina, what two oth r tissu s can b
involv d in CMV inf ction?

CMV can also caus sophagitis and colitis.&nbsp
;
1454550125213 1438033936302 What typ of ulc rations ar s n in CMV sophag
itis? Singular, d p, lin ar ulc rations.
1454550153627 1438033936302 How would you distinguish b tw n CMV sophagiti
s and h rp s sophagitis?
CMV sophagitis has singular, d p l sions and h
rp s sophagitis usually has multipl shallow l sions.
1454550217727 1438033936302 What pathog n caus s sophagitis with multipl s
hallow l sions? H rp s
1454550227676 1438033936302 What would you s in CMV colitis?
Ulc rat
d walls
1454550240356 1438033936302 Wh n CMV inf cts c lls, what typ of inclusions
ar s n?
Owl's y inclusions. This is not a sp cific buzzword how v r.&n
bsp;
1454550260155 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for CMV inf ction?
Canciclovir, foscarnat (which is us d wh n th virus has a UL97 mutation that c
onf rs ganciclovir r sistanc ).
1454550297478 1438033936302 How do s CMV inf ction t nd to pr s nt in pati n
ts who ar not immunosuppr ss d?
As mononucl osis. This has th sam symp
toms as EBV mono (sor throat, lymphad nopathy, fatigu ). Th monospot t st will
b n gativ how v r.
1454550342603 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of varic lla zost r virus
.
It's in th h rp svirus family, so it is nv lop d with a dsDNA g nom .&
nbsp;
1454552076897 1438033936302 What dis as s ar caus d by Varic lla Zost r Vir
us?
1) th childhood xanth m call d "chick n pox," 2) Shingl s
1454552149217 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of chick n pox? A wid sp
r ad itchy rash with a "d w drops on a ros " app aranc , f v r, h adach .
1454552183678 1438033936302 How is varic lla zost r virus transmitt d?
Via r spiratory dropl ts or from th ruptur d v sicl s th ms lv s. Can also b t
ransmitt d v rtically (includ d in th H of ToRCH S with oth r h rp svirus s)
1454552202895 1438033936302 What typ of l sion do s "d w drops on a ros " d
scrib ?
V sicular l sions on an ryth matous background. Can b s n in
chick npox du to varic lla zost r virus or h rp s simpl x virus inf ctions.&nbs
p;
1454552586979 1438033936302 D scrib th rash of chick n pox. "D w dro
ps on a ros ," with v sicl s on an ryth matous background. Th s l sions will b
in diff r nt stag s (som blist rs, som h aling scabs).
1454552690070 1438033936302 Distinguish th rash s of chick npox and smallpo
x.
Smallpox will pr s nt with a rash wh r ach l sion is at th sam stag
. Chick npox pr s nts with l sions in diff r nt stag s of h aling.
1454553078660 1438033936302 What do s th Tzank sm ar show in a sampl from
a pati nt with chick npox?
Multinucl at d giant c lls (also s n in HSV).&n
bsp;
1454553132489 1438033936302 What ar complications of varic lla zost r virus
in both childr n and adults?
Th y hav an incr as d lik lihood of pn
umonia. Th y can also g t nc phalitis ( sp cially if immunosuppr ss d).
1454553181717 1438033936302 What is th major caus of morbidity and mortali
ty in adults who b com inf ct d with VZV?
Pn umonia
1454553256457 1438033936302 What typ of vaccin xists for VZV?
A liv a
tt nuat d vaccin .
1454553284302 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for VZV inf ction?
Acyclovir (for pati nts ov r 12, adults, and immunocompromis d pati nts)
1454553381557 1438033936302 Wh r do s VZV r main lat nt? In th dorsal ro
ot ganglion
1454553862756 1438033936302 What can r activat varic lla zost r virus?
Str ss ( motional), immunosuppr ssion, incr asing ag
1454553883130 1438033936302 What is r activation of VZV call d?
H rp s z
ost r, or "shingl s."
1454553972989 1438033936302 What is th rash of shingl s lik ?
H rp tic
l sions (d w drops on a ros ) in a d rmatomal distribution

1454553990102 1438033936302 How do s VZV r activat ?
It is usually la
t nt in th DRG, and trav ls down s nsory n rv fib rs until it r ach s th skin
. Th r , it caus s a v sicular rash in a d rmatomal distribution.
1454554248256 1438033936302 If shingl s cross s th midlin , what is it call
Diss minat d VZV. This is a r d flag for immunocompromis d status.
d?
1454554284883 1438033936302 If a pati nt with no history of ch mo or immunos
uppr ssion pr s nts with a shingl s rash that cross s th midlin , what should y
ou do? T st th m for HIV. This is "diss minat d VZV," which is a r d flag for i
mmunocompromis d status.
1454554375559 1438033936302 D scrib th rash of shingl s.
It is v
sicular in a d rmatomal distribution. Th lumbar and thoracic r gions ar most o
ft n involv d, and th rash rar ly cross s midlin . It is oft n v ry painful, an
d th pain can p rsist v n aft r th rash disapp ars.
1454554418436 1438033936302 What is post-h rp tic n uralgia?
Pain in
a d rmatomal distribution that p rsists aft r th disapp aranc of th shingl s
rash.
1454554437835 1438033936302 B sid s th c lls of th dorsal root ganglia, wh
at n rv can varic lla zost r virus aff ct?
Th V1 division of th trig mina
l n rv . This is most common in immunocompromis d pati nts, who can los th ir v
ision.
1454554500187 1438033936302 If you hav an immunosuppr ss d pati nt with v s
icl s on th for h ad and unilat ral blindn ss, what should you consid r?
H rp s zost r ophthalmicus, in which VZV aff cts th V1 division of th trig min
al n rv .
1454554552006 1438033936302 D scrib th vaccin for shingl s.
Th "zos
t r" or shingl s vaccin is a liv , att nuat d vaccin . It is indicat d for adul
ts ov r 60 but not pr gnant wom n or immunosuppr ss d pati nts (l uk mia, lympho
ma, tc.).
1454554601291 1438033936302 HIV pati nts with a CD4 count ov r what numb r c
an r c iv th shingl s vaccin d spit b ing immunocompromis d?
CD4>2
00. This is giv n for pr v ntion.
1454554624803 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for shingl s?
Acyclovi
r or famciclovir (which is asi r to dos ). Valciclovir can also b us d.
1454554725446 1438033936302 D scrib cong nital varic lla syndrom . If a pr
gnant woman is inf ct d with VZV during th 2nd trim st r, sh can pass it on to
h r child. Th infant may pr s nt with limb hypoplasia, cutan ous scarring in a
d rmatomal distribution, and blindn ss.
1454554870782 1438033936302 What illn ss is caus d by HHV-6?
Ros ola,
which is also call d "sixth" dis as b caus it is th sixth dis as d scrib d
in childhood xanth ms.
1454554941661 1438033936296 Almost all {{c1::DNA}} virus s ar doubl -strand
d
1454554953508 1438033936296 An {{c1:: xanth m}} is a wid spr ad rash
1454554961272 1438033936296 HHV-6 b longs to th {{c1::h rp svirus}} fa
mily
1454554978621 1438033936302 What is th structur of HHV-6's g nom ?
dsDNA
1454554988770 1438033936302 What sp ci s is th primary host of HHV-6?
Humans
1454555001816 1438033936302 Which c lls act as th hosts for HHV-6? CD4+ c l
ls. Thus, th virus can caus immunosuppr ssion by killing th s c lls.
1454555031915 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of HHV-6 inf ction?
A high f v r that lasts 3-4 days (can b ov r 104F), follow d by a diffus macul
ar rash. Th f v r can b so high as to provok s izur s. Th rash classically h
as a lacy app aranc and spar s th fac .
1454555095272 1438033936302 Which rash-causing virus is known as th xanth
m subit m?
HHV-6, caus of ros ola/"sixth dis as "
1454555145395 1438033936302 What ag population g ts ros ola?
Childr n
b tw n 6mos-2y ars.
1454555175651 1438033936302 How can you distinguish th rash of ros ola (cau
s d by HHV-6) from oth r childhood rash s?
Th timing of th rash of ros ol
a is charact ristic: it app ars as th 4-day-long f v r is d f rv scing. In m as
l s, th rash occurs at th sam tim as th f v r and do s not spar th fac .
1454555242295 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for ros ola?
Th vira
l illn ss is usually s lf-limiting. Th only tr atm nt is supportiv and can inc
lud cooling m asur s and fluids.
1454555286686 1438033936302 Is ros ola or m asl s a mor s rious dis as ?
M asl s is typically mor s rious. Its rash do s not spar th fac and it can b
fatal.
1454555338508 1438033936302 What virus caus s Kaposi's sarcoma?
HHV-8
1454555359701 1438033936302 What is th structur of HHV-8? This is in th h
rp svirus family, so it has a dsDNA g nom .
1454555381041 1438033936302 What population of pati nts is associat d with H
HV-8 inf ction? It is an AIDS-d fining illn ss, so HIV+ and oth r immunosuppr ss
d pati nts.
1454555455970 1438033936302 D scrib Kaposi's sarcoma.
Caus d by HHV-8.
Charact riz d by ryth matous, violac ous l sions on th nos , mucous m mbran s
, xtr miti s. This is an AIDS-d fining illn ss.
1454555499044 1438033936302 D scrib th l sions of Kaposi's sarcoma.
Eryth matous and violac ous. On th nos , mucous m mbran s, xtr miti s and may
b pr s nt as plaqu s, papul s, patch s, macul s, or nodul s. Th y can also b i
ntraint stinal or ls wh r in th mucosa of th GI tract. Th most common locat
ion is th hard palat .
1454555581123 1438033936302 What is th pathog n sis of Kaposi's sarcoma?
Th charact ristic l sions aris from primitiv vasculatur -forming m s nchymal
c lls. HHV-8 mak s this prolif ration of vasculatur possibl by dysr gulating V
EGF. B caus of this ab rrant angiog n sis, th l sions ar highly vascular. Thi
s accounts for th ir viol t color.
1454555722365 1438033936302 What is th most common sit of Kaposi's sarcoma
l sions?
Th hard palat (th arch d c iling of th mouth)
1454555773492 1438033936302 What might a colonoscopy find in a pati nt inf c
t d with both HHV-8 and HIV?
A Kaposi's sarcoma l sion on th mucosa of th G
I tract.
1454555814115 1438033936302 B sid s Kaposi's sarcoma, what typ of malignanc
y is HHV-8 associat d with?
B caus it can inf ct B c lls, it can caus a B
c ll lymphoma known as "primary ffusion lymphoma."
1454555857890 1438033936302 What virus is associat d with primary ffusion l
ymphoma?
HHV-8
1454555866671 1438033936302 How is HHV-8 transmitt d?
Via s xual cotna
ct (including kissing), sp cially in m n who hav s x with m n.
1454555907294 1438033936302 For what thr populations should your ind x of
suspicion for Kaposi's sarcoma b high? 1) AIDS pati nts (or oth r immunocomprom
is d individuals); 2) ld rly Russian m n; 3) p opl in Africa wh r th virus i
s nd mic.
1454555966219 1438033936302 How will Kaposi's sarcoma pr s nt in ld rly Rus
sian m n?
Usually with l sions on th low r xtr miti s.
1454555981010 1438033936302 How will nd mic Kaposi's sarcoma pr s nt in an
African population?
Th classic pr s ntation with palatal l sions. It can b
fatal in childr n.
1454556014639 1438033936302 How is Kaposi's sarcoma diagnos d?
This is
important to do b caus th l sions can b asily confus d with thos of oth r p
athologi s. You n d to xamin th l sion with microscopy. It will b accompani
d by a lymphocytic infiltrat .
1454556076104 1438033936302 What is Kaposi's sarcoma commonly confus d with?
Bacillary angiomatosis du to <i>Barton lla h ns la </i> inf ction. Not th
at both ar common in th immunosuppr ss d.
1454556132907 1438033936302 How can you distinguish Kaposi's sarcoma from ba
cillary angiomatosis? KS will b accompani d by a lymphocytic infiltrat that
can b s n on microscopy, BA will hav a PMN infiltrat (r m mb r that on is v
iral and on is bact rial).

