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LBS - Location Based Services
Cristina F. Estorninho and João S. Neto
Abstract—This paper presents a simple introduction to Loca-
tion Based Services applications and techniques of implementa-
tion in mobile communications. LBS applications in conjunction
with technologies like Wireless networking (WiFi), cellular tele-
phone (GSM), packet radio, radio frequency identifiers (RFID),
smart personal object technology (SPOT), global positioning
systems (GPS), and sensor networks allow mobile users to query
their environment and they allow these applications to monitor
and track remote objects. All these applications have strong
spatial components – object location, proximity, and connectivity
are the central organizing principle of these applications.
Index Terms—LBS, spatial data, GIS, SDB, location tech-
niques, GPS, GSM
I. I NTRODUCTION
HERE has been an explosion of technologies that enable
T to communicate with mobile and occasionally-connected
devices and sensors. Technologies like wireless networking
(WiFi), cellular telephone (GSM), packet radio, radio fre-
quency identifiers (RFID), smart personal object technology
(SPOT), global positioning systems (GPS), and sensor net-
works are already being implemented in several projects
around the world, and many completely new communication
innovations will surely arise in the near future. These tech-
nologies enable new applications like allowing mobile users to
query their environment and applications to monitor and track
remote objects. These users can search for nearby services
– for example a restaurant, and how to get there from their
current location. Emergency services, and taxi dispatchers can
send the closest vehicle to where it is needed. In a similar
approach, monitoring systems can track the flow of goods
and monitor environmental parameters. Services like railroads,
airfreight, wholesalers, retailers, and other transportation in-
dustries can track dispatched goods from their source to
their final destination. Environmental systems can monitor air
quality, noise, stream flow, and other environmental param-
eters. Implementing such applications require strong spatial
components for object location, proximity, and connectivity.
This document starts by presenting an overview of the wide
range of LBS applications that can be developed in several
commercial areas, namely the various categories of applica-
tions and the notions of horizontal and vertical services. It
follows by explaining the communication model and pointing
related industry issues for LBS applications so that the tech-
nological and economic challenges that have been arisen over
Cristina F. Estorninho is with the Escola Superior de Tecnologia de Setúbal
of the Polytechnic Institute of Setubal, 2910-761 Setúbal Portugal (email:
042165913@estsetubal.ips.pt)
João S. Neto is with the Escola Superior de Tecnologia de Setúbal
of the Polytechnic Institute of Setubal, 2910-761 Setúbal Portugal (email:
032165240@estsetubal.ips.pt)
the passed few years can be evidenced. Technological aspects,
from the point of view of navigation systems, of how can LBS
applications be supported by effective and efficient retrieval
and management of geospatial data are also referenced, namely
the perspective of spatial databases. In the second part of
this document an approach of data management and services
is made, referencing the set of services that facilitate the
development and deployment of distributed applications in
heterogeneous environments (middleware systems). Notions of
location techniques are also referenced so that an overview of
how can the LBS be a possibility with the communication
technologies available, as well as how satellite based systems
(GPS) and Networked based systems (GSM, UMTS) work to
provide location services to the end-users.
II. W HAT IS LBS
This section provides an overview of the concept of Lo-
cation Based Services, the possible application scenarios and
issues related to the lack of standardization available at the
moment for the usage of LBS.
A. Definition of LBS
Location-based services (LBS) is a recent concept that de-
notes applications integrating geographic location (i.e., spatial
coordinates) with the general notion of services. With the rapid
development of mobile communication, these applications
represent a new challenge both conceptually and technically.
In the near future, most of these applications will be part of
everyday life since computers, personal digital assistants and
cell phones are rapidly evolving, providing more processing
power and storage space, within other characteristics essential
to deploy LBS based applications. The concept of LBS can be
defined as services that integrate a mobile device’s location or
position with other information so as to provide added value
to a user [1].
Location Service have been around since the 1970’s with
the worldwide known Global Positions Systems (GPS) develop
by the United States Department of Defense, but it was only
in the next decade when the U.S government decided to
make the system’s positioning data freely available to other
industries around the world that these industries have taken
up the opportunity to access position data through GPS and
now use it to enhance their products and services.
