Chapter 2

COMBINATIONS OF LOADS
2.1 GENERAL
Buildings and other structures shall be designed using
the provisions of either Section 2.3 or 2.4. Where
elements of a structure are designed by a particular
material standard or specication, they shall be
designed exclusively by either Section 2.3 or 2.4.
2.2 SYMBOLS
Ak = load or load effect arising from extra ordinary
event A
D = dead load
Di = weight of ice
E = earthquake load
F = load due to uids with well-dened pressures
and maximum heights
Fa = ood load
H = load due to lateral earth pressure, ground water
pressure, or pressure of bulk materials
L = live load
Lr = roof live load
R = rain load
S = snow load
T = self-straining load
W = wind load
Wi = wind-on-ice determined in accordance with
Chapter 10
2.3 COMBINING FACTORED LOADS USING
STRENGTH DESIGN
2.3.1 Applicability
The load combinations and load factors given in
Section 2.3.2 shall be used only in those cases in
which they are specically authorized by the applicable material design standard.
2.3.2 Basic Combinations
Structures, components, and foundations shall be
designed so that their design strength equals or
exceeds the effects of the factored loads in the
following combinations:
1.
2.
3.
4.

1.4D
1.2D + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)
1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S or R) + (L or 0.5W)
1.2D + 1.0W + L + 0.5(Lr or S or R)

5. 1.2D + 1.0E + L + 0.2S

6. 0.9D + 1.0W
7. 0.9D + 1.0E
EXCEPTIONS:
1. The load factor on L in combinations 3, 4, and 5 is
permitted to equal 0.5 for all occupancies in which
Lo in Table 4-1 is less than or equal to 100 psf,
with the exception of garages or areas occupied as
places of public assembly.
2. In combinations 2, 4, and 5, the companion load S
shall be taken as either the at roof snow load (pf)
or the sloped roof snow load (ps).
Where uid loads F are present, they shall be
included with the same load factor as dead load D in
combinations 1 through 5 and 7.
Where load H are present, they shall be included
as follows:
1. where the effect of H adds to the primary variable
load effect, include H with a load factor of 1.6;
2. where the effect of H resists the primary variable
load effect, include H with a load factor of 0.9
where the load is permanent or a load factor of 0
for all other conditions.
Effects of one or more loads not acting shall be
investigated. The most unfavorable effects from both
wind and earthquake loads shall be investigated,
where appropriate, but they need not be considered to
act simultaneously. Refer to Section 12.4 for specic
denition of the earthquake load effect E.1
Each relevant strength limit state shall be
investigated.
2.3.3 Load Combinations Including Flood Load
When a structure is located in a ood zone
(Section 5.3.1), the following load combinations shall
be considered in addition to the basic combinations in
Section 2.3.2:
1. In V-Zones or Coastal A-Zones, 1.0W in combinations 4 and 6 shall be replaced by 1.0W + 2.0Fa.
2. In noncoastal A-Zones, 1.0W in combinations 4
and 6 shall be replaced by 0.5W + 1.0Fa.
1

The same E from Sections 1.4 and 12.4 is used for both Sections
2.3.2 and 2.4.1. Refer to the Chapter 11 Commentary for the Seismic
Provisions.

CHAPTER 2

COMBINATIONS OF LOADS

2.3.4. Load Combinations Including Atmospheric

Ice Loads
When a structure is subjected to atmospheric ice
and wind-on-ice loads, the following load combinations shall be considered:
1. 0.5(Lr or S or R) in combination 2 shall be replaced
by 0.2Di + 0.5S.
2. 1.0W + 0.5(Lr or S or R) in combination 4 shall be
replaced by Di + Wi + 0.5S.
3. 1.0W in combination 6 shall be replaced by
Di + Wi.
2.3.5 Load Combinations Including
Self-Straining Loads
Where applicable, the structural effects of load T
shall be considered in combination with other loads.
The load factor on load T shall be established considering the uncertainty associated with the likely
magnitude of the load, the probability that the
maximum effect of T will occur simultaneously with
other applied loadings, and the potential adverse
consequences if the effect of T is greater than
assumed. The load factor on T shall not have a value
less than 1.0.
2.3.6 Load Combinations for Nonspecied Loads
Where approved by the Authority Having
Jurisdiction, the Responsible Design Professional is
permitted to determine the combined load effect for
strength design using a method that is consistent with
the method on which the load combination requirements in Section 2.3.2 are based. Such a method must
be probability-based and must be accompanied by
documentation regarding the analysis and collection
of supporting data that is acceptable to the Authority
Having Jurisdiction.