1454556173400 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for Kaposi's sarcoma?
Start anti-r troviral th rapy if th pati nt is HIV+ and is not on it. L sions s
hould shrink as th pati nt r sponds.
1454679888635 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of polymavirus s.
Nak d with a circular dsDNA g nom .
1454679922271 1438033936296 JC and BK ar {{c1::polyomavirus s}}
1454679927379 1438033936296 Th hallmark of {{c1::Polyomavirus JC}} is
progr ssiv multifocal l uko nc phalopathy.
1454679960631 1438033936296 >50% of th population has {{c1::Polyoma
virus JC}}, but it caus s no probl ms if th immun syst m is intact.
1454679996721 1438033936302 Which pati nts ar at risk for a r activation of
polyomavirus JC?
Th immunosuppr ss d, sp cially HIV pati nts with CD4 c
ounts of <200 or pati nts on immunosuppr ssant drugs.
1454680032774 1438033936302 Wh n polyomavirus JC r activat s, what dis as p
roc ss do s it caus ? Progr ssiv Multifocal L uko nc phalopathy (PML)
1454680055801 1438033936302 At what CD4 count ar HIV+ pati nts at risk for
r activation of polyomavirus JC?
CD4<200
1454680069235 1438033936302 D scrib progr ssiv multifocal l uko nc phalopa
thy.
Caus d by polyomavirus JC. PML is a d my linating dis as du to loss of
oligod ndrocyt s (th my lin-making c lls of th CNS). This happ ns throughout
th CNS (i. . it's "multifocal") and is progr ssiv . Ov r half th pati nts who
hav this dis as di within a f w months.
1454680288649 1438033936302 How would th l sions of PML b distinguish d fr
om thos of <i>toxoplasma gondii</i> inf ction?
On imaging, th l sions
of PML will show up in th whit matt r and will b non- nhancing. Th l sions o
f toxoplasma gondii inf ction ar ring- nhacing.
1454680357235 1438033936296 "L uko nc phalopathy" d als with dis as of th &
nbsp;{{c1::whit matt r}}
1454680369924 1438033936296 PML, lik MS, is a dis as proc ss charact riz d
by {{c1::d my lination}}
1454680381637 1438033936296 {{c1::Polyomavirus BK}} is famous for causing n
phropathy and oth r probl ms within th urinary tract.
1454680418751 1438033936302 What pathologi s ar associat d with polyomaviru
s BK? N phropathy, urinary tract probl ms. Kidn y damag can caus h morrhagic
cystitis. Th pati nt who suff r BK virus n phropathy ar classically kidn y or
bon marrow transplant pati nts.
1454680474395 1438033936302 What typ of pati nts ar classically associat d
with BK virus n phropathy?
Transplant pati nts, sp cially thos who r c iv
d a kidn y or bon marrow.
1454680580194 1438033936296 {{c1::Polyomavirus BK}} is nam d for a pati nt w
ho suff r d it.
1454680594709 1438033936296 {{c1::Ad novirus}} caus s h morrhagic cystitis i
n young boys who swim.
1454680622342 1438033936296 {{c1::Polyomavirus BK}} and ad novirus ar assoc
iat d with h morrhagic cystitis.
1454680644587 1438033936302 If you saw a 40 y/o HIV pati nt with w akn ss, v
isual chang s, wors ning difficulty with sp ch, multipl non- nhancing l sions
on CT or MRI, and a CD4 count of 158, what pathology would you consid r?
Progr ssiv Multifocal L uko nc phalopathy caus d by Polyomavirus JC
1454680704428 1438033936302 If you saw a r nal transplant pati nt on immunos
uppr ssants who pr s nt d with f v r and gross h maturia, what would you consid
r?
H morrhagic cystitis caus d by Polyomavirus BK
1454680740709 1438033936302 What is th structur of virus s in th papillom
avirus family? Nak d with dsDNA.
1454680766798 1438033936302 Which DNA virus has a singl -strand d g nom ?
Parvovirus.
1454680793022 1438033936302 Which six strains of human papillomavirus s do y
ou n d to know?
6, 11, 16, 18, 31, 33
1454680821840 1438033936302 D scrib HPV strains 1-4. Nak d, dsDNA g n
om . Caus th skin l sions of v rruca vulgaris, which is th common cutan ous w

art. Childr n usually g t th s on th ir hands and f t (this is not a g nital w
art strain). Transmission is usually physical contact.
1454680873219 1438033936296 Th common cutan ous wart is caus d by {{c1
::HPV strains 1-4}}
1454680881391 1438033936296 {{c1::Childr n}} usually hav th l sions of HPV
1-4 on th ir {{c2::hands and f t}}
1454680897279 1438033936302 How is HPV 1-4 transmitt d?
Usually via phys
ical contact.
1454680907295 1438033936302 What two major dis as s ar associat d with HPV
strains 6 and 11?
1) Laryng al papillomatosis (AKA "r curr nt r spiratory
papillomatosis"); 2) Anog nital warts call d "condyloma acuminata."
1454681040169 1438033936302 How is condyloma acuminata (caus d by HPV 6 or 1
1) transmitt d? Th s anog nital warts ar acquir d by s x.
1454681076371 1438033936302 In whom ar condyloma acuminata warts s n?
In s xually activ individuals, as HPV 6 and 11 ar transmitt d by s x.
1454681098777 1438033936302 In what population is r curr nt r spiratory papi
llomatosis typically s n?
Childr n. It is thought that th y acquir d HPV 6
or 11 during vaginal birth.
1454681132158 1438033936296 Unlik condyloma acuminata, {{c1::r curr nt
r spiratory papillomatosis}} is not consid r d an STI. <i>D spit both b ing ca
us d by HPV 6 or 11. </i>
1454681169518 1438033936302 D scrib laryng al papillomatosis.
Also cal
l d r curr nt r spiratory papillomatosis. Caus d by HPV 6 or 11, probably acquir
d by childr n during vaginal birth. Pr s nts with tumors ("papillomas") in th
airways.
1454681209113 1438033936302 What dis as proc ss is associat d with HPV stra
ins 16 and 18? Anog nital squamous c ll carcinomas. Th s ar just two of th m
any strains in th papillomavirus family that caus th s .
1454681289596 1438033936302 Wh r can th squamous c ll carcinomas caus d by
HPV 16 or 18 b found? Th y can b c rvical, vulvar, vaginal, p nil , or anal c
anc rs.
1454681372442 1438033936296 HPV inf cts {{c1::squamous c lls}}
1454681378656 1438033936296 HPV 16 and 18 inf ct {{c1::squamous c lls o
f th skin and ar as of th anus and c rvix}}
1454681411004 1438033936302 B sid s HPV 16 and 18, nam two oth r HPV strain
s associat d with canc r. HPV 31 and 33 (add 15 ach to 16 and 18).
1454681437936 1438033936302 How ar HPV 16, 18, 31, and 33 transmitt d?
Via s xual contact.
1454681458736 1438033936302 How can transmission of HPV 16, 18, 31, and 33 b
pr v nt d?
Via condoms or abstin nc , as th s ar STIs.
1454681565313 1438033936296 HPV {{c1::16 and 18}} caus 70% of {{c
2::c rvical}} canc rs.
1454681575365 1438033936296 Th HPV vaccin cov rs HPV {{c1::6, 11, 16,
and 18}}.
<i>This h lps prot ct pati nts and th ir partn rs.
</i>
1454681620382 1438033936302 D scrib th HPV vaccin . Call d "Gardasil
," cov rs HPV strains 6,11,16, and 18. Inactivat d subunit vaccin r ccom nd d f
or m n and wom n ag s 9-26 wh th r or not th y ar alr ady s xually activ .&nbsp
;
1454681657820 1438033936302 How is HPV abl to disrupt c ll cycl r gulation
and promot carcinog n sis?
p53 and Rb ar human tumor suppr ssor prot ins t
hat inhibit th transition from G1 to S phas . Viral prot ins E6 and E7 promot
prot olysis of p53 and Rb, r sp ctiv ly. Thus, taking out th s two tumor suppr
ssors incr as s th risk of canc r.
1454681927105 1438033936296 p53 and Rb inhibit th transition from {{c1
::G1 to S phas }}
1454681936903 1438033936296 {{c1::p53}} is th "guardian of th g nom ."&nbs
p;
1454681985744 1438033936302 D scrib p53. Call d th "guardian of th g no
m ." p53 s rv s as a c ll cycl ch ckpoint at th G1/S transition. It can arr st

growth and hold th c ll in G1. It is targ t d by viral prot in E6 of HPV.&nbsp
;
1454682024280 1438033936302 D scrib Rb.
Rb is short for "r tinoblastoma,
" a canc r associat d with dysfunction of this tumor suppr ssor prot in. It is a
n inhibitor of progr ssion from G1 to S phas . It is a targ t of viral prot in E
7 of HPV.
1454682087304 1438033936302 What do s loss of th tumor suppr ssor prot ins
that hold th c ll in G1 l ad to?
Uninhibit d c ll growth and n oplasia.&n
bsp;
1454682113449 1438033936302 If you h ar "post-coital bl ding" in a f mal ,
what should you b conc rn d about?
C rvical canc r.
1454682134152 1438033936296 {{c1::Pap sm ars}} hav l ad to hug d cr as s i
n c rvical canc r by allowing doctors to d t ct it arli r.
1454682269790 1438033936302 D scrib a pap sm ar.
Nam d for th ph
ysician who notic d c rvical canc r c lls hav distinct charact ristics und r th
microscop . Sm ar sampl s c rvical c lls from th "transformation zon ," wh r
squamous pith lium from th out r ctoc rvix com s into contact with columnar
pith lial c lls of th inn r ndoc rvix.
1454682370580 1438033936296 Th ctoc rvix is {{c1::squamous pith lium
}}
1454682378108 1438033936296 Th ndoc rvix is {{c1::columnar}} pith li
um
1454682395119 1438033936302 D scrib th morphological chang s c lls und rgo
in HPV inf ction.
Th s ar squamous pith lial c lls that d v lop larg ,
d ns nucl i and may v n b binucl at . Think blu , sunny-sid -up ggs. Th s a
r call d koilocyt s.
1454682469791 1438033936302 What ar koilocyt s?
Squamous pith lial c ll
s inf ct d with HPV that hav und rgo morphological chang s. Th y hav larg d n
s nucl i and may v n b binucl at .
78.jpg" /></div>
Koilocyt s (squamous c rvical c lls inf ct d with HPV)
1454682520742 1438033936302 Which pati nts ar at incr as d risk of c rvical
canc r and oth r HPV-r lat d canc rs? Thos with immunosuppr ssion. HIV+ pati
nts ar not just at risk du to immunosuppr ssion but also b caus HIV co-inf ct
ion may nhanc th xpr ssion of HPV's E6 and E7 viral prot ins.
1454682617544 1438033936302 Why ar HIV pati nts at gr at r risk of c rvical
and oth r HPV-r lat d canc rs b yond th ir immunosuppr ss d status?
HIV coin
f ction may nhanc xpr ssion of viral E6 and E7 prot ins. Invasiv c rvical/an
al/p nil canc rs ar thus an AIDS-d fining illn ss.
1454682694129 1438033936296 Invasiv {{c1::c rvical/anal/p nil }} canc
rs ar AIDS-d fining illn ss s. <i>Possibly du to co-inf ction with HPV and nh
anc d HPV E6/E7 xpr ssion.</i>
1454682723130 1438033936296 {{c1::Parvovirus}} is r sponsibl for th classi
c "slapp d ch k rash" in childr n.
1454682759736 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of parvovirus B19.
This is th small st DNA virus. It is nak d with a uniqu ssDNA g nom .
1454682785009 1438033936302 How is parvovirus B19 transmitt d?
Via r sp
iratory dropl ts or v rtically (it's a ToRCH S inf ction if you l t "o" stand fo
r "oth r").
1454682812945 1438033936302 What childhood xanth m is also call d "Fifth di
s as "? Parvovirus B19, which caus s th slapp d ch k rash. Can r m mb r as "Fi
fth dis as l av s fiv fing rs on th ch k."
1454683044962 1438033936296 {{c1::Parvovirus B19}} caus s "Fifth dis as " an
d th slapp d ch k rash.
1454683092578 1438033936302 D scrib th clinical pr s ntation of parvovirus
B19 inf ction. Low-grad f v r for about a w k and th n slapp d ch k rash. Th
rash th n b com s lacy and r ticular and trav ls down th body.
1454683208347 1438033936302 How can parvovirus B19 b distinguish d from ros
ola? Ros ola has a high-grad f v r and s ziur s, parvo has a low-grad f v r
for a w k.
1454683255194 1438033936302 Which childhood xanth m is also call d " ryth m
a inf ctiosum"? Slapp d ch k rash caus d by Parvovirus B19
1454683278420 1438033936302 If you h ar of an l m ntary school t ach r ill
with joint pain, arthritis, and possibl d ma, what should you think of?
Parvovirus B19.
1454683309062 1438033936302 What pati nts pr s nt with transi nt aplastic an
mia du to parvovirus B19 inf ction? Sickl c ll an mia pati nts, du to d pl
tion of bon marrow.
1454683340217 1438033936302 D scrib th transi nt aplastic an mia of sickl
c ll pati nts inf ct d with parvovirus B19.
Bon marrow is d pl t d of all c
ll lin s and l ft with only adipocyt s that hav a charact ristic "cobw b" app
aranc wh n pack d tog th r. This is usually a transi nt ff ct of inf ction and
will fad as th virus cl ars out.
1454683418229 1438033936302 Wh n a baby in ut ro is xpos d to parvovirus B1
9, what happ ns?
In th first or s cond trim st r, hydrops f talis can d
v lop. This happ ns b caus th s v r f tal an mia l ads to what is ss ntially
a s v r f tal v rsion of cong stiv h art failur . Th massiv d ma can l ad
to f tal d mis .
1454683504508 1438033936302 B sid s parvovirus B19, wh n might hydrops f tal
is b s n?
1) Cong nital CMV and 2) alpha thalass mia, wh r th f tus only
mak s h moglobin Barts.
1454683600813 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of ad novirus. Nak d wi
th a dsDNA g nom .
1454683653186 1438033936302 How is ad novirus transmitt d? Via r spiratory
dropl ts or f cal-oral rout .
1454683709252 1438033936296 {{c1::Ad novirus}} is th most common caus of i
nf ction of th ad noids/tonsils.
1454683725456 1438033936296 {{c1::Ad novirus}} is th numb r on caus of to
nsilitis (inf ction in th back of th throat)
1454683750155 1438033936302 Wh r was ad novirus first isolat d from?
Th ad noids.
1454683758843 1438033936302 Who is most commonly aff ct d with ad novirus?
Littl childr n, military r cruits with clos quart rs in barracks, thos who fr
qu nt public pools.
1454683794134 1438033936302 Why ar thos who fr qu nt public pools mor lik
ly to b aff ct d with ad novirus?
It can b transmitt d via th f cal-oral
rout .
1454683819635 1438033936302 What ar th clinical pr s ntations of ad noviru
s?
1) H morrhagic cystitis; 2) Tonsilitis; 3) Pink y
1454683879603 1438033936302 What is a common caus of viral conjunctivitis?
Ad novirus. This dis as proc ss is known by th mor familiar nam of pink y .&
nbsp;
1454683897164 1438033936302 What is h morrhagic cystitis? A bladd r inf ct
ion that l ads to gross h maturia.
1454683912756 1438033936302 D scrib th vaccin for ad novirus.
A liv a
tt nuat d vaccin that is only indicat d for military r cruits.
1454683938583 1438033936296 {{c1::Poxvirus}} packs v ry pi c of quipm nt
n d d for its r plication into ach virion.
1454683956556 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of poxvirus.
Env lop d with a dsDNA g nom . Uniqu ly packs v ry pi c s of quipm nt n d d f
or r plication into ach virion.
1454683997379 1438033936302 Which virus uniqu ly packs v ry pi c of quipm
Poxvirus
nt n d d for r plication into ach virion?
1454684011938 1438033936302 Which virus mak s its own nv lop inst ad of ta
king an nv lop from host c lls?
Poxvirus.
1454684030608 1438033936302 What is th only DNA virus that r plicat s ntir
ly in th cytoplasm? Poxvirus
1454684049195 1438033936296 On of th pi c s of r plication quipm nt that
poxvirus packs is its own {{c1::DNA-d p nd nt RNA polym ras }}.
<i>Must do so b caus it r plicat s ntir ly in th cytoplasm and can't us th

