9

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1

BACKGROUND OF COMPOSITES
Research into composite materials in recent years has been on the

increase. Composite materials have found increasingly wider application in

construction, aerospace and automotive industries (Isaac and Jandro 2000). A
composite is a hybrid of two or more constituent materials, with significantly
different physical or chemical properties, but and which remain discrete on a
macroscopic level within the finished structure. The properties of a composite
material depend on the materials used, as the constituents of the composite,
the geometry of the constituents, the resulting structure of the composite
system, and the manner in which the constituents interact with one another are
important factors. A composite is designed to display a combination of the
best characteristics of each of the constituent materials (Callister 1997).
Consequently, a composites performance is superior to that of its constituents
acting independently.
The aggregate properties of a composite are different from those of
its constituents (Craig and Norman 2004). The technological and commercial
interest in composite materials is on the basis, that their properties are not just
different from their constituents but are often superior. Some of the
salient properties of a composite material, which make them desirable for
automotive, aerospace and other engineering applications, are as follows:

10
Very strong and stiff, yet very light weight, giving them
strength-to-weight and stiffness - to- weight ratios several
times greater than those of conventional engineering materials
(steel, aluminium, etc.).
Better

fatigue

properties

than

those

of

conventional

engineering metals.
Greater toughness and corrosion resistant.
Better appearance and possible control of surface smoothness.
Allows the combination of properties not achievable with
other engineering materials.
Matrix materials are usually made of polymers, metals, and
ceramics and the reinforcements are in the forms of fibers, particles, rods,
wires, etc. made from any of the three basic materials (polymers, metals and
ceramics). When the composite is loaded, the low strength matrix deforms
and distributes the induced stress to the high-strength reinforcements, which
then bear the load. The bonding strength between the matrix material and
reinforcement interface is vital. For the composite to operate effectively, the
cohesive forces must be very high, so as to minimize reinforcement pull-out
and to maximize the stress transfer from the weaker matrix material to the
stronger reinforcement.
2.2

MATRIX MATERIAL
The functions of a matrix material in a composite include the

following:
To bind the reinforcements together.
To transfer and distribute stresses to the reinforcement.

11
To protect the reinforcement against physical damage as a
result of mechanical abrasion capable of forming cracks, that
may lead to failure at low tensile stress levels.
To separate the reinforcement, and by virtue of its relative
softness, prevent the propagation of brittle cracks from
reinforcement-to-reinforcement

which

could

result

in

catastrophic failures. In other words, the matrix material

serves as a barrier to crack propagation.
2.2.1

Polymer Matrix Material

Thermosetting resins which are high-molecular-weight plastics,

such as unsaturated polyesters and epoxies are the most widely used polymer
matrices. They are used in large quantities in a diversity of composite
applications owing to the merits of low cost and good room-temperature
properties. However, they have the limitation of not being able to withstand
high temperature. Thermosetting resins determine the maximum service or
operating temperature of the resulting composites. They normally soften or
degrade at much lower temperatures than those of the reinforcements. The
polymer matrix can also be thermoplastic resins, such as polyamides (nylons),
polycarbonate, polystyrene,

and polyvinylchloride. High temperature

thermoplastic resins based composites are candidates for future aerospace and
automotive applications.
2.2.2

Metal Matrix Material

Metal matrices are usually ductile metal alloys of Aluminium,

Magnesium, Titanium or Copper. Some of their relative advantages over

polymer

matrices

include,

elevated

operating

temperatures,

non-

inflammability and greater resistance to degradation by organic fluids but they

are much more expensive than polymer matrices, and possess high strength-

12
to-weight ratio. Fiber materials are more commonly used as reinforcements.
Metal-fiber composites have found applications in the construction,
automotive and aerospace industries.
2.2.3

Ceramic Matrix Material

Ceramics exhibit attractive properties of high stiffness, hardness,

compressive strength, and relatively low density. However they are plagued
by limitations of low toughness and bulk tensile strength, and a vulnerability
to thermal cracking. Ceramic materials used as matrices include Alumina
(Al2O3), Boron Carbide (B4C), Boron Nitride (BN), Silicon Carbide (SiC),
Silicon Nitride (Si3N4), Titanium Carbide (TiC), and several types of glasses.
Carbon fibers which can either be short or long, are commonly used as
reinforcements in ceramic composites. The Current applications of ceramic
matrix composites are in metal-cutting tools and chemically corrosive
environments as well as areas in which the operating conditions involve
elevated temperatures.
2.3

REINFORCEMENTS
Reinforcement is the stress bearing constituent of the composite,

and dictates the structural integrity of the composite. The properties and the
performance of the composites depend on the quantity (concentration, volume
fraction), size, shape, distribution and orientation of the reinforcement. The
mechanical properties of the fiber reinforced composites in tension, depend
mainly on the strengths of the reinforcing fibers, the fiber volume fraction, the
matrix strength and the interfacial shear strength (Callister 1997).
Reinforcements can be in the form of glass and metal fibers, and shape
memory materials.

13
2.3.1

Fiber Reinforcements
Fiber reinforcements are a class of materials, that are either

continuous filaments or discrete elongated pieces, similar to lengths of thread.

Man-made fibers have diverse applications. They are used as constituents of
composite materials. They can be spun into filaments, thread, string or rope.
They can also be matted into sheets to make products such as paper or felt.
Fibers are often used in the manufacture of other materials. Glass and metal
fibers are the commonest man-made fibers. Fiberglass is made from
extremely fine fibers of glass and silica. Metallic fibers can be drawn from
ductile metals such as copper, gold or silver, and extruded or deposited from
more brittle ones such as nickel, aluminium or iron. Other materials used as
fibers are ceramics, polymers, carbon, and boron.
2.4

SANDWICH COMPOSITES
There are three main classifications of composite materials: particle-

reinforced, fiber-reinforced, and structural composites. In particle-reinforced

composites, particle dimensions are approximately the same in all directions,
and generally, the particulate phase is harder and stiffer than the matrix. In
fiber-reinforced composites, the dispersed phase has the geometry of a fiber,
the mechanical properties depend mostly on the properties of the fibers while
the applied load is transmitted to the fibers by the matrix phase through the
fiber/matrix interface. Structural composites are the combinations of
composites and homogeneous materials, and the geometrical design of the
structural elements affects the mechanical properties of the structure. The
most common structural composites are laminated composites as shown in
Figure 2.1 and sandwich panels (Callister 1997).

14

Matrix
Fiber

Figure 2.1 Laminar Composite Structure

2.4.1

Definition of Sandwich Composites

A sandwich structure is a special form of laminated composite.

Sandwich composites comprise of two thin but stiff face sheets attached on
either side of a lightweight, thick slab known as the core. Many variations of
this definition are available but the key factor in making this type of materials
is the lightweight core, which reduces the overall density of the material and
stiff skins, providing the strength (Judawisastra et al 1998). Integral bonding
between the face sheet and the core prevents interfacial failure under the
applied load enhancing the flexural properties of the sandwich composites.
The adhesion of face sheets and core is a criterion for the load transfer and for
the functioning of the sandwich structure as a whole (ASM Handbook 1987).
There is no general rule about the relationship between the thickness of skin
and the core. It depends on the application and required properties. The
Major advantage of sandwich structured composites is the possibility of
tailoring properties, by choosing the appropriate constituting materials and
their volume fractions.

15
2.5

SANDWICH EFFECT
A sandwich structure operates in the same way as the traditional I-

beam, which has two flanges and a web connecting the flanges. The
connecting web makes it possible for the flanges to act together and resist
shear stresses. A Sandwich structure and an I-beam differ from each other in
that, in a sandwich structure, the core and the laminates are different materials
and the core provides continuous support for the laminates, rather than being
concentrated in a narrow web. When the structure is subjected to bending, the
laminates act together, resisting the external bending moment, so that one
laminate is loaded in compression and the other is in tension. The core resists
the transverse forces and at the same time, supports the laminates and
stabilizes them against buckling and wrinkling, as shown in Figure 2.2
(Norlin and Reuterlov 2002).

Face Sheet
Core

Compression

Face Sheet

Shear
Tension

Figure 2.2 Sandwich Effect

Each element in a sandwich structure performs different functions in
the mechanical response of the structure.

The skins take the tensile and

compressive stresses, especially under flexural loading. The core material is

used to increase the flexural rigidity of the structure, by separating the upper
and lower skins to increase the moment of inertia, about the neutral axis of the

16
structure. The Compressive modulus of the core and the face sheets should be
sufficient to prevent wrinkling of the face sheets under design load. The core
must therefore be stiff enough to maintain the skins at a constant separation. It
must also possess enough shear rigidity to prevent the skins from sliding over
each other and acting as individual plates in bending. Also, the core should
have sufficient compressive strength to resist crushing design loads, acting
normal to the panel face sheets or by compressive stresses induced through
flexure. For effective sandwich structure behaviour, the bonding layer
between the core and skins must be able to transfer the shear forces between
the core and the skins. With each constituent performing its role, the sandwich
arrangement as a whole can be very effective as a light weight and rigid
structure, especially under bending or buckling loads (ASM Handbook 1987).
2.6

COMPONENTS IN SANDWICH COMPOSITES

Sandwich composites primarily have two components, namely the

face sheet and core, as shown in Figure 1.1. If an adhesive is used to bind the
skins with the core, the adhesive layer can also be considered as an additional
component in the structure. The thickness of the adhesive layer is generally
neglected, because it is much smaller than the thickness of the skins or the
core. The properties of sandwich composites depend upon the properties of
the core and face sheet, their relative thickness and the bonding characteristics
between them.
2.6.1

Face Sheet
In a sandwich structure, the face sheets can be made of many

different materials, such as isotropic monocoque material, anisotropic

monocoque material or a composite material. Aluminum, titanium, steel and
fiber reinforced plastics are widely used face sheet materials. However, in
order to minimize the weight of the structure, generally, composite face sheets

