...

1
x y
2
x * y = x + y 2 xy
1
* .
2
* .

1
,* : .
2

.1
.2
.3

.4

1
; n {0,1} :
2
1
n
) x * x ...* x = 1 (1 2x

1 0
= A n . A = A A :
.3 :
0 1
:
} . G = {A n / n
0

1
- f * ,
2
- ) . ( E ,

) . ( E ,

1
- * n . B = A
2
1 2n
1
1
n 1
n
=

B
A

B
=
A
) (

n +1
2 2
2

: 2

3
2 2
=B

2 2

- G H ) . ( E ,

: 3

1
II x
2
x
1 x 0

A(x) = 0
1
0
x
0 1 x

1
:
. E = A (x ) / x
2

.1 E ) . ( M3 ( ) ,
.2 :

n +1

- . G E :
- H G
:
. E H = {B n / n } :

1
E

2
x
) A (x

.
- ) ( E , .

: 1
I

a
b 2
= ). M ( a, b
) ( a , b
b 2
a

( M2 E :
}E = {M ( a , b ) / a 2 2 b 2 = 1

3
2 2
= . A A . E
.1 :
2 2

.2 - E ) ( M2 ( ) ,

. E
- E E

E :
1
1

a
a
a
3
= Ma

1
0

F :

1
1
a
a
a
3
= , Na
a 3

a .
*
.1 - . (a, b ) * ; M a M b = M ab :

E
(a ) = M a
*

) ,

E :
*
:
a
*

) . ( E ,

) . ( E ,
.2 - :

Na Nb = M b

) . (a , b

- . G = E F : ) ( G, .
- ) ( G,

: 4

) ( M2 , +,. ) ( M2 , +,

1 0
1 1
. :
=. A

= I
0 1
5 3
E :
} E = {M M 2 / (a , b ) 2 : M = aI + bA
.1 - ) ( E , + ) . ( M2 , +
- E M2
-1-

 .
- ) ( E , +,. .

( x , y ) 2 ; (x ', y ') 2 :
)' ( x, y ) * ( x ', y ') = ( x + x '+ xx ', y + y

- ) ( I , A . E
.2 (x , y ) 2 a b :
) . (a, b) (0, 0 :
ax 2 by = 0
)( x , y ) = (0, 0
bx + ( a 2 b ) y = 0
,) .3

:
0 0
E * = E

0 0

) . A2 = 2 ( I + A

- :
*: M M E

- :

) *. ( M , M ) ( E

- h * * E :
(a, b ) 2 : h (a + ib ) = (a + b )I + bA
. h * * . E
. h ) ( * , ) . ( E * ,
. ) . ( E * ,

: 5

. I = ]0, +[ :
. ( x, y ) I : e x + y e x e y + 2 > 1
.1 :
.2 I :
) . ( x, y ) I 2 : x y = ln ( e x + y e x e y + 2
2

I
x

I
- :
)ln(x + 1
- f ) ( I , ) . ( I ,

a b
a
E
b a + b
b I J :
0 1
1 0
= J
= I

1 1
0 1
( . ( M2

. ; M E : .M E
- :
- ( E , +,.) : .
- ) ( I , J . E
.2 - :
- E )) ,

. J = I + J
2

( . ( M2

- ) ( E , +, .

: 7

) ( x + x '+ xx '+ 1 = ( x + 1)( x '+ 1) :

- )* ( G , .
.2 . B = {( x , ln(x + 1) ) / x ]1, +[} :

)* ( B, )*( G,
)

: 8

( M3 :

0 0 3
1 0 0

A = 1 0 0
I = 0 1 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

( M3 ( ) , +,.) : .

) ) , +,

( ( M3 .

.1 ) ( I , A, A2

)) , +,.

( . ( M3

.2 - A2 A3 An n * .
) n . ( 3
- A A1 .
.3 :
3
} E = {M M3 ( ) / (a, b , c ) : M = aI + bA + cA 2
( . ( M3

- ) ( E , + ) ) , +
- ) ( E , +,. .

- . E
.4 - ) ( E , +, .

: 6

.1 - ( E , + ) :

.1 - )* ( G , )*,

- ) . ( I ,

)), +

}/ x 1

) . G = {(x , y

- :
- ) ( E , +, .

3A + A2

: 9

( M3 3

) (+ )(.
) ( .
0 0 1

A = 1 0 0
I .
0 1 0

E M 3 :
. M A = A M
.1 - ) ( E , +,. .
- ) ( I , A, A2 ). ( E , +,.

.2 ) ( E , +, .
.3

* :

-2-

}/ det(M ) 0

) ( F , .

. F = {M E

. B = I + A + A2
.4 :
M E :
M B = O O ) ( . M3

: 10

) (a , b

) ) , +,

- E :

: 12

) ( A, +, .

n
; x A :
x + x + ... + x = n x
x x ... x = x n
. x A : x 3 = x
. x A : 6x = 0

I ) (a, b 2 :
a + b b
= ) M ( a ,b

a
b
) ( M2 E :
) ( a ,b

. X 2 + 4 X 3I = O

) n (
) n (
:
.1 :

E = {M

( ( M2 .

