Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CONTENTS
1. Structure of Atom ................................................................................................ 5-8
2. Composition of Matter ..................................................................................... 9-13
3. Gaseous Behaviour .......................................................................................... 14-15
4. Solution ............................................................................................................. 16-20
5. Chemical Thermodynamics ............................................................................ 21-23
6. Chemical Reactions .......................................................................................... 24-26
7. Thermo-Chemistry ........................................................................................... 27-31
8. Electro-Chemistry ............................................................................................. 32-34
9. Radioactivity ..................................................................................................... 35-37
10. Chemical Bonding ........................................................................................... 38-38
11. Periodic Table ................................................................................................... 39-40
12. Non-Metals ........................................................................................................ 41-45
13. Organic Chemistry ........................................................................................... 46-50
14. N, P, C & HALOGENS ................................................................................... 51-54
15. Metallurgy ......................................................................................................... 55-58
16. Environmental Chemistry ............................................................................... 59-69
17. Chemistryat a Alance ....................................................................................... 70-74
IAS ACADEMY
CHRONICLE
STRUCTURE OF ATOM
It was John Dalton who first enunciated matter to be
composed of indivisible particles having an independent existence and called them Atoms (meaning uncut).
But towards the end of the 19th century, modern atomic
theory, mostly from the works of Thomson, Rutherford,
Chadwick, Milliken, Bohr, de Broglie proved that atom
is divisible and made up of three fundamental subatomic particles namely electron, proton and neutron.
Atoms are very reactive and do not exist in the free state,
except the atoms of noble gases.
Constituents of Atom
An atom consists of three fundamental particles:
(i)
Symbol
Position
Relative
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Absolute
charge
Relative mass
charge
1840
nucleus
Proton
Neutron
Nucleus
Electron
e
n
Nucleus
+1
around 0the
19
coulomb
0 1.60 10
1
9.1 10
1.67 1024 gm
1
1.68 1024 gm
[5]
(v)
Absolute
w.r.t proton)
28
gm
L - Shell (n = 2 ) = 2n = 2 x 2 = 8 electrons
2
M - Shell (n = 3 ) = 2n = 2 x 3 = 18 electrons
2
2
N - Shell (n = 4 ) = 2n = 2 x 4 = 32 electrons
Atom is spherical.
hh
= wavelength
h = Planks Constant
m = mass
v = velocity
p = momentum
The wave character of electrons was experimentally
proved by x-ray diffraction studies.
Atomic Number
It is defined as the number of unit positive charges
on the nucleus (nuclear charge) of the atom of that
element. It is denoted by z. It is basically the number of
protons and this number is also equal to the number of
electrons in a neutral atom.
Atomic number = number of protons = number of
electrons.
Mass Number
The sum of the protons and neutrons present in the
nucleus of the atom is known as the mass number of the
atom.
[6]
Valence Electron
An electron in one of the outer shells of an atom that
takes part in forming chemical bonds is known as the
valence shell.
Valency (Valence)
It is the combining power of an atom equal to the
number of hydrogen atoms that the atom could combine
with or displace in a chemical compound (hydrogen
Atomic Mass
Atomic mass of an isotope = mass of neutrons +
mass of protons.
Isotope : The name isotope was first introduced by
Soddy. Different kinds of atoms of the same element
which have the same atomic no. but different mass nos.
iii.
2.
3.
4.
Isobars
Isotones
14
14 = 6 + n
Examples of Isotopes
1. There are three isotopes of hydrogen (atomic no.
Z=1) with mass no. (A) 1, 2, 3. These are:
i. Protium 1H1 - Ordinary hydrogen
ii.
n = 14 - 6 = 8
for 7N15
15 = 7 + n
n = 15 - 7 = 8
For 8O16
16 = 8 + n
n = 16 - 8 = 8
Hence the no. of neutrons of all 6C14, 7N15, 8O16 is the
same as 8 but their atomic no. is different.
Quantum Numbers
The electronic structure of an atom refers to the way
in which the electrons are arranged about the nucleus
and in particular the energy levels that they occupy.
Each electron can be characterized by a set of four quantum numbers as follows :
(i) Principal Quantum Number: It is denoted by n. It
gives the main energy level and has values 1, 2, 3, etc.
(the higher the number, the further the electron from the
nucleus). Traditionally these levels or the orbits corresponding to them are referred to as shells and are denoted by letters K, L, M etc. Hence it gives information
about the energy of an electron in an orbit, the distance
of the electron from the nucleus (size of an atom) etc.
(ii) Azimuthal Quantum Number: It is denoted by l. It
[7]
0,
1,
2,
clockwise spin
1
s=
s=
Shape of
d-orbital
CHRONICLE
COMPOSITION OF MATTER
s-orbital
p-orbital
p-orbital
d-orbital
px
py
pz
f-orbital
l = 0, m = + 1 0
-1
d-orbital
Hunds Rule
l=2
dxy
dzx
dyz d x2
When electron filling occurs in an orbital, each orientation of the orbital is first singly occupied and only
after this pairing occurs. The filling of two electrons in
the p-orbital can be shown as:
m= +2 +1 0 -1 -2
Orientation of different orbitals are shown in the
figure given below :
+1
0-1+1
0-1
(A)
(B)
In (A), electron pairing occurs leaving empty orientation, hence this distribution is not valid according to
Hunds rule. In B, single occupancy of orientation occurs and this is valid distribution of electrons according
to Hunds rule.
[8]
IAS ACADEMY
5.
Compounds
1.
(Compound)
[9]
FORMS OF ELEMENTS
Elements in
liquid form
Elements in
gaseous form
Mercury (Hg)
Bromine (Br)
Hydrogen (H)
Nitrogen (N)
Oxygen (O)
Francium (Fr) Fluorine (F)
Chlorine (Cl)
and noble
gases like
Helium (He)
Neon (Ne),
Argon (Ar)
Current
Elements in
solid form
Rest elements
like Carbon (C)
Sodium (Na)
Potassium (K)
Calcium (Ca)
Barium (Ba)
etc.
Hydrogen + Oxygen
depend upon the source. For example, water obtained from rain, wells, oceans, rivers or mountains
has the same composition (H2O).
6. A compound is represented by a chemical formula
indicating the presence of elements and their relative number of atoms. For example, chemical formula of water is represented by H2O which includes
two Hydrogen and one Oxygen atoms.
Mixtures
1. Mixture is obtained by mixing of two or more substances (elements or compounds) in any proportion.
2. Componentsretaintheirindividualchemicalproperties.
3. It can be separated by suitable physical means.
4. Soil, stone, wood, air, water, milk, kerosene, etc. are
examples of mixtures.
5. Its properties depend on the nature and amount of
the constituents.
cooling give back the original substance. This phenomenon is only applicable when the vapour pressure of the solid phase is high. It can be used for
substances which form sublimates in their separation from non-sublimate materials. Naphthalene,
iodine and ammonium chloride are sublimable.
6. Therearetwotypesofmixtures:
Solid
Gas
2.
Steam Distillation: It is a method of distilling liquids that are immiscible with water by bubbling
steam through them. It is essential that the vapour
pressure (and hence the boiling point) of the mixture of the two immiscible liquids should be lower
than the vapour pressure of either, pure liquid. This
method gives results, almost equivalent to those
obtained from simple distillation.
3.
Homogeneous Mixture
Homogeneousmixture;and
Heterogeneous mixture.
Separation of Mixtures
Some methods for the separation of mixtures are described as below :
1. Sublimation: A direct change
of state from solid to gas is
called sublimation. In this
process gaseous subtances on
Heterogeneous Mixture
1.
[10]
2.
3.
4.
States of Matter
There are three states (or phases) of matter i.e. solids, 5.
liquids and gases. Sometimes plasma is also considered
a fourth state of matter which is a highly ionisable gas.
1. Solids: It is a state of matter which has a threedimensional regularity of structure, resulting from
the proximity of the component atoms, ions or molecules and the strength of the forces between them .
In this closely packed structure molecules vibrate
Change of State
Solid, liquid and gas are converted into each other
through the melting, boiling, condensation and solidifying processes. At melting point any change involves the
loss or gain of a certain amount of heat and this heat is
called latent heat. Some impure and non-crystalline substances like glass, butter, etc. do not have definite melting
points. Volume of substances expand upon melting and
shrinks upon solidifying but water expands on freezing.
An additional amount of heat energy called the heat of
vapourization is required to turn a liquid, such as water
0
at 100 C into steam at that same temperature. Properties
like boiling and melting depend on pressure. At less than
normal pressure, melting and boiling points are generally lower. On increasing the pressure, the boiling point
and melting point generally increase but melting point of
water decreases on increasing of pressure.
2.
[11]
Chloride Cl
Percentage
55.05
7.68
3.69
1.16
1.10
0.19
Si
Al
Fe
Ca
Mg
Ti
Mn
Bromide Br
43.6
27.7
8.1 5.0
3.6
2.8
2.6
2.1
0.44
There are three important laws of chemical combination based on the Daltonian atomic concept as below:
Percentage
(%)
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Argon
78
21
1 (justUnder)
0.1
2.
These constituent particles of each substance are distinct and have certain properties which are different
fromthoseofatomsormoleculesofallothersubstances.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Themoleculesofagasareincontinuousrandommotion
and exert pressure on the walls of the container.
8.
Molecules
0.2
1. Law of Conservation of Matter (or Mass): According to this law Matter can neither be created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction. Thus there is no
change in mass in a chemical reaction. For example,
the reaction between Sodium Chloride and water
can be written as :
0.14
Carbon
dioxide
0.04
Water Vapour
Very Small amounts
[12]
Homoatomic Molecules
l
Mostly elementary gases are homoatomic, for example, Hydrogen gas consists of two atoms of hydrogen i.e. H2. Oxygen gas consists of two Oxygen
atoms but they are diatomic. Hence it may be diatomic, etc.
Heteroatomic Molecules
l
l
Avogadros Hypothesis
Equal volumes of all gases contain equal numbers
of molecules at the same pressure and temperature.
This statement is called Avogadros hypothesis. It is
true only for ideal gases. The actual no. of molecules in
a gram molecule is known as Avogadros number and
23
its value is 6.023 x 10 molecules.
Atomic Mass
It is the average relative mass of an atom. It is calcu12
Atomicity
The total no. of atoms in a molecule is called atomicity. For example atomicity of hydrogen molecule (H2) is
2, of hydrogen chloride (HCl) is 2 (H=1, Cl=1) and of
th
Mole
Molecular Mass
23
GASEOUS BEHAVIOUR
CHRONICLE
mass of a substance,
b)
number of particles,
c)
PV
can be established as
: TP2 V2
[13]
V
at constant T and n
IAS ACADEMY
Boyles Law
Volume of a fixed mass of a gas at constant
temperature is inversely proportional to the pressure of
the gas. It can be shown as:
1
P
Charles Law
The volume of a given mass of gas at constant
pressure varies directly with absolute temperature.
Mathematically it can be seen as:
V T at constant P and n
Avogadros Hypothesis
At constant temperature and pressure, volume of a
gas varies directly with no. of moles of the gas.
Mathematically it can be seen as :
V n at constant T and P.