17
are preferred. In the case of fiber reinforced skins, the material properties
can be controlled directionally, in order to tailor the properties of the
sandwich

composite. Another advantage offered by the use of polymer

composites is that, the same polymer can be used to make the skin and the
core. Cross-linking of the polymer between the core and the skin would
provide an adhesion strength level equal to the strength of the polymer. This
provides the possibility of making the skin an integral part of the structure,
eliminating the requirement of the adhesive.
2.6.1.1

Face Sheet Matrix Materials

The mechanical performance and durability of the polymer-matrix

based composite laminates is strongly linked to the mechanical performance

of the matrix. The Selection of the matrix material is an important step, and its
properties and the manufacturing type of the composite material must be
considered carefully. There are two main types of resins; thermosetting and
thermoplastic. Epoxy, unsaturated polyester and vinyl ester are the most
widely used thermosetting resins. A wide range of physical and mechanical
properties can be obtained by employing these resins. The formation of a rigid
solid from the liquid resin is done while the composite is being manufactured.
The mechanical properties of the resin depend on both the resin chemical and
the curing chemical. The resin chemical controls the mechanical properties,
while the curing chemical controls the density and the length of the formed
network. Curing is generally completed by a schedule, involving heating and
keeping the resin at one or more levels of temperature for a prescribed period.
This way the optimum cross-linking and optimum resin properties can be
achieved. When compared to thermoplastics, it can be easily seen that
thermosets are brittle while thermoplastics can undergo plastic deformation.
However, thermosets have different properties when compared to one an
other. For example, epoxies are generally tougher than unsaturated polyesters

18
or vinyl esters. Also, epoxies have good resistance to heat distortion and they
shrink less during curing, compared to polyesters.
In fact, epoxy resins are better in most properties than other
thermosetting resins. Epoxy is used in weight critical, high strength, and
dimensionally accurate applications. Polyester resins are less expensive, offer
more corrosion resistance, and are more forgeable than epoxies. For this
reason, they are the most widely used. Certain resins are not compatible with
all fabrics. For instance, Kevlar often exhibits adhesion problems, so epoxy or
the highest grade polyester should be used. Also, fiberglass mats have a
polyester soluble binder. Epoxies cannot dissolve this, and should never be
used with mat. Thermoplastic resins are not cross-linked, but they are
monomer units and have very high molecular weight, ensuring that there is a
high concentration of molecular entanglements acting like cross-links.
Thermoplastics, compared to thermosets, have high failure strains, good
resistance to chemicals and thermal stability. Many thermoplastics, except
nylons, show good resistance to the absorption of water.
2.6.1.2

Face Sheet Reinforcement Materials

The physical properties of composites are fiber dominant. When

resin and fiber are combined, their performance remains almost like that of
the individual fiber. For this reason, fabric selection is critical when designing
composite structures. There are many reinforcement materials available for
use in matrix systems, but all reinforcement materials have high stiffness and
relatively low density, and they have numerous types and styles. Glass,
carbon and aramid fibers are widely used in polymer matrix composites.
Glass fibers are based on silica (SiO2) with additions of calcium, boron,
sodium, iron or aluminum oxides. E-glass (E meaning electrical) is the most
commonly used glass fiber, since it has good strength, stiffness and electrical
and weathering properties. C-glass (C meaning corrosion) is employed where

19
more resistance to corrosion with respect to E-glass is needed, but C-glass has
lower strength. For applications where higher strength than E-glass is needed,
S-glass (S meaning strength) is used as the reinforcement material. S-glass
has higher Youngs modulus and temperature resistance compared to E-glass.
Glass fibers are produced by the mechanical drawing of the flow of the
melted raw materials by gravity.
Carbon fiber is a modern reinforcement characterized by extremely
low weight, high tensile strength, and high stiffness. The material can be
handled easily, and moulded like fiberglass. However, some advanced
techniques are necessary to achieve the maximum properties of this material.
Carbon fiber is also the most expensive of the reinforcing fibers. This fact
often limits its use. Carbon fibers consist of small crystallites of graphite,
generally about 8 m in diameter.
Aramid fibers are developed from aromatic polyamides, and they
form the most important high modulus polymer fiber group. Aramid fibers
were first developed under the trade name Kevlar. Kevlar exhibits the lowest
density of any fiber reinforcement, high tensile strength for its weight, and
superior toughness. It is priced between fiberglass and carbon fiber. Kevlar is
puncture and abrasion resistant, making it the reinforcement of choice for
canoes, kayaks, and leading edges of airfoils. On the other hand, Kevlar is
difficult to cut and machine during part fabrication. It also has a low service
temperature and poor compressive properties. It is possible to combine Kevlar
with other materials creating a hybrid laminate to compensate for the
shortcomings.
The choice of skins is important from the point of view of the work
environment, as this part of the structure comes in direct contact with the
environment.

Corrosion, heat transfer characteristics, thermal expansion

characteristics, moisture absorption and other properties of the whole

20
sandwich composite can be controlled, by the proper choice of the skin
material. In most cases, both skins of the sandwich are of the same type, but
could be of different types depending upon specific requirements. The
Difference may be in terms of materials, thickness, fiber orientation, fiber
volume fraction or any other possible form.
2.6.2

Core
The other main component of composite sandwich structures is the

core material. For all sandwich structures both in-plane and bending (primary
loading) are carried by the face sheets, and the core carries the transverse
shear loads. Usually the face sheets are identical in material and thickness.
The variety of types of sandwich constructions depends basically upon the
configuration of the core. To maintain the effectiveness of the sandwich
structure the core must be strong enough to withstand the compressive or
crushing load placed on the panel. The core also must resist the shear forces
involved. If the core collapses, the mechanical stiffness advantage is lost.
Core densities range from 16 kg/m3 to 900 kg/m3 (ASM Handbook 1987).
The core materials are generally divided into four types. These are
foam or solid core, honeycomb core, web core and corrugated or truss core.
Foam or solid cores are relatively inexpensive, and can consist of balsa wood
and an almost infinite selection of foam/plastic materials with a wide variety
of densities and shear moduli. Honeycomb-core architectures have been
widely used. The two most common types are the hexagonally-shaped cell
structure and the square cell. Web core construction is also used, analogous to
a group of I-beams with their flanges welded together. In the web core and
truss core constructions, the space in the core could be used for liquid storage
or as a heat exchanger.

21
2.6.2.1

Core Materials
There are various types of foam cores, of them, the vinyl sheet

foam, is one of the most versatile core materials in the market. It is a rigid,
closed cell material that resists hydrocarbons, sea water, gasoline and diesel
oil. It has been used extensively in aircraft and performance automotive
structures, but it can be applied where ever high properties and easy handling
are needed. Vinyl foam can be thermoformed in an oven, or with a heat gun,
by applying gentle pressure. Another foam type is the polyurethane foam
which is a rigid, closed cell material with excellent thermal insulation and
flotation properties. This core has been widely used in the marine industry for
decades, and is fairly inexpensive when a lower property cored laminate is
needed. It is compatible with both polyester and epoxy resin systems. The
Honeycomb is a series of cells, nested together to form panels, similar in
appearance to the cross-sectional slice of a beehive. In its expanded form, the
honeycomb is 90-99 percent open space. The Honeycomb is fire retardant,
flexible, lightweight, and has good impact resistance. It offers the best
strength to weight ratio of the core materials. The Honeycomb is used
primarily for structural applications in the aerospace industry. Honeycomb
structures are manufactured by using a variety of different materials,
depending on the intended application and required characteristics, from
paper or card, used for low strength and stiffness for low load applications, to
high strength and stiffness for high performance applications. The strength of
the laminated or sandwich panels depends on the size of the panel, the facing
material used and the number or density of the cells within it (Vinson 1999).
It is assumed that in sandwich structures having foam or honeycomb cores, all
of the primary load is carried by the face sheets. However, in web or truss
cored structures a portion of the primary load is carried by the core. There
may be many other core architectures, in addition to the ones mentioned

22
above. For example, recent studies propose sandwich structures having
composite vertical laminate-reinforced foam.
2.7

MANUFACTURING

METHODS

OF

SANDWICH

COMPOSITES
There are different manufacturing methods used in the production of
sandwich composites. These methods include hand lay-up, Vacuum-Assisted
Resin Transfer Moulding (VARTM), pultrusion, vacuum bag moulding, press
moulding and autoclave moulding (Zureick et al 1995).
2.7.1

Hand Lay-up method

This is a manual approach, in which layers of fabric and resin are

successively applied onto a mould. This method is perhaps the simplest,

oldest and least complicated. The mould is first designed to the shape of the
final composite structure. The fibre layers are oriented in such a way, as to
develop the desired strength and stiffness. After each layer of fabric is placed,
a roller is used on the composite, so that a strong bond results, and excess
resin is squeezed out. The stacking of the fabric materials and resin is done
until the required thickness is achieved. This method is labour-intensive and
only suitable for production in low volume. It also has the a disadvantage of
low quality control and inconsistency, in the properties of various parts of the
finished product. However, with this method, composites of complicated
shapes can be manufactured, such as the complex core configuration of the
sinusoidal honeycomb panel. In recent years, the advances in manufacturing
technology have resulted in some improvement in this manual process.
Today, the hand lay-up has become automated in several applications
(Zureick et al 1995).

23
2.7.2

Resin Transfer Moulding method

In Resin Transfer Moulding (RTM), resin is injected into a mould in

which the fibers and the core material are placed in the desired position. The
resin is fed under gravity or external pressure as shown in Figure 2.3. Curing
occurs within the mould, often assisted by heating. The mould is usually made
of metal, which gives good heat transfer and lasts for many moulding
operations. Relatively large parts can be manufactured in this way.