The traditional positioning systems, have their location
information typically derived by a device and with the help of
a satellite system (i.e., a GPS receiver). However, widespread
interest in location-based services and the mobile communi-
cation technology has really started to boost only in the late
1990’s, when a new type of localization technology and new
market interest in data services was sparked by mobile network

operators. In late 90’s, mobile networks were widely deployed
in Europe as well in other parts of the world, and income
from telephony services had proven to be significant to mobile
operators. Yet, even though mobile voice services continue to
be a major revenue generator for mobile operators, they have
started to look around for means to find new areas for future
growth. One major way to reap additional financial benefits
of mobile networks apart from voice is to offer data services,
many of which will be location enhanced.
B. Historical Perspective
The origins of LBS remotes to 1996 with the launch in
the US of the E911 - Enhanced 911. This service was for
mobile-network operators to locate emergency callers with
prescribed accuracy, so that the operators could deliver a
caller’s location to the appropriate emergency response units
[9]. The technology of cellular networks was insufficient at the
time to fulfill the accuracy demands of the US government,
so the operators made an increased effort to develop the
technology so that the positioning methods could be improved.
To pay the investment made in the E911 service, commercial
LBS’s were launched, mainly based in finder services on
demand that weren’t well accepted by the users, so the
operators phased out these services.
By 2004, operators were offering fleet management, chil-
dren and pets tracking services, mainly based in low accuracy
position techniques (Cell-ID technology) [9]. LBS got his
second wind by the year 2005, when GPS-capable mobile
devices, the Web 2.0 paradigm and 3G broadband wireless
services entered the market [9].
C. Horizontal and Vertical Market
The location market is developed around both business and
consumer services and can be grouped into a vertical and
horizontal service sphere. The vertical market is characterized
by users drawn from industry environments where the manage-
ment of mobile location information is and has always been an
integral part of the business. As for the horizontal market, this
is characterized by users drawn from industry environments
where the use of mobile location information is a new and
added value to existing services.
Table I
V ERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL MARKETS
D. Application Scenarios
The main usage areas of location services are military
and government industries, emergency services, and the com-
mercial sector. As previously mentioned, GPS was the first
known location system used by the U.S Department of Defense
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primarily to serve military purposes. Since it has been freely
available worldwide, this technology has encouraged other
industries to develop their applications.
Emergency services represent a very obvious and reasonable
application area where the deployment of location technology
makes sense. In many cases, persons calling a so-called
emergency response agency (e.g., police, fire department) are
unable to communicate their current location or they simply
do not know it. In Europe, statistics reveal that 50% to 70%
of the 80 million ‘‘real’’ EU-wide emergency calls each year
originate from mobile phones.As a result, the EU Commission
asked member states to develop national regulations for mobile
operators enforcing the automatic positioning of emergency
calls to the extent technically feasible, which means that unlike
some other continents, European regulators do not enforce the
highest accuracy levels such as GPS for locating emergency
cases. Although GPS allows a cell phone to be located
accurately, European operators have the right to start out with
the accuracy levels their mobile networks can provide right
now. So they’ve implemented the so-called Cell-ID technology
for mobile positioning:
• 100 meters or less accuracy in urban areas
• Only up to 3-kilometer accuracy in rural areas
As for commercial services, virtually infinite solutions can be
implemented in this area. The level of accuracy determines
the usability of the services:
Figure 1. Usability of commercial services
E. Classification of Location Based Applications
Several analysts and researchers all over the world have
taken several approaches in order to classify LBS applications.
A major distinction of services is whether they are person-
oriented or device-oriented:
• Person-oriented applications: Applications where a ser-
vice is user-based, turning the focus of the applications
determining the position of a person or to use the position
of a person to enhance a service. Usually, the person
located can control the service. Examples of such appli-
cations can be social networking, where the objective is
to locate friends or family with the consent of the user.