1
1
T2
M2
Liquefaction of Gases
When gases are compressed and cooled (i.e.
subjected to high pressure and low temperature), they
are converted to liquid. The process of gas liquid is
known as liquifaction and the temperature at which a
gas is converted to liquid is known as the liquifaction
temperature. At high pressure and low temperature,
attractive forces between gaseous molecules is high and
molecules are drawn together to form a liquid. The
liquifaction of gases is indicative of the attractive forces
between the gaseous molecules.
Critical Temperature
The temperature at which a gas can be liquified is
[14]
Inversion Temperature
It is the temperature at which the gas neither shows
heating effect nor shows cooling effect on expansion.
Diffusion
Inter mixing of gases irrespective of the force of
1
md
p = Pressure
CHRONICLE
m = Molecular weight
d = Density
SOLUTION
P
r2 P 2 M 1
2 RT
M
R = gas constant
T = temperature (273 + tC)
Effusion
The passage of gases through a small aperture under
pressure is known as effusion. Grahams law of diffusion
is also applicable to effusion.
M = molecular weight
Average Velocity (Ca): It is the arithmetic mean of
the different velocities of the molecules of the gas at a
8 RT
M
3RT
[15]
IAS ACADEMY
particular temperature.Ca
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more
substances whose properties vary continuously with varying proportion of the components. Several types of solutions
are possible because components of a solution can be in any
state of aggregation (i.e. solid, liquid or gas). They are solid
solid, solid gas, liquid liquid, liquid gas and gas gas.
Saturated Solution
Base
It accepts protons.
(H2 SO4), Acetic acid (CH3COOH) etc. are the examples. hydroxide (NH4OH), Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
etc.
are the examples.
l
Emulsion
When we add cooking oil to water, the oil floats on
the water. Oil and water are immiscible. But on shaking
vigourously the oil and water, a milky-looking liquid is
obtained, this is called an emulsion. This milky liquid is
due to the presence of tiny droplets of oil. Milk is an
emulsion. It is made up of tiny droplets of fat floating in
water.
[16]
ing temperature. We take an example of gaseous solubility such as in a pond on a cool day there is usually
plenty of Oxygen dissolved in the water because solubility of gas increases at low temperature. But on a hot
day, the hot, fast moving Oxygen molecules can escape from the water into the air. Less Oxygen remains in
solution in the water because solubility of gases de-
Solubility
Solubility is a measure of how much of a substance
will dissolve. At saturation, the amount of solute in a
given solvent at a specified temperature is known as the
solubility of
the solute.
It can also be defined as the no. of
IAS
Chronicle
grams of solute that will dissolve in 100 gms of solvent at
a given temperature. For example, the solubility of table
salt is 35.7 grams in 100 grams of water at solvent
0
0
temperature of 0 C. It is 39.8 grams at 100 Celsius.
Solubility of solids increases with increasing temperature and solubility of gases decreases with increas-
Osmosis
Colligative Properties
Colligative properties of solutions are those properties which depend on the number of solute and solvent
particles (molecules or ions) but not on the nature of the
solute. Examples of such properties are :
i.
lowering of vapour pressure.
ii. elevation of boiling points.
iii. the depression of freezing point.
iv. the osmotic pressure.
Osmotic Pressure
Osmotic pressure is the pressure which just prevents the passage of pure solvent into the solution
powder
[17]
Suspension
More than 100 nm.
Translucent
Do not settle
Opaque
Do not settle under
under gravity
Settle on standing
centrifugation
Filterability
Diffusible
Diffuse quickly
Someslowly
natural colouring
materials
Diffuse
Do not
diffuse from red cabba
raddish
ge, skin, beet root and rose petals are used
Shows Tyndall Effect
Very little or no Tyndall effect
indicators.
as
Academy
Chronicle IAS
Uses of salts are also well-known. Sodium
[18]
Litmus
Red
Red
Colourless
Yellow
Colour in
Strong Base
Blue
Yellow
Red
Blue
Titration
dustry for increasing the strength of threads and used
as a cement for joining broken tooth. Plaster of paris
Buffer Solution: Buffer solution is a solution which
resists change in PH when an acid or alkali is added or
when the solution is diluted. There are two types of
buffer solutions : (a) acidic buffer; and (b) basic buffer.
a. Acidic Buffer : These are formed by mixing solupH System
tions of a weak acid and its salt such as CH3COOH and
It is a negative logarithmic scale for expressing the
CH3COONa.
acidity or alkalinity or basicity of a solution. It is
b. Basic Buffer: These are made up by mixing solu+1
expressed as pH = - log [H ]
tions of a weak base and its salt such as NH4OH and
NH4Cl.
Dispersed
Phase
Dispersion
Medium
Designation
Examples
1.
Gas
Liquid
Foam
2.
Gas
Solid
Solid foam
3.
Liquid
Gas
Clouds, mists, fogs.
4.
Liquid
Liquid
creams and other emul-
Aerosol
Emulsion
Milk,
sions
5.
Liquid
Solid
Gel
6.
Solid
Gas
Solid foam
7.
Solid
Liquid
Liquid sol
8.
Solid
Solid
Solid sol
There is a great importance of buffers for us. For example, in the laboratory, buffers are used to prepare solutions of known stable PH. Natural
buffers occur in living organisms,
where the biochemical reactions are
very sensitive to change in pH. The
main natural buffers are H2CO3 ,HCO3and H2PO4-HPO42- Buffer solutions are
also used in medicine (e.g. in intravenous injections), in agriculture and in
dyeing, fermentation processes and
the food industry. Buffer solutions are
widely used in electroplating and also
in processed food and drinks to prevent excessive acidity.
[19]
Colloidal Solution
Colloidal solution is a homogeneous system of two
immiscible phases. It means that colloids are now regarded as systems in which there are two or more phases,
with one (is called the dispersed phase) distributed in the
other (the continuous phase).
There are various types of colloidal solutions. Sol is
called a colloidal solution. Sols are of two types:
i.
Lyophobic Sols: In these sols there is no affinity between the dispersed phase and the liquid.
ii.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Smoke Precipitation: Smoke is a colloidal solution of carbon in air. They are charged particles
and hence they can be precipitated on charged
metal plates.
7.
[20]
CHRONICLE
CHEMICAL
THERMODYNAMICS
IAS ACADEMY
Introduction
Thermodynamics is the study of the laws that govern the conversion of energy from one form to another,
the direction in which heat will flow and the availability of energy to do work. Chemical thermodynamics is
the branch of thermodynamics which deals with the
study of processes involving chemical energy only.
System: It is a part of the universe which is selected
for thermodynamic investigation.
Surroundings: Except for the system the rest of the
universe is the surrounding. A gas enclosed in a cylinder is the system, cylinder is the surrounding and cylinder + gas is the universe in thermodynamic sense.
On the basis of exchange of mass and energy, the
system may be:
i.
Isothermal Process
It is one in which temperature of the system remains
constant (
T = 0); change of state (freezing, melting,
evaporation, etc.) is an isothermal process.
Isobaric Process
It is one in which the pressure of the system remains
constant (
P = 0).
Isochoric Process
It is one in which the volume of the system remains
constant (
V = 0).
1
iii. Closed System: If the boundary
1 of the system alAdiabatic Process
lows only=heat flow but not matter flow it is called
closed system.
It is one in which the system does not exchange heat
Example of Isolated System: If water in a sealed
with the surroundings i.e. no heat enters or leaves the
bottle is insulated, heat transfer from the surrounding to
system (
q = 0).
the bottle is prevented. Thus water in a sealed bottle and
bottle covered with insulator is an example of an isoReversible Process
lated system. Water kept in thermos flask represents an
It is one in which direction may be reversed at any
isolated system.
stage. Such a process is carried out extremely slowly
First Law of Thermodynamics
in equilibrium conditions. The reversible process takes
infinite time to occur. For a process to be reversible,
This statement is equivalent to the law of conservafriction, resistance, etc. should be absent and secondly
tion of energy. Heat added to a system is equal to the
there should be thermodynamic equilibrium.
change in internal energy and work done by the system.
[21]
Irreversible Process
Entropy
Q2
Q2 Q 1 T2 T1
Q2
T2
T
T2
W = work done
Q2 = Heat absorbed from the source
Q1 = Heat returned to the sink respectively
T2 = Temperature of the source
T1 = Temperature of the sink
Spontaneous Process
The physical, or chemical, process which occurs in a
particular set of conditions either of its own or after
proper initiation. All natural processes are spontaneous processes. Spontaneous processes cannot reverse
on their own. In a spontaneous process there is an
increase of entropy.
The conversion of solid into liquid and liquid into
gas (solidliquid gas) is accompanied with increased random distribution of molecules and also increased entropy. Similarly, spontaneous diffusion of
one gas into another involves increase of entropy and
the molecules of the two gases get mixed in a more
random manner.
The concept of entropy as a measure of randomness
or lack of order has a great physical significance. For
0
example, when ice melts to water at 0 C,
S is 5.26
-1
-1
cal.deg mole but when solid benzene melts,
S=
1
-1
8.27 cal. deg mole . This means that there is greater
order in water than in liquid benzene which may be due
to hydrogen bonded structure in water.
Entropy Change during Freezing and Condensation: Freezing of a liquid and condensation of gases are
examples for which the entropy is decreased.
Importance of Thermodynamics
Since thermodynamics is concerned with energy
change therefore we assimilate a complete knowledge
of various forms of energy i.e. kinetic energy, potential
energy, electrical, energy, radiant energy, mass energy,
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
CHRONICLE
[23]
IAS ACADEMY
Chemical Reactions
Chemical reaction is a process in which one or more
substances (called reactants) react together to form one
or more new substances (called products) or a compound decomposes into two or more new compounds.
In the chemical reaction, bond breaking and bond formation take place. In other words, we can say that there
is a rearrangement of the energy distribution in the
chemical reaction.
Chemical reaction is represented by a chemical equation. A chemical equation includes the chemical formulae of a compound representing the symbols of ele-
Balancing Equations
According to the law of mass conservation, in chemical reactions the amount and constituents of reactants
are accountable in the form of products. Consider the
2.
Chemical Formula
Chemical formula represents exact figure of the constituents in a compound. It denotes how many atoms
are combined in a molecule. For example, H2O is the
chemical formula for the water molecule, in which two
atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen are present.
Sometimes elements exist as molecules that are combi[24]
FeCl3 Fe+++ +
3Cl
- 2 Fe++ + 2ClFeCl
Electropositive
elements Fe, Cu, Na, K, etc.
Examples of oxidation :
i.
2Cu + O2 2CuO
ii.
2Mg + O2 2MgO
iii. Mg + Cl2 MgCl2
iv. 4HCl + MnO2 2H2O + MnCl2 + Cl2
v. 2SO2 + O2 2SO3
vi. 2Mg + O2 2MgO
In the above reactions (i) and (ii) Cu, Mg are combined with oxygen. Hence they have undergone oxidation and oxygen is the oxidizing agent. In (iii) reaction
Mg is combined with electronegative element Cl2. Hence
Mg has undergone oxidation. In (vi) reaction H has
been removed from HCl to obtain Cl2 hence HCl has
undergone oxidation and MnO2 is the oxidizing agent.
