Unit VII

Power Series

UNIT VII
Power Series
7.1 Power Series

Definition 7.1 A series of the form

c n x n

is called a power

n 0

series in x and

c n (x a) n

is called a power series in x a, where a

n 0

Now assume that x 0 = 1 x , so that

c n x n

n0

= c 0 + c1 x + c 2 x 2 + . . .

If c n = 0 n N, then the power series

most N.

c n x n is a polynomial of degree at

n0

Example 1 x2 3 + 2x =

c n x n , where c 0 = 3, c 1 = 2, c 2

n0

3.

= 1 and c n = 0 n

xn
xn
and

n are examples of power series.

n1 n
n0 2

Note that: Every power series in x a, converges for x

= a a .

Example 2 Show that

n ! x n converges only for x = 0.

n0

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Unit VII

Power Series

(n 1)! x
lim
Solution For x 0,
n
n!x
n

Hence

n 1

= x lim (n 1) = .
n

n ! x n diverges for x 0.

n0

Therefore,

n ! x n converges only for x = 0.

n0

Example 3 Show that

Solution For x 0,

xn
converges for every number x.
n 0 n !

lim
n

n 1

x
(n 1) !

n!
xn

lim
n

n 1

1
= 0.
n n 1

= x lim

Therefore,

xn
converges for every number x.
n 0 n !

Example 4 Show that

x n converges for

x 1.

n 0

lim
Solution For x 0,
n

n 1

xn

Hence by generalized ratio test

lim
n

= x .

x n converges for

x 1 and x 0.

n 0

Therefore

x n converges for x 1.

n 0

Moreover;

x n , where x 0, is a geometric series and for

x 1,

xn =

n 0

n 0

1
.
1 x

Lemma 7.1

a) If

n 0

c n s n converges, then

c n x n

converges absolutely

n0

for x s .

b) If

n 0

c n s n diverges, then

c n x n

diverges for x s .

n0

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Unit VII

Power Series

Theorem 7.1 let

c n x n

be a power series. Then exactly one of

n0

the following
conditions hold.

a)

c n x n

n0

c n x n

b)

converges only for x = 0.

converges for all x .

n0

c) There is a number R 0 such that

c n x n

converges

n0

for x R
and diverges for x R.
Note that: R is called the radius of convergence

of

c n x n .

n0

If

n0

n0

c n x n converges only for x = 0, then we let R = 0 and if c n x n

x , then
we let R = .

converges for

The set of all values of x for which

c n x n converges is called the interval of

n0

convergence

c n x n

n0

Example 5 Find the interval of convergence of

n0

lim
Solution For x 0,
n

n 2
n 3

n4
4

n 2
n 1

n 1
n2

1
n3

n3

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lim
x .
x =

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Unit VII

Power Series

n0

Hence

n 1

n2

n 1

converges for x and for x = , n 2 x n 3

4
4 n0

n3

diverges.
4 n 1

Therefore ( , ) is the interval of convergence of n 2 x n 3 .
4 4
n0

Example 6 Determine the interval of convergence of the series

a)

nx

( x)
b)
n
n1

n1

c)

n 1 2

( 1)

d)

n 3n

n1

( x 2)

n1

n2

Solutions
a) For x 0,
lim
(n 1) x
n
n
n x

n 1

n 1
n

= x . Thus n x converges for x

n n
n1

= x lim

1.

For x = 1 we get

n and

( 1)

n both of which diverge.

n1

n1

Therefore, ( 1, 1) is the interval of convergence of

nx

n1

lim
b) For x 0,
n

( x)
Thus
n
n1

For x = 1,

n 1

( x)
(n 1)

n
( x)

nx
n n 1

= lim

= x .

converges for x 1.

( 1)
n
n1

converges and for x = 1,

1
diverges.
n1 n

Therefore, ( 1, 1] is the interval of convergence of n x n .

n1

( 1)

lim
c) For x 0,
n

Thus

n1

n 1 n 1

(n 1) 3

2
x
3

( 1)

n 2

lim
n
n

n3

n 1 2

n 1

n3

( 1)

n 1 n

converges for x

3
.
2

2n x
n 3 (n 1)

= lim

n
2

=
x .
3
n 1
n

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Unit VII

Power Series

2n x
3
For x = , ( 1) n 1
2 n1
n 3n

( 1)
=
n
n1

3
n 1 2 x
and for x = , ( 1)
2 n1
n 3n

n 1

converges
2n 1

( 1)
=
n
n1

1
diverges.
n1 n

n n

3 3
n 1 2 x
Therefore, ( , ] is the interval of convergence of ( 1)
.
2 2
n 3n
n1

d) For x

( x 2) n
2,
n2
n1

( x 2)

lim
n

n 1

(n 1)

n 2

=
n n 1

n
n
( x 2)

= x 2 lim

x2 .