Pump

Mixing Head
Vent
Fiber Pack

Resin

Catalyst

Mold

Figure 2.3 Resin Transfer Moulding

(Source: http://rtmcomposites.com/whatrtm.html)
2.7.3

Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Moulding method

In this process, the dry fabrics needed to produce the structural

components are stacked together successively. The fabric is placed in an open

mould surface without a top. When the layup operation is completed, the
mould is covered, and a vacuum is applied to consolidate the material. Resin
is then allowed to flow and disperse through the entire structural network,
with the mould kept under vacuum. The resin is cured under ambient
conditions. This process has the great advantage of a comparatively low cost

24
of production, since the materials, moulds, and equipments are inexpensive. It
is also advantageous over many other methods because, of minimized
environmental hazards from toxins associated with the process. The mould is
sealed during the resin application, thus controlling the environmental threats
and reducing the health risks of workers.
2.7.4

Vacuum Bagging method

In this technique, fabrics are wetted by the resin in a mold; the core

material is put between the fabrics; and after the lamination a vacuum bag is
sealed on the laminate. By adding pressure to the laminate, excess resin can
be eliminated, which will reduce the overall weight and optimize the strength.
Vacuum bagging is used in order to add pressure without crushing the part,
and the vacuum is run into the sealed area. The resulting vacuum pressure
squeezes out the excess resin. A vacuum pump is required and the process is
usually conducted while the part is in a mould. Figure 2.4 shows the vacuum
bag moulding technique.

To Vacuum
Pump
Vacuum Bagging
Film

To Vacuum
Gauge
Breather/Absorption
Fabric

Sealant Tape
Release Film
(Perforated) Release Coated
Mould

Figure 2.4 Vacuum bag moulding technique

Peel Ply
Laminate

25
2.8

PROPERTIES OF SANDWICH COMPOSITES

Main advantage of any type of composite material is the possibility

of tailoring its properties according to the application. The same advantage

also applies to sandwich composites. The Proper choice of the core and skins
makes sandwich composites adaptive to a large number of applications and
environmental conditions. Some general characteristics of sandwich
composites are described below:
1.

Low density: The choice of lightweight core or expanded

structures of high-density materials decrease the overall
density of the sandwich composite. The Volume of the core is
considerably higher in the sandwich composite, compared to
the volume of the skins; so, any decrease in the density of the
core material has a significant effect on the overall sandwich
density.

2.

Bending stiffness: This property comes from the skin part of

the sandwich. Due to a higher specific stiffness, sandwich
composites result in lower lateral deformation, higher
buckling resistance and higher natural frequencies, compared
to other structures.

3.

Tensile

and

compressive

strength:

The

z-direction

properties, are controlled by those of the core, and the x and y

directions properties are controlled by those of the skins.
4.

Damage tolerance: The use of flexible foam or crushable

material as the core makes the sandwich material highly
damage tolerant. For this reason foam core or corrugated core
sandwich structured materials are popular in packaging
applications.

26
2.9

MODE OF FAILURES IN SANDWICH PANELS

Sandwich beams loaded in bending display a range of failure

mechanisms dependent on parameters such as material yield strengths and

geometry. Idealised cases, assuming rigid, ideally plastic solids, can provide
analytical solutions to determine the limit loads for each failure mode. The
typical failure modes are as follows
Indentation at loading point - this failure mechanism is the
consequence of localised point loading effects and this can be suppressed by
distributing the load over an area about equal to the core section (Gibson and
Ashby 1997).
Skin yield

the skins may yield or fracture.

Skin wrinkle

the compression skin may buckle into the core.

Core failure

the core will usually fail in shear, though tensile

or compressive failure is also possible

Bond failure

the bonding method is usually chosen to avoid

failure; commonly, resin adhesives are used; so,
failure is by brittle fracture.

Each mode can be predicted using considerations of normal and

shear stresses acting on the skins and core, with the mode associated with the
lowest collapse load, being most likely to occur.
2.10

APPLICATIONS OF SANDWICH COMPOSITES

Ever since World War II, sandwich constructions have found

increasing acceptance in both Industrial and domestic sectors, ranging from

27
simple interior paneling to sophisticated ribbed antenna structures. A Few of
the applications are mentioned below:
Marine & Navy : Floating bridges, flooring, interior walls and
partitions, water crafts
Automobile: Crash barriers & impact absorption, wheels,
Seats, Tyres.
Telecom : Electronic packaging materials
Aerospace : Portable stage floors, Antenna structures
Rail cars: Flooring, interior walls and partitions
Architecture: Cladding, support for stone veneers, interior
paneling, furniture
Medical: X-ray tables, Clean room partitions
Domestic : Elevator interiors,

Modular building panels,

sculptures, and decorations

General : OEM machines, lightweight backing structures,
Traffic signs and Furniture.
2.11

BEHAVIOUR

OF

SANDWICH

STRUCTURES

UNDER

STATIC LOADING
The critical properties of sandwich structures vary, according to the
application area of the structure. In the automotive industry, the out- of- plane
compressive properties are more important, whereas in the wind turbines, the

28
in plane compressive properties are more significant. Therefore, different
properties or characteristics of the sandwich panel are needed to be evaluated
according to the application area.
2.11.1

General Failure
Sandwich beams under general bending, shear and in-plane loading,

display various failure modes. Their initiation, propagation and interaction

depend on the constituent material properties, geometry and type of loading.
Failure modes and their initiation can be predicted by conducting a thorough
stress analysis, and applying appropriate failure criteria in the critical regions
of the beam. This analysis is difficult, because of the nonlinear and inelastic
behavior of the constituent materials, and the complex interactions of the
failure modes. For this reason, properly designed and carefully conducted
experiments are important in elucidating the physical phenomena, which help
the analysis.
Possible failure modes include tensile or compressive failure of the
facings, debonding at the core/facing interface, indentation failure under
concentrated loads, core failure, wrinkling of the compression face and global
buckling. Following the initiation of a particular failure mode, this mode may
trigger and interact with other modes, and the final failure may follow another
failure path.
Norlin and Reuterlov (2002) studied the primary loads applied to the
wind turbine blades. The sandwich sections in the turbine blades are subjected
to a complex combination of in-plane and out-of-plane stresses that need to be
taken into account in the design, engineering and fabrication steps of turbine
blades. These effects may cause different failure modes as seen in Figure 2.5.
Failure modes (a) and (b) are the result of out-of-plane loading where in
(a) the laminates fail in either compression or tension, and in (b) the core

29
material fails in shear. Failure modes (c) and (d) are described as local
buckling. Failure can occur in two ways; in the first type a wrinkle that
becomes unstable may cause an indentation or the laminate may buckle
outwards. These defects are caused by the inadequate compression modulus
values of the core or face sheets. Thus, the resistance towards laminate
buckling depends on three properties; the bending modulus of the laminate,
the shear modulus and the compression or tension modulus of the core
material. Two out of three properties are core material related. Therefore, the
most effective way to improve the in-plane properties is to increase the core
thickness and core density. Failure mode (e) is known as general buckling,
and is caused by in-plane loading. In the in-plane loading of the sandwich
structures, the collapse modes are also important and in order to investigate
the compressive properties, the collapse modes and crushing characteristics of
various types of composite sandwich panels are studied.

(a) Laminate
yielding
fracture

(b) Core
Shear
Failure

(c) Local
Buckling

(d) Local
Buckling

(e) General
Buckling

Figure 2.5 Different failure modes observed in rotor blades

(Source: Norlin and Reuterlov, 2002)

30
Isaac Daniel et al (2003) conducted an investigation on the failure
modes and criteria for their occurrence in composite sandwich columns and
beams. The initiation of the various failure modes depends on the material
properties of the constituents (facings and core), geometric dimensions and
type of loading. Sandwich specimens were loaded under bending moment,
shear and axial loading and failure modes were observed and compared with
analytical predictions. The failure modes investigated are face sheet
compressive failure, adhesive bond failure, indentation failure, core failure
and facing wrinkling. The transition from one failure mode to another for
varying loading or state of stress was discussed. Experimental results are
compared with analytical predictions.
Jiang et al (2004) studied the existing two fracture mechanisms in
face sheets of sandwich composites consisting of the 0 and 90 plies, namely
crack growth and crack blocking. The former was undesired since it may lead
to the failure of face sheets in sandwich composites. A shear-lag model that
gives a simple criterion governing these two mechanisms was developed. It
was established that, for a given ratio of Et=Ef (the elastic modulus in the
transverse and fiber directions respectively), there exists a critical face sheet
thickness above which crack blocking is achieved and crack growth is
prevented. Equivalently, for a given face sheet thickness b; there exists a
critical elastic modulus ratio Er/Ef below which the crack blocking is ensured.
For b = 6t (t is the ply thickness), Ef was found to be more than 23 times
larger than the Et in order to ensure the crack blocking. For b >= 20t; Ef was
found to be only 10 times larger than Er.
Daniel et al (2002) conducted an investigation to study the failure
modes and criteria for their occurrence in composite sandwich beams. Failure
modes were investigated experimentally in composite sandwich beams.
Failure modes and their initiation, propagation and inter action depend on the

31
type of loading, constituent material properties and geometrical dimensions.
Failure modes discussed, observed and studied include face sheet compressive
failure, face sheet debonding, indentation failure, core failure and face sheet
wrinkling.
Failure modes of foam core sandwich beams under static and impact
loads were investigated by Tae Seong Lim et al (2004). The static load
capabilities and failure modes predicted by the theory of beam on elastic
foundation showed good agreement with the three-point bending test results.
Using the experimental and analytic results, the static failure mode map was
constructed. Also, the impact failure modes and the impact energy absorption
characteristics of the sandwich beams were studied by the impact test and the
finite element analysis. From the test result, it was found that the face failure
mode was favourable for the high impact energy absorption.
2.11.2

Compression Loading
Davalos and Chen (2005) studied the buckling behavior of the

sandwich

structures

under

out-of-plane

compressive

loading.