host's nzym . </i>
1454684078853 1438033936296 A DNA-d p nd nt RNA polym ras r ads {{c1::
DNA}}
1454684107005 1438033936302 Why do s poxvirus pack its own DNA-d p nd nt RNA
polym ras ?
Th host's v rsion of this nzym is found in th nucl us, but p
oxvirus r plicat s ntir ly in th cytoplasm. Thus, it mak s and packs its own D
NA-d p nd nt RNA polym ras so it can mak mRNA outsid of th nucl us. Thus, po
xvirus n v r n ds to nt r th nucl us at all.
1454684409709 1438033936296 {{c1::Poxvirus}} forms intracytoplasmic inclusio
ns call d "Guarni ri bodi s."
1454684423405 1438033936296 {{c1::Guarni ri bodi s}} r pr s nt cytoplasmic s
it s of poxvirus r plication.
<i>Finding th s on biopsy of a skin l s
ion is diagnostic of poxvirus inf ction. </i>
1454684554958 1438033936302 What finding on a skin l sion would b diagnosti
c of poxvirus inf ction?
Cytoplasmic Guarni ri bodi s in inf ct d c lls.&
nbsp;
1454684647018 1438033936296 {{c1::Poxvirus}} has a dumbb ll-shap d cor
1454684655675 1438033936296 {{c1::Poxvirus}} is th larg st-known DNA virus
1454684682780 1438033936302 What important virus s ar in th poxvirus famil
y?
Smallpox (variola), molluscum contagiosum virus
1454684703571 1438033936302 D scrib th l sions of smallpox inf ction.&nbsp
;
Rais d blist rs on th skin and mucosal surfac s which will all b of th
sam stag .
1454684731959 1438033936302 How can smallpox and VZV inf ctions b distingui
sh d? Smallpox and VZV will both pr s nt with scatt r d ulc rs and blist rs, b
ut th l sions of smallpox will b of th sam stag . VZV l sions will b a mix
of n w blist rs, ulc rs, and h aling scabs.
1454684766446 1438033936302 D scrib cowpox.
Similar to smallpox, tra
nsmitt d by contact with inf ct d cow's udd rs. Thos who g t cowpox ar immun
to smallpox.
1454684805267 1438033936296 {{c1::Vaccination fforts}} hav radicat d smal
lpox from th world.
1454684837261 1438033936302 D scrib th first vaccin for smallpox.
Edward J nn r us d liquid xtract d from th blist rs of milkmaids inf ct d with
cowpox.
1454684861902 1438033936302 Wh r can smallpox curr ntly b found? In labs.
Not that it has th pot ntial to b com a biow apon (transmission via r spirat
ory dropl ts or dir ct contact).
1454685011129 1438033936302 D scrib th molluscum contagiosum virus.
M mb r of th poxvirus family. Prouc s fl sh-color d, dom -shap d, umbilicat d l
sions that look lik snail sh lls. Most commonly s n in childr n and do s NOT
aff ct th palms or sol s. In h althy adults, this is usually an STI with a sing
l umbilicat d l sion.
1454685091997 1438033936302 If an adult pr s nt d with diffus , fl sh-color
d, dom -shap d, umbilicat d l sions, what should you consid r? That th y may ha
v molluscum contagiosum virus and that th y hav HIV or ar oth rwis immun -co
mpromis d (th virus typically only produc s a singl l sion in h althy adults).

1454685293088 1438033936296 Th rash of {{c1::molluscum contagiosum vir
us}} is found anywh r xc pt th palms and sol s of inf ct d childr n.
1454685320687 1438033936302 What do s it m an to say a l sion is umbilicat d
?
That it has a dimpl or d pr ssion in th c nt r. This is a buzzword for
molluscum contagiosum inf ction.
1454685344642 1438033936302 Which virus produc s fl sh-color d, umbilicat d
l sions?
Molluscum contagiosum virus.
1454685356876 1438033936302 How is molluscum contagiosum transmitt d in adul
ts?
S xually.
1454685368724 1438033936302 What is th structur of smallpox?
Env lop
d with dsDNA. Packs v rything it n ds for cytoplasmic r plication (it's a poxv
irus).
1454685408795 1438033936302 What is th structur of molluscum contagiosum v
irus? Env lop d with dsDNA. Packs v rything it n ds for cytoplasmic r plicat
ion (it's a poxvirus).
1454685410843 1438033936302 What is th most w ll-known virus of th h padna
virus family? H patitis B virus.
1454685480207 1438033936302 Wh r do s th nam "h padnavirus" com from?
<u>H pa</u>tic <u>dna</u> virus.
1454685510094 1438033936302 Which h patitis virus is th only on with a DNA
g nom ?
HBV.
1454685579778 1438033936296 {{c1::H patitis B Virus}} is th only h patitis
virus that has a DNA g nom .
1454685599313 1438033936302 Wh r do s h patitis B virus r plicat ? Uniqu ly
, it r plicat s insid and outsid of th nucl us.
1454685615151 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of HBV.
Env lop
d with a circular g nom that is partially dsDNA (and b com s fully doubl -stran
d d during r plication).
1454685646050 1438033936302 D scrib th progr ssion of H patitis B Virus's
r plication.
Partially doubl -strand d DNA that pass s through a sing
l -strand d RNA int rm diat to b com doubl -strand d prog ny DNA. Thus, it car
ri s a r v rs transcriptas nzym .
1454685708151 1438033936296 Lik HIV, {{c1::H patitis B Virus}} carri s
a r v rs transcriptas . Unlik HIV, it do s not int grat into th host g nom
.
1454685736625 1438033936296 Though it carri s a r v rs transcriptas ,
{{c1::HBV}} is NOT t chnically a r trovirus.
1454685755901 1438033936302 How is HBV transmitt d? Via s x, blood, shar d n
dl s, and v rtically (via mixing of blood during d liv ry). Not abl to b tra
nsmitt d via th f cal-oral rout lik HAV is.
1454685830366 1438033936302 What is sp cial about th v rtical transmission
of HBV? It is a v ry larg virus that cannot r ally cross th plac nta, so v rti
cal transmission only occurs if th r is mixing of blood during d liv ry.
1454685943082 1438033936296 B caus it can b transmitt d via mixing of bloo
d during d liv ry, {{c1::HBV}} is t chnically a ToRCH S inf ction.
1454685959134 1438033936296 H althcar work rs ar at risk of {{c1::HBV
}} inf ction du to n dl sticks.
<i>Low rat of transmission via
this rout . </i>
1454685983020 1438033936302 What ar th h patic symptoms of HBV inf ction?
Inf ction of th liv r caus s right upp r quadrant pain, jaundic , tc.
1454686058808 1438033936302 What p rc nt of HBV inf ctions b com chronic?
5-10% of cas s (thus, l ss lik ly to b com chronic than HCV). How v r, young r
childr n and sp cially n wborns ar much mor lik ly to d v lop a chronic inf c
tion at 90-95%.
1454686120778 1438033936302 Is HBV or HCV mor lik ly to b com chronic?
In adults, HCV is mor lik ly to b com chronic.
1454686138383 1438033936302 What ar th xtra-h patic manif stations of HBV
inf ction?
A prodromal s rum-sickn ss-typ illn ss with purpuric rash, arth
ralgias, glom rulon phritis (m mbranous or m mbranoprolif rativ ) and v n polya
rt ritis nodosa.
1454686231268 1438033936302 What is polyart ritis nodosa? Syst mic vasculi
tis that aff cts m dium to small art ri s. Small an urysms form and hav a "b ad
s on a string" app aranc . This can aff ct th blood v ss ls l ading to th kidn
ys and caus d d cr as d glom rular filtration rat and hyp rt nsion.
1454686270018 1438033936302 D scrib th rash s n in th prodrom of HBV in
f ction.
Purpuric with dark, non-blanching macul s.
1454686310441 1438033936302 B sid s polyart ritis nodosa, what typ forms of
r nal dis as ar associat d with HBV inf ction?
1) M mbranous glom rulon
phritis and 2) m mbranoprolif rativ glom rulon phritis.
1454686417404 1438033936296 A thick n d bas m nt m mbran is s n in {{
c1::m mbranous}} glom rulon phritis.
1454686458764 1438033936296 D posits in th m sangium that xpand into th b

as m nt m mbran ar s n in {{c1::m mbrano-prolif rativ }} glom rulon phri
tis.
<i>This has a "tram-track" app aranc . </i>
1454686496662 1438033936302 Which typ of HBV-associat d glom rulon phritis
has a "tram track" app aranc ? M mbrano-prolif rativ glom rulon phritis, in wh
ich d posits in th m sangium xpand into th bas m nt m mbran .
1454686584499 1438033936296 {{c1::S rology}} can b us d to distinguish th
stag of HBV inf ction.
1454686598383 1438033936296 Both alcohol and {{c1::HBV}} inf ction can
caus incr as d liv r nzym s.
1454686627161 1438033936302 What patt rn of l vat d liv r nzym s is s n i
n alcoholic h patitis? AST>ALT
1454686645697 1438033936302 In viral h patitis, which patt rn of l vat d li
v r nzym s is s n?
ALT>AST
1454686663957 1438033936296 In {{c1::viral}} h patitis, ALT>AST.&nbs
p;
1454686672080 1438033936296 In {{c1::alcoholic}} h patitis, AST>ALT.&nbsp
;
1454686688861 1438033936302 Wh n do ALT l v ls fall in HBV inf ction?
Wh n th symptomatic phas is ov r (th y w r high in th acut phas ). Th y may
not d cr as to normal, but a drop will b s n.
1454686720568 1438033936296 ALT is normal in {{c1:: arly n onatal h pat
itis B}} inf ction.
<i>D spit high l v ls of viral r plication. </i>
1454686738660 1438033936296 {{c1::HbSAg}} is a mark r of activ HBV dis as .