2.4 COMBINING NOMINAL LOADS USING

ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN
2.4.1 Basic Combinations
Loads listed herein shall be considered to act in
the following combinations; whichever produces the
most unfavorable effect in the building, foundation, or
structural member being considered. Effects of one or
more loads not acting shall be considered.
1.
2.
3.

D
D+L
D + (Lr or S or R)

4.
5.
6a.
6b.
7.
8.

D + 0.75L + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
D + (0.6W or 0.7E)
D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W) + 0.75(Lr or S or R)
D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.7E) + 0.75S
0.6D + 0.6W
0.6D + 0.7E
EXCEPTIONS:

1. In combinations 4 and 6, the companion load S

shall be taken as either the at roof snow load (pf)
or the sloped roof snow load (ps).
2. For nonbuilding structures, in which the wind load
is determined from force coefcients, Cf, identied
in Figures 29.5-1, 29.5-2 and 29.5-3 and the
projected area contributing wind force to a foundation element exceeds 1,000 square feet on either a
vertical or a horizontal plane, it shall be permitted
to replace W with 0.9W in combination 7 for
design of the foundation, excluding anchorage of
the structure to the foundation.
3. It shall be permitted to replace 0.6D with 0.9D in
combination 8 for the design of Special Reinforced
Masonry Shear Walls, where the walls satisfy the
requirement of Section 14.4.2.
Where uid loads F are present, they shall be
included in combinations 1 through 6 and 8 with the
same factor as that used for dead load D.
Where load H is present, it shall be included as
follows:
1. where the effect of H adds to the primary variable
load effect, include H with a load factor of 1.0;
2. where the effect of H resists the primary variable
load effect, include H with a load factor of 0.6
where the load is permanent or a load factor of 0
for all other conditions.
The most unfavorable effects from both wind
and earthquake loads shall be considered, where
appropriate, but they need not be assumed to act
simultaneously. Refer to Section 1.4 and 12.4
for the specic denition of the earthquake load
effect E.2
Increases in allowable stress shall not be used
with the loads or load combinations given in this
standard unless it can be demonstrated that such an
increase is justied by structural behavior caused by
rate or duration of load.

The same E from Sections 1.4 and 12.4 is used for both Sections
2.3.2 and 2.4.1. Refer to the Chapter 11 Commentary for the Seismic
Provisions.

MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

2.4.2 Load Combinations Including Flood Load

When a structure is located in a ood zone,
the following load combinations shall be
considered in addition to the basic combinations in
Section 2.4.1:
1. In V-Zones or Coastal A-Zones (Section 5.3.1),
1.5Fa shall be added to other loads in combinations
5, 6, and 7, and E shall be set equal to zero in 5
and 6.
2. In non-coastal A-Zones, 0.75Fa shall be added to
combinations 5, 6, and 7, and E shall be set equal
to zero in 5 and 6.

2.4.3 Load Combinations Including Atmospheric

Ice Loads
When a structure is subjected to atmospheric ice
and wind-on-ice loads, the following load combinations shall be considered:
1. 0.7Di shall be added to combination 2.
2. (Lr or S or R) in combination 3 shall be replaced
by 0.7Di + 0.7Wi + S.
3. 0.6W in combination 7 shall be replaced by 0.7Di +
0.7Wi.

2.4.4 Load Combinations Including

Self-Straining Loads
Where applicable, the structural effects of load T
shall be considered in combination with other loads.
Where the maximum effect of load T is unlikely to
occur simultaneously with the maximum effects of
other variable loads, it shall be permitted to reduce
the magnitude of T considered in combination with
these other loads. The fraction of T considered in
combination with other loads shall not be less than
0.75.