.1 E ) (M2 ( ) , + )) ,
.2 ) ( E, +, .
.3 - x y :

) + xy + y 2 = 0 ) ( x = y = 0

( . ( M2

) :
.2 :
/ x = + -
-

)( x + 1

: 13

) ( A, +, :

(x

. x A ; x 6 = x
. x A : x 6 = x
. x A : 2x = 0

): (1

- ) . ( E, +,
II .
.1 ) (1, ), +,.

.2 - . x A ). ( x + 1

- ) ( E, +, .

.2 E :
:
E

) M (a ,b
a + b
) ( E, + ) , +

: 11

.1 f

x 2 + 2 ( cos ) xy + y 2

) ( A, +, :

Anneau de Bool
. x A ; x = x
2

.1 x A : 2x = 0 : A .
. (x , y ) A 2 : x y ( x + y ) = 0
.2 :
.3 A .

: 15

P . O, i, j *
P :
) M 1 ( x1 , y1 ) M 2 ( x2 , y2 P

[ . ]0,
2

. x A ; x + x = 0
- :
2
. x A ; x = x
- :
.3 n . n 2 n
) ( / n , +, ). (1
2

: 14

. z2 z +1 = 0
.3 :

.
1
3
. = +i
.4 :
2
2
) ( E, ) . ( ,

. x A ; ( , ) 2A 3A
}. 2 A 3 A = {0

.1 - :
- :

)( x 1

M 1 * M 2 ) ( X , Y :
f

X = x1 + x2 + x1 x2

Y = y1 + y2

) (x , y

. ( x, y ) (0, 0) f ( x, y ) > 0

:
.2 :
y

x
2
= ) E = M (x , y
) / (x , y
y x + y

- E ) ( . M2
- ) ( E , +, .
- ) ( E , +, .
- ) ( E , +,. .

.1 ) ( D :

. x = 1

) M 2 ( D ) M 1 * M 2 ( D ) ( M 1 ( D

) :
.2 ) ) S = P ( D ( .
)* ( S , .
.3 ) ( C . y = ln( x + 1) :
- ) . ( C
- )* ( C , )*. ( S ,
-3-

 : 16

)* (G , . e a : G

) ( n
) ( n
*

a G

a1 = a
n +1
n
a = a a

1
) a n = ( a n

0
a = e

;
1

}: x =bm

B = {x G

: 17

a a

) . ( a G a G f a G G

.5 = 2n 1 ( n .H + n K ) :

:
: f a (x ) = a.x .a 1
f : G
G
x
a.x .a 1
.1 f a G . G
.2 F f a a . G :

. x G

} / a G

. F = {f a

) a n = 0A

) (G ,. . e x G

) (n
*

x G n
. x n = e : . o (x ) = n :
.I x G n m
. n /m
. x m = e : :
.II a b G ab = ba : p
, a q , b s . ab
) ) p = o (a ) q = o (b ) . ( s = o (ab
:
.1 - :
- :
- :
q
.2 a . p

.3 v e x +1
v (0) = e + 1 . v (0) = e

: (ab ) = a .b
. k
pq
. (ab ) = e
. s / pq
) . ( o (a q ) = p
k

0A

n 1

(a

{0,1} /

- {u ,v } : . E

) ( p ,q . p q = 1
k

E
.
.1 u E : . v E
. x
: v (x ) 0
.2 :
- {u ,v } : . E

*2

) ( ,

(M

( . M2

.1 a . A
.2 ) (1A a . A
.II D .
. u :x
1

:x
0
:
v . D :
} E = {f D / f .v f .v =

: 18

) M = {M ( ,

: 20
.I ) ( A , +, a A :

( F , .

x 0 = e : : x n = x .x ....x

) / ( ,

) . ( ,

.2 M )
.3 ( M , +, ) : .
.4 ) ( M , +,

.3 n k = 1 . A = B :

) :

.1 ) ( M , + .

( B ,*) : )*. ( A ,

) (G ,. . e

o (a ) = p

) o (b ) = q o (ab ) = o (a ) o (b
ab = ba

1 1
= H
:
1 1
+
= ) : M ( ,
:
+
M ) : M ( ,

. A = {x G

. s = pq

1 1
= . K

1 1

. b = a k : :
/ m

) . (q / s

: 19

( A ,*) : )*. (G ,
.2 k } {0,1

- s . p
.4 - q : . s
- :

.1 a . G n
) * ( n . a n = e :
} : x = am

.3 - :

) ( a n . a n

/ m

. (aq ) = e

x E :

: 21

) ( K , +, K {0} : e
. K K
. ( P ) : a K {0} : a 1 = a
) ( P :
. x K : x + x = 0
.1 :
2
.2 ) (x + e K ) ( P

-4-

.3 )

} . K = {0, e

:
: a b =e
) (G , , .

: 22
M ) M (a ,b :
a b
= ) M (a ,b

b a
.1 ) ( M , +, .
) . (a, b

.2 ) M (a ,b M

(G , G
. (a , b ) G G

: 25

)) , +,.