1454686755307 1438033936296 {{c1::HbSAg}} is th first mark r to b clinical
ly m asurabl in HBV inf ction.
1454686769754 1438033936296 If a p rson has a clinically m asurabl {{c
1::HbSAg}}, th y hav an activ (acut or chronic) HBV inf ction.
1454686792717 1438033936296 If {{c1::HbEAg}} l v ls ar high, an HBV-in
f ct d p rson is usually inf ctious
1454686829714 1438033936296 Both {{c1::HbEAg and HbSAg}} app ar b for
antibodi s ar cr at d to HBV.
1454687235590 1438033936296 {{c1::HbEAg}} is th n xt s rum mark r to app ar
aft r HbSag.
1454687336540 1438033936296 {{c1::HbEAg}} highly corr lat s with HBV inf cti
vity
<i><br /></i>
1454687360813 1438033936296 Both {{c1::HbSAg and HbEAg}} ar high durin
g th symptomatic p riod of HBV inf ction.
1454687407180 1438033936296 B caus th immun syst m r spons tak s tim , t
h first trac s of HBV inf ction ar {{c1::HBV antig ns}}
1454687423444 1438033936296 Th {{c1::anti-H pBc}} antibody is th firs
t antibody d t ct d in HBV s rology.
<i><u>Anti-H p B</u> <u>c</u>or
</i>
1454687512624 1438033936302 D scrib th anti-H p B cor antibody. It is th
first d t ctabl antibody. It is positiv during th window p riod. At this ti
m , th pati nt has start d to d v lop anti-H p B surfac antibodi s which ar s
tarting to bind surfac antig ns (thus, n ith r may b d t ctabl ).
1454687599385 1438033936302 Why is th anti-H p B cor antibody us ful?
S arching for HbSAg or anti-surfac -antig n antibodi s may giv a fals n gativ
during th window p riod. Th anti-H p Bc is mor d t ctabl at this tim .&nbsp
;
1454687672052 1438033936296 Th {{c1::anti-HB antibody}} indicat s low
inf ctivity with HBV if pr s nt. <i>Oth rwis , not a us ful mark r.
</i>
1454687705159 1438033936296 Th {{c1::anti-HB antibody}} is against th
HB Ag.
1454687718070 1438033936296 Onc d v lop d, th {{c1::anti-HBs antibody
}} indicat s r cov ry and that HBV inf ction is ov r.
1454687742750 1438033936296 If a pati nt has {{c1::anti-HBSAg antibodi
s}}, th y no long r hav an HBV inf ction ( ith r acut or chronic).

1454687781240 1438033936302 What valu should b ch ck d in anyon immuniz d
against HBV? Anti-HBs antibodi s.
1454687796128 1438033936302 What valu indicat s that som on has r cov r d
from HBV and is no long r inf ct d (acut ly or chronically)?
Anti-HBS antibod
i s.
1454687815263 1438033936302 What is th vaccination sch dul for HBV?
Cours is thr vaccin s, first is usually giv n at birth.
1454687837240 1438033936302 What is th only s rum mark r that should b pr
s nt in a p rson immuniz d against HBV? Anti-HBSAg antibodi s.
1454687868379 1438033936296 Both r cov r d and immun p opl should hav &nbs
p;{{c1::anti-HBSAg antibodi s}} against HBV.
1454687915439 1438033936302 How can p opl who hav r cov r d from HBV b di
stinguish d from thos who ar immun to th virus?
Both will hav anti-HBSA
g antibodi s. Immun p opl will not hav anti-HBE or anti-HBc antibodi s. Thos
who hav r cov r d from inf ction will at l ast hav anti-HBc.
1454687968641 1438033936302 What ar th long-t rm s qu la of chronic HBV?
Cirrhosis, h patoc llular carcinoma (this is why p opl should b monitor d fr q
u ntly).
1454688048076 1438033936302 For what canc r is chronic HBV inf ction a risk
factor? H patoc llular carcinoma.
1454688123153 1438033936296 {{c1::H patitis D Virus}} cannot caus dis as w
ithout {{c2::HBV}}
1454688138548 1438033936302 D scrib th structur of HDV.
It is a
n gativ s ns RNA virus with a circular g nom and an nv lop .
1454688169607 1438033936302 What do s HDV r quir for inf ction?
H patiti
s B surfac antig n (HBSAg).
1454688190142 1438033936302 What ar th two typ s of HDV inf ction?
1) Co-inf ction with HBV in which both ar transmitt d at th sam tim ; 2) sup
rinf ction wh r HDV is transmitt d into som on with an xisting HBV inf ction.
This typ has wors outcom s.
1454688246674 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt of HBV? Most cas s ar c
l ar d by th ms lv s. Pr gnant wom n or pati nts with progr ssion to a chronic i
nf ction ar tr at d with NRTIs ( .g. lamivudin ) and int rf ron alpha. Tr atm n
t won't radicat th virus but will minimiz damag by pr v nting r plication.&
nbsp;
1454688315806 1438033936302 How should HBV+ pr gnant wom n b tr at d?
Som drugs can b giv n to pr gnant pati nts prior to d liv ry. Onc born, th i
nfant should b giv n immunoglobulins and th HBV vaccin for both activ and pa
ssiv immunity.
1453763362537 1438033936296 Trichomonas vaginalis is transmitt d by {{c
1::s x}}
1453763380857 1438033936302 D scrib th findings of a p lvic xam in a pati
nt with trichomonas vaginalis inf ction.
Trichomonas vaginalis caus s vag
initis and c rvicitis. Th inflammation du to th c rvicitis can b so bad that
a "strawb rry c rvix" (sup r r d d/t capillary dilation with ar as of punctat
h morrhag ) may b pr s nt.
1453763449636 1438033936302 Which pathog n is associat d with "strawb rry c
rvix"? <i>Trichomonas vaginalis</i>. Strawb rry c rvix is a v ry r d c rvix (du
to vasodilation) with ar as of punctat h morrhag .
1453763489070 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of trichomonas vaginalis i
nf ction?
Vaginitis (burning, itching, malodorous y llow-gr n discharg ).

1453763538987 1438033936302 What would a w t mount pr paration of vaginal di
scharg that shows motil trophozoit s sugg st? Trichomonas vaginalis inf ction
1453763624873 1438033936302 How can trichomonas vaginalis inf ction b disti
nguish d from an inf ction caus d by candida or gardn r lla?
<i>Candida</i>&n
bsp;will chang th vaginal pH (b low 4.5) whil <i>gardn r lla</i> and <i>
trichomonas</i> flourish in pH of 4.5 and up.  N ith r <i>candida
</i>nor <i>gardn r lla</i> will show th motil trophozoit s of <i>trichom
onas. </i>
1453763705003 1438033936302 What is th pH of th vaginal fluid in trichomon
as vaginalis inf ction? 4.5 and up.
1453763724438 1438033936302 D scrib th tr atm nt for <i>trichomonas vagina
lis</i> inf ction. M tronidazol . Ev n though mal s may not show symptoms,
mak sur to tr at both partn rs! Oth rwis , could b spr ad back and forth.&nbs
p;
1453763788415 1438033936302 What is a typical history for a giardia pati nt?
<i>Giardia lamblia</i> is associat d with hik rs and camp rs, so you may h
ar of a pati nt trav ling or camping in an nd mic ar a and who drink unfilt r d
or unpurifi d wat r.
1453763860503 1438033936302 What is th transmission of giardia lamblia?
F cal-oral. Pati nt will drink unfilt r d or unpurifi d wat r contaminat d with
th f c s of an animal or human inf ct d with giardia cysts.
1453763899643 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of <i>giardia lamblia</i>&
nbsp;inf ction? Bloating, flatul nc , foul-sm lling diarrh a (oft n s st atorr
h a/"fatty stool" d/t fat malabsorption). If l ft untr at d, may s significant
w ight loss, d fici nci s of vitamins A, D, E, and K, and oth r h alth probl ms
du to th fat malabsorption.
1453764009797 1438033936302 What is th sugg st d m chanism of fat malabsorp
tion in giardia lamblia inf ction?
Giardia may stimulat xc ss mucus produ
ction that impairs th absorptiv capacity of th int stin .
1453764048181 1438033936302 D scrib th lif cycl of giardia lamblia.
Cysts ar ing st d, which diff r ntiat into trophozoit s. Th s attach to (via
v ntral "sucking discs") but do not invad th int stinal wall. Th trophozoit s
can b pass d into stool, which is diagnostic. Som will th n turn into th inf
ctious cyst form.
1453764122089 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for giardia lamblia inf ct
ion?
M tronidazol
1453764132941 1438033936302 What is th app aranc of th trophozoit form o
f giardia lamblia?
Flag llat d with v ntral sucking discs.
1453764153346 1438033936302 Why do sn't giardia lamblia caus bloody diarrh
a?
It attach s to but do s NOT invad th int stinal wall (i. . do sn't r a
ch blood v ss ls th way invasiv ntamo ba sp ci s do).
1453764190091 1438033936302 How is giardia lamblia inf ction diagnos d?
Trophozoit s/cysts on stool O and P. An ELISA antig n t st can also b p rform d
on a stool sampl .
1453764228208 1438033936302 What pathog n caus s amo biasis?
<i>Entam
o ba histolytica</i>.
1453764246925 1438033936302 What typ of diarrh a is caus d by <i> ntamo ba
histolytica </i>inf ction?
Bloody diarrh a.
1453764260979 1438033936302 D scrib th lif cycl of ntamo ba histolytica
. Th inf ctious cyst form is ing st d (usually in contaminat d wat r, or
ar from dir ct anal-oral contact). Th cysts r ach th GI tract and diff r ntia
t into trophozoit s. Th s invad th colon and can spr ad via th portal circu
lation to th liv r.
1453764449690 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of amo biasis?
Th righ
t lob of th liv r is th most common sit of ntamo bic liv r absc ss. 70-80%
of th s l sions ar solitary but multipl l sions som tim s occur. Pati nts wil
l th r for complain of right upp r quadrant pain, and may hav t nd r, nlarg d
liv rs. Bloody diarrh a ("dys nt ry") du to "flask-shap d" ulc rations along t
h colon.
1453764589785 1438033936302 What population in th US is commonly associat d
with ntamo ba histolytica inf ction? M n who hav s x with m n, d/t anal-oral
contact transmission.
1453764637059 1438033936296 Pus from liv r absc ss s caus d by {{c1:: n
tamo ba histolytica}} is d scrib d as having "anchovy past " consist ncy.
1453764657608 1438033936302 D scrib th int stinal amo biasis caus d by nt
amo ba histolytica.
Flask-shap d ulc rations along th colon, bloody
diarrh a/"dys nt ry."
1453764713576 1438033936302 How is ntamo ba histolytica inf ction diagnos d