Bare

compression and stabilized compression tests (the specimen was bonded

between steel plates in this test) were performed, and it was observed that the
failure loads were higher than those for the bare compression tests,

but

buckling occurred only for the bare compression tests as the stabilized
compression test induced material compression failure.
Mamalis et al (2005) carried out a series of edgewise compression
tests, with eight different material combinations made of four types of
polymer foam core (PMI foam, two grades of linear PVC foam and
polyurethane foam) and two types of Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP) face
sheet laminates made of glass fiber/acrylic resin. Under the edgewise
compressive load, sandwich panels tend to collapse in three different modes,

32
two of them unstable (overall column buckling mode I with foam core shear
failure and mode II sandwich disintegration with face sheet delamination and
buckling in opposite directions) while the third one stable progressive endcrushing mode. Unstable crushing with overall column buckling is the most
probable mode of collapse, while progressive end-crushing is the less
expected one. The most important factor that determines the collapse mode
and the overall crushing response of a sandwich panel in edgewise
compression is the properties and strength of the foam core. The Column
buckling collapse mode was observed in the case of panels produced by a
weaker foam core. In the progressive collapse mode, foam core has the
highest density, highest modulus of elasticity, highest shear strength and
elongation at break, compared to all others. Among the three collapse modes
the most efficient one with respect to crash energy absorption is the
progressive end-crushing mode, in which the sandwich components
contribute to energy dissipation, and continue to resist compressive
deformation and progressive crushing as an integral structure, while in modes
I and II the sandwich structure was partially or totally disintegrated.
Bull and Hallstro (2004 a) conducted a study on curved sandwich
beams with the FaceCore debond subjected to the bending moment. Face
core debonds of varying size were are introduced at the compressively loaded
face sheet, and the structural integrity was investigated. A number of curved
sandwich beams both with and without cracks in the interface between the
outer face sheet and the core material were studied. Analytical and finite
element models were compared in order to identify the governing failure
modes of the beams. The analysis conducted showed, for the configuration
studied in this work, that the governing failure modes of undamaged beams
are the same as for straight undamaged beams. However, in the presence of
cracks the stresses that developed were high enough to cause crack growth
and following failure.

33
2.11.3

Flexural Loading
Cantwell et al (1999) had developed simple test geometry in order to

test glass fiber/balsa sandwich structures and pre-cracked sandwich beams are
loaded as in the three-point-bending test. At low loading rates the interfacial
fracture toughness was found to be quite high but at high loading rates
significant reductions were observed for some of the sandwich materials. This
result was significant while these materials are used in marine structures
which are subjected to dynamic loads such as wave slamming or blast
loading.
A thorough investigation was conducted on face wrinkling failures of
sandwich columns under compression and beams in three- and four-point
bending and cantilever beams under end loading by Gdoutos et al (2003). The
beams were made of unidirectional carbon/epoxy facings and aluminum
honeycomb and closed-cell PVC foam cores. Face wrinkling failures were
observed in sandwich columns and beams with foam cores, but not in those
with honeycomb cores. It was concluded that failure by wrinkling is prevalent
in the case of low through-the thickness stiffness and long beam spans.
Bezazi et al (2007) conducted an investigation to analyze the stiffness
and the identification of rupture mechanisms during and after static tests of
sandwich panels and their components. The sandwich panels, having crossply laminates skins made of glass fibre and epoxy resin were manufactured by
vacuum moulding and subjected to three-point bending tests. Two polyvinyl
chloride cores of similar type but with differing densities were investigated.
The effect of core density and its thickness on the behavior and the damage
was highlighted. In terms of stiffness and load at failure, the sandwich
structure had better mechanical characteristics compared to its components.

34
Compression moulding of sandwich components made from a novel
material combination, glass/polypropylene faces and expanded polypropylene
foam core, was experimentally investigated by Malin Akermo and Thomas
Astrom (1999). The processing window for this material concept in terms of
shear, traverse tensile and flexural properties of compression moulded
components was studied and the concepts processability was also evaluated.
The investigation shows that the shear strength has changed negligibly when
the process parameters are varied, the shear modulus increased by setting the
moulding pressure to its lower level and the transverse tensile strength
increased by using a low moulding pressure. It was concluded that the results
of all mechanical characteristics improved by reducing preheating
temperature, moulding pressure and moulding time.
John Hartsock (1996) designed a Urethane foam sandwich
structures and subjected to three and four point flexure test. The deflection,
stress, creep and failure behaviour of the sandwich structure was briefly
discussed. It is observed that sandwich structures can be based on rigid
urethane foam. They are stiff and strong for their weight and afford excellent
thermal insulation. The ultimate strength of urethane-filled sandwiches was
limited either by the shear strength of the core or by the buckling resistance of
one face.
Hasebe and Sun (2000) analyzed the performance of sandwich
structures with composite reinforced core. Three point Bending tests were
performed to experimentally measure the bending stiffness along with the
strength of sandwich beams. The test results were also used to verify the
analytical solution obtained by using the sandwich plate theory. It was found
that local indentation must be included in the theoretical model. Static
punching test and low velocity impact test were performed to investigate the
behaviour of sandwich plates under static and dynamic point loads. The

35
damage modes, effects of the core reinforcement, and effects of the foam
were investigated.
Rickard Juntikka and Stefan Hallstrom (2007) made an investigation
on shear characterization of sandwich core materials using four-point
bending. Sandwich beams were loaded in four-point bending, and the shear
deformation was measured with two rotary sensors. The four-point bending
test results showed a higher shear modulus, a more distinct yield point, and a
higher yield stress than the shear-block test results. The improvements were
believed to result from a more even stress distribution and absence of stress
concentrations in the four-point bending specimens. Large deformations
caused local bending of the laterally compressed face sheet, eventually
leading to premature failure of the specimen.
Nikhil Gupta et al (2002) studied the response of syntactic foam
core sandwich structured composites to three-point bending. Flexural and
short-beam shear tests were conducted. It was observed that the specimen
failure mode changes completely with the change in the aspect ratio.
Specimens were found to fracture under the effect of shear stresses in the
smaller aspect ratio specimens, whereas compressive stresses lead to the
fracture in higher aspect ratio specimens. The observations of fracture features
were correlated with the test data and the loaddisplacement curves obtained
in the tests.
Onkar Murthy et al (2006) conducted a study to optimize the
strength and stiffness of honeycomb core sandwich panels. The experimental
study conducted on sandwich panels using glass/epoxy skins and Nomex
honeycomb core clearly showed that the maximum bending stiffness occurred
at a core to skin weight ratio of 2.04. Similarly, maximum bending strength
occurred at a core to skin weight ratio of 0.96.

36
Caprino and Langella (2000) used a sandwich beam loaded in threepoint bending for the shear characterization of foam cores destined to
structural sandwich application. Shear characterization tests were also
performed according to ISO 1922 for comparison. It was reported that the
failure modes observed suggest that the core shear behaviour was better
represented by three-point bending, whereas ISO 1922 was unsuitable to
correctly measure the core shear strength.
Characterization of flexural properties of syntactic foam core
sandwich composites and the effect of density variation was investigated by
Nikhil Gupta and Eyassu Woldesenbet (2005). Microballoons (hollow
particles) of the same outer radius but with five different inner radius values
were used to fabricate five types of syntactic foam slabs. Three- and fourpoint bending and short beam shear strength tests were carried out to
characterize the flexural behaviour of syntactic foam core sandwich
composites. The effect of change in microballoon radius ratio (ratio of the
inner to the outer radius) on the flexural properties of the sandwich
composites was also studied. The results showed that in three- and four-point
bending tests, the failure was governed by tensile properties of the foam core
and the strength is not affected by the microballoon radius ratio. Shear failure
takes place in short beam shear tests, which makes the microballoon radius
ratio an important factor in determining the strength of the sandwich
composite.
Failure modes and optimization of sandwich structures for load
resistance was studied by Stephen et al. (2003). Laboratory tests and analyses
of sandwich beams under 3-point bend loading were carried out to
demonstrate a methodology for predicting failure in sandwich structures.
Comparisons with experiments using embedded strain gages on specimens
with composite faces and polyurethane foam core show that an existing

37
elasticity solution, as well as finite element analysis, gives excellent
comparisons with the data. Optimization for strength to weight was discussed,
and it was shown that the laboratory results supported the trends of the
optimization.
2.11.4

Modeling of Static loading

Modeling results on the mechanical behavior of the sandwich

structures have also been reported in the literature. Borsellino et al (2004)

used the commercial ANSYS code in order to model the sandwich structures
in compressive, shear and flexural loadings. The static-mechanical behavior
of the composite structure was well approximated by numerical simulations in
the elastic zone, but in the plastic regime there was not a compatibility with
the experimental data.
Topdar et al (2003) made a finite element analysis of composite and
sandwich plates using a continuous inter-laminar shear stress model. A four
noded plate element based on a refined higher order shear deformation theory
was developed for the analysis of composite and sandwich plates. The interelemental continuity, as desired by the plate theory, was fully satisfied in the
present element. The results showed that the element has very good
performance in terms of solution accuracy.
Oded Rabinovitch (2007) analytically investigated the structural
response of sandwich panels hosting rigid inclusions (inserts) embedded in a
soft core. Three approaches for the mathematical modeling of the structural
behavior of the sandwich panel hosting the rigid inclusion are formulated,
examined, and compared. Numerical results that focus on the deformed shape
of the panel under load, the distributions of the internal stress resultants, the
shear and vertical normal stresses in the core, and the interaction between the
rigid insert and the adjacent components are presented. The investigation

38
quantitatively revealed the interaction of the corners of the rigid insert with
the adjacent core and face sheets and the corresponding localized stress
concentrations. These localized effects may lead to the initiation of fatigue
cracks, debonding, localized damage in the face sheets, or premature failure
of the sandwich panel.
Optimization of sandwich beams for concentrated loads was
performed by Stephen Swanson and Jongman Kim (2002). In this present
analysis, an elasticity solution for transverse loading of simply supported
layered beams or plates was utilized, that has shown good agreement with
finite element analyses and experimental strain gage data. An algorithm was
developed, that gives the optimum design of sandwich structures for strength
to weight under concentrated loading.
Amir Fam and Tarek Sharaf (2010) studied the feasibility of
fabrication and flexural performance of panels composed of low density
polyurethane foam core sandwiched between two GFRP skins. Various
configurations of internal and exterior GFRP ribs connecting the two skins
were explored and compared to a panel without ribs. Simple analytical
expressions had been proposed, and captured these effects reasonably
accurately.
2.12

LOW VELOCITY IMPACT BEHAVIOUR OF SANDWICH

PANELS
Today the threat of impact damage and the problems associated with

holes are the limiting design criteria for composite material in airframe
structures. A major concern when using sandwich construction is the effect of
Low velocity impact. Low-velocity impact is considered potentially
dangerous mainly because the damage might be left undetected. In many
situations, the level of impact at which visible damage is formed is much