In (v) reaction oxidation number of S is +4 in SO2 which
has increased to +6 in SO3 . Hence SO2 has undergone
oxidation and O2 is the oxidizing agent. In (vi) reaction
++
ion
F + e F
F is an oxidizing agent
-
ii.
O + 2e O
O is an oxidizing agent
Following types of elements and compounds are
oxidizing agents :
1.
2.
3.
4.
ii.
S + 2Na Na2S
S has undergone reduction
ii.
CuO + C Cu + CO
CuO has undergone reduction to Cu
iii.
Oxidation number (no. of charges) of Fe has decreased from +3 in FeCl3to +2 in FeCl2. Hence FeCl3 has
undergone reduction.
ii.
Fe
+++
+ e Fe
++
Each Fe+++ ion of FeCl3 gains an electron and is reduced to Fe++ which is present in FeCl2
Reduction involves gain of electrons.
Reducing Agents: A substance which has the capacity to supply hydrogen or any other electropositive
element and remove oxygen or any other electro-negative element from a compound is called a reducing agent.
Modern definition of a reducing agent is that it has
the capacity to loose electrons.
[25]
Na Na + e
Na is a reducing agent.
Following substances are reducing agents:
All metals, carbon, hydrogen, phosphorus, FeCl2,
FeSO4, SnCl2, Hg2Cl2, NaH, LiAlH4, CaH2, NH3, H2S,
HBr, HI, HCl, H2S, H2Se and H2Te, Aldehydes, formic
acid, oxalic acid, Na oxalate, sodium formate,
sulphides, bisulphide, sulphite and nitrite are reducing
agents.
Redox Reaction: There is no such reaction known in
which only oxidation or only reduction occurs. In all
oxidation-reduction reactions, which are called redoxreactions if one substance is oxidized, there is another
substance which is reduced. In other words, it can be
said that in redox reactions oxidising agent is reduced
and reducing agent is oxidized.
To find out which substance is oxidized and which
is reduced, oxidation numbers of all atoms on the left
hand side and right hand side of a redox-reaction are
calculated. A reactant whose oxidation number increases as a result of the reaction gets oxidized and a
reactant whose oxidation number decreases as a result
of the reaction gets reduced.
THERMO CHEMISTRY
i.
ii.
CHRONICLE
C6H12O6 + 6H2O
+ 6O2
Oxygen is set free after water molecules are broken
out. The hydrogen from the water molecules combines
with Carbon dioxide to form glucose. Hence, oxidation
and reduction takes place.
vii. Electrolysis : At anode oxidation takes place and at
cathode reduction takes place. Electrolysis plays an
important role By
inenergy
the metal industry. Besides production of many metals, it is also used in the production of heavy water (D2O).
1 mole
Energy
[26]
IAS ACADEMY
ergy than the reactants, after going through either evolution or absorption of heat. All these things are dealt
with by thermochemistry.
Exothermic Reaction
Chemical reaction in which heat is evolved is called
an exothermic reaction and is expressed as : A + B C
+ D + Q where Q is heat evolved, A and B = reactants
and C and D = products.
Endothermic Reaction
Chemical reaction in which heat is absorbed is called
an endothermic reaction and is expressed as A + B + Q
C + D or A + B C + D Q where Q is heat absorbed,
A and B = reactants and C and D = products.
Heat of Formation
Heat absorbed or released in the formation of one mole
of a substance from its elements is called heat of formation
and
Hf is called enthalpy change of formation.
1
22
Heat of Combustion
Heat released in complete combustion of one gramatom of an element or one gram-mole of a compound is
called heat of combustion and
H is called enthalpy
Bond dissociation energy is the energy required to break
change of combustion.
a particular type of bond in one mole of gaseous molecules.
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) + 94 KCal
The energy released in the formation of one mole of
Heat of combustion of C = Q
bonds is known as bond energy.
= 94 KCal
For example, the bond dissociation energy of hydrogen molecules is 435.6 KJ per mole. This means, 435.6 KJ
H combustion of C = -94 KCal
-1
mol of energy is required to break the H H bonds in one
This is the same reaction that we observe when we
mole of hydrogen molecules. This may be expressed as
burn charcoal in stoves and ovens in the kitchen.
H2
Bond
2H(g)
435 6 KJmol-1
Breaking
of hydrogen absorbed
molecule.
Enthalpy
It is denoted by H. A thermodynamic property of a
system is defined by H = U + PV, where H is the enthalpy. U is the internal energy of the system, P is its
Heat of Fusion
Heat absorbed in the conversion of one mole of a
solid to liquid is called heat of fusion and DH is called
enthalpy change of fusion.
H2O(s) H2O(l) 1.44 KCal
Ice water
Q = -1.44 KCal
Hfusion = + 1.44 KCal
Photochemical Reaction
It is a chemical reaction caused by light or ultraviolet
radiation. The incident photons are absorbed by reactant molecules to give excited molecules or free radicals
[27]
which undergo further reaction. Photosynthesis in presence of sunlight, expands dissociation of I2 molecule
into two iodine atoms upon
absorption of light. Photog.
raphy in which photographic film is coated with silver
bromide which is sensitive to light and is chemically
affected by light and hence the photographic image is
obtained by developing the film in the dark are examples of photochemical reactions. In a photochemical
reaction light is required.
Electrochemistry
The study of chemical properties and reactions involving ions in solution, including electrolysis and electric cells is called electrochemistry.
Chemiluminiscent Reaction: Light is evolved.
Electrolytic Reaction: Electricity is required.
Electrochemical Reaction: Electricity is produced.
Respiration: It is the process of release of energy; it is
an exothermic reaction.
Metallic Corrosion
Many metals react with air or the environment to
form undesirable compounds on their surfaces. This
process is called corrosion. Mostly metals, except like
least active metals platinum, gold undergo corrosion.
Iron corrosion is called rusting. In contact with air, iron
forms red or orange materials. This material is the hydrated form of ferric oxide (Fe2O3 xH2O).
The reaction may be written as :
8Fe + 6O2 + 6H2O
Iron
Oxygen
(fromair)
Water
2Fe2O3+ 4F3(OH)3
Iron
Oxide
Iron
Hydroxide
Chemical Reactions
The chemical reactions are primarily classified as :
i. irreversible; and
ii. reversible reactions.
i.
Irreversible Reactions : These are chemical reactions in which the products do not react back to give
the reactants.
For example, 2KClO32KCl + 3O2
Fe3O4(S)3 + 4H2(g)
Equilibrium State
When a reversible reaction is carried out in a closed
vessel, then it is observed that a constancy in properties
Haemoglobin
Oxygen
HbO2(s)
like intensity
of colour,
pressure,
concentration, etc., is
achieved under a given set of conditions. Such a state is
referred to as an equilibrium state. A chemical equilibrium is a state at which the composition of the chemical
system becomes constant under a given set of conditions.
It must be noted that at equilibrium, the chemical reaction
does not stop but instead both the forward as well as the
backward reactions take place at the same rate.
Chemical Equilibrium
or,
C
A
D
B
Kb
Ke
Kf
Le Chatelier's Principle
If any kind of stress (such as change in concentration, temperature or pressure) is applied on equilibrium, it shifts in a direction that tends to undo the effect
of the stress. For example:
i.
+ O2(g)
Oxyhaemoglobin
Cl
CH3 Cl OH
When oxyhaemoglobin
reaches
the tissues, the
CH3OH into
partial pressure of oxygen becomes low so equilibrium
shifts towards the left, giving up oxygen. When the
i. Decrease in the concentration of any of the products or blood returns to the lungs, the partial pressure of oxy1
increase in
concentration
of any
of the reactants
(a)the
(CH
O becomes higher and the equilibrium favours the
3)2 CHCl + OH-
Slow(CH3)2 CH+ + Cl- +gen
pushes the
equilibrium
in
the
forward
direction.
Hformation of more oxyhaemoglobin.
(CH3)2 CH+
Cl- + OHan
CHOH
- 1
ii. In an endothermic
reaction,
increase
temperaSlow(CH3)2in
+ + C ii. Removal of Carbon Dioxide by Blood : Blood gives up
l
ture favours
- the forward reaction, while a decrease
CO2 fromthetissuesaccordingtotheequilibrium
in temperature
favours
(CH3)2CHOH
+ Clthe backward reaction. In an
CO2(g)+H2O(l)
H2CO3(aq)
H+(aq)+HCO3(aq)
exothermic reaction, low temperature favours the
forward reaction and a high temperature favours
Due to the high partial pressure of CO2, CO2 is disthe backward reaction.
solved
in the blood(CH
in 3)the
tissues
2CH
+ Cl and due to low
(CH3)2CHCl
iii. Increase of pressure pushes the equilibrium towards
partial pressure of CO2in the lungs, CO2 is released
the side in which number of gaseous moles decreases.
from the blood.
iv. Effect of Inert Gas : For a reaction at constant vol- iii. Sweet
(CH3)2CHSubstances
+ OH
(CH3)2CHOH
Cause
Tooth Decay : Tooth
ume i.e., when the no. of moles of the reactants are
enamel is made up of an insoluble substance called
equal to the no. of moles of the products the addition
hydroxyapatite Ca5(PO4)3OH. Its dissolution is
of inert gas has no effect. When an inert gas is added
called dimineralization and its formation as
to the equilibrium system at constant pressure, the
remineralization. It exists in equilibrium as :
equilibrium will shift in a direction in which there
Ca5(PO4)3OH(S)
is an increase in the no. of moles of gases.
Demineralization
Remineralization
Chemical Kinetics
Rate of Reaction : It is the speed with which the
reactants are converted into products. In other words,
rate of reaction is the rate of disappearance of a reactant
or the rate of appearance of a product.
This can be expressed as :
A B
Rate = K[A]
A + B Products
Rate = K[A][B]
K is called rate constant. As rate constant is specific
for a reaction, it is also called specific rate constant.
Chronicle IAS Academy
[29]
-1
= K1[(CH3)2CHCl][OH-]
Order of Reaction: The sum of the exponents in the
rate expression of a reaction is called order of the reaction.
A B
Rate = K[A]
K2
ii.
i.
Fast
Slow
+
Fast
Molecularity of Reaction
(i)
A + B AB*
If concentration of the reactant increases, rate of
A and B are reactants, AB* is the transition state or the reaction increases. When concentration of reactant inactivated state. Product is formed from the activated state. creases, number of molecules increases. If there is an
increase in the number of molecules, no. of collisions
AB* Products
and consequently effective number of collisions inThus the reaction can be given as A + B AB*
creases. With increase in the effective number of colliProducts
sions, rate of reaction increases.
The energy of activated or transition state is higher
ii. Temperature: Rate of reaction increases with inthan both the of reactants and products. The number of
crease in temperature. With increase in temperature
moles of reactants involved in the transition state or
kinetic energy of the reactant molecules increases.
activated state or the rate determining step of a reaction
With increase in kinetic energy velocity of the molis called molecularity of reaction. Let us consider the
ecules increases. Due to increase in velocity of the
reaction of CH3Cl (methyl chloride) and NaOH (Sodium
molecule, number of collision and hence effective
hydroxide):
number of collision increase. Due to increase in
K1
effective number of collision, rate of reaction increases.
i.