• Device-oriented applications: Applications that are exter-
nal to the user, that may also focus on the position of a
person, but they do not need to. Instead of only a person,
an object (e.g., a car) or a group of people (e.g., a fleet)

could also be located. In device-oriented applications, the
person or object located is usually not controlling the
service. Examples for this kind of applications can be
car tracking for theft recovery, where the car is sending
information without human intervention.
F. Classification of Location Based Services
As for the classification of the services that can be imple-
mented for location purposes, two types of application design
are being distinguished: push services and pull services:
• Push Services: This kind of services imply that the
user receives information as a result of his whereabouts
without having to actively request it. The information
may be sent to the user with prior consent (e.g., a
subscription-based terror attack alert system) or without
prior consent (e.g., an advertising welcome message sent
to the user upon entering a new town).
• Pull Services: In contrast to the push services, a user
actively uses an application and, requests information
from the network. This information may be location-
enhanced (e.g., where to find the nearest hotel).
G. LBS Communication Model
Technologically, the implementation of LBS can be de-
scribed by a three-tier communication model, including a
positioning layer, a middleware layer, and an application
layer.
Figure 2. LBS Three-tier Communication Model
• Positioning layer: Responsible for calculating the position
of a mobile device or user. It does so with the help of
position determination equipment (PDE) and geospatial
data held in a geographic information system (GIS).While
the PDE calculates where a device is in network terms,
the GIS allows it to translate this raw network information
into geographic information (longitudes and latitudes).
The end result of this calculation is then passed on via
a location gateway either directly to an application or to
a middleware platform. Originally, the positioning layer
would manage and send location information directly to
an application that requests it for service delivery.
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• Application layer: Also known simply as client, com-
prises all of those services that request location data to
integrate it into their offering.
• Middleware layer: As the LBS application market grows,
many network operators have put this layer between the
positioning and application layer, primarily because PDE
sits close to the core of a mobile operator’s network,
leading to complex and lengthy retrieving of each user
data service. This layer can significantly reduce the com-
plexity of service integration because it establishes one
single connection to the network, and then mitigates and
controls all location services added in the future, saving
operators and third-party application providers time and
cost for application integration [1].
Figure 3. Middleware Model
Simplifying application integration is important for mobile
operators in order to move to a so-called wholesale model for
location data. The wholesale approach means that operators
offer a kind of bulk access to the location of devices. To
give an example of how could this bulk access to location
information be used there’s the fleet management services
where company’s offering such services have to buy the
information of the location of cars from mobile operators.
The problem with this wholesale model is that privacy issues
arise with the offering of location data from operators. Here,
location middleware can fulfill another role depending of it’s
usage in downstream or upstream:
• Downstream: Allows users to manage location access
rights of third-party applications.
• Upstream: Systematically anonymizes location informa-
tion revealed.
Thus, the location middleware takes over a similar role as an
anonymizing proxy does on the Internet. In this way, many
privacy concerns are addressed by an operator. Also, users get
direct access to manage their privacy.
III. S PATIAL DATABASES
In various fields there is a need to manage geometric,
geographic, or spatial data, which means data related to space.

The space of interest can be, for example, the two-dimensional
abstraction of the surface of the earth, or parts of it (geographic
space). The term “spatial database system” is associated with
a view of a database as containing sets of objects in space
rather than images or pictures of a space. It is considered that
spatial DBMS provide the underlying database technology for
geographic information systems (GIS) and other applications.
A. GIS - Geographic Information Systems
GIS is known to be a technological field incorporating
geographical features with tabular data in order to map,
analyze, and assess real-world problems. The key word to
this technology is Geography, which means that the data (or
some portion of the data) is spatial (data that is in some way
referenced to locations on the earth). Coupled with this data
is usually tabular data known as attribute data, that can be
generally defined as additional information about each of the
spatial features. An example of this would be schools. The
actual location of the schools is the spatial data. Additional
data such as the school name, level of education taught, student
capacity would make up the attribute data. It is the partnership
of these two data types that enables GIS to be such an effective
problem solving tool through spatial analysis.