2.5 LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR

EXTRAORDINARY EVENTS
2.5.1 Applicability
Where required by the owner or applicable code,
strength and stability shall be checked to ensure that
structures are capable of withstanding the effects of
extraordinary (i.e., low-probability) events, such as
res, explosions, and vehicular impact without

disproportionate collapse.
2.5.2 Load Combinations
2.5.2.1 Capacity
For checking the capacity of a structure or structural
element to withstand the effect of an extraordinary
event, the following gravity load combination shall be
considered:
(0.9 or 1.2)D + Ak + 0.5L + 0.2S

(2.5-1)

in which Ak = the load or load effect resulting from

extraordinary event A.
2.5.2.2 Residual Capacity
For checking the residual load-carrying capacity
of a structure or structural element following the
occurrence of a damaging event, selected load-bearing
elements identied by the Responsible Design
Professional shall be notionally removed, and the
capacity of the damaged structure shall be evaluated
using the following gravity load combination:
(0.9 or 1.2)D + 0.5L + 0.2(Lr or S or R) (2.5-2)
2.5.3 Stability Requirements
Stability shall be provided for the structure as a
whole and for each of its elements. Any method that
considers the inuence of second-order effects is
permitted.

MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

Table 4-1 Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads, Lo, and Minimum Concentrated Live Loads
Uniform psf (kN/m2)

Occupancy or Use

Conc. lb (kN)

Apartments (see Residential)

Access oor systems
Ofce use
Computer use

50 (2.4)
100 (4.79)

Armories and drill rooms

150 (7.18)a

Assembly areas and theaters

Fixed seats (fastened to oor)
Lobbies
Movable seats
Platforms (assembly)
Stage oors

60 (2.87)a
100 (4.79)a
100 (4.79)a
100 (4.79)a
150 (7.18)a

Balconies and decks

1.5 times the live load for the

occupancy served. Not required
to exceed 100 psf (4.79 kN/m2)

Catwalks for maintenance access

40 (1.92)

Corridors
First oor
Other oors, same as occupancy served except as indicated

100 (4.79)

Dining rooms and restaurants

100 (4.79)a

2,000 (8.9)
2,000 (8.9)

300 (1.33)

Dwellings (see Residential)

Elevator machine room grating (on area of 2 in. by 2 in. (50 mm by
50 mm))

300 (1.33)

Finish light oor plate construction (on area of 1 in. by 1 in. (25 mm
by 25 mm))

200 (0.89)

Fire escapes
On single-family dwellings only

100 (4.79)
40 (1.92)

Fixed ladders

See Section 4.5

Garages
Passenger vehicles only
Trucks and buses

40 (1.92)a,b,c

Handrails, guardrails, and grab bars

See Section 4.5

Helipads

60 (2.87)d,e
Nonreducible

e,f,g

60 (2.87)
40 (1.92)
80 (3.83)

1,000 (4.45)
1,000 (4.45)
1,000 (4.45)

Libraries
Reading rooms
Stack rooms
Corridors above rst oor

60 (2.87)
150 (7.18)a,h
80 (3.83)

1,000 (4.45)
1,000 (4.45)
1,000 (4.45)

Manufacturing
Light
Heavy

125 (6.00)a
250 (11.97)a

2,000 (8.90)
3,000 (13.40)

Hospitals
Operating rooms, laboratories
Patient rooms
Corridors above rst oor

Hotels (see Residential)

Continued

17

CHAPTER 4

LIVE LOADS

Table 4-1 (Continued)

Uniform psf (kN/m2)

Occupancy or Use
Ofce buildings
File and computer rooms shall be designed for heavier loads based
on anticipated occupancy
Lobbies and rst-oor corridors
Ofces
Corridors above rst oor

100 (4.79)
50 (2.40)
80 (3.83)

Penal institutions
Cell blocks
Corridors

40 (1.92)
100 (4.79)

Recreational uses
Bowling alleys, poolrooms, and similar uses
Dance halls and ballrooms
Gymnasiums
Reviewing stands, grandstands, and bleachers
Stadiums and arenas with xed seats (fastened to the oor)

75 (3.59)a
100 (4.79)a
100 (4.79)a
100 (4.79)a,k
60 (2.87)a,k

Residential
One- and two-family dwellings
Uninhabitable attics without storage
Uninhabitable attics with storage
Habitable attics and sleeping areas
All other areas except stairs
All other residential occupancies
Private rooms and corridors serving them
Public roomsa and corridors serving them
Roofs
Ordinary at, pitched, and curved roofs
Roofs used for roof gardens
Roofs used for assembly purposes
Roofs used for other occupancies
Awnings and canopies
Fabric construction supported by a skeleton structure