39
higher than the level at which substantial loss of residual properties occurs.
The importance of understanding the response of structural composites to
impact cannot be overstated. This understanding includes both the impact
phenomena themselves and the influence of materials properties on the impact
response. Static and dynamic impact phenomena are assessed to lay the
foundation for the eventual development of a standardized test method
focused on the lower velocity range impact response behaviour of composites.
The objective of the impact test was to gain a better understanding of the
fundamental low-velocity impact phenomena, especially the types of impacts
that can occur during manufacturing and maintenance.
An engineering method was suggested for prediction of impact
response and damage of flat sandwich panels by Robin Olsson (2002).
Different models were suggested depending upon the impactor mass being
either larger or significantly smaller than the mass of the impacted panel. The
solution for large mass impact was based on closed form expressions. The
solution for small mass impact was obtained from a dimensionless twoparameter integral equation. The validity of the approach was demonstrated
on a number of static indentation experiments and impacts on sandwich
panels.
Anderson and Madenci (2000) conducted an experimental
investigation concerning the low-velocity impact response of sandwich
composites. Impact tests were conducted to characterize the type and extent of
the damage observed in a variety of sandwich configurations with
graphite/epoxy face sheets and foam or honeycomb cores. Correlation of the
residual indentation and cross sectional views of the impacted specimens
provides a criterion for the extent of the damage.
The effect of constituent materials on impact damage and strength
reduction of a sandwich structure, composed of laminated face sheets and

40
Nomex honeycomb core was examined by Ki Weon Kang et al (2008). Lowvelocity impact tests were performed and damage was inspected by scanning
acoustic microscopy. Static tests were also conducted under flexural loading.
The damage behavior was characterized through the energy absorbed during
impact. The strength reduction was evaluated via a residual strength
prediction model. A statistical model was developed to identify the variation
of residual strength of the impacted structure.
Park et al (2008) conducted an experiment to evaluate the damage
resistance of sandwich structure, composed of Nomex honeycomb core and
two kinds of face sheets (carbon/epoxy and glass/epoxy laminates) subjected
to low velocity impact. It was inferred that the impact resistance of the
sandwich structure is greatly influenced by the facesheet type and core
thickness. It was reported that the impact damages are mainly delamination in
the facesheets, which is peanut-shaped with major axis along their lower fiber
orientation, and their behavior is dependent on the facesheets.
Ki Weon Kang et al (2006) conducted an experimental study to
identify the strength reduction behavior and its statistical properties of
sandwich structure subjected to low velocity impact. The core material is
Nomex honeycomb manufactured with aramid fiber. The skin materials used
were 8-ply carbon/epoxy and glass/epoxy laminates. The strength reduction
behavior was evaluated via the residual strength prediction model. Also, a
statistical model was developed to identify the fluctuation of residual strength.
Impact toughness of different lightweight sandwich panels and
composite sheet materials were studied by Dear et al (2005). The degrees of
damage inflicted on the contact surface, through thickness and rear surface of
the materials when subjected to different impacts were examined. The
specimens were prepared from sheet moulding compound, glass mat

41
thermoplastic and honeycomb sandwich panels employing different skin and
core materials.
Meo et al (2005) made an experimental investigation and a
numerical simulation on the impact damage on a range of sandwich panels.
The low-velocity impact response of the composites sandwich panels was
studied at five energy levels, ranging from 5 to 20 J, with the intention of
investigating damage initiation, damage propagation, and failure mechanisms.
A numerical simulation was performed using LS-DYNA3D transient dynamic
finite element analysis code for calculating contact forces during impact along
with a failure analysis for predicting the threshold of impact damage and
initiation of delaminations. Good agreement was obtained between numerical
and experimental results.
Experimental studies were carried out using sandwich composite
panel specimens, consisting of both polyurethane foam core (PUF) and
aramid honeycomb core (Nomex) type constructions by Raju et al (2006).
These specimens were subjected to impact damage at energy levels ranging
between 7.56 and 15.6 J. It is reported that in flexure, strength recoveries of
up to 97% in PUF core and 90% in honeycomb core sandwich specimens
were realized after repair, whereas in compression, the corresponding values
were up to 90% in PUF core and 88% in honeycomb core sandwich
specimens. A repair effectiveness factor was conceived and introduced to
quantify the efficiency of the repair technique.
Andrey Shipsha et al (2003) investigated the effect of low velocity
impact damage on post impact failure mechanisms and structural integrity of
foam core sandwich beams subjected to edgewise compression, shear and
bending load cases. The impact damage was characterised as indentation of
the core with sub-interface damage seen as a cavity while the GFRP faces
remain virtually unaffected by the impact. Digital speckle photography (DSP)

42
analysis was employed for in situ monitoring of crushing behaviour in the
foam core during static indentation of sandwich specimens. The static shear
strength of impact-damaged sandwich beams was compared with specimens
with fabricated sub-interface cracks of the same length. DSP analysis reveals
that the face-core interface in the peripheral regions of 2D impact damage was
not entirely separated. The properties of crushed foam core were
experimentally determined as they appear to be important for accurate
modelling and analysis of the residual strength of sandwich beams.
Davies et al. (2004) produced two types of sandwich panels with
carbon/epoxy skins and aluminum honeycomb core. These panels were
subjected to low velocity impacts and then the damaged panels tested for their
compression-after-impact (CAI) strength. Thick-face sheet, thin-core option
of the panels was found to be good energy absorber. The thin-face sheet,
thick-core panels were damaged easily. In the tests, debonding did not occur
between upper face sheet and core but massive debonding took place between
the lower face sheet and the core when the impactor penetrated the face sheet.
The thick-skin, thin-core panel absorbed most of the impact and after the
impact its compressive strength was reduced.
A study was conducted of the effect on the geometric eccentricity
due to the resulting indentation from impact by Chris Macdonald and
Anthony Vizzini (2002). The specimens were loaded in uniaxial compression
and strain measurements were made. The strain gage data indicated that
although the manufactured indentations displaced deeper into the core, little
growth transverse to the load was observed. It was concluded that the ultimate
failure of the indented specimens initiated away from the indentation.
A theoretical and experimental investigation was conducted to
determine the response of composite structural elements to low speed,
transverse impact by Edward Mcquillen et al (1976). Experimental results of

43
this investigation showed that as the velocity of impact is increased it requires
less impactor kinetic energy to produce damage.
Bull and Hallstrom (2004 b) conducted a high-velocity and quasistatic impact of large sandwich panels. The response of sandwich structures
subjected to impact velocities of virtually 0 m/s and approximately 1000 m/s
was conducted. Panels were impacted using a 40mm Bofors AA gun and,
using a similar projectile, other panels were indented quasi-statically. Energy
absorption was measured in both test series. After impact, the panels were
tested in in-plane compression together with one undamaged panel for
reference. Residual strength of impacted panels was analyzed by finite
element analysis. It was observed that the damage from high-velocity impact
was limited, and it was possible to regain most of the undamaged strength by
repair.
Frederick Laurin and Anthony Vizzini (2005) conducted an analysis
on the energy absorption of sandwich panels with composite-reinforced foam
core. Specimens with through-the-thickness reinforcement were manufactured
and tested under uniaxial quasistatic loading to determine the effect of the
reinforcement on the energy absorption characteristics. It was concluded that
the reinforcement greatly increased the crushing initiation load, and the
energy absorption was greatly enhanced even when normalized by the overall
weight of the altered cores.
Michelle Hoo Fatt and Kyong Park (2001) found an analytical
solution for the low-velocity impact damage of composite sandwich panels by
considering systems of discrete masses, springs and constant- force dashpots.
It was observed that predictions of the maximum impact force were about
15% higher than experimental values, which was the same order of accuracy
that was obtained from the static load-indentation analysis. Damage initiation
due to tensile failure by hemispherical- nose shape projectiles and shear

44
failure by blunt projectiles were examined. It was concluded that the predicted
tensile and shear failure loads were about 20% higher than experimental
results. Horrigan et al (2000) made a modelling of crushing due to impact in
honeycomb sandwiches. The model developed describes the compressive
behaviour of honeycombs made from materials that were prone to elastic
buckling. The results from analysis were compared to experimental data and
the correlation was found to be very good.
The problem of transverse low-velocity impact on a linearly inplane prestressed sandwich panel was considered by Malekzadeh et al (2006 a).
The panel was subjected to initial in-plane biaxial normal and shear stresses
along the edges of the panel. Impact was assumed to occur normally over the
top or the bottom face-sheets, at arbitrary location. It was observed that the
deflections and the corresponding stresses in the panel with higher initial
stresses were smaller than those with lower initial stresses. The effects of inplane initial shear stresses on impact response were slightly greater than that
of the other in-plane normal loading states.
Kepler (2003) describes the test equipment for testing localized,
penetrating impact on sandwich panels. The impact velocities were in the
region 50130 m/s, with an impactor mass between 0.5 and 1 kg, and an
impactor diameter of 50 mm. A series of 7 impact tests on identical sandwich
panels at varying velocities is described.
Lal (1983) conducted a low velocity transverse impact behaviour of
8-ply, graphite-epoxy laminates. Large deflection theory of plates was used to
predict the load-deflection characteristics during the impact event. The
analysis of static and dynamic impact loading test-data concluded that the
membrane parameter, used in flexural stiffness relation was proportional to
the square of the coefficient of restitution, of the impactor. It was observed
that the results of impact tests up to impact velocity 5.3 m/sec. were close