?
1) Cysts or trophozoit s visibl on stool O and P. Trophozoit s will con
tain ndocytos d RBCs! <div>2) ELISA antig n t st on stool or s rum antibod
i s. </div><div>3) If l sions ar visibl on colonoscopy or sigmoidoscopy a
nd show flask-shap d ulc rations wh n biopsi d. </div>
1453764847516 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i> ntamo ba histolyti
ca </i>inf ction?
M tronidazol , possibly combin d with luminal ag nts lik
paramycin or iodoquinol.
1453764931684 1438033936302 Why ar luminal ag nts giv n in th tr atm nt of
int stinal amo biasis? Th lum n of th int stin is an ar a wh r many drugs o
ft n hav a hard tim p n trating, but th s ar sp cifically d sign d to nt r
and stay in that spac .
1453765053423 1438033936302 Do s th liv r absc ss caus d by ntamo ba histo
lytica r quir surgical d brid m nt?
No, but th absc ss caus d by chinococu
s do s (important to b abl to diff r ntiat th s ).
1453765157164 1438033936302 What organism is most commonly id ntifi d in HIV
pati nts with diarrh a?
<i>Cryptosporidium</i>. Th diarrh a is d scrib
d as s v r and unr l nting, and can also aff ct oth r immunocompromis d pati nt
s.
1453765233696 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of c<i>ryptosporidium</i>&
nbsp;inf ction in th oth rwis immunocomp t nt?
Mild, wat ry diarrh a.&n
bsp;
1453765333761 1438033936296 {{c1::Cryptosporidium}} is th only parasit to
stain acid-fast.
1453765350604 1438033936302 What is th transmission of cryptosporidium?
F cal-oral.
1453765364927 1438033936302 Who is commonly at risk for cryptosporidium?
F cal-oral transmission, so b sid s HIV+/immunocompromis d pati nts: p opl who
work with animals, p opl who swim in dirty wat r, and camp rs.
1453765405843 1438033936302 D scrib th lif cycl of cryptosporidium.
Compl t d ntir ly in on animal. Th inf ctious oocysts ar r l as d in th f c
s. Th cysts, onc ing st d, r l as sporozoit s that attach to th int stinal
wall and caus damag /diarrh a. Usually associat d with th small int stin but
can b in th colon as w ll.
1453765530033 1438033936302 What is th composition of cryptosporidium cysts
?
4 motil sporozoit s.
1453765561119 1438033936302 What do s cryptosporidium look lik on acid-fast
stain? Am thyst crystals floating in wat r. <img src="Scr n Shot 2016-0125 at 6.47.10 PM.png" />
1453765642605 1438033936302 What pathog n is this and what stain was us d?<d
iv><img src="Scr n Shot 2016-01-25 at 6.47.10 PM.png" /></div> Cryptosporidium
on acid-fast stain
1453765658824 1438033936302 How is cryptosporidium inf ction diagnos d?
A pati nt with diarrh a and oocysts on stool O and P that stain acid-fast.
1453765699754 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for cryptosporidium?
1) Nitazoxinid (an anti-protozoal only us d in th immun comp t nt). <div
>2) Spiramycin, a macrolid (not FDA-approv d). Outsid of th s drugs, tr atm n
t is supportiv : pay att ntion to fluid/ l ctrolyt balanc !</div>
1453765770727 1438033936302 How is cryptosporidium inf ction pr v nt d?
Th organism is r sistant to chlorination, but oocysts can b filt r d out of wa
t r.
1453765804078 1438033936302 What pathog ns caus sl ping sickn ss? Trypanos
oma bruc i gambi ns and Trypanosoma bruc i rhodi ns .
1453765887254 1438033936302 What is th m thod of transmission of trypanosom
a bruc i sp ci s?
Via th painful bit of th ts ts fly.
1453765918318 1438033936302 What is th v ctor for trypanosoma bruc i?
Th ts ts fly
1453765928705 1438033936302 What is th g ographic distribution of trypanoso
ma bruc i?
End mic to W st rn and SE Africa (Gambia and Zimbabw )
1453765951296 1438033936302 What ar th sypmtoms of trypanosoma bruc i inf
ction? Symptoms d p nd on parasit location in th body. CNS: sl ping sickn ss

(d p slumb r, coma); LN: c rvical and axillary lymphad nopathy; blood: f v r.&
nbsp;
1453766017714 1438033936302 What is th pathog n sis of trypanosoma bruc i i
nf ction?
Aft r nt ring th blood, th parasit s can mov to th lymph no
d s or CSF. Th y hav variabl surfac glycoprot ins that can und rgo constant a
ntig nic variation to vad th host's immun syst m and nabl chronic inf ctio
n (with r curr nt f v rs).
1453766145282 1438033936302 What is th app aranc of th trypomastigot s of
trypanosoma bruc i?
Unic llular, motil with a singl flag llum.
1453766173844 1438033936302 How is trypanosoma bruc i inf ction diagnos d?
Will s trypomastigot s (motil , singl flag llum) on blood sm ar or in CSF or
lymph nod s.
1453766202477 1438033936302 How is trypanosoma bruc i inf ction tr at d?
M larsoprol for CNS inf ctions, suramin for p riph ral blood inf ction (think "s
uramin for s rum"). This is on of th f w parasit s that p n trat th CNS, and
th f w tr atm nts that xist hav sid ff cts that ar toxic.
1453766250469 1438033936302 Nam two populations at gr at r risk of toxoplas
ma gondii inf ction.
Pr gnant wom n (risk of harm to f tus) and th immunocom
promis d.
1453766374227 1438033936302 D scrib toxoplasma gondii.
D finitiv host
is th cat, but it's an intrac llular protozoan that can inf ct almost any warmblood d animal.
1453766432542 1438033936296 It's stimat d that 30% of th world carri s&nbs
p;{{c1::toxoplasma gondii}}
1453766444901 1438033936296 {{c1::Toxoplasma gondii}} has cats as d finitiv
hosts and caus s f w symptoms in th immun -comp t nt.
1453766483999 1438033936302 What ar th thr m thods of transf r of toxopl
asma gondii?
1) Transplac ntal; 2) by consumption of raw or und rcook d m at
containing toxoplasma tissu cysts; 3) ing sting wat r or v g tabl s contaminat
d with oocysts sh d in th f c s of inf ct d animals.
1453766546558 1438033936302 Why should pr gnant wom n avoid changing cat lit
t rbox s?
Cats ar th d finitiv hosts of toxoplasma gondii, and sh d ooc
ysts in th ir f c s. Via f cal-oral transmission to th moth r first, toxoplasma
can cross th plac nta and harm th f tus (and can v n caus stillborth or abo
rtion).
1453766614646 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of toxoplasmosis in th im
mun -compromis d ( sp cially HIV pati nts)?
"Toxoplasma nc phalitis" with b
rain absc ss s (=multipl ring- nhancing l sions on CT or MRI). HIV pati nts wil
l also g t chorior tinitis if th ir CD4 counts ar low nough.
1453766721390 1438033936302 What would a singl ring- nhancing l sion in th
brain on CT or MRI sugg st?
Toxoplasma nc phalitis can pr s nt with a singl
l sion but is usually multipl l sions. A singl l sion sugg sts CNS lymphoma
inst ad. Diff r ntiat with a brain biopsy.
1453766756501 1438033936302 What ar th s "ring- nhacing" l sions in th br
ain on CT or MRI charact ristic of? <div> <img src="past -639091133673
5.jpg" /></div> Toxoplasma nc phalitis.
1453766836040 1438033936302 What symptoms do s toxoplasma gondii caus in h
althy p opl ? Can caus flu-lik symptoms, but mostly non .
1453766871552 1438033936302 What is th triad of symptoms of cong nital toxo
plasmosis?
Chorior tinitis, hydroc phalus/s izur s, intracranial calcificat
ions. Can also caus d afn ss (will b s n aft r birth).
1453766942753 1438033936302 What is th ToRCH s mn monic? For v rtically t
ransmitt d inf ctions (moth r to f tus): Toxoplasma gondii, Oth r inf ctions (co
xsacki virus, VZV, chlamydia, HIV, syphilis), Rub lla, Cytom galovirus, H rp s s
impl x virus 2.
1453767066127 1438033936302 How is toxoplasmosis diagnos d? S rology (do sn'
t indicat wh th r inf ction is activ ) or biopsy (look for intramuscular cysts)
.
1453767107861 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt of toxoplasmosis? Sulfadia
zin and pyrim thamin .

1453767131072 1438033936302 Wh n is toxoplasma gondii prophylaxis indicat d
in HIV pati nts and what is it? Wh n CD4 count <100 and th y'r positiv for
IgG antibodi s against toxo. Giv TMP-SMX.
1453767219297 1438033936302 How is na gl ria fowl ri acquir d?
Whil sw
imming or doing wat rsports in fr shwat r (history may sugg st this with backpac
king, wat r skiing, or hot springs). Trophozoit s swim up th nos and nt r th
CNS via th cribiform plat . Som cas s acquir d from ov r th count r nasal ir
rigation syst ms or contact l ns solutions.
1453772789928 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of na gl ria fowl ri inf c
tion? Nuchal rigidity and f v rs du to m ningitis, h adach and alt r d m nta
l status du to nc phalitis. Can b rapidly fatal!
1453772833801 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt of choic for na gl ria fo
wl ri inf ction?
Amphot ricin B ASAP
1453772851136 1438033936302 What would you s in th CSF of a pati nt with
primary amo bic m ningo nc phalitis du to na gl ria fowl ri? Swimming amo bas
.
1453772921083 1438033936296 {{c1::M ningo nc phalitis}} is inflammation of t
h brain and m ning s.
1453773002277 1438033936296 {{c1::Na gl ria fowl ri}} has b n known to cont
aminat th stagnant wat r of OTC contact l ns solutions and nasal irrigation sy
st ms.
1453773210190 1438033936296 For 25-50% of pati nts, {{c1::bab siosis}}
is subclinical/mild.
1453773221097 1438033936296 Wh n s v r , bab siosis caus s {{c1::malari
a}}-lik symptoms (including d ath).
1453773241926 1438033936302 What ar th common symptoms of bab siosis?
Bab sia inf ction can pr s nt s v ral diff r nt ways, most of which involv th
blood. Commonly, h molytic an mia, h moglobinuria, and jaundic ar s n.
1453773282644 1438033936302 What is th v ctor for bab sia? Ixod s scapulari
s (d r tick)
1453773300194 1438033936302 What is th m thod of transmission of bab siosis
?
By th saliva of<i> ixod s scapularis </i>bit s. Th long r th tick is
attach d, th high r th lik lihood of transmission.
1453773355641 1438033936296 Co-inf ction with <i>borr lia burgdorf ri </i>an
d {{c1::<i>bab sia</i>}} is common.
<i>Th y shar ixod s scapularis
as a v ctor</i>
1453773378620 1438033936296 Bab sia is a {{c1::protozoa}}
1453773397337 1438033936296 Lik <i>borr lia</i>, <i>bab sia</i> is mos
t common in {{c1::th North ast rn US/th Am ricas}}
1453773448244 1438033936302 Which is mor commonly transmitt d, <i>borr lia
burgdorf ri</i> or <i>bab sia</i>? <i>Borr lia</i>, for r asons unknown
1453773484105 1438033936296 25% of p opl in Rhod Island ar s ropositiv f
or {{c1::<i>bab sia</i>}}
1453773498186 1438033936296 Th f v r that accompani s bab siosis is {{
c1::irr gularly cycling}}
1453773519219 1438033936296 H molytic an mia can r sult in {{c1::jaundi
c }}
1453773551494 1438033936302 What typ of pati nts ar mor lik ly to b symp
tomatic or hav s v r dis as with bab siosis? Aspl nia pati nts (includ sickl
c ll pati nts, who hav ff ctiv ly autospl n ctomiz d)
1453773606818 1438033936302 How is bab sia inf ction diagnos d?
Via bloo
d sm ar. Th inf ct d RBCs will hav a "Malt s cross" app aranc form d by a t
trad of trophozoit s.
1453773709256 1438033936302 How can bab siosis and malaria b distinguish d?
Th y may hav similar symptoms, but trophozoit s in inf ct d RBCs in bab siosis
will xhibit a "Malt s cross" app aranc (malaria will hav a mor ring-lik ap
p aranc ).
1453773832387 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for bab siosis? Atovaquo
n , azithromycin. Many h althy p opl ar n't symptomatic and can spontan o
usly r cov r.