GIS operates on many levels. On the most basic level, GIS
is used as computer cartography, i.e. mapping. The real power
in GIS is through using spatial and statistical methods to
analyze attribute and geographic information. The end result
of the analysis can be derivative information, interpolated
information or prioritized information [1].
Typically, GIS is integrated by several components:
• Hardware: Equipment needed to support the many activ-
ities of GIS, such as data collection and data analysis.
The workstation, which runs the GIS software and is
the attachment point for ancillary equipment, it’s the
main component Data collection requires a digitizer for
conversion of hard copy data to digital data and a GPS
data logger to collect data in the field. With the advent
of web-enabled GIS, web servers have also become an
important piece of equipment for GIS.
• Software: The GIS application package is essential for
creating, editing and analyzing spatial and attribute data,
therefore this package contain a myriad of GIS functions
inherent to it. Extensions or add-ons are software that
extends the capabilities of the GIS software package.
Component GIS software is the opposite of application
software. Component GIS seeks to build software applica-
tions that meet a specific purpose and thus are limited in
their spatial analysis capabilities. Utilities are stand-alone
programs that perform a specific function. For example,
a file format utility that converts from on type of GIS
file to another. There is also web GIS software that helps
serve data through Internet browsers.
• Data: The heart of any GIS. Data is divided in two
primary types that are used in GIS: a geodatabase is
a database that is in some way referenced to locations
on the earth and geodatabases are grouped into two
different types: vector and raster. Vector data is spatial
data represented as points, lines and polygons, and as
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for raster data is cell-based data such as aerial imagery
and digital elevation models. Together with this data is
usually data known as attribute data, generally defined as
additional information about each spatial feature housed
in tabular format. Documentation of GIS datasets is
known as metadata, which contains such information as
the coordinate system, when the data was created, when
it was last updated, who created it and how to contact
them and definitions for any of the code attribute data.
• Trained personnel: Well-trained people knowledgeable in
spatial analysis and skilled in using GIS software are
essential to the GIS process.
Figure 4. GIS Components
IV. L OCATION T ECHNIQUES
Systems that determine the location of a mobile objects can
be divided into two categories [8]:
• Tracking: when a sensor network determines the location.
The object to track has to be equipped with a specific tag
or badge that allows the sensor network to acquire it’s
position. The location information is first available in the
sensor network. If the mobile object needs it’s location
data, the sensor network has to transfer this information
to it by wireless communication.
• Positioning: when a system of transmitters or beacons
sends out radio, infrared, or ultrasound signals. The
location is directly available at the mobile system and
does not have to be transferred wirelessly. In addition,
location information is not readable for other users, thus
the positioning system does not have to consider privacy
issues.
Systems that use tracking as well as positioning are based
on the following various basic techniques, often used in
combination:
• Cell of Origin (COO): Technique used if the positioning
system has a cellular structure. Wireless transmitting
technologies have a restricted range (i.e., a radiated signal
is available only in a certain area around the cell). If
the cell has a certain identification, it can be used to
determine a location.
• Time of Arrival (TOA), Time Difference of Arrival
(TDOA): Electromagnetic signals move at a very high
speed (light speed - approximately 300,000 km/s), the
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corresponding runtimes are very short. If a nearly con- location u is obtained if two circles are intersected.
stant light speed is assumed, the time difference between Usually, there exist two intersection points, thus there
sending and receiving a signal to compute the spatial is the need to eliminate one point with the help of
distance of transmitter and receiver can be used. A similar additional information. In contrast to triangulation, trilat-
principle can be used with ultrasound. The signals take a eration leads to nonlinear equation systems, which have
longer time, thus measurement is simpler, but ultrasound no closed solution for 3D positioning.
can only reach low distances. If the time difference
between two signals is measured, the term TDOA is used.
In GSM networks, the term Enhanced Observed Time
Difference (E-OTD) is often used instead of TDOA.