Thus

( x 2)

For x = 1,

( x 2)

n1

converges for x 2 1 1 x 3.

n2

n1

( x 2)

n2

n1
n

n1

n1 n

( 1)
n2

which converges and for x = 3,

which converges.

Therefore, [1, 3] is the interval of convergence of

( x 2)
n2

n1

Remark: The radius of convergence of

c n x n

is

n0

given by
R=

lim
n

cn
c n 1

Differentiation of Power Series

Theorem 7.2 (Differentiation theorem for Power Series)

Let

c n x n be a power series with radius of convergence

n0

R 0.

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Unit VII

Power Series

Then

nc n x

n 1

has the same radius of convergence and

n1

d
dx

n 1
c xn =
n
c
x
=
dx c n x n for x
n
n
n

n1
0
n1

R.

Example 7 Show that

d
dx

xn
xn

=
n! .
n

n
!
n
0

n 1

lim
x
n!
Solution For x 0,
n
n (n 1) ! x

= x

1
lim
= 0.
n n 1

n x n 1
x n 1
d x n
xn
Thus
converges for x and
=
=

dx n 0 n !
n
!
n0 n !
n1
n 1 (n 1) !
xn
=
.
n0 n !

Therefore

d
dx

xn
xn

=
n ! x.
n

n
!
n
0

From the result of the above example we get:

f (x) = f (x) x, where f (x) =

xn
.
n0 n !

Since f (0) = 1, then we get f (x) = ex for all x.

xn
Therefore e =
x.
n0 n !
x

Moreover

2n

2
1
xn
1
x
= (1) n , e x = (1) n
and e x =
etc.
n!
n!
e
n
!
n0
n0
n0

Note that: Theorem 7.2 states that

c n x n and

n0

nc n x

n 1

have the

n1

same radius of
convergence but the interval of convergence of these series may not
be the same.

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Unit VII

Power Series
n 1

x
Example 8 Consider
.
n0 n 1

n 1

x
Let f (x) =
.
n0 n 1

R = lim
n

x n 1
n2
= 1 0 and
diverges for x = 1 and converges for x
n 1
n0 n 1

= 1.

n 1

x
Hence [1, 1) is the interval of convergence of
and f (x)
n0 n 1

x n converges for x 1

n0

and diverges for x 1.

Thus (1, 1) is the interval of convergence of

xn .

n0

Therefore, the two series have different interval of convergences.

Theorem 7.3 Suppose a power series

c n x n has radius of

n0

convergence R 0. Let

f (x) =

c n x n

for R x R.

n0

Then f has derivatives of all orders on ( R, R) and f (n) (0) =

n! cn for n 0.
Consequently

f (x) =

f ( n) (0) n
n ! x for R x R.
n0

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Unit VII

Power Series

Corollary 7.3.1 Let R 0 and suppose

c n x n and

n0

b n x n be power

n0

series that
converge for R x R.

If

c n x n

bnxn

n0

n0

for R x R, then cn = bn for each

n 0.
Integration of Power Series

Theorem 7.4 (Integration theorem for Power Series)

Let

c n x n

be a power series with radius of convergence R

n0

0. Then

cn
n 1
x
has the same radius of convergence and
n0 n 1

c
x

n 1
n
n
n

x
=
=
c
t
dt
c
t

n dt for x
n

1
n

0
n

0
n
0 0

R.
Example 9 Show that
n (1 + x) =

(1) n n 1 (1)
n 1 x = n
n0
n1

n 1

x n for x 1.

Solution Note that:

1
= x n for x 1.
1 x
n0

Replacing x by t we get:

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Unit VII

Power Series

1
= (1) n t n for t 1.
1 t
n0

x
( 1) n

1
n 1
n
x
dt = (1) t n dt =
Hence n (1 + x) =
for x 1.
n0

1
1

t
n

0
0
0

( 1) n
n 1
x
Therefore, n (1 + x) =
for x 1.
n0 n 1
x

Since

(1) n n 1
x
converges for 1 x 1,

n0 n 1
(1)
(1) n n 1
x
=

n
n0 n 1
n1

n (1 + x) =

(1) n 1

Therefore, n 2 =

n1

n 1

x n for 1 x 1

Note that: The power series expansion of n (1 + x) for 1

x 1 is known
as Mercators Series.