45
agreement of the predictions. The feasibility of imaging low-velocity impact
damage in thin multi-layered composite plates using Lamb wave tomography
was explored by Soma Sekhar et al. (2006). Lamb wave based tomography
based on modified cross-hole sensor configuration was used to image the
damage as a function of impact energy for graphite composite plates.
Composite sandwich panels constructed from glass-fiber-reinforced
face sheets surrounding both foam-filled and nonfilled honeycomb cores are
impacted using a drop-weight impactor at three energy levels and three
temperatures by Matthew Erickson et al (2005). The effects of core material,
temperature, and impact velocity on the absorbed energy, peak impact force,
and damage mechanisms were studied. The foam-filled samples were
subsequently subjected to four-point bend tests to investigate the effect of
impact velocity and temperature on the damage tolerance and residual
strength of the composites. It was found that the temperature can have a
significant effect on the energy absorbed and maximum force encountered
during impact, although the effect of the impact temperature on the residual
bending stiffness and strength of the composites was mixed.
The impact response of various composite sandwich panels was
investigated by Shih and Jang (1989). The composite sandwich panels,
consisting of various fabric face sheet materials and different densities of poly
vinyl chloride foam cores, demonstrate exceptional low-energy impact
resistance. The macroscopic failure modes, micro failure mechanisms, and
energy absorbing characteristics of these composite sandwich panels were
studied by using instrumented impact test, light microscopy, and scanning
electron microscopy. The impact resistance of composite sandwich panels
was found to be mainly controlled by the face sheets and relatively
independent of the density of the PVC foam core, provided the face sheet
material is tough enough The impact failure mechanism of sandwich panels

46
containing less tough face sheets was found to change from face sheetdominated to foam core dominated behaviour, when the PVC foam core
increased from low density to relatively high density.
Bhavani Sankar (1992) conducted a study on the scaling of lowvelocity impact for symmetric composite laminates. A parametric study using
the Graeco-Latin Factorial Plan was performed. Semi-empirical formulas for
maximum impact force, impact duration, and maximum back surface strains
are obtained. It was found that some of the simple impact models provide the
bounds for the case of impact on a finite extent plate. A one parameter model
was derived for impacts of short duration.
The effect of impact damage on the edgewise compressive
properties and failure mechanism of a sandwich polymer composite was
investigated by Thomson and Mouritz (1999). The composite was made from
a thick core of polyvinyl chloride foam sandwich between thin face skins of
glass fiber reinforced polymer laminate. A model was proposed to determine
the edgewise compressive stress required to induce skin wrinkle in impact
damaged sandwich composites. It was reported that good agreement was
found between the theoretical and measured skin wrinkling stresses in some
cases.
An experimental study was conducted to compare the damage
resistance and energy-absorbing capabilities of graphite/bismaleimide
composite laminates and foam-core sandwich panels by Rocco Ferri and
Bhavani Sankar (1997). Static indentation and drop weight impact tests were
conducted. Damage in the laminates and sandwich panels was assessed by
using ultrasonic C-scan, X-radiography, and photo-micrography. It was
observed that the quasi-static and impact responses for the sandwich panels
have the same overall trend but differ due to the viscoelastic properties of the
foam core. It was concluded from the test results that the sandwich panels can

47
absorb more energy than the laminates and undergo less deflection to absorb
the same maximum energy as the laminates.
A study was conducted by Kevin Turner and Anthony Vizzini
(2004) to determine the effect of integral stiffeners on the damage growth and
ultimate strength of sandwich panels with impact damage. A total of 18
specimens with IM7/8552 [90/0]S face sheets cocured to 25-mm thick Nomex
honeycomb core were impacted and tested in compression. Damage growth
was monitored via strain gages, and ultimate strength was compared against
sandwich panels without integral stiffeners. It was observed that, when
internal stiffeners involved additional material, damage growth was delayed
and the ultimate strength was increased to the point where the ultimate failure
initiated away from the impact site.
The low velocity impact behaviour and impact-induced damages in
graphite/epoxy composite laminates were studied by Pradhan and Kumar
(2000). A three-dimensional finite element and transient dynamic analysis
was performed to calculate the time-varying displacements, forces, strains and
stresses throughout the laminate resulting from transverse impact. Modified
Hertzian contact law was used to model the local contact behaviour.
Supratik Datta et al (2004) conducted a study on the effects of
variable incident impact energy and laminate thickness (obtained by varying
the number of fabric layers at constant moulding pressure and also by varying
the pressure for a fixed number of fabric layers), on the low velocity impact
damage tolerance of GFRP composite laminates (woven E-glass fabric in a
room temperature cure epoxy system LY556/HY951). Repeated drop tests
were conducted using an in-house built drop weight impact tester. Number of
drops to failure, was considered as the impact damage tolerance index. It was
found out that a thinner laminate can be chosen in place of a thicker one when

48
its usage mainly calls for only the impact resistance of the material, thus
providing an economical design for the composite structures.
Kepler (2004 b) conducted an experimental parameter study on the
impact penetration of sandwich panels at different velocities. Three types of
panel configuration were tested. Penetration was carried out in quasi-static
conditions and at approximately 70 and 93 m/s. Impactor mass was 1 kg with
an impactor diameter of 50 mm and with three different impactor tip
geometries. The total energy absorption was measured, and the damage
patterns are described and quantified.
Paul Compston et al (2006) conducted low energy impact damage
modes in Aluminium foam and polymer foam sandwich structures. It was
observed that the polymer foam-based samples exhibit localized damage in
the form of skin fracture and core crushing, but with negligible permanent
out-of-plane deformation. In contrast, the aluminium foam-based samples
show little fracture but exhibit extensive out-of-plane deformation radiating
from the impact point. This deformation suggests that the impact damage
could be more easily detectable in the aluminium foam sandwich structure.
Surface strains are lower in the aluminium foam sandwich samples during
post-impact loading in a single cantilever beam test, suggesting improved
damage tolerance.
Improved numerical models were developed for predicting the
compressive strength of impact-damaged sandwich composites comprised of
woven-fabric graphite-epoxy face sheets and Nomex honeycomb cores by
Youngkeun Hwang and Thomas Lacy (2007). The finite element predictions
of residual strength for panels impacted with relatively blunt objects correlate
well with the experimental observations. It was concluded that the proposed
approach may potentially facilitate sandwich design by providing insight into

49
the relationships between material configuration and damage that lead to
improved damage tolerance characteristics.
An experimental parameter study on impact penetration of sandwich
panels at different velocities was conducted by Kepler (2004 a). It was
observed that the most important contributions were from membrane-state
fiber stretching, core compression, and friction between core material and
impactor. Lesser contributions were from delaminations, core fracture, and
debonding between core and back face-sheet.
Alexander Suvorov and George Dvorak (2005) conducted a study
on the dynamic response of sandwich plates to medium-velocity impact.
Overall and local deflections of a single span of a continuous sandwich plate
were evaluated under local contacts with a rigid indenter, at relative velocities
of 10 and 20 m/s. It was concluded that most of the kinetic energy is absorbed
by the core; hence addition of the stiff and ductile PUR interlayer does not
have as much effect on the results as it had in quasi-static contact.
Kwon and Wojcik (1998) conducted an impact study of sandwich
composite structures with delamination. Finite element analyses were
conducted to analyze the dynamic response of an unbalanced sandwich beam,
a balanced sandwich beam, and a balanced sandwich plate subjected to a low
energy impact.

It was observed that the failure load for a large crack

structure was significantly smaller than that of the non-delaminated structure.

Core shearing failure was followed by delaminating at the core/faceplate
interfaces.

It was concluded that detection of delamination cracks was

difficult from the deflection measurement under a low energy impact.

The impact resistance of composite sandwich plates was studied
experimentally by Michael Bernard and Paul Lagace (1989). Several panels
with Hercules AS4/3501-6 graphite/epoxy face sheets were manufactured

50
with different types of cores: aluminum honeycomb, Nomex honeycomb and
Rohacell plastic foam with three different core thicknesses, 3.2 mm, 6.4 mm
and 9.6 mm. These panels were impacted at a range of low energy levels (less
than 10 joules). X-ray photos were taken to determine the extent of
delamination damage, and the panels were sectioned so the location and
lengths of delaminations, debonds, and core damage could be determined. It
was observed that extensive delamination and core damage was found in
specimens with no visible surface damage. Core damage in the Rohacell
consisted of cracks in the foam while the damage in the honeycomb consisted
of the buckling of cell walls. The largest delaminations were found in the
interface between the bottom two plies of the top face sheet.
Fredrik Edgren et al (2004) conducted an investigation on noncrimp fabric composite face sheet sandwich panels in compression after
impact. Damage in the face sheets was characterised by fractography.
Compression after impact loaded panels was found to fail by plastic fiber
microbuckling (kinking) in the damaged face sheet. The results from this
study imply that bending effects caused by remaining dent or material
eccentricities in the damaged region must be considered.
The

low-velocity

impact response

of

foam-core

sandwich

composites with fiberglass/epoxy face sheets was treated by a combination of

computational and experimental methods by Nemes and Simmonds (1992).
Linear elastic constitutive models were used for the face sheets and epoxy
bond layer in conjunction with a foam constitutive model that includes
nonlinear hardening plasticity and coupling between volumetric and
deviatoric deformation. A transient finite element code, utilizing four-noded
uniform strain quadrilaterals, was used to explicitly solve the equations for
balance of mass and momentum. The resulting deformation histories were
compared to the experimental results and show qualitative agreement.