• Angle of Arrival (AOA): Using antennas with direction
characteristics, the direction of arrival of a certain signal
can be found. Given two or more directions from fixed
positions to the same object, the location of the object can
be computed. Because it is too difficult to constantly turn
an antenna for measuring, receivers use a set of antennas Figure 6. Trilateration
that are lined up with a certain angle difference in all
directions. • Traversing: (Figure 7) uses several distance–angle pairs.
• Measuring the signal strength: The intensity of elec- It starts with a known point p1 and the distance and
tromagnetic signals decreases even in vacuum with the direction to another point p2 is measured. After a few
square of the distance from their source. Given a spe- steps, the unknown point u is obtained. Note that in
cific signal strength, the distance to the sender can be principle a single step from a known point to the unknown
computed. Unfortunately, obstacles such as walls or trees point could be used.
additionally reduce the signal strength, thus this method
is inaccurate.
• Processing video data: Using video cameras, significant
patterns in a video data stream can be acquired to
determine the user’s location. If users wear badges with
conspicuous labels, they can be detected in video images.
For this, positioning systems use techniques from image
processing to detect and interpret image data. In prin-
ciple, video positioning systems are based on the AOA
technique: a specific pixel in an image represents a certain Figure 7. Trilateration
angle relative to the camera’s optical axis; however,
video data can transport color information, which can be
used to transfer additional information (e.g., the user’s V. GPS - G LOBAL P OSITIONING S YSTEM
identification).
As previously referenced, the usage of satellites for position-
ing goes back to the 1960’s. The advantages of such method,
A. Triangulation, Trilateration, and Traversing among others, are:
• Triangulation: (Figure 5) needs two fixed positions (p1 • Positioning can theoretically be carried out around the
and p2). From each position, the angle to the location globe.
u is measured. Geometrically speaking, u is obtained if • Environmental conditions, such as the weather, have no
two lines are intersected. With the help of trigonometric relevant influence on the positioning process.
functions, the coordinates of u can be calculated. • Acquired positions have highly precise rates.

As disadvantages there are:

• Considerable costs with the launch and maintenance of
the satellites.
• The positioning it’s only possible if the user receives
a certain number of satellites. Particularly, positioning
inside buildings is not possible.

A. Basic Principles of Satellite Navigation

Figure 5. Triangulation To determine a position with the help of satellites, the
exact positions of the satellites and the exact distances to the
• Trilateration: (Figure 6) also needs two fixed positions, satellites are required. With this information, the positioning
but uses two distances to the unknown location. The of an object is restricted to the spherical surfaces around each

satellite. At least three satellites are needed to determine the
objects location in a tri-dimensional space [4].
Figure 8. Positioning with satellites
Satellites move around in space on fixed orbits, thus a
mobile object can easily compute it’s exact position at any
time. A list of all working satellites and their orbits it’s
commonly named an almanac, and it’s frequently downloaded
to the mobile receiver. It is also updated when satellites are
shut down or new satellites start to operate in new orbits.
B. Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
The GPS system is divided into three segments [7] (Figure
9):
Figure 9. GPS Segments
• User segment: contains the devices of the mobile users
like GPS receivers, which are constantly subject to minia-
turization and price reduction. They are often the size of
a mobile telephone. GPS receivers can be plug-in cards
or separate devices with a serial interface connection.
• Space segment: consists of the satellites that move around
in space. Every satellite weighs between 1.5 and 2 tons
and has an autonomous energy supply with solar cells.
The central computer of the typical satellite has a 16-
MHz CPU. They were programmed in Ada, a structured,
statically typed, imperative, wide-spectrum, and object-
oriented high-level computer programming language, ex-
tended from Pascal and other languages. The operating
system of a satellite normally consists of approximately
25,000 lines of code.
• Control segment: necessary for administration of the
satellites as well as for correction of the satellite internal
data (system time and orbits). Several monitor stations
permanently receive the satellite signals. They have a
precisely known, fixed position and atomic clocks that
are synchronized with the system time; thus, the monitor
stations can calculate the correction data. They are passed
6
on to the Master Control Station (MCS), which is located
in Colorado Springs, Colorado.