Example 10 Show that tan

(1) n 2n 1
x
x =
for x 1.
n 0 2n 1

Solution If t 1, then t 2 1.
Hence
x

(1)

0 n0

1
1 t 2

n 2n

(1) t

for t 1 and tan 1 x =

n0

dt

1 t 2

n 2n
t
dt

(1) n 2n 1
for x 1.
2n 1 x
n0

Therefore, tan 1 x =

(1) n 2n 1
for x 1.
2n 1 x
n0

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Unit VII

Power Series
(1) n
(1) n 2n 1
2n 1
1
x
converges
for
=
1,
tan
x
=
for
x
2n 1
2n 1 x
n0
n0

Since
x 1.

Therefore

(1) n

2n 1 = 4 .
n0

Note that: The power series expansion of tan 1 x

for x 1
is known as Gregorys Series.

Example 11 Find a power series representation of

t2

dt x

.
Solution Since e x =
x

Hence e

t2

dt

n 2 n 1

n 2n

xn
( 1) t
t2
e
x

,
=
.
n!

n
!
n0
n0

n 2n

( 1) t

n!
0 n0

t
n
dt =
( 1) n ! dt =

n0
0

2n

( 1) x
n ! (2n 1)
n0
x

Therefore,

t2

n 2 n 1

( 1) x
dt =
n ! (2n 1)
n0

x .

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Unit VII

Power Series
e x 1
and use it to verify that
x

Example 12 Find a power series representation of

x
lim e 1
= 1.
x0 x

e x 1
ex
1
1
1
Solution Since
= +
= +

x
x
x n0
x
x

x
n!

1
1
+ 1 + x +
x
x

x
x
+ ...+
+..
2!
n!

.
=1+

x
x2
x3
+
+
+... =
2!
4!
3!

x
(n 1) !
n0

e x 1
x
x
e x 1
=
and lim
= lim
= 1.
x

0
x

0
x
x
(
(
n
n

1
1
)
)
!
!
n0
n0

Hence

x
e x 1
lim e 1
Therefore,
=
and
= 1.
x 0 x
x
n 0 ( n 1) !

Example 13 Find the power series expansion of

e x x 1
x2

and use it to evaluate

x
lim e x 1
x0
x2

Solution

e x x 1
x2

1
x2

1
ex
+ 2
x
x

n
1 x
1
1
2+

x
x 2 n0 n !
x

1
1
1
2 +
1 + x +
x
x2
x

x
x
+ ...+
+...
2!
n!

x
1
x
x2
=
+
+
+... =
2!
3!
4!
n 0 ( n 2) !

x
x
1
e x x 1
lim e x 1
lim
Hence lim
=
and
=
= .

2
2
x0
x0
x 0 n 0 (n 2) !
2
x
x
n 0 (n 2) !

x
1
e x x 1
lim e x 1
Therefore, lim
=
and
= .

2
2
x0
x0
2
x
x
n 0 (n 2) !

n (1 x)
n (1 x)
Example 14 Evaluate lim
using power series expansion of
.
x0

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Unit VII

Power Series

Solution n (1 x) =

( 1)

n 1 x

for x 1.

n 1

1
x
n (1 x)
= x
x
2
x

Hence

= 1
n (1 x)
and lim
= lim
x0

x
x
+
2
3

x0 n0

( 1)

x
3

+...

x3
+...=
4

n 1

x
4

( 1)

n 1

n1

x
(n 1)

x
=1
(n 1)

x
n (1 x)
n (1 x)
Therefore,
= (1) n 1
and lim
= 1.
x0
(n 1)
x
x
n1
1
Example 15 Find the power series representation of
for x 1.
(1 x ) 2

Solution Since

But
Therefore,

1
= x n for x 1 and
1 x
n0

(1 x ) 2

1
(1

d
dx

x) 2

'
1
=
.
x
(1 x ) 2

n 1
n
n

(n 1) x .
n
x
=
=
x

n0

n0
n1

(n 1) x

for x 1.

n0

Taylor Series

Suppose f is a function defined on an open interval I containing 0 by

f (x) =

c x

n0

x I.

Then we say that we have a power series representation of f on I. The value of f at x

in I can be approximated by the partial sum of the convergent power series of f

provided that

n0

c x

converges for each x in I.

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Unit VII

Power Series

Remark: 1. the partial sums of a power series are

polynomials.
2. if f has a power series representation, then
i) f must have derivatives of all order on I.
ii) this representation is unique and written
as

f (n) (0) n
=
x
n!
n0

f (x)

x I.