Slow
[30]
Manufacturing
1.
Catalysts Used
2.
3.
Nickel
Fe
iron powder
Platinum wire-gauge
ELECTRO CHEMISTRY
4.
5..
6.
7.
platinum powder
oride of nitrogen
Hot alumina
cupric chloride
tive catalyst. The airy oxidation of chloroform is prevented in the presence of a few drops of alcohol. This is
an example of negative catalysis. Autocatalyst is the
product of the reaction. No catalyst is added from outside. The reaction of KMNO4 and Oxalic acid in acidic
+2
medium is slow, but as soon as MN is produced in the
+2
reaction, rate of reaction increases. Thus MN acts as a
catalyst for the reaction. Na2SO3 is oxidized by air, but
Na2ASO3 (arsenite) is not. However, when Na2ASO3 is
mixed, both are oxidized. The oxidation of Na2SO3 induces oxidation of Na3ASO4 and the catalyst is an induced catalyst.
Catalysts change the rate of reaction by changing the
activation energy and the mechanism of the reaction.
Positive catalysts decrease the activation energy and so
the reaction is faster. Negative catalysts increase the
activation energy and so the reaction is slower.
CHRONICLE
[31]
IAS ACADEMY
ii.
Electrolysis
The production of a chemical reaction by passing an
electric current through an electrolyte. In electrolysis,
positive ions migrate to the
cathode (negative electrode)
and negative ions to the anode. (positive electrode)
Hence the passage of electricity; through an electrolyte is
called electrolysis.
The reactions occurring
depend on electron transfer
Electrolytic Cell
A cell in which electrolysis occurs i.e. one is which
current is passed through the electrolyte from an external source.
In an electrolytic cell, usually two metallic or graphite rods or plates are used for allowing the electric current to pass through the electrolyte these are called
electrodes. The one electrode which allow the electric
current to enter into the electrolyte is called anode and
the other electrode which allow the current to leave the
electrolyte is called cathode. During electrolysis the electrodes may or may not take part in the chemical change.
at cathode Na + e
Na
at anode Cl
Cl2 + eSodium is deposited at the cathode and Cl2 is liberated at the anode.
Characteristics of Electrolysis
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Uses of Electrolysis
i.
Electroplating: A method
of plating one metal with
+2
Zn + Cu
Zn + Cu
another at the electrodes (the process of depositing
ore metal on another by electrolysis).
[32]
Electrometallurgy: Metal is
extracted from its ore by electrolysis this process is
called electrometallurgy. For example sodium and
Aluminium are extracted from its ore by this process.
iv. Electroprinting: Type-page impression is made on wax
plate or plaster of paris. By sprinkling graphite on
wax, the plate is made conductor and thus made cathode in a copper plating bath. On the passage of electricity copper deposits on the wax plate. It is removed
and strengthened by filling its back with type-metal.
The mould is obtained which is an exact copy of the
printers page and is used in large scale printing.
v. Industrial Applications: There are a large no. of
compounds formed electrolytically such as caustic
soda, washing soda, chlorine and so on are obtained by electrolysis of Sodium Chloride.
Electrochemical Cell
An electro chemical cell can be created by placing
metallic electrodes into an electrolyte where a chemical
reaction either uses or generates an electric current. This
E
E
E Since Equivalent Weight is no. of
The following reactions occur :
+2
Zn
Zn
+2
Cu
+ 2e
+ 2e (Oxidation)
Cu (Reduction)
+2
Dry Cell
This is also called a flash light battery. Dry cell was
invented by G. Le Clanche in 1868. A common dry cell has
a solution of ammonium chloride and a carbon rod (surrounded by a paste of manganese oxide) at the center and
the whole cell is covered by zinc. During the chemical
reaction, zinc produces zinc ions and electrons.
[33]
ii.
2MnO2 + 2NH4Cl + Zn
[Zn(NH3)2Cl2.+ Mn2O3 +H2O
The voltage of the dry cell is 1.5V. Silver cells and the
Storage Cells
Storage cells are recharged but other electrochemical
cells are not recharged. Lead storage cells are used in
cars and other vehicles. These are the most common
examples.
Car battery has concentrated H2SO4 (density = 1.15
(in which Pb (lead) rod (negative electrode) and pb rod
coated with PbO2 (positive electrode) are dipped. When
RADIOACTIVITY
CHRONICLE
gram-equivalent. Therefore, the same quantity of electricity will deposit the equal no. of gram equivalents of
all substances in electrolysis.
It can also be inferred from this that quantity of
electricity required for deposition of one gram equivalent of any substance must be the same and this quantity is called one faraday. It is denoted by F and is
numerically equal to 96500 coulombs, approx.
[34]
2.0141 2
0.0141
IAS ACADEMY
0.00705 10 70
Curie.
Radioactivity is essentially a nuclear phenomenon
and a drastic process because the element changes in
kind. It is spontaneous and an irreversible self-disintegrating activity because the element breaks itself up for
good. Certain substances like Uranium, Thorium, Radium, etc. spontaneously emit radiation like a, b, g rays
Characteristics of , , Radiations
Radiation
Charge
+2
Mass
Mass Defect
Nucleus
90Thby
U238 is formed
2 the combination of protons
and neutrons.
The mass of P = 1.00783 and the mass of
34
(n/p) ratio in the
n = 1.00866 amu. The mass of 1H2 formed from one
PenetratingLess than less than greater
Proton than
Th234 91Pa23
power
and
but more and
proton and
one neutron is 2.01410 amu.
4
than
H
+ 0n1 1H2
1 1
Velocity
1/10th of
less than
light velocity
8
light velocity light velocity (310 m/s)
Ionizing
power
Half-life Period
Half-life period of a radioactive substance is the time
required to disintegrate one-half of the original amount
of the substance. In other words, the half-life period of a
radioactive substance is the time in which half of the
radioactive substance will disintegrate. For example,
any substance which has a half- life period of 5 days
that means this substance disintegrates 50% in 5 days.
In other words after reduction of 50% in five days, the
radioactive substance is 25% after 10 days 12.5% after
U235 +Packing
0n192U
Ba
Fraction
141
f = 10
10
10
[35]
Nuclear Stability
Some nucleides or elements are stable and some are
unstable. It is determined by
Neutron
AX Y-2BX-4 + 2He4
A = Radioactive element
X = Atomic number
y
Y = Atomic mass
92
VI B IV B
90
IV B V B
Nuclear Fission
The nuclear reaction in which one heavier nucleus
is split up into two lighter nuclei of releasing a, b and g
radiation along with the release of a huge amount of
92U235
90Th231 + 2He4
Compound
Nucleus
+ 3 Kr
+ 30n1 + Energy
92
U = Uranium
Chain Reaction
Th = Thorium
He = Helium
Emission of -particle produces an element having
same mass but charge one unit greater than the parent
element.
Y+1BX + -1 0
YAX
Tl206
81
Pb206 +
82
-1
92
82Pb208
Moderators
,
The explosive effect of the nuclear fission chain reaction can be reduced by using some substances called
moderators which slow down the fast moving neutrons. The secondary neutrons (which are formed after
the first nuclear fission reaction) pass through the moderator and lose some of their kinetic energy and their
speed is reduced. Thus the use of a moderator controls
the explosive effect of the nuclear fission chain reaction.
When graphite is used as a moderator, the reactor is
called Atomic Pile and when D2O (heavy water) is used
it is called Swimming Pool reactor.
Nuclear Fusion
Such a nuclear reaction in which two lighter nuclei are
combined or fused together to form a heavier (and hence
stabler) nucleus is called nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion
occurs at reasonable rates only at very high temperatures. It
is because of this that the nuclear fusion reactions are also
called thermonuclear reactions i.e. temperature depen-
Nuclear Reactor
A nuclear reactor is a mechanism by which nuclear
fission is produced in the form of a controlled selfsustaining chain reaction. In other words, it is a controlled chain-reacting system supplying nuclear energy.
[36]
Stellar energy :
CHEMICAL BONDING
CHRONICLE
ii.
Uses of Radioisotopes
l
l
l
[37]
IAS ACADEMY
PERIODIC TABLE
Molecule
BaCl2
Co2
Bcl3
CH4
NH3
H2o
PF5
Xef2
SF6
[Cu(NH3)2]2+
Shape
Linear shape
Linear shape
Trigonal planar shape
Tetrahedral shape
Trigonal pyramidal shape
V shaped (angular or bent
Trigonal bipyramidal
Linear shape
Octahedral shape
Square planar
Generally metals have the tendency to donate electrons and non metals have tendency to gain electrons.
So in this stage an electrovalent bond forms. For example, in the formation of NaCl (Sodium Chloride), Na
(Sodium) donates an electron to chlorine to get an octet.
+
Na Na + e (2,8,1 2,8)
-
Cl + e Cl (2,8,7 2,8,8)
Donors are Cations and Gainers are Anions.
ii.
CHRONICLE
Shapes of Molecules
In ionic compounds, the bond exists due to electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged species
There are mainly two types of chemical bonds as below which are non-directional. So the structure is determined almost entirely by the relative sizes of the ions.
:
Covalent bonds are however directional and the shape
i. Electrovalent Bond : It is also known as ionic or
of a covalently bonded molecule is decided by the direcpolar bond. The chemical bond formed between two
tion of the covalent bonds.
atoms by the transfer of one or more valence elecMany physical and chemical properties are decided by
trons from one atom to the other is called an ionic
the shape of molecules. Specific properties of H2O are
bond. This bond is also called Electrovalent bond.
decided by its angular shape. Similarly, the biologically
important DNA molecule which has special
Chronicle IAS Academy
physiochemical behaviour, is due to its double spiral shape.
[38]
IAS ACADEMY
It would be difficult to study individually the chemistry of all the elements and their numerous compounds.
Classification of elements into various sets or groups
make it easy to study the characters of all these elements. In this regard, numerous scientists worked and
gave ideas and subsequenty Mendeleev's periodic table
came forth.
In 1869, J. Lothar Meyer, a German, and Dmitri I.
Mendeleev, a Russian, independently constructed tables
of elements. In these tables, the elements were arranged
2.
3.
4.
5.
2.
3.
4.
5.
NON-METALS
CHRONICLE
[40]
IAS ACADEMY
Generally, non-metals have a tendency to gain electrons to complete their octets and thus they form negative ions. Hence they are called electronegative elements.
For example, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, Bromine,
etc. are non-metals. Non-metallic elements are placed
on the right-hand side of the periodic table. Out of approximately 22 non-metallic elements, 11 are gases (oxygen, nitrogen and chlorine), one is liquid like bromine
and rest are solids (e.g. Carbon, Sulphur, Phosphorus
and Iodine).
Hydrogen
There is great importance of hydrogen in our life. It is
found in water, acids, carbohydrates (sugars, starch,
cellulose), plants, animals, proteins, vitamins, wood,
coal tar, oil, natural gas, etc. The atomic number and
atomic weight is one and 1.00797 respectively. It is the
first chemical element in the periodic system. Hydrogen
is manufactured by Lanes process (By the action of
steam on hot iron) and Bosch Process (from water gas).