To be able to achieve global coverage from the equator to
the poles, 24 satellites move on six different orbits with four
satellites per orbit (Figure 9). Every satellite orbits the earth
at the distance of approximately 20,200 km. A satellite needs
12 hours for a complete orbit. They move in a way that at
least five and at most 11 satellites are mostly visible over the
horizon from every point on the earth’s surface. The number
of satellites that can actually be received can be lower because
of shadowing by buildings or landscape formations. A satellite
has an expected lifetime of 7.5 years. In order for the GPS to
remain operable after satellite failures, more than 24 satellites
are in orbit. The number was sometimes increased up to 28.
Currently, an operator needs 60 days to launch a new satellite
into orbit after the failure of a satellite. It is planned for reasons
of cost to shorten the time for launching to 10 days. With this
change, the number of satellites could be reduced to 25.
C. GPS Services
To determine a position with the help of GPS a registration
it’s not needed, since the GPS signals are free of charge.
The mechanism is based on one-way communication of the
satellites to the users. Two GPS services exist [1]:
• Precise Positioning Service (PPS): service that allows
positioning with a precision of 22 m in the horizontal
and 27.7 m in the vertical. Over a period of 24 hours,
95% of the measuring is within the given precision. PPS
(formerly called P-Code or Precision Code) is encrypted
and can only be decoded by the armed forces of the
United States and members of the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO). This service is not accessible to
civilian users.
• Standard Positioning Service (SPS): Formerly called C/A-
Code or Coarse/Acquisition Code, this service is available
for civilian users. Until April 30, 2000, it had a precision
of 100 m in the horizontal and 156 m in the vertical.
The satellites send out a continuous signal with approximately
20 W, and they use two frequencies: L1 (1575.42 MHz) for
PPS and SPS, and L2 (1227.6 MHz) exclusively for PPS.
Because all satellites send signals at the same frequencies,
a receiver must be able to assign the signals to the respective
satellites. GPS uses Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
for this purpose: every satellite uses a unique code called
the Pseudo Random Noise (PRN). The receiver knows all
of the codes and can filter out the corresponding sequence
from the superimposed signals of all satellites. The PRN’s
do not disturb themselves mutually (they are designed to be
orthogonal). With the help of the satellite signal, the receiver
can measure the time difference of the involved clocks and
compute the pseudo range. As a second function, the signal
transfers data with a data rate of 50 bits/s. These data contain
the position of the satellite, the system time, and the orbits of
other satellites.
The GPS system is subject to the following distorting
effects, which influence the precision [6]:

Table II
GPS P RECISION
• Clock errors: Although the clocks in the satellites work
perfectly, they can cause an error of 1.5 m in the position
calculation.
• Orbit fluctuations: The satellites do not move around per-
fectly in their calculated orbits, as the gravitational forces
of the sun and moon disturb them. Such fluctuations can
cause errors up to 2.5 m.
• Atmosphere disturbances: Atmospheric pressure and
weather conditions affect the signal spreading and cause
errors around values of 0.5 m.
• Ionosphere disturbances: The loaded particles of the
ionosphere disrupt the signal spreading and cause errors
up to 5.0 m.
• Multipath error: Reflected signals in the environment of
the receiver cause errors of around 0.6 m.
Besides these effects, the SPS signal was artificially distorted
until the year 2000 to prevent very precise measuring of
positions. This mechanism, called Selective Availability (SA),
randomly dithered the time sent by the satellites. In addition,
the orbit information was distorted. Through this system, an
exact positioning was no longer possible. The background of
SA was that the U.S. army did not want to enable too exact
positioning for other forces. SA was switched off on May 1,
2000 for economic reasons. SPS now provides a precision
of 25 m in the horizontal and 43 m in the vertical (with
95%). Table 1 summarizes the precisions of the different GPS
services. Future developments are planned to improve the
precision of SPS, especially to correct ionospheric distortion.