1453773866800 1438033936296 <i>L ishmania {{c1::donovani}} </i>caus s v
isc ral l ishmaniasis.
1453773886693 1438033936296 <i>L ishmania {{c1::brazili nsis</i><i>}} <
/i>caus s mucocutan ous l ishmaniasis.
<i>And s v ral oth r strains</i>
1453773965201 1438033936302 Wh r is <i>l ishmania donovani</i> usually
found? Th M dit rran an, Middl East, and Africa
1453774010436 1438033936302 D scrib <i>l ishmania brazili nsis</i>.
A parasitic protozoan whos hosts ar v rt brat s (mainly humans). It consum s t
h fl sh of its victims, causing disfiguring ulc rs.
1453774079915 1438033936302 What is th transmission of <i>l ishmania brazil
i nsis</i>?
Sand fli s (v ctor). Th s carry th inf ctious promastigot for
m.
1453774133057 1438033936302 D scrib th lif cycl of <i>l ishmania brazili
nsis</i>.
Promastigot form d posit d by sandfly v ctor. Assum s th amast
igot form in th host. Th amastigot form is intrac llular (usually s v ral ar
insid on macrophag )
1453774192468 1438033936302 Why is it important to know that <i>l ishmania b
razili nsis</i> liv s insid macrophag s in its human hosts?
Diagnosi
s r quir s an aspirat of bon marrow, spl n, lymph nod , or l sions that will
th n b spr ad on a slid . Th nucl i of th multipl intrac llular amastigot s
will stain n ar th macrophag 's nucl us.
1453774303351 1438033936302 D scrib th pr s ntation of l ishmaniasis caus
d by <i>l ishmania donovani</i>. This is visc ral l ishmaniasis. Also cal
l d "black f v r" or "kala azar," pr s nts with f v r and scatt r d black, hyp r
pigm nt d spots. This dis as can aff ct almost v ry organ (commonly liv r, spl
n, and bon marrow) and is 100% fatal if l ft untr at d. Can s pancytop nia
and h patospl nom galy.
1453774575061 1438033936302 What symptoms should stand out to you as th 100
% fatal (if l ft untr at d) visc ral l ishmaniasis?
F v r, pancytop nia, w a
kn ss, black spots, h patospl nom galy
1453774604886 1438033936302 What ar th thr pr s ntations of l ishmaniasi
s?
Cutan ous, mucocutan ous, and visc ral
1453774626170 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for cutan ous l ishmaniasi
s?
Stibogluconat
1453774646094 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for visc ral l ishmaniasis
?
Amphot ricin B
1453822585248 1438033936302 What symptoms ar associat d with malaria?
F v r, h adach , occasionally an mia and spl nom galy.
1453822610433 1438033936302 How is malaria diagnos d?
Diagnos d with b
lood sm ar (Gi msa stain). Parasit s will b insid of RBCs, with ach sp ci s h
aving a uniqu f v r patt rn.
1453822679571 1438033936296 <i>{{c1::Plasmodium malaria }}</i> has a qu
artan f v r cycl .
<i>M aning, f v r on day 1, th n day 4, tc. </i>
1453822709651 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>Plasmodium vivax</i> and <i>plasmo
dium oval </i>}} can produc dormant hypnozoit s. <i>Th s two sp ci s can
b tr at d th sam for board purpos s. Hypnozoit s hid in h patocyt s. <
/i>
1453822821137 1438033936296 <i>Plasmodium {{c1::vivax </i>and <i>oval }
} </i>produc a t rtian f v r cycl .
<i>M aning, f v r on day 1 and t
h n again on day 3. </i>
1453822849505 1438033936296 {{c1::<i>Plasmodium falciparum</i>}} produc s th
most s v r malarial illn ss.
1453822916156 1438033936296 <i>Plasmodium</i> {{c1::<i>falciparum</i>}}
produc s an irr gular f v r patt rn.
1453822935405 1438033936302 Which <i>plasmodium</i> sp ci s produc s n
uro symptoms? <i>Falciparum</i>: parasitz d RBCs can occlud capillari s in th
brain. This is call d "c r bral malaria."
1453823043910 1438033936302 Which <i>plasmodium </i>sp ci s shows banana-sha
p d RBCs on th p riph ral blood sm ar? <i>Plasmodium falciparum</i>. Th s para
sitiz d RBCs can occlud v ss ls in th brain, kidn ys, and lungs.

1453823112266 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for malaria?
1) Chlor
aquin; 2) Primaquin (targ ts dormant hypnozoit s of <i>vivax </i>and <i>oval </i
>); 3) M floquin (good against r sistant sp ci s); 4) Atovaquon + proguanil.&n
bsp;
1453823491733 1438033936302 What is th m chanism of action of chloraquin?
Blocks plasmodium h m polym ras . N d to add primaquin to targ t hypnozoit s i
f <i>plasmodium vivax</i> or <i>oval </i> ar th causativ sp ci s.&n
bsp;
1453823538241 1438033936302 What must you ch ck for b for using chloraquin
or primaquin th rapy for malaria?
G6PD D fici ncy (th y'll caus an oxidat
iv str ss)
1453823588060 1438033936296 {{c1::Chloraquin}}-s nsitiv plasmodium sp ci s
ar rar du to r sistanc .
<i>Only chloraquin-s nsitiv ar as ar C
aribb an, C ntral Am rica w st of Panama Canal, and som countri s in th Middl
East. </i>
1453823621018 1438033936296 {{c1::M floquin }} is good against chloraquin-r
sistant <i>plasmodium </i>sp ci s.
1453823642436 1438033936296 {{c1::M floquin }} is a good drug for malaria pr
ophylaxis in trav l rs to chloraquin -r sistant ar as.
1453823659605 1438033936296 {{c1::Atovaquon + proguanil}} ar us d for tr a
tm nt and/or prophylaxis in chloraquin-r sistant ar as.
1453823684470 1438033936296 {{c1::Art misins}} ar us d to tr at s v r mala
rial inf ctions. <i>Art sunat , art mithur. Could also us atovaquon +pro
guanil. </i>
1453823838342 1438033936302 Wh n you s an "arta-" drug b ing us d, which <
i>plasmodium </i>sp ci s should you think of? <i>Falciparum.</i>
1453823868320 1438033936296 SCA is prot ctiv against {{c1::falciparum
malaria}}
1453823887257 1438033936302 What drugs ar us d to tr at lif -thr at ning ma
larial inf ctions (pati nts with organ damag , pati nts in ICU)?
IV art s
unat , IV quinin /quinidin . Don't giv until lif -thr at ning b caus of s v r
sid ff ct profil .
1453823927813 1438033936302 What ar th sid ff cts of IV quinidin ?
Cinchonism (h adach s, tinnitus)
1453823938379 1438033936302 D scrib th lif cycl of malaria.
Transmit
t d to human hosts by f mal anoph l s mosquitos, which carry sporozoit s in sal
iva. Sporozit s trav l from bit to th liv r, wh r th y matur into trophozoit
s and th n schizonts, which ruptur h patocyt s. H patocyt ruptur r l as s m
rozoit s, which inf ct RBCs. Insid RBCs, again assum trophozoit form and th n
schizont form, which ruptur s th RBCs and r l as s mor m rozoit s. Som m roz
oit s form gam tocyt s (th s xual form) insid inf ct d RBCs. Mosquito th n bit
s an inf ct d p rson, picks up RBCs with gam tocyt s, and th cycl continu s.&
nbsp;
1453824063416 1438033936302 What is th s xual form of th plasmodium lif c
ycl ? Th gam tocyt s
1453824074881 1438033936302 What app aranc do s th immatur schizont form
of plasmodium hav onc insid RBCs?
A ring form.
1453824407804 1438033936296 {{c1::Trypanosoma cruzi}} caus s Chagas dis as
1453824425388 1438033936302 What is th distribution of <i>trypanosoma cruzi
</i>? Locat d pr dominantly in South and C ntral Am rica.
1453824455210 1438033936302 How do s trypanosoma cruzi caus damag ?
It tunn ls into tissu and f ds on th blood and lymph of its victims.
1453824827374 1438033936302 How is trypanosoma cruzi transmitt d? Th v ct
or is a r udviid bug (or "kissing bug"), which bit s its victims (usually around
th mouth) and d posits inf ct d f c s in or n ar th bit sit . Human may th n
scratch th f c s into th blood str am.
1453825044448 1438033936296 <i>Trypanosoma cruzi</i> is not in th bit
but rath r in th {{c1::f c s}} of th r duviid bug.
<i>Also call d t
h kissing bug, typically bit s at night around mouths of sl ping humans.
</i>
1453825090818 1438033936302 D scrib th tim lin of Chagas dis as .
Trypanosoma cruzi can b asymptomatic or pr s nt with localiz d inf ction n ar t
h bit sit . Trypanosom s can nt r th bloodstr am and burrow into th ndocar
dium ( .g.). Aft r lat ncy of 10-20 y ars, Chagas dis as can s t in.
1453825134216 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of Chagas dis as ?
M gacolon ( xtr m constipation r quiring Abd. XR or an acut abdom n from an al
r ady-p rforat d colon); dilat d cardiomyopathy (can b fatal); m ga sophagus.&n
bsp;
1453825183352 1438033936302 How is Chagas dis as diagnos d?
May s
larg bolus of poop on abdominal x-ray, would th n do a blood sm ar. Would s m
otil trypanosom s (only during activ inf ction). In chronic dis as would us
s rology/symptoms.
1453825242278 1438033936302 What would b s n on h art biopsy in Chagas dis
as ? Trypanosom s insid cardiac myocyt s. This typ of biopsy is not conv ni
nt and not usually don .
1453825346011 1438033936302 What is us d for tr atm nt of acut trypanosoma
cruzi inf ction?
Nifurtimox.
1453825362072 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for Chagas dis as ?
Th r is no known tr atm nt.
1453825415602 1438033936296 C stod s ar also call d {{c1::tap worms}}
1453825429504 1438033936302 How ar ta nia solium and ta nia saginatum trans
mitt d? Ing stion of cysts/larva in und rcook d m at.
1453825477755 1438033936302 What is th int rm diat host for <i>ta nia sagi
natum</i>?
Cattl (so, can g t from und rcook d b f)
1453825514354 1438033936302 What is th int rm diat host for <i>ta nia</i>&
nbsp;<i>solium</i>?
Pigs (so, can g t from und rcook d pork)
1453825530746 1438033936302 What would you s on stool O and P in ta niasis
caus d by <i>ta nia solium?</i> Hooks on proglottid h ads. (<i>Saginata<
/i> lacks hooks)
1453825568056 1438033936302 What would you s on stool O and P in ta niasis
caus d by <i>ta nia saginata</i>?
No hooks on th h ads of th proglottids
.
1453825589375 1438033936302 What is n urocystic rcosis?
Occurs wh n huma
ns ing st ta nia ggs in wat r contaminat d by animal f c s. Eating th ggs all
ows ta nia to go to th brain and form cystic brain l sions. Th s l sions can c
aus hydroc phalus and s izur s.
1453825642507 1438033936302 What typ of parasit caus s "Swiss ch s " l si
ons on h ad CT or MRI? <i>Ta nia</i>
1453825701034 1438033936302 Which ta nia sp ci s is ach pictur ?<div><img s
rc="Scr n Shot 2016-01-26 at 11.28.11 AM.png" /></div> L ft: <i>ta nia solium</
i>. Right: <i>ta nia saginata </i>(no hooks)
1453825756524 1438033936302 What would you susp ct in an immigrant or farm r
with s izur s, symptoms of hydroc phalus, and this MR/CT?<img src="Scr n Shot
2016-01-26 at 11.29.07 AM.png" /><div><br /></div>
N urocystic rcosis caus
d by a <i>ta nia</i> sp ci s. (This ar th "swiss ch s " cystic l sions.&
nbsp;
1453825797257 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms caus d by ing sting ta nia
cysts or larva from und rcook d m at? GI symptoms, malabasorption. How v r, ca
n also b asymptomatic.
1453825831109 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms caus d by ing sting ta nia
<b> ggs</b> from contaminat d wat r?
Cystic rcosis (l sions can b an
ywh r , but sp cially found in brain/ y s/skin).
1453825866581 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i>ta nia</i> inf
ction? Praziquant l. If n urocystic rosis, add alb ndazol .
1453825893867 1438033936302 What sp ci s is known as th fish tap worm?
Diphyllobothrium latum.
1453825904090 1438033936302 How is diphyllobothrium latum transmitt d?
By ating un- or und rcook d fish.
1453825916969 1438033936302 Wh r do s diphyllobothrium latum r sid in us?
Th small int stin .