Under normal conditions hydrogen is a colourless,
odourless, tasteless gas composed of diatomic molecules,
H2. It is the lightest substance known. At normal tem-
Uses of Hydrogen
1. In Chemical Industries: Hydrogen has a great importance in the formation of ammonia by Habers
process, formation of hydrochloric acid and methanol, vanaspati ghee from vegetable oils such as coconut oil, cotton seed oil, etc. by the action of hydrogen in the presence of finely divided Nickel under 5
atmospheric pressure and at 150 - 200C. Petrol
substituents by the action of hydrogen, under pressure on finely powdered coat suspended in oil
(Bergins process) or by the hydrogenation of CO
(Fischer Tropsch process).
2. In Engineering : Hydrogen is used as a valuable
fuel, because its heat of combustion is very high.
Heat of combustion is the amount of heat produced
when one gram of a substance is completely burnt.
It is a constituent of many fuel gases like coal gas,
water gas which contain 50% and 45% by volume of
3.
4.
Atomic Hydrogen :When molecular hydrogen in contact with a tungsten or platinum wire was heated by
an electric current at low pressure, it dissociates into
atomic hydrogen. This is an endothermic reaction.
3.
Nascent Hydrogen : It is a reactive form of hydrogen generated in situ in the reaction mixture (e.g. by
the action of acid on zinc). Nascent hydrogen can
reduce elements and compounds that do not readily
[41]
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Properties
Metals
Non-Metals
PHYSICAL
Metallic Lustre
Yes
Malleability
Malleable
Ductility
Ductile
Thermal conductivity
Good Conductivity
Electrical properties
Good Conductors
Tenacity and Toughness High
Melting and Boiling points High
Density
Generally high
Welding
Can be welded
State of existence at
Generally solid only
room temperature
Mercury (Hg) and
1.
2.
3.
CHEMICAL
Oxides
Hydroxides
Action of HCl or H2So4
4.
Electrolysis
5.
6.
Electropositive nature
Mechanism of reaction
7.
Oxidising or Reducing
Acidic
Acidic
Do not liberate H2
electron revolving round the nucleus. Thus H2 molecule which is formed from two H-atoms has two
protons and two electrons in it. The two electrons in
these two H-atoms always spin in opposite directions.
H H H H
or H - H or H2
However, the two protons present in the nucleus of
parallel direction).
i.
ii.
Water
It is an essential part of our life. It is the most abundant compound in the atmosphere. In the second half of
the eighteenth century, Cavendish proposed the composition of water i.e. two volumes of hydrogen and one
volume of oxygen (H2O).
[42]
Ordinary hydrogen
Heavy
or protium
hydrogen or
Tritium
deuterium
Symbol
Atomic number
Mass number (i.e. atomic mass
or atomic weight)
Atomicity
Molecular formula
1
1
2
1
2
1
3
1
1
1.0081
1
2.0147
1
3.0170
2
H2
2
D2
2
T2
3
1
1
Nil
1
99.984%
1
1
1
.0156%
1
2
1
10.15%
Stable
Stable
Radioactive and
hence unstable
Electronic configuration
molecules needed by plants and animals for their metabolism. Even covalent organic compounds such as
alcohols and carbohydrates have a high solubility in
water because of their ability to form hydrogen bonds
with water molecules.
Chemical Properties : Water displays a versatile
range of chemical behaviour. It acts as an acid, a base,
an oxidant, a reductant and as a ligand to metal ions.
Water molecules exhibit a high thermal stability as
would be anticipated from its high negative heat of
formation. Appreciable decomposition of water to the
respective elements requires high temperatures. The extent of dissociation at 1500K is < 0.02%.
Pure water has a small but measurable electrical
conductivity because of the following equilibrium:
H2O(l) + H2O(l)
H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
(Hydronium
(Hydroxylion)
Thus water can act both as an acid and a base and is
said to be Amphoteric. Water acts as a base towards
acids stronger than itself and as an acid in the presence
of a base stronger than itself, as shown below :
H2O(l) + HCl
H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
base
acid
H2O(l) + NH3(aq)
acid base
acid base
Isotopes of Hydrogen
Naturally, hydrogen has three isotopes as below :
ii.
[43]
i.
i.
ii.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Oxygen
Oxygen is a colourless, tasteless and odourless gas.
3
Its solubility in one litre of water at 293 K is ~30 cm gas
at STP. This small amount of dissolved oxygen is sufficient to sustain marine and aquatic life and for the
destruction of organic wastes in water bodies.
Oxygen is the most abundant element on the earth.
Oxygen constitutes nearly 50% by weight of the crust of
the earth, bodies of water and the atmosphere. In the
earths crust, oxygen is found in combined form as
silicates, carbonates and oxides of metals. Water consists of 88.8% oxygen by weight. Oxygen gas makes up
about 23.2% by weight of the atmosphere. Almost all of
the oxygen gas in the atmosphere is believed to be the
result of photosynthesis by green plants.
Oxygen has an atomic number of 8, atomic weight
15.9994 and electron configuration as 2, 6. Oxygen gas
(O2) molecule has two of 16 electrons which are unpaired. So, O2 is paramagnetic.
Uses of Oxygen : Oxygen molecule is used in making steel and in metal fabrication as an aid to combustion. It is essential for life support systems (e.g. in hospitals, in underwater diving) Liquid oxygen is used as an
oxidizer in rockets for space exploration and in the
launching of satellites.
Air
The earth is surrounded by an ocean of the atmosphere. Atmosphere is divided into three layers such as
lithosphere, stratosphere and ionosphere. Air is a mixture of different gases as is explained below:
Nitrogen (N2)
78.1%
Oxygen (O2)
20.29%
0.03%
Water vapour
0.4%
Inert gases
0.95%
Dust particles, sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, etc.
variable
Air is a very important factor in our life. Due to its
pressure, the various objects (living as well as nonliving retain their existence on the earths surface. We
take oxygen from air which is responsible for respiration and combustion. Nitrogen is used in diluting the
oxygen to moderate the process of burning and respiration. Nitrogen also takes part in the plant growth and
protein formation in animals. Photosynthesis requires
carbon dioxide which is available from the air. The
importance of water vapour is revealed from its controlling the evaporation of water from the bodies of plants
and animals and thus is essential for our health and
body comfort. Dust particles provide a medium for the
condensation of water vapour to cause rain.
CHRONICLE
[45]
IAS ACADEMY
Organic Compounds
6.
C NH2
urea (organic)
7.
Chemical reactions
are rapid.
Exhibit isomerism.
8.
Catenation
Chemical reactions
are usually slow.
NH oCN
Ammonium cyanate heat
(inorganic salt)
Inorganic Compounds
2.
Crude oil It is a complex mixture of organic compounds. Probably the most important source at
present.
3.
4.
3.
Low solubility in
water, high solubility in
water, high
4. Flammable.
5. Solutions are nonconductors of electricity.
Non-flammable.
Solutions are conductors
of electricity.
H
H
Classification
Compounds
H ..... .....
H of
Organic
Hydrogen
bond ...
+H compounds
......
Organic
are divided into four categories:
1.
Aliphatic Compounds : These are open chain compounds. Examples are Methane, Ethane, n-Hexane,
Ethyl alcohol and Ethylamine. It means that or
4. Heterocyclic Compounds: These are cyclic compounds in which the ring contains elements other
than carbon. Examples are Pyridine, Pyrole and
Furan.
Functional Group
A functional group is the reactive part of an organic
molecule. A functional group may be a single atom or
[46]
OH
Hydrocarbon Portion
in a molecule.
Homologous Series
A homologous series is a series of compounds in
which adjacent members differ by a CH2 unit. The individual members of such a series are called homologs.
Hybridization
The process of mixing of pure orbitals to give a set of
new equivalent orbitals (same energy and same shape)
is called hybridization. Obtained orbitals are called hybrid orbitals.
i.sp
In this, three p orbitals and one s-orbital takes
part to form four hybrid orbitals. It contains tetrahedral
structure. As for example in ethane, methane and pro3
pane molecule sp hybridization is found.
2 __
ii.
sp
In this hybridisation two p-orbitals and one s
orbital take part to form three hybrid orbitals. As for
2
example, Ethylene and Benzene have sp
hybridisation orbital which is similar to that of an
3
sp orbital.
__
iii. sp In this hybridisation, one s-orbital and one porbital take part to form two hybrid orbitals. Acetylene is an important example. Its structure is linear.
Hydrogen Bonding
Hydrogen bonding is an attractive force which occurs in any compound whose molecules contain O-H or
N-H bonds (as in water, alcohols, acids, amines and
amides). The O-H bond, for example, is a highly polar
bond. Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen
and pulls the bonding electrons closer to it. As a result
of this displacement, the oxygen atom acquires a small
negative charge (-d) and the hydrogen atom a small
positive charge (+d).
OOO
.....
C12H22O11 + H2 O
C12H22O11 + H2 O
Isomerism
Isomers are compounds with same molecular
formulaes but different physical and chemical properties. The phenomenon is called isomerism. Since isomers have the same molecular formulae, the difference
in their properties must be due to different arrangement
of atoms within the molecule.
There are two main classes of isomerism known as
structural isomerism and stereo-isomerism.
Structural isomerism: These isomers have the same
molecular formula but differ in structural formula, that
is, in the order in which the different atoms are linked in
[47]
Hydrocarbons
in the diesel oil fraction. Alkanes with around 25 carbon atoms per molecule come out in the lubricating oil
fraction. The bitumen fraction contains alkanes with
over 50 carbon atoms per molecule.
Alkenes : Hydrocarbons that contain a carbon-carbon double bond are called alkenes. Their general formula is CnH2n where n is the number of carbon atoms,
C is the symbol of carbon and H is the symbol of hydrogen. Alkenes are also called olefins. These are unsaturated hydrocarbons. Ethylene, Propylene, etc. are examples. Ethylene is used in the making of Polythene.
Alkynes : Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons
that contain a carbon-carbon triple bond. The general
formula of alkynes is CnH2n-2, where n is the number of
carbon atoms. Acetylene, Propyne, Pentyne are examples
of Alkynes. Acetylene is used in oxyacetylene torch
used for welding and cutting metals. Acetylene is also
used for the manufacture of PVC, Polyvinyl acetate,
Orlon, Neoprene Rubber and for the preparation of Acetaldehyde, Acetic acid and Ethyl alcohol.
manufacture of Freon-12 which is a widely used refrigerant and propellant in aerosol sprays.
Organometallic Compounds: Compounds which
contain a carbon-metal bond are called organometallic
compounds. Examples are Methyl magnesium iodide
(CH3MgI), ethyl lithium (C2H5Li).
Grignard Reagents: Compounds which contain a
carbon-magnesium bond are called Grignard reagents.
Examples are ethyl magnesium bromide (C2H5MgBr).
Alcohols: Alcohols are compounds in which a hydroxyl group (-OH) is attached to a saturated carbon.
Methyl alcohol (CH3OH) and Ethyl alcohol are suitable
examples.
Pyroligneous Acid: Water + Methyl alcohol + Acetone + Acetic acid
Molasses: Molasses is the mother liquor left after the
crystallization of cane sugar from concentrated juice. It
is a dark coloured thick syrupy mass. Molasses contain
about 60% fermentable sugars, mostly sucrose, glucose
and fructose. Molasses is converted into ethyl alcohol
by several steps with fermentation.