VI. N ETWORKED BASED P OSITIONING
The development of positioning systems is often a sig-
nificant investment. To reduce the costs, existing wireless
networks can be used for positioning services. Particularly
cellular networks are suitable for this purpose because the
cell identification already transports a rough location (COO).
Additional mechanisms such as runtime measurement (TOA)
or angle measurement (AOA) allow a more exact delimitation
of the position. At the present time, two of the main means
of transport for positioning systems are GSM and UMTS.
These architectures will only be successful if they provide
a portfolio of attractive services. There will not be a single
“killer application” since people need variety to be satisfied
by a single application [4].
A. GSM - Global System for Mobile Communications
Cellular phone networks are highly available, cover a large
geographic area, and reach a high number of mobile users.
Cellular phone infrastructures are often viewed as the most
promising platforms for LBS. In 2003, more than 1.2 bil-
lion people in the world used cellular phones. Without any
7
modifications in the network structure, a simple positioning is
possible within the GSM network, simply by determining in
which cell a mobile telephone is registered.
The mobile participant can also access location-related data
via the radio signals from the base stations. A base station
can broadcast such data via so-called Cell Broadcast Channels
(CBCHs), a logical data channel in the GSM data stream. A
mobile phone has to listen for specific frames where small
pieces of data, such as locations about the emergency phones,
hotels, hospitals, gas station, and so on, can be transferred. The
resolution of the position is too inaccurate for some services.
The cell radius varies from less than 1 km in city centers up
to 35 km in the countryside. If a mobile user stays in a small
cell, the position is relatively exact. The 35 km as a maximum
are, however, far too large for most services.
Ericsson has developed a system called the Mobile Position-
ing System (MPS) [8], that allows a more precise positioning
among large cells. MPS cooperates with standard GSM sys-
tems and needs only minimal modifications for installation
at the communication infrastructure. The mobile terminals
(i.e., the cell phones) do not have to be modified, which is
particularly important because customers often reject cost-
intensive modifications of the terminals. The precision by MPS
can be improved by GPS.
To determine the positions, MPS uses several mechanisms:
• Cell of Global Identity (CGI): (Figure 10) Using the
identification of a cell, the position of a mobile participant
can be roughly determined. This inaccurate method is
only used if more precise procedures are not available.
Figure 10. Cell of Global Identity (CGI)
• Segment antennas: (Figure 11). Base stations often have
several antennas, which divide the 360 degrees into (usu-
ally two, three, or four) segments. Thus, a base station can
limit the location of a mobile user to an angular segment
of 180, 120, or 90 degrees.
Figure 11. Segment Antennas
• Timing Advance (TA): (Figure 12). Base stations and mo-
bile terminals use certain time slots for communication.

Because the timing must be exact, the mechanism takes
into account the signal runtime between terminal and
base station. A mobile terminal sends a data burst earlier
when the distance to the base station increases. With this
mechanism, a burst always arrives at the base station
exactly within a time slot. This information can be used
to determine the position within a cell more precisely.
The distance to the base station is measured in steps of
approximately 555 m. Timing advance can be combined
with segment antennas to increase precision.
Figure 12. Timing Advance
• Uplink Time of Arrival (UL-TOA): (Figure 13). The
better positioning possible in GSM networks occurs when
a mobile participant is in the reach of at least four
base stations. By measuring the signal runtimes from a
mobile terminal to the base stations, the position can be
determined with a precision of 50 to about 150 m. A
similar computation is used as in the case of satellite
navigation.
Figure 13. Uplink Time of Arrival
B. UMTS - Universal Mobile Telecommunications System
In GSM, services like voice, fax and data are standard-
ized, ensuring compatibility between different networks and
terminals, but it difficults development of new services. The
introduction of SAT and WAP was the first step towards
an open service environment. However, both concepts are
not sufficient for complex UMTS services because they are
designed for very limited GSM phones and do not provide
access to all relevant network elements. To overcome the
current limitations, a flexible service environment for UMTS
has been standardized. The main objectives are to facilitate
quick service development and convenient service access.