) ) , +,

( ( M3 :

( ( M3

0 0 0
. a2 b 2 = 1
:

= 0 0 0 .
.3 M . M
0 0 0

.4 . p * : I( p ) = {M (a ,b ) ; p /(a + b )} :
1 0 0
: 23
I = 0 1 0 .
) ( M2 .
0 0 1

( M2 ( ) , +, ) : .
1 b b
b
a
2
= ) : M (a ,b
:

) . (a, b A = 1 1 0 : b .
3b a 2b

1 0 1

L . L = {M (a ,b ) / (a , b ) 2 } :
:
. B =A +I
3
2
.1 ) ( L , + .
.1 - B . B
:
.2 a b c d
- :
. (I B )(I + B + B 2 ) = I
) . M (a ,b ) M (c ,d ) = M (ac 3bd ,ad +bc 2bd
- A A 1 . A 1
.3 f :
.2 E ) . ( I , B , B 2
*
L

f :

- ) ( I , B , B 2 . E
) M (a ,b
(a b ) + ib 2
2
- ) ( I , B , B E . E
i 2 = 1 : } . L* = L {M
)(0,0

: 26

- f . f
- * L ) . ( L , f
) ( L* , ) ,

.4 - ) ( L , +, .
- * . M (a ,b ) L ) . M (a ,b
.5 * L :

). M (a ,b ) M (a ,b ) = M ( 1,0

: 24

(G , e s G
1

s )

. (G ,

P . O , i , j a
a P P
x = ax
.
) M ( x , y :
y = ax ln(a ) + ay
:

}/ a > 0

. = {a

.1 ) (
.
.2 ) ( , .

. e s
G * :
:
2
E ={f F( , ) / x : f (x ) = A(x )cos x + B(x )sin x } . (a, b ) G : a * b = a s b
) (G , )* (G , :
A B . 1
.1 . a G : (a ) = a s 1 ) ( E , +,. .
(G , )*. (G ,

.1 - )
- )*. (G ,
.2 - )*. (G ,

- a . G a a )*. (G ,

: 27

.2 ) B = ( f 1 , f 2 , f 3 :

f 1 (x ) = cos x f 2 (x ) = sin x f 3 (x ) = x cos x

B ). ( E , +,.
.3

-5-

. a g h :

 .1 ) ( F , +,. .

) g (x ) = cos(a + x
.
) h (x ) = sin(a + x
- ( h , g ) E 2 g h

.2 ) ( F , +, .
0 1 0
1 1 1

.3 M = 0 0 0 : N = 0 1 0
0 0 0
0 0 1

N
. F
- M
- M N . N M
- ) ( F , +,

. B
- ) B = ( g , h , f 3 , f 4 ) ( E , +,.
f 4 . f 4 (x ) = x sin x :

: 28
M M

( M2 :

.4 :
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 1

B = 0 1 1 I = 0 1 0 J = 0 0 1
0 0 0
0 0 1
0 0 1

- B I . J
4
- J 2 : J 3 . J
- B n n * . n

2M 2 3M + I 2 = 02

0 0
:
= O2

0 0
.1 M . M
E = 2 ( I 2 M ) :

1 0
= I1

0 1

F = 2M I 2

- . E F = O 2 :
- E 2 = E : . F 2 = F
1
- :
. n
: M n = n E +F
2
.2 (x n ) n ( y n ) n

: 30
2 2 1
) ( M3 . A = 2 3 2 :
1 2 0

.1 ( A + 3I ) ( A I ) = O : :

x 0 = y 0 =1

. x n +1 = 3x n 10 y n

1
3
y n +1 = x n y n
2
2

10

- 3

2
x
- . X n = n : : X n +1 = A .X n :
yn

0
0
.2 A

3
A = 1 . M

.3 A 2 A . I
.4 : A n = u n .A + v n .I :

v 0 =1

- :
: X n = A n .X 0
- x n y n . n
- (x n ) n . ( y n ) n

n
n

: 29
a 0 0

3
.I . E = 0 b 0 / (a , b , c ) :
0 0 c

.1 ) ( E , +,. .
.2 ) ( E , +, .
.3 A E n
.II :

6
) / (a, b , c , d , e , f

( A 0 = I ) . n

(u n ) n : (v n ) n :

. n

0 0

O = 0 0
0 0

1 0 0

I = 0 1 0
0 0 1

1
( M3 . A

;
;

u0 = 0

u n +1 = 2u n + v n
v = 3u
n +1
n

.
.5 w n = u n + v n : n
w n +1 w n w n . n
.6 u n +1 . u n
.7 u n n v n . n
.8 A n . n

: 31

/ x y + 2z = 0} :

. A n n

) E = {(x , y , z

.1 ) ( E , +,.

a b c

. F = 0 d e

0 0 f

.2 ) e1 = (1,1, 0 ). e 2 = (0, 2,1

- ) (e1 , e 2 ). ( E , +,.

- ) (e1 , e 2 . dim E

-6-

-7-