Invertase
C6H12O6 C6H12O6
Maltase
2C6H12O6
Glucose
C6H12O6 Zymase2C2H5OH + 2Co2
general anaesthetic.
Ethyl Cellosolve (2- ethoxyethanol): It is used as a
solvent for quick-drying enamels and varnishes.
Formaldehyde: Its chemical formula is CH2O. It is
sold as 40% aqueous solution under the name formalin
and is used in this form for most purposes. Formalin is
used in the preservation of biological specimens, as an
antiseptic and in the manufacture of synthetic plastics
such as bakelite and Melmac.
soluble in water, but soluble in non polar organic solvents such as ether, chloroform or carbon tetrachloride.
Examples are : Oils, Fats, Terpenes and Steroids. Lipids
are important to humans for three reasons:
ii.
i.
iii. Lipids also serve as the basic structural components of all Cell Membranes.
Aromatic Compounds: Benzene and all compounds
that have structures and chemical properties resembling benzene are classified as aromatic compounds.
Examples are:
Lipids serve as Source of Energy: Excess carbohydrates and other energy giving foods are converted
and stored in the body as lipids and fats. These fat
reservoirs constitute one of the main storage forms
of chemical energy and carbon in the body.
ture CH2=CH-
Br
CH3
Benzene Toluene
Bromobenzene
Gammexane: It is also known as Benzene hexachloride (BHC). It is a powerful insecticide. Its molecular
formula is C6H6Cl6.
(TNT) Trinitrotoluene: Its molecular formula is C7H3
NO2 C7H3 (NO2)3 and is used as an explosive. It is mixed
with ammonium nitrate to form the blasting material
which is used for blasting buildings and rocks.
Glucose Fruclose
C6H1
C6H1
[49]
-naphthol:
It is used as an insecticide.
No reaction
1. Oligosaccharides:TheOligosaccharidesarecarbohydrates
whichyieldadefinitenumber(usually2to10)ofmonosaccharidemoleculesonhydrolysis.Theyinclude:
Maltose
Glucose Fructose
Glucose
Glucose
3. Polysaccharides: The polysaccharides are high molecular weight carbohydrates which yield many
monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis. Examples
are starch and cellulose.
nC6H12O6
glu cos e
Cellulose: It is a polysaccharide. It is mainly obtained from trees and other plants. Cotton wool is 90-95%
cellulose. Wood is 50% wool. Cellulose nitrates are called
gun cotton or cordite which are highly explosive. It is
used in the manufacture of smokeless gun powder. Collodion is used as a covering over cuts and skin abrasion.
CHRONICLE
2.
Alkaloids: Alkaloids are plant produced basic compounds which contain one or more nitrogen heterocyclic rings. Examples are Conine and Nicotine.
The alkaloids are valuable because they find important applications in medicine. They may cause such
physical effects as below :
Nicotine: Raising the blood pressure.
Caffeine: Stimulating nerves, stimulating production of urine.
Atropine: Dilating the pupils of the eyes.
NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS,
ACADEMY
IAS
A CIVIL SERVICES CHRONICLE INITIATIVE
Nitrogen
Atomic number = 7
[50]
[51]
& K2O; or
iii. Finely divided nickel and sodamide deposited over
pumice stone support; or
iv. Finely divided osmium or uranium metal.
Phosphorus
3. Cyanamide process
It is used in refrigeration because it gets easily condensed and is called volatile alkali.
ii.
iii. In medicines
Nitrous Gas (N2O): It is laughing gas.
Nitric Acid (HNO3): Nitric acid is manufactured by
Birkland and Eyde process from air and by Ostwald
process from ammonia. Nitric acid is used as a solvent
in gold ornament industry and it is used for the manufacture of explosives such as dynamites, picric acid,
Halogens
It is a group of elements in the periodic table (group
VII B). These elements are Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl),
Bromine (Br), Iodine (I), and Astatine (At). The halogens
are typical non-metals, they have high electronegativities, high electron affinities and high ionization energies. They form compounds by gaining an electron to
complete the stable configuration, i.e. they are good
0
oxidizing agents. At 20 C, fluorine and chlorine are
gases, bromine is liquid, and iodine is a sublimable
solid. All exist as diatomic molecules. Fluorine reacts
with all non metals except nitrogen and the noble gases
helium, neon and argon, iodine does not react with any
noble gas, nor with carbon, nitrogen, oxygen or sulphur. The elements fluorine to iodine, all react with
hydrogen to give the acid, with the activity being the
greatest for fluorine, which reacts explosively.
Chlorine and hydrogen react slowly at room temperature in the dark (sunlight causes a free radical chain
reaction) Bromine and hydrogen react if heated in the
soft catalyst. Iodine and hydrogen react only slowly
and the reaction is not complete.
Noble Gases (Inert Gases): These are also known as
rare gases or group elements. They include Helium,
Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon and Radon. There is small
amount of noble gases on the earth and they are chemically inert. The valence shells of noble gases are fully
satisfied. Thus these elements represent the termination
of a period and have closed-shell configuration and are
associated with high ionization energies. Except radon
all noble gases are present in atmosphere. These are
colourless and odourless gases. In liquid form these
gases provide very low temperatures.
Argon is used for the making of inert atmospheres in
welding and special-metal manufacture (Ti and Zr) and
(when mixed with 20% nitrogen) in gas filled electric
light bulbs. Due to inertness, Argon is filled in light
[52]
Carbon
Symbol C
Atomic number =6
Relative atomic mass = 12.011
Group = IVA
Period=2nd
Carbon occurs in nature as element carbon (coal) as
well as in the form of its compounds such as CO2 in air.
Carbon is approximately 0.032% of the earths crust.
Carbon has a peculiar characteristic to form C-C covalent bonds. This property of carbon to link with another
carbon atom is called the catenation property of carbon.
Carbon also form stable C-H bond. Carbon is also capable of forming bonds with N, O, S and other C- atoms.
Because of these properties of carbon, it forms millions
of important compounds which are the subject matter of
organic chemistry.
Allotropic Forms of Carbon: It exists in several allotropic forms such as diamond, graphite, coal, lamp black
ii.
Compounds of Carbon
Carbon Monoxide (CO): It is a colourless, natural
gas, insoluble in water but soluble in ammonical cuprous chloride solution. It is a deadly poisonous gas
because it has no smell. Carbon monoxide is poisonous
because it reacts with the haemoglobin in blood and
prevents the blood form acting as an oxygen carrier. It is
largely liberated from car engines. It is used as a reducing agent. It reduces the oxides of copper, lead and iron
to the metals. CO is the main reducing agent in a blast
furnace.
Carbon Dioxide: It is a colourless, odourless gas. It
occurs in the atmosphere (0.03% by volume) but has a
[53]
METALLURGY
CHRONICLE
light energy
6CO2 + 12H2O
6H2O + 6O2
Photosynthesis is the basis for all life on earth. Furthermore virtually all the atmospheric oxygen has originated from oxygen released during photosynthesis.
[54]
IAS ACADEMY
Metallurgy is the branch of applied science concerned with the production of metals from their ores, the
purification of metals, the manufacture of alloys and the
use and performance of metals in engineering practice.
Important Terms
FeO
Gangue
SiO FeSiO3
Flux
Slag
Fe2O3 + H2O -
FeO + CO2-
Uses
1.
Brass
Cu(60-80%), Zn(40-20%)
2.
Bronze
Cu(75-90%), Sn(25-10%)
3.
German Silver
4.
Magnelium
Mg (98%), Al(2%)
5.
Rolled gold
Cu(90%), Al(10%)
6.
Monel metal
Cu(70%),Ni(30%)
Bell metal
Cu(72-80%), Sn(28-20%)
8.
Gun metal
9.
Constantan
Cu(60%), Ni(40%)
11. Solder
Sn(50-14%), Pb(50-30%)
Soldering of metals.
[55]
A.
B.
C.
Carnallite KCl.MgCl2.6H2O
Dolomite MgCO3.CaCO3
Epsom Salt MgSO4.7H2O
Asbestos CaSiO3.2MgSiO3
Caesserite MgSO4.H2O
l
Magnite Mn2O3.H2O
l
Important Ores
l
l
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O
Anhydrite CaSO4
Fluorspar CaF2
Trona Na2CO3.2NaHCO3.3H2O
Phosphorite Ca3(PO4)2
Copper(Cu): Chalchopyrite or Copper pyrites
CuFeS2
Borax Na2B4O7.10H2O
Tin: Cassiterite SnO2
Tin Pyrites SnS2.Cu2S.FeS
Franklinite ZnO.Fe2O3
Azurite (CuCO3)3.Cu(OH)2
Calamine ZnCO3
Important Compounds
Magnetite Fe3O4
Cidderite FeCO3
Iron Pyrite FeS2
[56]
CHEMISTRY
Soft
2.
Malleable
3.
Ductile
CHRONICLE
4.
It has less physical strength as compared to pig
iron. It is used for making steel by the Puddling Process.
Steel: Steel is an alloy of Fe, C, and Mn. It contains
the following in small quantities.
Carbon = 0.2%
Silicon = 0.004%
P = 2.5%
Mn = 0.4%
S = 0.1%
P = 0.02%
Mn = 1.8%
Pig Iron is brittle: It is used for the manufacture of
steel, wrought iron and in foundry work. It is also used
for making utensils, type-writer-cover, etc.
S = 0.04%
Thus the impurities in steel are less than that present
in Pig iron and more than that present in wrought iron.
ENVIRONMENTAL
[58]
IAS ACADEMY
The chemistry which deals with the chemical relations among various factors like atmosphere, earth, water, plants and animals is called environmental chemistry. Thus, an environmental chemical balance exists for
the easy survival of living things, but some human
activities such as rapid population growth, industrialization, modern technology are hampering our lives.
Hence, Air, land and water are increasingly becoming
more polluted and the survival of livingbeings is threatened.
There are two main classes of pollutants those that
are biodegradable (e.g. sewage), i.e. can be rendered
harmless by natural processes and, therefore, cause no
permanent harm if adequately disposed off or treated
and those that are non bio-degradable (e.g. heavy metals (such as lead and DDT), which eventually accumulate in the environment and may be concentrated in
food chains.
Air Pollution
Air is essential for living things. Waste substances
like smoke and gases from chimneys escape into the air
and pollute it. Air so changed is said to be polluted and
the substances causing pollution are called pollutants.
Water Pollution
Like air, water is also an essential factor for living
beings. Various types of wastes such as sewage, industrial wastages are liberated into rivers, lakes, etc. Thus
water becomes toxic for fish and other living beings.
The extent of pollution of river water (or any other
type of water) is usually measured by oxygen standards. One is dissolved oxygen (DO) which should not
be less than 4 mg per litre of water. The other is the
biological oxygen demand (BOD) and is a measure of
DO (mg/l)
Rishikesh
Haridwar
Kanpur
Varanasi
Patna
Kolkata
8.3
8.1
8.1
7
8.9
7.8
BOD(7 mg/l)
1.4
1.9
20.4
9.4
2.1
3.5
Radioactive Pollution
Nowadays, nuclear tests are occurring in different
parts of the world and atomic reactors are also being
established for peaceful purposes. Due to careless activities exposure to radiations (from radioactive materials) causes death or genetic defects in man.