1453825930802 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of diphyllobothrium latum
inf ction?
B12/cobalamin d fici ncy and thus m galoblastic an mia; diarrh a
.
1453825954919 1438033936302 How is diphyllobothrium latum inf ction diagnos
d?
Can s proglottid s gm nts on stool O and P.
1453825976817 1438033936296 {{c1::Diphyllobothrium latum}} is th larg st ta
p worm. <i>Can grow up to 10m long. </i>
1453825998362 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for diphyllobothrium latum
inf ction?
Praziquant l or niclosamid .
1453826020808 1438033936302 What sp ci s is known as th sh p tap worm?
Echinococcus granulosus.
1453826034884 1438033936302 What sp ci s is th d finitiv host of chinococ
cus granulosus? Dogs.
1453826047787 1438033936302 What sp ci s ar th int rm diat hosts of chin
ococcus granulosus?
Sh p.
1453826060710 1438033936302 What is our r lationship to chinococcus granulo
sus?
W 'r incid ntal hosts.
1453826077342 1438033936302 What is th m thod of transmission of chinococc
us granulosus? W ing st ggs from food or wat r contaminat d with dog f c s.&n
bsp;
1453826124072 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of chinococcus granulosus
inf ction?
Hydatid cysts in th liv r that will look lik a slow-growing tu
mor with ggsh ll calcifications s n on CT. If th cysts ruptur , th y can caus
anaphylaxis and an actu abdom n.
1453826180953 1438033936302 How is chinococcus diagnos d? May s hooks in
th pati nt's sputum if lung cysts ruptur , may s ggsh ll calcifications in
th liv r l sions on CT, may s osinophilia (nonsp cific indicator of h lminth
ic inf ction)
1453826222272 1438033936302 If you s ggsh ll calcifications in cyst-lik
mass s in th liv r, what should you susp ct? <i>Echinococcus granulosus</i>&n
bsp;inf ction.
1453826275145 1438033936302 How is chinococcus granulosus inf ction tr at d
?
Surgical r moval of cysts (first inj ct with EtOH or hyp rtonic salin t
o pr v nt ruptur and anaphylaxis).
1453826314624 1438033936302 What ar th int stinal n matod s?
Ent robi
us v rmicularis, ancylostoma, n catar am ricanus, ascaros lumbricoid s, strongyl
oid s st rcoralis, trichin lla spiralis.
1453826381805 1438033936302 What sp ci s is r f rr d to as "pinworm"?
Ent robius v rmicularis.
1453827459711 1438033936302 How is nt robius v rmicularis transmitt d?
F cal-oral. At night, f mal worms migrat down to th anus s of inf ct d p opl
and lay ggs. Th s ar itchy, and inf ct d individuals can auto-inf ct by scra
tching and th n putting th ir fing rs n ar th ir mouths.
1453827528309 1438033936296 <i>Ent robius v rmicularis</i> inf ction pr
imarily aff cts {{c1::childr n}}.
<i>Th y hav f w r inhibitions a
bout putting th ir poop hands in th ir mouths. </i>
1453827569258 1438033936302 What is th "scotch tap t st"? Applying scotch
tap to th anus (in th AM) and th n vi wing und r th microscop to ch ck for
nt robius v rmicularis ggs.
1453827597532 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for nt robius v rmiculari
s inf ction?
Pyrant l pamoat or alb ndazol .
1453827617177 1438033936296 All {{c1::int stinal n matod s}} can b tr
at d by {{c2::-b ndazol s}}
1453827633526 1438033936296 Ancyclostoma duod nal and n catur am ricanus ar
call d {{c1::hookworms}}
1453827675370 1438033936302 Wh r ar ancyclostoma duod nal and n catur am
ricanus found? Th rural Am rican South.
1453827695090 1438033936302 How ar hookworms transmitt d? Th y can p n tra
t th skin of th sol s and f t.
1453827732858 1438033936302 D scrib th journ y of ancyclostoma duod nal a

nd n catur am ricanus through th ir human hosts. Th y p n trat th skin
of th f t and nt r th bloodstr am. From th r , th y trav l to th lungs, asc
nd th bronchial tr , and g t cough d up and swallow d. Th y matur into adult
s in th small int stin , wh r th y can b pass d into th stool.
1453827811533 1438033936302 What typ of an mia can p opl with ancyclostoma
duod nal or n catur am ricanus inf ction d v lop?
Iron-d fici ncy an mia (
microcytic/hypochromic). Th s worms f d from capillari s in th int stinal vil
li.
1453827871207 1438033936302 How do hookworms f d? Th y attach to th wall
of th small int stin and f d from capillari s in th int stinal villi.
1453827892907 1438033936302 How is hookworm inf station diagnos d? Eggs s
n on stool O and P. Can s osinophilia (non-sp cific).
1453828036567 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for ancyclostoma duod nal
or n catur am ricanus? Pyrant l pamoat , alb ndazol , and pr v nt acquisition b
y WEARING SHOES
1453828384173 1438033936302 How is ascaris lumbricoid s transmitt d?
Eating ggs in contaminat d food or wat r.
1453828407343 1438033936302 What sp ci s is call d th "giant roundworm"?
Ascaris lumbricoid s
1453828423239 1438033936302 D scrib th journ y of ascaris lumbricoid s in
a human host.
Ing st d from contaminat d food or wat r, ggs migrat t
o small int stin and hatch. Larva migrat through int stinal wall into blood,
trav l to lungs. Onc th r , th y nt r th alv oli via capillari s. Th y asc nd
th bronchial tr , g t cough d up and swallow d, and r turn to th small int s
tin .
1453828488383 1438033936302 Do s ascaris lumbricoid s nt r through th skin
of th f t? No.
1453828497455 1438033936302 What stag of ascaris lumbricoid s g ts pass d i
nto th f c s? Its ggs (from th small int stin )
1453828514191 1438033936302 Why ar do som p opl carry a high burd n of as
caris lumbricoid s worms?
It is possibl to auto-inf ct ov r and ov r agai
n through th wall of th small int stin .
1453828549200 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of ascaris lumbricoid s in
f ction?
Som p opl ar asymptomatic but can s malnutrition or r spira
tory symptoms as mor and mor worms migrat into th bronchi.
1453828619982 1438033936302 Of th sp ci s of worms that migrat to th lung
s, which is most lik ly to caus r spiratory symptoms? Ascaris lumbricoid s.&nb
sp;
1453828643379 1438033936302 What is a major complication of ascaris lumbrico
id s inf ction? Int stinal obstruction. This occurs most oft n in th ilioc cal
valv .
1453828664399 1438033936302 How is ascaris lumbricoid s inf ction diagnos d?
Eggs in f c s on O and P, osinophilia.
1453828677965 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for ascaris lumbricoid s i
nf ction?
Alb ndazol . Us with caution though b caus it works by causing
microtubul dysfunction and r nd rs worms immobil , so it can caus an int stin
al obstruction.
1453828735375 1438033936302 Inst ad of using alb ndazol , what should you us
Pyrant l pamoat
to tr at ascaris lumbricoid s inf ction in pr gnant wom n?
1453828757123 1438033936302 D scrib th journ y of strongyloid s st rcorali
s in a human host.
Larva can p n trat th skin of th f t. Th y
trav l in th bloodstr am to th lungs, wh r th y asc nd th bronchial tr and
g t cough d up and swallow d. Th y matur in th GI tract and can auto-inf ct t
h host from th r by laying ggs into th int stinal wall.
1453828826950 1438033936302 Why can immunocompromis d p opl pr s nt with co
ntinual inf ction and diss mination of strongyloid s st rcoralis?
Th worm
can lay ggs into th int stinal wall to auto-inf ct th host. Th s ggs can
nt r th bloodstr am.
1453828866468 1438033936302 How is strongyloid s st rcoralis inf ction diagn
os d? Eosinophilia and <i>larva </i>in th stool ( ggs ar laid into int stin
al wall, so th y don't g t pass d into stool). Larva can crawl out of th int s
tinal wall and b pass d.
1453828913802 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for strongyloid s st rcora
lis inf ction? Alb ndazol and iv rm ctin.
1453828930640 1438033936302 How is trichin lla spiralis acquir d? Via ing
stion of cysts from und rcook d m at (pork or b ar)
1453829064648 1438033936302 What group of pathog ns do s trichin lla spirali
s fall into?
Int stinal n matod s
1453829079649 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of trichinosis? F v r, v
omiting, p riorbital d ma and s v r myalgias.
1453829103546 1438033936302 D scrib th lif cycl of trichin lla spiralis.
Cysts ar ing st d from und rcook d m at. Th s d v lop into larva , nt
r th bloodstr am, and form cysts within striat d muscl c lls. This caus s mus
cl inflammation and myalgias.
1453829160236 1438033936302 What would you s on a blood pan l in a pati nt
with trichinosis?
Eosinophilia
1453829174749 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for trichinosis? Alb ndaz
ol .
1453829250548 1438033936302 What group of pathog ns ar t rm d th "fluk s"?
Tr matod s.
1453829264928 1438033936302 How ar tr matod s sub-divid d? By th part of t
h body th y aff ct
1453829276587 1438033936302 What ar th thr important sp ci s of schistos
oma?
Schistosoma mansoni, schistosoma japonicum, schistosoma h matobium
1453829320832 1438033936302 D scrib th journ y of schistosoma in a human h
ost.
Schistosoma sp ci s t nd to hav fr -living c rcaria that p n
trat th skin (usually in an aquatic nvironm nt) and nt r th bloodstr am. Th
y trav l to th liv r, wh r th y matur into adults. Th Th s adults lay ggs
in us, and w can contaminat wat r by passing ggs in th urin and f c s. Th
adults can also migrat into diff r nt tissu s.
1453829427011 1438033936302 What typ of animal can s rv as an int rm diat
host for schistosoma sp ci s in aquatic nvironm nts? Snails
1453829447580 1438033936302 How do adult schistosoma migrat to th r st of
th body?
<i>Not</i> via th h patic v ins (as would b xp ct d) but
inst ad upstr am, against portal flow.
1453829494325 1438033936302 Wh r do schistosoma japonicum and schistosoma m
ansoni lik to r sid ? Primarily in m s nt ric v ins
1453829521253 1438033936302 D scrib how to distinguish th ggs of schistos
oma sp ci s bas d on spin s.
S. mansoni: larg lat ral spin . <d
iv>S. japonicum: smooth and round body with a spin so small it's almost abs nt.
</div><div>S. h matobium: ggs hav a larg t rminal spin (think "swordfi
sh"). </div>
1453829608544 1438033936302 How is schistosomiasis diagnos d?
Eggs can
b s n on stool O and P. Can distinguish sp ci s by spin .
1453829641421 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of schistosomiasis caus d
by s. mansoni and s. japonicum? Swimm r's itch wh r th larva p n trat d th s
kin, chronic portal hyp rt nsion (th y'r activ in th portal syst m). This can
l ad to GI h morrhag , abdominal pain, and cirrhosis or liv r failur + jaundic
.
1453829702622 1438033936302 What population is at risk for schistosomiasis?
Swimm rs
1453829710280 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of schistosomiasis caus d
by s. h matobium?
Swimm r's itch wh r th larva p n trat d th skin, pri
mary h maturia; ar also associat d with bladd r canc r. In g n ral, think "blad
d r-r lat d symptoms."
1453829759121 1438033936302 Wh r do s schistosoma h matobium lik to r sid
?
In th v ins of th bladd r.
1453829778858 1438033936302 If you s an gg with a larg t rminal spin , w
hat schistosoma sp ci s would you think of?
S. h matobium
1453829798120 1438033936302 How do s schistsoma h matobium g t to th bladd