51
Pizhong Qiao and Mijia Yang (2005) studied the effects of the
elastic half-space and the anti-plane core, and the contact force history and
maximal deflection were predicted. Compared to the available analytical
static analysis of rigid plates on a solid half-space and the numerical finite
element modeling using LS-DYNA, the proposed theoretical method shows
its validity and advantages in predicting the static and impact behaviours of
sandwich plates sitting on a solid half-space. From this study the predicted
non-uniform distribution of transferred force under static load sheds new light
on the understanding of force action mechanism between the sandwich system
and the solid half-space.
Vaidya et al (2003) conducted an investigation on the impact
damage of partially foam-filled co-injected honeycomb core sandwich
composites. The potential benefits of this approach were enhancement of
damage resistance, and ability to process honeycomb type sandwich structures
through cost-effective vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding. The results
illustrate that partial syntactic foam filled sandwich plate (with reduced
weight penalty in comparison to full filling) can provide low velocity impact
response improvement in the order of 56% increase in peak load, and for high
velocity impact about 74% improvement in ballistic limit.
A method for predicting impact-induced delamination in composite
laminates was proposed Jih and Sun (1993). This method was suitable for low
velocity impact with heavy impactors. Static delamination fracture toughness
was used to predict delamination crack growth under impact conditions.
Curing stresses were also considered and found to play a significant role in
evaluating the fracture toughness of some laminates. Experiments were
performed to obtain the impact force history from which the peak force was
used to determine the extent of delamination crack length. The prediction of

52
delamination size using static fracture toughness was found to agree very well
with the experimental result.
Naik et al (2001) carried out a study on the damage initiation
behaviour of polymer matrix woven fabric composite plates subjected to a
transverse central low velocity point impact load. It was observed that the use
of incident impact energy alone as a parameter to characterize the impact
behaviour was inadequate. The low-velocity impact and post-impact response
of low-cost resin infusion moulded sandwich composites utilizing a foam
filled honeycomb core with graphite and S2-glass fabric face sheets (skins)
was investigated by Vaidya et al (1998). The low velocity damage was
correlated to ultrasonic C-scan images, vibration resonance frequency and
optical microscopy observations. The results indicate that the damage
tolerance was enhanced by the foam filled honeycomb core and that load
required to initiate damage was independent of the face sheet type for any
specific core/face sheet thickness.
Zhidong Guan and Chihdar Yang (2002) conducted an investigation
on low-velocity impact and damage process of composite laminates.
Continuum damage mechanics was applied to account for the change of
mechanical properties of damaged materials. The Hertzian contact law was
modified in order to accommodate the serious damage in the plate. A semiempirical delamination damage criterion was introduced. A finite element
program was written in FORTRAN using twenty-noded solid elements with
layered structure to analyze the transient dynamic response of composite
laminates. Damage in the forms of matrix cracking, delamination, and fiber
breakage were included and analyzed. Results including the force history and
delamination areas were found to correlate well with the experiments.
Naik et al (2000) made an investigation to study the damage
initiation behaviour in polymer matrix laminated composite plates subjected

53
to a transverse central low velocity point impact load. The study was carried
out using modified Hertz contact law and an inhouse three-dimensional
transient finite element analysis code. Incident impact velocity in the range of
1 m/sec to 3 m/sec and impactor mass of 50 gm are considered. It was
observed that the overall failure function values were lower for the woven
fabric laminates than for unidirectional and cross ply laminates indicating that
the woven fabric laminates were more impact resistant.
Kiratisaevee and Cantwell (2005) studied the impact response of a
range of novel sandwich structures based on fiber-reinforced thermoplastic
and fiber-metal laminate skins. Low-velocity impact tests show that these
systems were capable of absorbing energy through localized plastic
deformation and crushing in the metal core. An energy-balance model
accounting for energy dissipation in bending, shear, and indentation effects
was used to predict the maximum force during the impact event. It was found
that the model accurately predicts the low-velocity impact response of the
plain sandwich structures up to energies close to 30 J.
The ultimate strength and failure process of composite laminated
plates subjected to low-velocity impact was studied by Ya Jung Lee and
Chien Hua Huang (2003). A steel impactor was used in drop tests to impact
composite laminated plates constructed using carbon-epoxy prepregs.
Damage incurred from a low-velocity impact much closely resembled that
from static crushing. Using the results from the static crush simulation and the
aspect of energy conservation, the dynamic impact force given with different
impactor masses and initial velocities can be rapidly predicted while making
significant savings in computing resources.
The effect of a slow impact on sandwich plates was investigated by
Sburlati (2002). The relation between the impact force and the corresponding
elastic indentation produced by a rigid sphere falling on a sandwich plate was

54
studied. The results were compared with those obtained from a finite element
analysis having considered the plate as a three-dimensional elastic body. The
conclusion of the study was that the Hertzian contact pressure distribution
was appropriate to describe the response of sandwich panels with a highdensity core.
Flanagan et al (1999) conducted an experimental investigation of
high velocity impact and penetration failure modes in textile composites.
Specialized machines were used to fabricate composite from combinations of
Spectra, Kevlar, and Twaron fibers and two- and three-dimensionally woven,
barided, and needle-punched nonwoven fabrics. Results indicate that shear
plugging occurs at velocities corresponding to decrease in debris mass.
An experimental study of low velocity impact damage in woven
fiber composites was carried out by Siow and Shim (1998). The damage
mechanisms for woven laminates were found to be predominantly
delamination and fiber breakage, with the area of impact-induced
delamination increasing linearly with impact energy for the range of energies
examined. It was observed that residual tensile strength was a function of
delamination area and impactor tip radius. It was inferred that for the static
compression and tension-compression fatigue, the residual load-bearing
capacity was only dependent on delamination area. For a common impact
energy and impactor, a damaged specimen was weaker in compression that in
tension.
Lee et al (1993) conducted a study on the dynamic responses of
composite sandwich plate impacted by a rigid ball. Finite element method was
used to discretize the sandwich plate based on refined theory. Experimental
works were conducted on the impact of sandwich plate with graphite/epoxy
faces and FR10110 rigid foam core. Dynamic strain histories obtained from
theoretical analysis and the strain-gage experimental results were compared in

55
good agreement. The study indicates that the theoretical model employed
herein describes the dynamic behaviour of composite sandwich plates due to
low velocity impact. It was found that both the impact velocity and the
impactors mass could affect the magnitude of the contact force. The impact
velocity was a more prominent factor which influences the contact force.
George Dvorak and Alexander Suvorov (2006) conducted a study
for the protection of sandwich plates from low-velocity impact. In this study
the protective effect of thin, ductile inter-layers, inserted between the face
sheet and the foam core, that absorb the face sheet deflection and thus prevent
or reduce the extent of damage to the foam core was examined.
Malekzadeh et al (2006) made an analytical prediction of lowvelocity impact response of composite sandwich panels using new threedegree-of-freedom springmassdamper model. The effects of transverse
flexibility of the core and structural damping of the panel were considered
analytically. The analysis yields analytic functions describing the history of
contact force, displacements of the impactor and the panel in the transverse
direction etc. The effects of some physical and geometrical parameters such
as initial potential energy of the impactor, the aspect ratio of the panel,
location of the impacted point on the panel and the material density of the
core on dynamic response of composite sandwich panels were discussed.
Analytical solutions

for

the deformation, penetration,

and

perforation of composite plates and sandwich panels subjected to quasi-static

punch indentation and projectile impact were derived by Chunfu Lin and
Michelle Hoo Fatt (2006). A two-dimensional wave propagation model was
used to determine the ballistic limits of E-glass/polyester panels and GLARE
fibermetal laminates, and predicted values were found to be within 20 and
13% of the experimental results, respectively. A quasi-static impact model
was used to predict the ballistic limit for E-glass/epoxyaluminium

56
honeycomb sandwich impacted by hemispherical nose projectile and the
predicted values were within 11% of test results.
Sharma et al (2004 b) carried out a low-velocity instrumented
impact tests out on sandwich panels made of glass fiber-reinforced plastic
face sheets and polyurethane foam core. The tests were carried out using a
drop weight instrumented impact tester, connected to a data acquisition
system. Four different types of sandwich samples using polyester/e-glass and
epoxy/e-glass face sheet materials and polyurethane foam were considered for
investigation. Two different face sheet materials were chosen to
experimentally examine the effect of their elastic modulus on the impact
response of the sandwich structures. The results show that higher impact
energy was required to break the epoxy/e-glass face sheet and backsheet
sandwich specimens than other types of specimens examined. The impact
damage caused to the face sheet, the core and the backsheet were thoroughly
studied experimentally and the extent of damage caused to the face sheets and
the core were also compared by finite element analyses.
Claudio Scarponi et al (1996) conducted a study on the behaviour of
fiber reinforced composites and sandwich panels for aeronautical applications
under impact. The impact tests were performed with a falling weight machine,
which allowed the most important dynamic and kinetic parameters, such as
the contact force, impactor velocity and displacement and perforation energy
to be measured. A numerical simulation was performed using a transient
dynamic Finite Element Analysis.
Impact resistance of composite laminated sandwich plates were
studied by Chun Gon Kim and Eui Jin Jun (1992). The sandwich plate was
made of graphite/epoxy faces and Nomex honeycomb core. The quantitative
measurement of delamination size has shown that the face lay-up with small
relative orientation between adjacent plies and high density core are desirable

57
in sandwich plates to reduce the impact delamination. It was inferred that the
face sheet of a sandwich with higher density core has smaller delamination
area than that with lower density core for the same absorbed energy.
Chunfu Lin and Michelle Hoo Fatt (2005) developed Analytical
models for the static and low-velocity perforation of composite sandwich
panel with woven E-glass/epoxy prepreg face sheets and aluminium
honeycomb core. A three-stage perforation process involving consecutive
failures of top face sheet, core, and bottom face sheet was proposed. It was
observed that the energy dissipated in the core shear fracture represented 17%
of the total absorbed energy. The remaining energy absorbed was about 8%
and this was attributed to delamination/debonding energy and fracture energy
of the E-glass/epoxy face sheets.
2.13

VIBRATION BEHAVIOUR OF SANDWICH PANELS

Although sandwich structures have significant advantages, they

also have some less favourable properties. For example, their high stiffnessto-weight ratio reduces the critical frequency of a sandwich panel. In addition,
because sandwich panels are generally orthotropic, the critical frequencies,
unlike those of metals, are actually situated in a frequency band instead of in
one particular frequency. These features usually result in poor sound
transmission loss over a wider frequency range. Additionally, composite
materials tend to be more brittle than metals. Because of delamination,
debonding and fiber breakage, fatigue in composite materials is of more
concern than in metals because of the sudden catastrophic failure that can
occur. A Knowledge of the passive damping of sandwich structures at the
design stage, is thus important.