Definition 7.2 Suppose that f has derivatives of all orders at a, then

the Taylor series
of f about a is the power series

(n)

(a)

n!

n0

( x a)

If a = 0, then this series is called the Maclaurin Series.

Remark: Any polynomial in x is its own Taylor

series.

Definition 7.3 The nth Taylor polynomial Pn and the nth Taylor
remainder Rn of f about a
are defined by
n

Pn (x) =

k 0

(k )

k!

(a)

( x a)

and Rn (x) =

( n 1)

f
n 1
(t ) ( x a)
(n 1) ! k

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Unit VII

Power Series

where tk is strictly between a and x. Moreover Rn (x) = f (x)

Pn (x).

Therefore, f (x) =

n0

(n)

(a)

n!

( x a)

if and only if lim

Rn

(x) = 0.

( 1)
2n 1
for
x
n 0 (2n 1) !

Example 16 Show that sin x =

all x .

Solution Let f (x) = sin x for all x .

Then f (2k) (x) = ( 1) k sin x and f (2k + 1) (x) = ( 1) k cos x for all k 0
and k Z.
k

Thus Pn (x) =

( 1)
2k 1
,
x
k 0 (2k 1) !

1
2

where m = [ (n 1)], greatest integer not

( n 1)
1
f
n 1
exceeding (n 1) and Rn (x) =
, where t strictly lies between 0
(t ) x
k
( n 1) ! k
2

and x.
Now to show that f(x) = lim

Since f

( n 1)

(tk ) 1,

Pn (x) we need to show that lim

Rn (x)

n 1

( n 1) !
n 1

x
= lim
Rn (x) lim
(
n

1
)
!
n
n

and hence lim

Thus lim

Rn (x) = 0.

n!

=0

Rn (x) = 0.

Therefore, sin x =

( 1)
2n 1
for
x
n 0 (2n 1) !

Example 17 Show that cos x =

all x .

( 1)
2n
x
n 0 ( 2n ) !

for all x .

Solution Let f (x) = cos x for all x .

Then g (2k) (x) = ( 1) k cos x and g (2k + 1) (x) = ( 1) k + 1 sin x for all k 0
and k Z.
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Unit VII

Power Series
k

Thus Pn (x) =
exceeding

( 1)
2k
x
(
2
k
)
!
k 0

1
2

, where m = [ n], greatest integer not

1
n.
2

Since Rn (x) =
f

( n 1)

(t ) x
( n 1) ! k

n 1

, where

strictly lies between 0 and x, and

( n 1)

(t ) 1, lim
R n (x) lim
( n 1) ! k
n
n

and lim

Therefore, cos x =

( 1)
2n
x
(
2
n
)
!
n0

( 1)
2k
x
(
2
k
)
!
n k 0

Pn (x) = lim

n 1

( n 1) !

= lim
n

n!

=0

( 1)
2n
x
(
2
n
)
!
n0

for all x .

Example 18 Find the fifth Taylor polynomial P5 of

a) sin x

b) cos x

Solutions a) P5 (x) = sin 0 + x cos 0 +

=x

( cos 0) 3
( sin 0) 2
sin 0 4 cos 0 5
x
x +
x +
x +
5!
4!
2!
3!

x3
x5
+
3!
5!

x5
x3
+
.
120
6
( cos 0) 2
( sin 0) 3
cos 0 4
x +
x +
x +
b) P5 (x) = cos 0 + x ( sin 0) +
2!
4!
3!

Therefore, P5 (x) = x

( sin 0) 5
x
5!

=1

x2
x4
+
2!
4!

Therefore, P5 (x) = 1

x2
x4
+
.
4!
2!

Taylor Series about an Arbitrary Point

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Unit VII

Power Series

Definition 7.4 If f has derivatives of all orders at a , then

we call

(n)

(a)

n!

n0

( x a)

the Taylor Series of f about the number a.

Example 19 Consider the function g(x) = n x.
g is not defined on an open interval about 0. Hence g does not have a Taylor
series of the form

( 1)

(0)

n!

n0

(n)

n0 n 1

( x 1)

x . But g(x) = n (1 + x 1), and hence n x

n

n 1

for

1 x 1 1.
Therefore, n x =

( 1)

n0 n 1

( x 1)

n 1

for 0 x 2.

