LATERAL

LOADING Tensile and Shear

Strength
The walls of a house should be designed to
supports:
The ver'cal loads from the roof and oors,
Masonry is also subject to the pressure of the
wind against the outside walls and must,
therefore be designed to resist:
The resulFng tensile bending stresses and
shear stresses

Flexural TENSILE STRESS

When a wall supports a lateral loading:
The stress at any parFcular cross-secFon may
vary from being compressive at one face to
being tensile at the other face.
As the resulFng tensile stress is due to exure
of the wall, it is termed the exural tensile
stress

Flexural TENSILE STRESS

TENSILE STRESSES
If the tensile stresses which develop exceed the
tensile resistance of the wall
the secFon will crack.
Cracking will also occur where no tensile
resistance can be developed due, for instance,
to the inclusion of a damp proof course (dpc)

GOVERN THE DESIGN OF WALL

An external wall in the lower storey of a mulF-
storey building where the ver'cal loading due
to the roof, oors and walls is large, and the
bending moment due to the wind pressure is
compara'vely small.
the compressive strength of the wall will
govern the design

GOVERN THE DESIGN OF WALL

An external wall in an upper storey of a mulF-
storey building where the verFcal loading
from the roof is small and the wind pressure is
at its maximum.
The tensile stress governs the design in this
situaFon.

GOVERN THE DESIGN OF WALL

External walls of lightly loaded structures, and
all laterally loaded members which include a
damp proof membranes are incapable of
transferring tensile stresses across the joint.
Thus in this case, the compressive stress
governs the design.


THE DESIGN OF LATERALLY LOADED
WALLS

This requires an understanding
of the
following factors below:
i. characterisFc exural strength
ii. orthogonal raFo
iii. support condiFons
iv. limiFng dimensions
v. basis of design

CHARACTERISTIC FLEXURAL STRENGTH

OF MASONRY (fkx)
Masonry is a briXle material and its resistance
to exural tension depends:
On the type of masonry unit,
The mortar grade and,
Most importantly, the bond between the
mortar and the unit.

 CLAY BRICKS
qIt has been found that, when clay bricks are
being used, the strength of the bond between
masonry units and mortar varies according to
their water absorp'on properFes.
qT hus for clay bricks, BS 5628 provides
characterisFc exural strength values for various
ranges of water absorpFon
qNevertheless, achieving a good bond between
bricks and mortar sFll depends to a large extent
on the degree of skill and care taken during
construcFon.

Clay Bricks & Concrete blocks

supports
Masonry is not isotropic, i.e. it does not have
similar proper'es in all direc'ons.
For example, a square wall panel of masonry
with only ver'cal supports on each side will
provide a greater resistance to bending due
to lateral loading than if only horizontal
supports were provided at the top and
boIom

SPANNING

Thus masonry subject to liXle or no

verFcal loading tends to be stronger when
spanning horizontally than when spanning
ver'cally.
On the other hand, walls which are subject
to large verFcal loading tend to be stronger
when spanning ver'cally than when spanning
horizontally.

SPANNING

ORTHOGONAL RATIO ()
The ra'o of the resistance to bending when
spanning ver'cally and horizontally is dened as
the orthogonal ra'o, .
It is used primarily for the calculaFon of bending
moments in panel wall design.
Where:
fkx/par =characterisFc exural strength parallel to
bed joints
f k x / p e r p = c h a r a c t e r i s F c e x u r a l s t r e n g t h
perpendicular to bed joints.

 Example
Example : Determine the orthogonal raFo, ,
for clay bricks having a water absorpFon of
9%, laid in mortar designaFon (ii), when no
signicant verFcal load exists within the panel.

EFFECT OF ANY VERTICAL LOADING

The eect of any verFcal loading in the
member will tend to increase its resistance to
bending when spanning ver'cally, thus must
be taken into account when determining the
orthogonal ra'o.

PARTIAL SAFETY FACTOR

The Code recommends that the design verFcal
load should be modied by mulFplying the
par'al safety factor on materials (m)
It should be noted that the value of f used in
calculaFng the design ver'cal load (i.e. fGk)
should be 0.9, since the verFcal load is
benecial in terms of exural strength.