8
VII. C ONCLUSION
Until now, LBS applications were difficult to implement
mainly because of the technology used. The availability of
new network technologies including 2.5G and 3G technologies
increased the use of data services. The ‘always-on’ data
connection, the higher data transfer rates, and the charging per
volume and per user-value, will enable LBS to benefit from
these technologies. The ability to push data to users based on
their location and preferences, in a seamless and inexpensive
manner, is likely to help LBS services to proliferate. Future
releases of 2.5G and 3G technologies are likely to benefit from
the fruits of the ongoing effort to standardize different aspects
of LBS.
As for the standardization of LBS [5], a big effort is
being made, both on the network and application side. Main
forces are the 3G Partnership Program (3GPP), defining
mainly the addition of LBS capabilities to future releases of
3G networks, and the Location Interoperability Forum (LIF),
formed by vendors and interested parties to developing and
promote common and ubiquitous solutions for LBS which are
network and location technology independent. The result of
these efforts will have an significant effect on the success of
LBS, affecting the technology choice operators will make, the
required investment to launch or upgrade existing LBS, as well
as on the actual availability, usability, and cost of services.
LBS must have attractive and accessible services and appli-
cations to take off. Some of these future services are likely
to benefit from higher accuracy location technologies [2].
The ability to offer such services requires tight cooperation
between mobile operators, application developers and equip-
ment vendors. This requires the understanding of subscribers
preferences and usage habits as well technology expertise.
Standardization is likely to facilitate the development and
launch of services, but the key is still in attracting the
subscribers. Only a joint effort by the different players is likely
to enable that [1].
R EFERENCES
[1] Alex Küpper, “Location-based services fundamentals and operation”,
2005.
[2] C. Desiniotis, J. G. Markoulidakis and J-Fr Gaillet, “Mobile LBS market”.
[3] Ulf Rerrer and Odej Kao, “Suitability of positioning techniques for
location-based services in wireless LAN’s”.
[4] Aphrodite Tsalgatidou, Jari Veijalainen, Jouni Markkula, Artem Kata-
sonov and Stathes Hadjiefthymiades, “Mobile e-commerce and location-
based Services: technology and requirements”.
[5] P. M. Adams, G. W. B. Ashwell and R. Baxter, “Location-based services
— an overview of the standards”, BT Technology Journal, vol. 21, no. 1,
Jan. 2003
[6] M. Olynik, M.G. Petovello, M.E. Cannon and G. Lachapelle, “Temporal
variability of GPS error sources and their effect on relative positioning
accuracy”.
[7] Wlodzimierz Lewandowski and Claudine Thomas, “GPS Time Transfer”,
Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 79, no. 7, Jul. 1991.
[8] David Mountain and Jonathan Raper, “Positioning techniques for
location-based services (LBS): characteristics and limitations of proposed
solutions”, Aslib Proceedings, vol. 53, no. 10, Nov./Dec. 2001.
[9] Paolo Bellavista, Axel Küpper, and Sumi Helal, “Location-based services:
back to the future”, Published by the IEEE CS, vol. 7, no. 2, Apr./Jun.
2008
 9

Cristina Estorninho Born in 16/07/1986 at Golegã,

has 3rd level of Computer Science/Equipment Main-
tenance taken at Escola Profissional Gustave Eiffel
(2004), works as a volunteer at Pastoral Social
of parish church of Golegã since 2003 and is a
student of Electrical and Computers Engineering in
the telecommunications area at Escola Superior de
Tecnologia de Setúbal of the Polytechnic Institute of
Setúbal.

João Neto Born in 1/04/1982 at Lisbon, has 3rd level

of Power Engineering/Electronics taken at Escola
Secundária Sebastião da Gama (2003), is a trainee
at Sadofone, Lda - Telecommunications, ITED In-
staller and Designer Technician registered under the
number ITS50216PI and a student of Electrical and
Computers Engineering in the telecommunications
area at Escola Superior de Tecnologia de Setúbal of
the Polytechnic Institute of Setúbal.