Ozone Layer
of the atmospheres ozone is concentrated. It occurs 1550 km above the earths surface. In this layer most of the
suns ultraviolet radiation is absorbed by the ozone
molecules, a rise in the temperature of the stratosphere
and preventing vertical mixing so that the stratosphere
forms a stable layer. By absorbing most of the solar
ultraviolet radiation the ozone layer protects living organisms on earth. The fact that the ozone layer is thinnest at the equator is believed to account for the high
equatorial incidence of Skin Cancer as a result of exposure to unabsorbed Solar ultraviolet radiation. The existence of the ozone layer is maintained with creation
and destruction of O3. Oxygen molecules are destroyed
by high energy ultraviolet radiation and form ozone
(O3). This ozone has an appreciable lifetime in the atmosphere until, it is effected from ultraviolet radiation and
once again forms common oxygen gas. Ozone molecules
are stable, however ozone can be broken down by stable
organic chlorine compounds mainly Chlorofluoro carbons, where an active chlorine atom can catalytically
destroy ozone. Due to this destruction ozone hole is
developing.
[59]
iii.
by ingestion
iv.
Agricultural Chemistry
Chemistry plays a vital role in agriculture particularly of fertilizers and pesticides. By the use of fertilizers
we improve the quantity of nutrients in soil for plants.
Pesticides are such chemicals which are used to destroy
the harmful insects, fungi and others which are harmful
to crops.
Pesticides
Pesticides are chemicals which are subdivided into
the following:
1. Insecticides: Insecticides kill those harmful insects,
which attack growing and harvested crops, livestock, buildings and man himself. There are four
ways in which insecticides may act:
i.
directly
ii.
by passage
3.
4.
Fertilizers
Fertilizers are the substances which are added to
the soil in order to make up the deficiency of essential
elements like nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium
required for the growth of the plants.
1. Nitrogenous Fertilizers: These fertilizers mainly
supply nitrogen to the plants or soil. Ammonium
sulphate (NH4)2SO4, calcium ammonium nitrate,
basic calcium nitrate, calcium cyanamide, urea, etc.
Medicinal Chemistry
In this branch of Chemistry we study chemical structures, synthesis, toxicity, pharmaceutical effects and
activites of medicines which are used for the treatment
of diseases.
Drugs: Chemical substances used for treatment of
diseases and for reducing the suffering from pain are
called medicines or drugs.
Chemotherapy: It is the science in which chemicals
are used for the treatment of diseases. It has developed
into a vast subject today and efforts are being continuously made to search for new drugs for cancer, hypertension and mental illness among others.
Replacement Drugs: Substances used to replace or
supplement a normal hormone or other compounds
that are in short supply in a particular Patients System.
These are called replacement drugs. Example of a replacement drug is insulin which is used when persons
are suffering from diabetes mellitus.
Antipyretics: Antipyretics are substances used to
bring down body temperature in high fever. Their administration often leads to perspiration. Common examples are aspirin, phenacetin and paracetamol. Calcium and sodium salts of aspirin are more soluble and
less harmful.
Analgesics: These are drugs used for relieving pain.
Aspirin and some other antipyretics act as analgesics
also. Certain narcotics (which produce sleep and unconsciousness) are also used as analgesics. Typical exComponents
1.
Blood particles
(a) Red Blood
cells (RBC)
(b) White blood
cells (WBC)
(c) Blood Platelets
Function
Transport of molecular
oxygen from lungs to tissues
Defence against infection,
Blood Clotting
NH4H2PO4. (NH4)2SO4.
5.
2.
Plasma Solutes
(a) Electrolytes
(ions) Na+
and ClHCO3-
Maintenance of osmotic
pressure and fluid balance
principal buffer in blood,
transport of CO2 from
cells to the lungs
(b) Protein Albumins Maintain osmotic pressure of
blood plasma, transport of
water insoluble substance
Globulins alpha, beta,
gamma, transport of lipids
as lipols, immunological
(protective)
(c) Carbohydrates
Source of energy
[61]
Food Chemistry
All human activities either physical or mental, need
energy. These energies are supplies by food. It helps in
the replacement of dead cells and create new cells and
its growth. Human body requires carbohydrates and
fats for energy, proteins for body building and water,
minerals, vitamins, hormones for regulating the different functions of life. Human body suffers from diseases
due to lack of any of the nutrients.
Hence in this branch we concentrate on food-chemicals and its digestion. It means All biological processes are chemical transformations.
Photosynthesis
In this process conversion of solar energy into chemical energy takes place. Photosynthesis takes place in
regions of the plant cells called chloroplasts. The reactions can be divided into two categories: the light reactions and dark reactions. In light reactions, the Solar
radiation is absorbed by the pigment Chlorophyll and
this energy is utilized to synthesize energy rich molecules (ATP Adenosine triphosphate) and liberate
oxygen. The dark reactions then use these energy-rich
molecules to convert atmospheric carbon dioxide into
glucose and storage molecules such as starch. The overall process can be represented as follows:
6Co2 + 6H2o
C6
H12 O6 + 6O2
Glucose
Chronicle
IAS
Academy
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP): ATP is an energyrich compound. It contains two oxygen-to-phosphorous bonds that are called High energy Phosphate bonds.
citric acid
cycle ATP
Amino Acid Metabolism: Amino acids provide dietary source of nitrogen and are used in the formation of
new cells or repair of old cells, synthesis of other amino
acids, enzymes, hormones, antibodies and non-protein
molecules such as nucleic acids. Unlike carbohydrates
and lipids which can be stored (as glycogen in muscles
and as fats in adipose tissues, respectively) there are no
storage molecules for amino acids. Some amino acids
are metabolized to pyruvate, some to acetyl CoA and
others to various intermediates in glucose metabolism
and energy is obtained by their breakdown into carbon
dioxide and water.
Water
It is an ideal physiological fluid in living organisms
because of the following characters:
i.
ii.
Due to the smaller molecular size of water and extensive intermolecular hydrogen bonding it dissolves not only other ionic compounds, but also a
Blood
The blood is a vehicle for metabolic communication
among the organs of the body. It is the transporting
medium for nutrients, waste products, oxygen and CO2.
Blood consists of an aqueous solution of ions and organic molecules in which are suspended particles called
the red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells
(leucocytes) and blood platelets.
The Ph of blood must be maintained within the range
of 7.36 to 7.42.
Haemoglobin is the key participant in the process by
which gases CO2 and O2 interchange between the body
and the environment. Haemoglobin is a globular protein consisting of four polypeptide chains arranged in a
tetrahedral configuration. It contains a non-protein constituent called heme which is an iron prophyrin and is
responsible for the red colour of blood. In lungs, haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin.
Here the oxygen is bound to the iron atom of heme. In
tissues where oxygen content is low, oxyhaemoglobin
dissociates and releases oxygen for utilization. A related protein myoglobin, serves to store oxygen in the
muscle tissues.
Antibodies: These are protectors from foreign invaders like bacteria, virus, etc. The presence of invaders in
Allergy
Some persons are sensitive to specific substances
such as pollen, penicillin or cat fur because, he or she
produces an antibody against this substance. The antigen may be airborne, producing a response in the eyes,
respiratory tract or ingested with food-producing gastrointestinal or skin reactions. The binding of antigens
and antibodies results in the cells releasing a variety of
chemicals such as histamine, seratonin, etc. which in
turn generate allergic response. The drugs used to combat the effects of allergy are antihistamines which block
the production of histamines.
Hormone
Vitamins
Vitamins are a group of organic compounds which
are required in very small amounts for the healthy growth
and functioning of animal organisms. They cannot be
made by organisms and so have to be supplied in the
diet. They are chemically different from the main nutrients-fats, carbohydrates and proteins. Vitamins A, D, E
and K are fat-soluble substances whereas Vitamin Bcomplex and Vitamin C are water soluble.
feron. Interferon causes the synthesis of several enzymes like protein Kinase and phosphodiesterase
which inhibit viral replication by destroying mRNA
and protein synthesis. There are no side effects of
interferon. It is used for treatment of common cold,
influenza, hepatitis, etc. It shows promise as a cure
for bone cancer, skin cancer, breast cancer and leukaemia.
iii. Hormonal Production: Two hormones-somatostatin (hypothalamic hormone) and Somatotropin (human growth hormone) have been successfully
synthesised using biotechnological techniques like
recombinant DNA technology and gene cloning. By
this production we can do the treatment of abnormal growth related diseases.
iv. Tissue Plasminogen Factor: Biotechnology provides
tissue plasminogen factor which is used to dissolve
unwanted blood clots.
v. Blood Clotting Factor VIII: It is an important biotechnology product which is used for the treatment
of haemophilia.
vi. Vaccines: There are many productions of vaccines
from biotechnology method which are used in curing various infective diseases.
Polymers
'Poly' means many and 'mer' means unit. Thus a
polymer is a large but single chain-like molecule in
which the repeating units derived from small molecules
called monomers are covalently linked. The process by
which monomers are transferred into a polymer is called
Polymerization. For example, Polyethylene is obtained
from its monomer ethylene as a result of Polymerization. Here the repeat unit is derived from the monomer
ethylene.
n CH2 = CH2 (-CH2-CH2-)n
ethylene
Polyethylene
applications of organic chemistry, biology and industrial engineering. From biotechnology we get medicines,
hormones and several other useful things. As for example Bacteria and other microorganisms can be genetically engineered to carry out intricate steps in important processes in chemicals and food industry. In
the field of agriculture, genetic engineering holds a great
promise for increasing the crop field and quality by
making them resistant to certain diseases.
Applications of Biotechnology
i.
Insulin Production: Insulin is an important hormone which regulates the amount of glucose. So it is
an animal protein. It is used as an antidiabetic drug.
This hormone is secreted by Pancreas. By biotechnological method it is possible to prepare and link a
synthetic gene, responsible for synthesis of insulin,
to a plasmid of E. Coli. After genetic expression and
translation of mRNA into proteins, insulin is obtained.
ii.
Polymer
Polyethylene
Polypropylene
Polybutadiene
Polytetrafluoroethylene
(Teffon)
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
CH CH2)
Nylon-66
Bakelite
Polyester (Terylene)
Classification of Polymers
Polymers can be broadly divided into two classes
Natural Polymers and Synthetic Polymers.
Natural Polymers: Polymers derived from nature
mostly from plants and animals are natural polymers.
Starch, cellulose and other polysaccharides, proteins,
nucleic acids and natural rubber are examples of this
type.
Starches are Polymers of glucose, i.e. Starch molecules consist of many hundreds of glucose molecules
joined together. Cellulose is also a polymer of glucose.
Protein is a polymer of amino-acids. Natural rubber is
polymer which consists of repeat units of hydrocarbons
2-methyl 1-1, 3-butadiene (isoprene)
C
n CH2 = | CH = CH2
CH3
Isoprene
condensation polyerization. Polymers have been classified into two main groups based on these modes of
synthesis as
i. Addition Polymers
Condensation Polymers
Polyisoprene
(naturalrubber)
Synthetic Polymers
These polymers are synthesized by man in laboratory or factory. Most of the synthetic polymers are longchain organic molecules containing thousands of monomer units. The names of many of these polymers are
known to most of us. Some of them are polyethylene,
polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, bakelite, nylon, dacron,
neoprene and thiokol.