Design moment of resistance

At secFons where exural tension can develop,
that is:
uncracked secFons and
those where conFnuity is not broken by the
inclusion of a dpc unable to transfer tensile
stresses
The design moment of resistance is given for:
o members spanning horizontally
o member spanning verFcall

Uncracked secFons

Moments of Resistance: Cracked

SecFons
Where exural tension cannot be developed:
i) secFon is already cracked, or
ii) where a dpc unable to transmit tensile
stresses is provided,
Design moment of resistance to lateral
loading is provided solely by the self-weight
of the member

Free-standing Walls
Free-standing walls may be:
1. external boundary walls,
2. parapet walls or
3. internal walls where no restraint is provided
to the top or sides of the wall.
They are designed as ver'cal can'levers,
allowance being made for the stability
moment due to the self-weight of the wall

Free-standing Walls
The walls are designed to canFlever, either
from the top of the founda'ons or from the
point of horizontal lateral restraint
When sFer elements, such as piers, are
introduced into a free-standing wall, the
secFons of wall between the piers may be
designed as panel walls supported on three
sides, or spanning horizontally

Code recommends
The Code recommends that the mortar used
for freestanding walls should:
Not be weaker than designaFon (iii).
In addiFon, it recommends limiFng the height
of a freestanding wall to twelve Fmes its
eecFve thickness

Design Bending Moments

v
The design bending moment on a wall is
assessed by taking moments about a parFcular
point.
vThe design moment of resistance must be
assessed on the basis of either an uncracked or a
cracked secFon
vRetaining walls are generally considered to be
free-standing walls retaining earth, liquid or
stored material, on one side. The design
procedure is similar to that for free-standing wall

Free-standing Walls

Panel wall
A non-load-bearing wall which is supported on
a number of sides is usually referred to as a
panel wall.
Mainly used to clad framed buildings. These
walls are primarily designed to resist lateral
loading from the wind.

SUPPORT CONDITIONS

In order to assess the lateral resistance of
masonry panels it is necessary to take into
account the support condiFons at the edges.
Three edge condiFons are possible:
(a) a free edge (b) a simply supported edge (c) a
restrained edge.
The bending moments and shear forces capable
of being resisted by panel walls vary with the
edge support condi'ons

SUPPORT CONDITIONS
1.

A simple support where a panel is

adequately 'ed to the supporFng structure
with metal wall 'es, or similar. Tied, in this
context, means a connecFon capable of
resis'ng the tensile or compressive load,
2. Con'nuity where masonry is provided with
return ends, or is con'nuous past and Fed
to a column or beam

SUPPORT CONDITIONS

SUPPORT CONDITIONS
Supports are generally formed ver'cally by:
1) piers,
2) intersecFng or return walls, or
3) steel or
4) concrete columns.
Lateral supports are provided by: roofs, oors
and foundaFons.

LimiFng dimensions
BS 5628 recommends various limiFng
dimensions to ensure that panel walls are not
too slender. The recommended heights and
lengths vary according to the support
condiFons at the panel edges.

LimiFng dimensions
Panel supported on three edges
(a) two or more sides conFnuous:
height length equal to 1500t2ef or less
(b) all other cases:
height length equal to 1350t2ef or less.
Panel supported on four edges
(a) three or more sides conFnuous:
height length equal to 2250t2ef or less;
(b) all other cases: height length equal to 2025t2ef or less.
Panel simply supported at top and boXom
Height equal to 40 tef or less.

 Design Bending Moment

The design bending moments vary with:
1) design load,
2) verFcal and horizontal spans,
3) orthogonal raFo, ,
4) relevant design bending moment coefcient,
.
The bending moment coefcient, , depends on
the edge support condi'ons

support condi'ons

Design Bending Moment

The design bending moment per unit height of a
panel in:
the horizontal direc'on:
MA =WkfL2
when the plane of bending is perpendicular to the
bed joints,
where =bending moment coefcient from table
f=parFal safety factor for loads
L=length of the panel between supports
Wk=characterisFc wind load per unit area.

Design Bending Moment

The applied design moment:
VerFcal direcFon: When the plane of bending is
parallel to the bed joints
MA=WkfL2

Design Moments of Resistance

Design moments of resistance:
Mk perp = fkx perp Z/ m
Mk par = f kx par Z/m
fkx perp : characterisFc exural strength perpendicular to
the plane of bending
fkx par : characterisFc exural strength parallel to the
plane of bending
Z: secFon modulus;
m : parFal safety factor for materials