r?
Th y swim against th portal v nous flow.
1453829817591 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for schistosoma (and all t
r matod s)?
Praziquant l.
1453829870715 1438033936302 What is th host of clonorchis sin nsis?
Snails
1453829906151 1438033936302 How is clonorchis sin nsis transmitt d? From sna
ils to fish, which w may at und rcook d. W g t cysts and larva .
1453829934135 1438033936302 D scrib th journ y of clonorchis sin nsis in a
human host.
W ing st cysts and larva from und rcook d fish. Th y matur in
sid of us and r sid in our biliary syst m.
1453830057454 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of clonorchis sin nsis inf
ction? Can s biliary tract fibrosis, pigm nt d gallston s, can progr ss to ch
olangiocarcinoma.
1453830136836 1438033936302 What typ of ggs ar s n on O and P in clonorc
his sin nsis inf ction? Op rculat d ggs, which look lik th y'r w aring yarmul
k s.
1453830249559 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for clonorchis sin nsis in
f ction?
Praziquant l.
1453830266000 1438033936302 Why is it important to thr at schistosomiasis an
d clonorchis sin nsis inf ction ASAP? Both incr as risk of canc r. Schistosom
a and bladd r canc r, clonorchis and cholangiocarcinoma.
1453830303772 1438033936302 What typ of fluk oft n migrat s to th lungs?
Paragonimus w st rmani.
1453830335990 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of paragonimus w st rmani
inf ction?
Cough (may b chronic) with bloody sputum if parasit load is hi
gh.
1453830382650 1438033936302 What is th int rm diat host of paragonimus w s
t rmani?
Th snail
1453830391649 1438033936302 What is th int rm diat host for all tr matod s
?
Snail sp ci s
1453830406143 1438033936302 How is paragonimus w st rmani transmitt d?
Consumption of raw and und rcook d crab m at that carri s ncyst d larva .
1453830432101 1438033936302 What happ ns aft r paragonimus w st rmani larva
ar ing st d? Th y matur into adults and migrat to th lungs.
1453830447223 1438033936302 What typ of ggs ar s n on O and P in paragon
imus w st rmani inf ction?
Op rculat d ggs (lik clonorchis)
1453830466788 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt of paragonimus w st rmani
inf ction?
Praziquant l
1454267279471 1438033936302 How is <i>dracunculus m din nsis</i> transm
itt d? Via ing stion of wat r contaminat d with cop pods (tiny crustac ans foun
d in s a and fr shwat r with <i>dracunculus </i>larva insid )
1454267422409 1438033936302 What ar cop pods?
A host of <i>drancunculu
s m din nsis</i>. Tiny crustac ans found in s a and fr shwat r. Contain larva .&
nbsp;
1454267448834 1438033936302 What do <i>dracunculus m din nsis</i> larva
do insid a human host?
P n trat th host's stomach and int stinal wall
onc cop pods di . Th y matur in th abdominal cavity, and f mal s v ntually
migrat to th surfac of th skin (usually th low r xtr miti s).
1454267495801 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of inf ction with <i>dracu
nculus m din nsis</i>? A painful skin ulc r (usually on low r xtr miti s) wh r
th f mal adults hav migrat d und r th skin.
1454267530066 1438033936302 How is <i>dracunculus m din nsis</i> inf ct
ion diagnos d? Worms com out of th skin from painful r d ulc rs. Will also pr
obably s p riph ral osinophilia.
1454267550962 1438033936302 How is <i>dracunculus m din nsis</i> inf ct
ion tr at d?
Ov r a p riod of a f w days, th worms ar slowly xtract d from
th skin by b ing twist d around a small stick ( .g. a matchstick) until th y a
r fully r mov d. This proc ss can b sp d up with m tronidazol .
1454267621882 1438033936302 What is th v ctor for <i>onchoc rca volvulus</i
>?
Black fli s (oft n found around riv rs in Africa, C ntral and South Am r
ica). Th y bit humans and d posit larva into th skin.
1454267663081 1438033936302 What is th journ y of <i>onchoc rca volvulus </
i>through a human host? D posit d into th skin as larva by black fli s. P n tr
at down into skin, matur into adults. Adults produc microfilaria , which migr
at throughout th body. Th s can v n nt r th y s.
1454267716583 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of onchoc rcosis? Also cal
l d "riv r blindn ss." Scatt r d pruritic papul s which can lat r b com hyp rpi
g m nt d; hypopigm nt d spots may occur on th shins of old r pati nts ("onchod
rmatitis"). Eosinophilia, blindn ss if microfilaria nt r y .
1454267770043 1438033936302 How is onchoc rcosis diagnos d? Microfilaria ar
s n on skin biopsy und r th microscop .
1454267784360 1438033936302 How is onchoc rcosis tr at d? Iv rm ctin
1454267789705 1438033936302 What ar th first and s cond most common caus s
of blindn ss worldwid ?
Trachoma (<i>c. trachomatis</i>) and onchoc rcos
is ("riv r blindn ss" du to <i>onchoc rca volvulus</i>).
1454267828501 1438033936302 What tissu n matod produc s l phantiasis?
<i>Wuch r ria bancrofti</i>.
1454267850987 1438033936302 What is th pathog n sis of l phantiasis?
It is a complication of long-standing d ma typically s n in th low r xtr mit
i s.
1454267905132 1438033936302 What pathog n would you associat with this symp
tom?<div><img src="past -17523466568130.jpg" /></div> This is l phantiasis; c
an r sult from inf ction with W<i>uch r ria bancrofti. </i>
1454267927285 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of inf ction with <i>
wuch r ria bancrofti</i>?
El phantiasis, lymphad nopathy, cough (from micr
ofilaria in lungs causing a hyp rs nsitivity r action). Eosinophilia.
1454267987828 1438033936302 What is th int rm diat host of <i>Wuch r ria b
ancrofti</i>? Mosquitos
1454268002347 1438033936302 What is th journ y of <i>Wuch r ria bancrofti</
i> in a human host?
Mosquito s d posit larva on skin wh n th y bit
. Th larva p n trat th skin, nt r lymphatics, and produc microfilaria . Th
s can migrat (including to th lungs).
1454268042858 1438033936302 How is w<i>uch r ria bancrofti </i>inf ction dia
gnos d? By ch cking for organisms on a thick blood sm ar. Eosinophilia should al
so b pr s nt.
1454268068112 1438033936302 What is a tr atm nt for <i>wuch r ria bancr
ofti </i>inf ction?
Di thyl carbamazin . (Also us d to tr at inf ction with
<i>loa loa</i>)
1454268106104 1438033936302 How is <i>toxocara canis</i> transmitt d?
From contamination of food with dog or cat f c s.
1454268128407 1438033936302 What is th circulation patt rn of <i>toxocara c
anis</i> in a human host? Larva ar ing st d in food contaminat d with do
g or cat f c s. Th y n v r matur out of this phas . Th y circulat for y ars (t
his is call d "visc ral larva migrans"). Th y can also nt r th y ("ocular la
rva migrans").
1454268183699 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i>toxocara canis</i>&
nbsp;inf ction? Alb ndazol
1454268195832 1438033936302 Which tissu n matod n v r matur s out of th l
arval stag in a human host?
<i>Toxocara canis</i>
1454268208690 1438033936302 What ar th symptoms of visc ral larva migrans?
This is <i>toxocara canis</i> inf ction. Will s osinophilia and may s
blindn ss if larva nt r y (ocular larva migrans).
1454268244271 1438033936302 D scrib th symptoms of inf ction with <i>loa l
oa</i>. As th worm migrat s through subcutan ous tissu , it caus s tran
si nt angio d ma with localiz d sw llings call d "Calabar spots." Th adults can
migrat to th y and b s n crawling b n ath th conjunctiva and caus trans
i nt inflammation and d ma th r . Eosinophilia.
1454268501948 1438033936302 Which parasit is also call d th African y wo
rm?
<i>Loa loa</i>
1454268511515 1438033936302 How is inf ction with <i>loa loa</i> diagno

s d?
By s ing a worm crawling b n ath th conjunctiva or visualizing microfi
laria on blood sm ar.
1454268531117 1438033936302 How is <i>loa loa</i> transmitt d? D r fli
s ar th v ctor
1454268547289 1438033936302 What is th tr atm nt for <i>loa loa</i> in
f ction?
Di thyl carbamazin , alb ndazol .
1454268564437 1438033936296 All tissu n matod s pr s nt with {{c1:: os
inophilia}}.
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lic Acid<div><br /></div><div>2. Alpha Linoleic Acid</div>

1441768660635 1438565846692 What are sphingosines synthesized from? palmitoy

n> HDL transfers apo-CII and apo-E to chylomicrons</div><div><span class="Apple-t

Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Trypsin</div><div><span class="A

ew hours. &nbsp;bili elevate sharply after 36 hrs</div><div><br /></div><div><im

hen what? &nbsp;what are the cofactors? What is the enzyme

ine synthetase? Kidney<div>PERIPORTAL hepatocytes</div><div>Intestines</div>

1442071688171 1438565846692 What is the major allosteric regulator of the Ur

1442073584956 1438565846692 Where are the nitrogens on purine rings?

div>- can determine risk for gout</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-239

nt forms</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; - autosomal recessive primary for of inheritanc

s the enzyme? <img src="paste-31503585116161 (1).jpg" />

1442262320185 1438565846692 What is marasmus. how does it differ from kwashi

="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Sulfonamides act on dihydrop

ith copper.<div><br /></div><div>Anemia and neutropenia will improve with treatm

<br /></div><div>2. Signs/symptoms</div><div><br /></div><div>3. Treatment</div>

/></div><div>2. Produce<b> erythropoietin </b>which regulates erythropoeisis&nb

1442611252587 1438565846692 ____ is very important in fast twitch muscle whe

1442612630755 1438565846692 Which enzymes eliminate H2O2? Catalase<div>Glu

1443063173651 1438565846692 Explain the diffusion of weak acids and bases

1443064902777 1438565846692 What defines a solution as <b>isotonic?</b>

v><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> Protein not

1443193032852 1438565846692 Insulin is too large to pass the plasma membrane

e:pre"> </span>- Signaling defects</div><div>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;Insulin

nucleus and exerts localized transcription effects.</b><div><b><br /></b></div>

1443227973933 1438565846692 What is are the two major functions of TNFa?

1443229767290 1438565846692 <img src="paste-12300786335745.jpg" /><div>What

repair</div></div><div><br /></div><div>-&nbsp;Prior to invading surrounding ti

1443472441243 1438565846692 How is the primitive streak related to the forma

1443473738675 1438565846692 When does the embryonic period end?

on adrenal</b></div><div><b>4. Adrenal synthesizes and releases <u>cortisol</u><

calcium absorption from the distal tubule<div><br /></div><div>Decrease phospha

multipolar motor neurons and autonomic multipolar neurons.

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receptors and membrane receptors?

1443720912278 1438565846692 What is the basic tenent of pharmacology?

/b></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span> If yo

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mantle layer, a zone around the neuroepithelial layer formed by neuroblasts, la

umn is present (T1-L2)</div>

significant? <div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </spa

soluble and are excreted in the urine</div></div><div><br /></div><div><br /></d

between doses gets longer</i></div><div><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="whit

. &nbsp;<div><br /></div><div>reuptake channels</div>

he secretion of saliva? <img src="paste-8637179232257.jpg" />

1444186921443 1438565846692 What effect does B2 have on vascular smooth musc

s of Terbutaline (B2 agonist) 1. Tocolytic<div><br /></div><div>2. Bronchodila

drug withdrawn</div><div><br /></div><div><img src="paste-9302899163137 (1).jpg

" style="white-space:pre"> </span>&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;- Lef

="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"> </span>- Antagonist at ganglia in sym

G - A mutation GLN -> ARG

_ and __ Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate<div><br /></div><div>Glyceraldehyde 3

e="white-space:pre"> </span>- Characteristics: </div></div><div><br /></div

ew hours. bili elevate sharply after 36 hrs</div><div><br /></div><div><im

hen what? what are the cofactors? What is the enzyme

nt forms</div><div> - autosomal recessive primary for of inheritanc

e:pre"> </span>- Signaling defects</div><div> Insulin

repair</div></div><div><br /></div><div>- Prior to invading surrounding ti

. <div><br /></div><div>reuptake channels</div>

" style="white-space:pre"> </span> - Lef

1440596651300 1402161953270 Mutations: Definitions & Calculations

and protein modification (resulting in breakdown & misfolding)</div><div>1b

1444068001978 1443463489034 muscarinic receptors heart

constriction of vascular smooth muscle

30S<div>30S -->16S RNA</div>

s inward current and K+ generates an outward current </div><div><img src="p