58
The three essential parameters that determine the dynamic
responses of a structure and its sound transmission characteristics are mass,
stiffness and damping. Mass and stiffness are associated with the storage of
energy. Damping results in the dissipation of energy by a vibration system.
For a linear system, if the forcing frequency is the same as the natural
frequency of the system, the response is very large and can easily cause
dangerous consequences. In the frequency domain, the response near the
natural frequency is damping controlled. Higher damping can help to
reduce the amplitude of the resonance of structures. Increased damping also
results in faster decay of free vibration, reduced dynamic stresses, lower
structural response to sound, and increased sound transmission loss above the
critical frequency.
Daniel Backsto and Anders Nilsson (2006) conducted a study to
evaluate the possibility of using modified lower order methods, such as the
BernoulliEuler or Timoshenko beam theories with frequency dependent
parameters, to calculate the response of sandwich beams subject to different
end conditions. The models were verified by measurements on a freely
suspended asymmetric sandwich beam with aluminium laminates and a
plastic foam core, indicating good agreement.
Closed-form formulations of 2-D higher-order shear deformation
theories for the free vibration analysis of simply supported cross-ply
laminated composite and sandwich doubly curved shells were analysed by
Ajay Kumar Garg (2006). The results show that the solutions for sandwich
laminates using various higher-order displacement models will serve as
benchmarks in future.
Axisymmetric and non-axisymmetric modes of vibration of circular
sandwich panels were investigated by Daowu Zhou and Stronge (2006),

59
applying the first-order shear theory. Solutions were obtained for boundary
conditions with free, simply supported, and clamped edges. The Analytical
and

numerical

calculations

were

compared

with

the

experimental

measurements of the first few modes of vibration; the frequency differences

were less than 4%.
Rakesh Kumar Khare et al (2005) presented two higher-order shear
deformable finite element models, using a higher-order facet shell element for
the free vibration analysis of layered anisotropic sandwich laminates. The
parametric effects of length to-thickness ratio, core thickness-to-flange
thickness ratio, plate aspect ratio and radius-to-side ratio upon the natural
frequencies were discussed. The results show that the difference in the
predictions of the first-order theory and the higher-order theories was very
small for thin sandwich laminates. It was concluded that the element has a
fairly good accuracy and was promising for further engineering applications.
A study of the free vibrations of singly curved sandwich beams was
presented by Elena Bozhevolnaya and Sun (2004). The model takes into
consideration both radial and circumferential displacements of the beam core
with the assumption of linear distribution across the thickness.
Vladimir Sokolinsky et al (2004) carried out an analytical and
experimental study of the free vibration response of soft-core sandwich
beams. The natural frequencies and corresponding vibration modes of a
cantilever sandwich beam with a soft polymer foam core, are predicted using
the higher-order theory for sandwich panels, a two-dimensional finite element
analysis, and the classical sandwich theory. The Experimental observations
and analytical predictions show that the classical sandwich theory was not
capable of accurately predicting the free vibration response of soft-core
sandwich beams. The study concludes that the damping properties of the foam

60
core were manifest most noticeably in the case of the thickness-stretch
vibration modes, whereas the influence of damping on the anti-symmetric
modes was insignificant.
The effects of polyurethane foam density and skin materials,
namely, e-glass/ epoxy and e-glass/polyester on the damping behaviour of
polyurethane foam sandwich structures were investigated by Sharma et al
(2004 a) in the temperature range - 20 to 100 oC, using the Rheovibron
dynamic mechanical analyzer. The effects of the skin material, the density of
foam, the interface bonding between the skin and the foam and the operating
temperature on the damping mechanism of the sandwich structures were
discussed. The experimental results showed the maximum peak damping
capacity at 0

C in the case of Polyester/Glass-PUF-Polyester/Glass

specimens for a foam density of 0.6 gm/cc. The damping capacity initially
increased in the temperature range of -20 to 0 oC, attained peak value at 0 oC,
further decreased marginally up to 60 oC and finally, drastically decreased in
the temperature range of 60100 oC.
Makhecha et al (2002) conducted a study on the effects of higherorder theory, that accounts for the realistic variation of in-plane and transverse
displacements through the thickness, on the modal loss factors and natural
frequencies of thick composite laminated/sandwich plates, was studied. The
complex modulus of an orthotropic lamina was employed to model the
damping effect. The significance of various higher-order terms considered in
the model in predicting the vibration and damping characteristics were shown
through the numerical studies. A detailed parametric study was also carried
out to highlight the influences of ply-angle, aspect ratio, number of layers,
and core to face thickness ratio for sandwich laminates on frequencies and
system loss factors of composite laminates/sandwich plates.

61
Aleksandr Korjakin (2001) investigated the free damped vibrations
of sandwich shells of revolution. The vibration and damping characteristics of
cylindrical, conical and spherical sandwich shells for different material and
geometrical properties and boundary conditions were studied. A specific
sandwich shell finite element with 54 degrees of freedom was employed.
From the results obtained it was concluded that the finite element can be used
for solving design problems of sandwich shells.
Elena Bozhevolnaya and Yeoshua Frostig (2001) carried out an
investigation on free vibrations of curved sandwich beams with a transversely
flexible core. A high-order model for free vibrations of singly curved
sandwich beams was presented. A numerical analysis of free vibration of the
simply supported beams was carried out. Effects of design parameters of the
sandwich constituents on the Eigen modes and their appropriate frequencies
were investigated. It was concluded that the developed model may find its use
in the context of various applications of curved sandwich members in the
high-performance vehicles.
Achintya Mukhopadhyay and Robert Sierakowski (2000) carried out
the systematic development of a dynamic theory for a sandwich beam was
presented leading to the governing equations of equilibrium and the natural
boundary conditions. Using variational principles into the analysis, both the
governing equations and the boundary conditions were obtained. Rakesh
Qunli Liu and Yi Zhao (2001) carried out a study on the prediction of natural
frequencies of a sandwich panel using thick plate theory. The vibration of a
sandwich panel with two identical isotropic face sheets and an orthotropic
core was studied. The governing partial differential equation was derived
using a variational principle. The natural frequencies of a rectangular
sandwich panel can be predicted on the basis of the proposed analytical
model. Results from the proposed model were compared with those from thin

62
plate theory. The effects of the structural and material parameters such as core
anisotropy, core density, and face sheet thickness on natural frequencies were
discussed.
Ganapathi et al (1999) investigated the torsional vibration and
damping analysis of beams with sandwich or constrained layer damping
arrangements using finite element procedure. A detailed parametric study was
carried out to highlight the influence of shear modules of the core or
constrained layer in beams, thickness ratio, and boundary condition on the
torsional resonance frequencies and its associated system loss factors.
Trindade et al (1999) conducted a parametric analysis of the
vibration control of sandwich beams through shear-based piezoelectric
actuation. A comparative numerical analysis of shear and extension actuation
mechanisms for the bending vibrations control of sandwich beams.
Theoretical and finite element models of a sandwich beam, capable of dealing
with both mechanisms, were presented. The influence of important
parameters variation, such as actuator thickness and structure/actuator
modulus ratio, on the performance the control system was analyzed under
limited input voltage and induced beam tip transverse deflection. Results
suggest that shear actuators can be more effective than extension ones for the
control of bending vibrations.
Xuanli Hu (1997) made a free vibration analysis of symmetrical
cylindrical honeycomb panels by using the finite strip method. Finite strip
analysis was used for evaluation of natural frequencies and modes of
symmetrical, cylindrical honeycomb panels. It was found that some natural
frequencies predicted were independent of the strip division, and the finite
strip analysis always gives one more frequencies than do the analytical
solutions.

63
2.14

INFERENCES FROM THE LITERATURE SURVEY

From the literature, the following inferences are made.
The Manufacturing methods for fabricating sandwich panels
with different types of cores are now well established.
The Sandwich effect is now well understood and constitutive
equations for predicting the flexural stiffness precisely are
now available. Also, the failure modes in sandwich panels are
well studied.
Cost effective manufacturing methods for making FRP
honeycomb core panels, using the simple vacuum bag mould
technique has not been attempted.
It is true that currently, the principle of the sandwich effect is

beneficially utilized intuitively.

However, some aspects of testing need

special attention. Further, there are still some grey areas which have not been
thoroughly investigated. These are highlighted below for an appraisal.
The Influence of cell size on the flexural characteristics has
not been established quantitatively.
Most of the research literature available on sandwich panels
deals with the stiffness analysis, failure modes and strength
analysis discretely. However, an integrated and holistic picture
about the mechanical behaviour of sandwich panels is
absolutely essential, from the design point of view.
In the open literature scanned, it is garnered that in
honeycomb sandwich structures there is no mathematical
correlation between the geometrical parameters of the

64
honeycomb core and the physical and mechanical parameters
like density, modulus, strength etc.
There is no robust design data available for selecting the
thickness requirement to design a sandwich panel for the
given panel size, load, and permissible stiffness which
includes strength and failure assessment.
Low velocity impact characteristics such as the maximum load
absorbed, absorbed energy and failure mode of the
honeycomb sandwich panels with varying cell sizes, have not
been reported.
The Dynamic modal characteristics of the honeycomb
sandwich panels with varying cell sizes under different
boundary conditions have not been reported.
2.15

OBJECTIVES OF THIS RESEARCH

The objective of the present research work is to establish an

integrated and holistic approach from the stand point of design, considering
the static, impact and vibration behavior of sandwich panels. The
(dissertation) steps adopted in meeting the objectives are highlighted below:
To fabricate sandwich panels with the Fiber Reinforce Plastic
(FRP) face sheet and FRP honeycomb cores of various cell
sizes.
`To establish a correlation between the cell size and core
density based on the geometrical configurations of the FRP
honeycomb core.
To examine the influence of the cell size on the elastic
constants of the core, such as the compression and shear

65
modulus, as well on the compression and shear strength of the
core.
To establish a correlation between the cell size/core density
and the elastic constants of the core and to study the stiffness
and strength characteristics of the sandwich panels.
To analyze the range of the stiffness characteristics and load
carrying capacities, that could be obtained with sandwich
constructions with varying cell sizes.
To examine the influence of the cell size of the FRP
honeycomb core on the low velocity impact resistance
behavior, so as to make recommendations for the applicability
of the FRP honeycomb core panels under such loading
situations.
To investigate the effect of the cell size on the fundamental
frequency, damping ratio and mode shape of the FRP
honeycomb core sandwich panels.