Example 20 Express the polynomial g(x) = 2x3 9x2 + 11x 1 as a polynomial in x

a, where a .
Solution Since g(x) = 2x3 9x2 + 11x 1,
g(a) = 2a3 9a2 + 11a 1,

g (a) = 6a2 18a + 11,

g (a) = 12a 18,

g (a) = 12,

and g (n) (a) = 0 for

all n 4.
3

Therefore, g(x) =

n0

( n)

(a)
n
( x a) .
n!

In particular if a = 2, then g(x) = 1 (x 2) + 3 (x 2)2 + 2(x 2)3.

Example 21 Find the Taylor series of cosh x about a, where a .
Solution Let g(x) = cosh x.
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Power Series

Then g (2n) (a) = cosh a and g (2n + 1) (a) = sinh a for all n 0.
sinh a

.
n 0

5
Example 22 Using the Taylor series of cos x, approximate cos ( ) with an error
12

Therefore, cosh x =

(2n 1) ! ( x a)

2n 1

cosha
2n
( x a)
( 2n ) !

less than 0.004.

Solution cos x =

( 1)
2n
x
n 0 ( 2n ) !

x .

We need to find the smallest value of n for which

5
5
5
) = cos ( ) P n ( ) 0.004.
12
12
12
5
(n 1)
and x,
f
(tk ) 1, where f(x) = cos x and tk is strictly between
12

Rn (

Since

for all n 0.

5
n 1
( )
5
4000 5
n 1
R n ( ) 12
0.004 (n + 1) !
n 6.
( )
12
( n 1) !
4 12
3 ( 1) n
5
5 2n
)

12
n 0 (2n ) ! 12
6
2
4
1 5
1 5
1 5
= 1 + 0.2586
6 ! 12
2 ! 12
4 ! 12
5
Therefore, cos ( ) 0.2586 with an error less than 0.004.
12

Hence cos (

Example 23 Approximate e with an error less than 0.000003.

x

Solution Let f(x) = e , since e =

x
n0 n !

,e=

1
n0 n !

We need to find the smallest value of n for which

R n (1)

= e P n (1) 0.000003.

1
e k
3
0.000003, where tk (0, 1) (n + 1) !
(n 1) !
(n 1) !

1,000,000 n 9.
9

Hence P 9 (1) =

1
n0 n !

e.

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Power Series

Therefore, e 2.718281526 with an error less than 0.000003.

Example 23 Find the Taylor series expansion of f(x) = 2 x about a = 1.
Solution f(1) = 2, f (x) = 2 x n 2, f (1) = 2 n 2, f (x) = 2 x (n 2) 2, f (1) = 2
(n 2) 2
f (x) = 2 x (n 2) 3, f (1) = 2 (n 2) 3
In general f (n) (x) = 2 x (n 2) n and f (n) (1) = 2 (n 2) n for n 0.
Therefore, 2 x =

2 ( n 2) n

n!

n 0

( x 1) n for every number a.

Note that: From the result of the above example we

get:
2x=

2 ( n 2) n

n!

n 0

x n for any x .

Binomial Series
The Taylor series about 0 of the function f given by
f (x) = (1 + x)s ,
where s is any fixed number is called a binomial series.
Now consider the Maclaurin series of f(x) = (1 + x)s, where s is any fixed number.
Let c0 = 1, c1 = s and cn = s (s 1) (s 2) (s (n 1)) for all n 2.
Then f(n) (x) = cn (1 + x)s n and f(n) (0) = cn .
Hence the Maclaurin series of f (x) = (1 + x)s is given by:
s

f (x) = (1 + x) =

n0

cn x
n!

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Power Series

In particular if s =
f (x) =

1
, the Maclaurin series of
2

1
(1 x) 2 =

1+

1
1.3.5.7..... (2n 3) n
x
x + (1) n
2
2n n!
n 2

1
1.3.5.7..... (2n 3) n
= 1 + x + (1) n
x
( 2 n) !
2
n 2

Therefore, (1 x) 2 = 1 +

1
1.3.5.7..... (2n 3) n
x + (1) n
x .
(
2
n
)
!
2
n 2

Definition 7.5 Let s be any number. Then we define the binomial coefficient
n

by the formula:
s
= 1,
0

s
= s and
1

s
1 .
s ( s 1) . ( s 2) . ... . ( s (n 1)) for n
=
n
!
n

2.
s

s!

In particular = s (s 1) and if s N, then =

.
n ! ( s n) !
2
2
n
Now using this definition the above Maclaurin series of f(x) = (1 + x)s is given by:
(1 + x)s =

s x
n n !
n0

This series is called a binomial series.

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