Classification based on Synthesis:There are two
modes of polymerization addition polymerization and
[65]
ii.
(CH2 |
ii.
ii.
nated wooden plants and in varnishes and lacquers. Hard bakelite is used for making combs, fountain-pen barrels, phonograph records, electrical
goods, formica table-tops and many other products.
Sulphonated bakelites are used as ion-exchange resins.
Natural Fibres: These type of fibres are used in making fibres. Cotton, wool and silk are examples; in which
cotton is a cellulose fibre, wool and silk are protein
fibres.
Synthetic Fibres: These are man-made fibres. Synthetic fibres are found in two types
i.
ii.
i.nylon 6
nylons and polyesters. Aniline yellow and malachite green belong to this class of dyes.
c. Direct Dyes: These dyes are thus useful for cotton,
rayon, wool, silk and nylon. The examples are
Martius yellow and Congo red.
d.
Disperse Dyes: This class of dyes is used for polyesters, nylon and polyacrylonitrile. Martius yellow,
Naphthol yellow, Congo red are examples.
e.
Fibre reactive Dyes: These dyes are useful for cotton wool or silk.
f.
nylon 6, 6
iii.
nylon 6, 10
Dyes
Dyes are coloured compounds used to impart colour
to the textiles like silk, wool, food stuffs, etc.
India has a rich tradition in dyes and coloured fabrics. Probably the earliest known dyes were indigo (a
blue dye) and alizarin (a red dye). These were obtained
from plants. Indigo was primarily produced in India
and exported all over the world.
Nowadays, a large number of synthetic dyes are
being manufactured.
Classification
acetate rayon.
ii.
b.
spaces in rocks.
Mineral crude oil is a mixture of liquids, solids and
gases dissolved in the liquid. The mixture of chemicals
is separated or refined using fractional distillation. The
different components separate because they have different boiling points.
Use of Petroleum Products: In modern technology
various substances like plastics (Polythene, Polyvinyl
chloride, Polystyrene, all the synthetic fibres like nylon,
terylene) acetate, glues, paints, dyes, drugs, cosmetics
are manufactured from oil in the petrochemical industry.
a. Gaseous Hydrocarbons: Molecular composition of
these hydrocarbons is C1 to C4. It is used as industrial or domestic fuel.
[67]
b.
c.
g.
i.
ii.
Liquefied petroleum gas (L.P.G): It is mainly a mixture of propane and butane and is used in homes for
cooking.
Water gas: CO + H2
Double base Propellant: These types of solid propellants consist of nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose.
2. Liquid Propellants: Alcohol, liquid hydrogen, liquid ammonia, kerosene oil, hydrozines, hydrides of
boron, methyl nitrate, nitromethane, hydrogen peroxide, etc. are liquid propellants. Liquid oxygen,
liquid fluorine hydrogen peroxide and nitric acid
are used as oxidising agents.
3. Hybrid Propellants: These type of propellants consist of a solid fuel and a liquid oxidising agent. N2O4
and acrylic rubber are common examples in the use
of rocket propellants.
i.
iii. The space shuttle uses liquid hydrogen, liquid oxygen along with solid boosters in the lower stages.
iv. The Russian rockets such as PROTON generally
use a liquid propellant consisting of kerosene and
liquid oxygen.
v.
Fire Extinguishers
Any combustible substance catches fire if some required conditions are made available to it. Such conditions are ignition temperature (i.e. lowest temperature at
which a substance catches fire), heat, supporter of combustion and combustible substance. If any of these con-
CHRONICLE
CHEMISTRY AT A GLANCE
[69]
NH4NO3
SiO2 3C
N2O 2H2O
IAS ACADEMY
SiC 2CO
amounts, it acts as an anaesthetic for minor operations. It can be prepared by heating ammonium nitrate.
milk of lime.
Lime water is clear solution of calcium hydroxide.
l
l
Sodium metal can be easily cut with a knife. Its surface when freshly cut is very shining.
l
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Heat
HNO3 attacks proteins giving a yellow nitro compound called xanthro protein. Therefore, HNO3 stains
the skin and renders wood yellow.
Radioactive Phosphorus (P-32) is used for treatment
of leukemia (blood cancer).
Phosphine is used for preparing Holmes signals for
ships to know about the position of the rocks in the
sea.
l
l
Phosphine is used to prepare smoke screens in warfare. Calcium phosphide reacts with water to form
phosphine which burns to give smoke.
[70]
100 75%
as fungicide.
Reagents or Mixtures
l
Schweizer Reagent: It is tetraamminediacquacopper dihydroxide which is used for production of cellulose products like rayon and cellophane.
Baeyers Reagent: Cold alkaline KMnO4 solution used for detecting olefinic and acetylenic linkages.
Hydrogen, H2: Colourless, odourless, tasteless, lightest gas, sparingly soluble is water, combustible and
burns in air or oxygen with nearly invisible pale
blue flame, neutral, can be liquefied and solidified.
Purple of Cassius: Colloidal particles of gold absorbed by colloidal precipitate of stannic acid-used
for colouring glass (rubby red) and pottery.
Dinitrogen Trioxide:Nitrousanhydride;N2O3.Reddish
brown gas which on cooling gives a deep blue liquid.
l
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[71]
Sodium Metal: Preparation of TEL, sodium amalgam, in sodium vapour lamp, heat transfer medium
in nuclear reactors, Na-K alloy (liquid at room tem-
Hydrogen Sulphide, H2S: Colourless, smell of rotten eggs, soluble in water, poisonous.
Sulphur Dioxide, SO2: Colourless pungent and suffocating odour, heavier than air, soluble in water,
pisonous, can be liquefied and solidified.
Hydrogen Halides, HX: Colourless, pungent smelling, acidic taste, fairly soluble in water, heavier than
air, can be liquefied.
Important Compounds
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Potassium Sulphate, K2SO4: As fertilizer, in potash alum and glass, as a purgative in medicines.
chalk in paints and distempers and in the production of CO2; as precipitated chalk in tooth pastes
and powders, in medicines for indigestion.
l
Silver Metal: In coins ornaments, filling teeth (silver-alloy), medicines, silver plating.
l
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Aluminium Chloride, AlCl3: In Friedel-Craft reaction to prepare synthetic polymers like polythene.
reducing agent.
l
Carbon Dioxide, CO2: As a fire extinguisher, refrigerant (as dry ice), for artificial respiration (as
carbogen), manufacture of aerated water, white lead
and Na2CO3 (Solvay process).
Tin Metal: Tin foil is used for wrapping cigarettes,
confectionery and for making tooth paste tubes.
ticles.
l
Ozone, O3: As sterilising agent for water, for improving the atmosphere of crowded places, mild
bleaching agent, for detecting the position of double
bond, for preparing KMnO4 from K2MnO4, artificial
silk and synthetic camphor.
Sulphur: In match industry and fireworks, vulcanization of rubber, disinfectant for houses, skin medicines and in preparing sulphur dyes.
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Nitric Oxide, NO: Intermediate in HNO3 manufacture, catalyst in lead chamber, in detection of oxygen.
[73]
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Chlorine, Cl2: Bleaching agent, purification of drinking water, as germicide, as disinfectant in swimming pools, preparation of domestic antiseptic solution (NaOCl), bleaching powder, chlorates, DDT,
poisonous gases like COCl2, tear gas and mustard
gas.
Green Vitriol (Hara Kasis), FeSO4. 7H2O: Preparation of blue-black (writing) ink, as mordant in dyeing and tanning industries, as insecticide in organic analysis.
Ferric Oxide, Fe2O3: As a red pigment, as a polishing powder in jewellery, as a catalyst for the oxidation of CO to CO2.
Formaldehyde: (40% solution is known as formalin). As a preservative for biological and anatomical
specimens, in preparation of urotropine, bakelite, in
silvering of mirror.
Ethyl alcohol, C2H5OH: Beverages, solvent, antifreeze for automobile radiators, in apparatuses like
spirit levels, power alchol.
l
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CHEMISTRY
(SAMPLE QUESTIONS
)
1.
[74]
4.
2.
e-
(b)
Terelyne
(c)
Silk
(d)
Cotton
(b)
Sulphonation
(c)
Hydration
(d)
(d)
Brass
(c)
Copper
(d)
Nichrome
(c)
(b)
(c)
(d)
al
water.
6.
c
CHRONICLE
potash feldspar?
(a) Bauxite
IAS ACADEMY
(b)
Calcite
(c)
Kaolin
(d)
Muscovite
LE Y
EM
IC
N AD
RO
AC
CH
S
IA
(b)
9.
Lead pencils
(a) Contain lead
of water.
(c)
(b)
(c)
that of water.
(d)
10.
-
water.
7.
(d)
Calcium sulphate
(d)
Calcium chloride
8.
e
phy is
(a) Silver chloride
(b)
Silver sulphide
(c)
Silver bromide
(d)
Silver oxide
(c)
Contain copper
11.
(d)
Chemistry
12.
Pitchblende
(B)
Aluminium
2.
Monazite
(C)
Thorium
3.
Bauxite
(D)
Uranium
4.
Galena
13.
ap
15.
lly
Silver bromide
(b)
Silver iodide
(c)
Silver nitrate
(d)
(a)
(b)
by using
(a) Acetylene
(c)
(b)
Methane
(d)
(c)
Sulphur dioxide
(d)
Carbon dioxide
16.
profusely?
n
(a) Hard water contains sulphates and chl
o-
14.
a-
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
17.
(a)
Phosphrous
(b)
Sulphur
(c)
Antimony trisulphide
(d)
Potassium Chlorate
ecause
(a) It contains less number of H atoms
(b)
(c)
(d)
It contains chlorine
18.
mically named as
(a) Sodium chloride
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
-
(b)
Sodium sulphate
(c)
Magnesium chloride
(d)
Magnesium sulphate
(b)
(c)
(d)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Hydrogenation
(b)
Hydrolysis
(c)
Oxidation
(d)
Saponification
(c)
(d)
Two protons
d
and backward reactions equally, in a reversible reaction
(c)
ction
(d)
d
of the chemical reaction
24.
m-
(a)
Hydrogen
(b)
Helium
25.
(c)
Oxygen
(d)
Nitrogen
Chemistry
I
Caustic soda
B.
Copper sulphate
III.
Blue vitriol
C.
Sodium thiosulphate
IV.
Hypo
D.
Sodium carbonate
II
III
IV
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Chemistry
CHRONICLE
IAS ACADEMY
Y
EEM
LC
NIA
C DA
RO
HC
S
AI
1 (b)
14 (a)
2 (c)
15 (a)
3 (d)
16 (a)
4 (d)
17 (b)
5 (b)
18 (d)
6 (d)
19 (b)
7 (a)
20 (b)
8 (c)
21 (a)
9 (c)
22 (a)
10 (c)
23 (d)
11 (d)
24 (a)
12 (d)
25 (a)
13 (a)
Chemistry