2,000 (8.90)
2,000 (8.90)
2,000 (8.90)

10 (0.48)l
20 (0.96)m
30 (1.44)
40 (1.92)
40 (1.92)
100 (4.79)
20 (0.96)n
100 (4.79)
Same as occupancy served
o

5 (0.24) nonreducible

300 (1.33) applied to

skeleton structure
200 (0.89) applied to
supporting roof frame
members only

Screen enclosure support frame

5 (0.24) nonreducible and

applied to the roof frame
members only, not the screen

All other construction

Primary roof members, exposed to a work oor
Single panel point of lower chord of roof trusses or any point
along primary structural members supporting roofs over
manufacturing, storage warehouses, and repair garages
All other primary roof members
All roof surfaces subject to maintenance workers

20 (0.96)

Schools
Classrooms
Corridors above rst oor
First-oor corridors

2,000 (8.9)

300 (1.33)
300 (1.33)
40 (1.92)
80 (3.83)
100 (4.79)

1,000 (4.45)
1,000 (4.45)
1,000 (4.45)

Scuttles, skylight ribs, and accessible ceilings

200 (0.89)

Sidewalks, vehicular driveways, and yards subject to trucking

250 (11.97)

Stairs and exit ways

One- and two-family dwellings only

100 (4.79)
40 (1.92)

18

Conc. lb (kN)

a,p

8,000 (35.60)q
300r
300r

MINIMUM DESIGN LOADS

Table 4-1 (Continued)

Occupancy or Use

Uniform psf (kN/m2)

Storage areas above ceilings

20 (0.96)

Storage warehouses (shall be designed for heavier loads if required

for anticipated storage)
Light
Heavy

125 (6.00)a
250 (11.97)a

Stores
Retail
First oor
Upper oors
Wholesale, all oors

100 (4.79)
75 (3.59)
125 (6.00)a

Vehicle barriers
Walkways and elevated platforms (other than exit ways)
Yards and terraces, pedestrian

See Section 4.5

60 (2.87)
100 (4.79)a

Conc. lb (kN)

1,000 (4.45)
1,000 (4.45)
1,000 (4.45)

Live load reduction for this use is not permitted by Section 4.7 unless specic exceptions apply.
Floors in garages or portions of a building used for the storage of motor vehicles shall be designed for the uniformly distributed live loads of
Table 4-1 or the following concentrated load: (1) for garages restricted to passenger vehicles accommodating not more than nine passengers,
3,000 lb (13.35 kN) acting on an area of 4.5 in. by 4.5 in. (114 mm by 114 mm); and (2) for mechanical parking structures without slab or deck
that are used for storing passenger vehicles only, 2,250 lb (10 kN) per wheel.
c
Design for trucks and buses shall be per AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specications; however, provisions for fatigue and dynamic load
allowance are not required to be applied.
d
Uniform load shall be 40 psf (1.92 kN/m2) where the design basis helicopter has a maximum take-off weight of 3,000 lbs (13.35 kN) or less.
This load shall not be reduced.
e
Labeling of helicopter capacity shall be as required by the authority having jurisdiction.
f
Two single concentrated loads, 8 ft (2.44 m) apart shall be applied on the landing area (representing the helicopters two main landing gear,
whether skid type or wheeled type), each having a magnitude of 0.75 times the maximum take-off weight of the helicopter and located to
produce the maximum load effect on the structural elements under consideration. The concentrated loads shall be applied over an area of 8 in. by
8 in. (200 mm by 200 mm) and shall not be concurrent with other uniform or concentrated live loads.
g
A single concentrated load of 3,000 lbs (13.35 kN) shall be applied over an area 4.5 in. by 4.5 in. (114 mm by 114 mm), located so as to
produce the maximum load effects on the structural elements under consideration. The concentrated load need not be assumed to act concurrently
with other uniform or concentrated live loads.
h
The loading applies to stack room oors that support nonmobile, double-faced library book stacks subject to the following limitations: (1) The
nominal book stack unit height shall not exceed 90 in. (2,290 mm); (2) the nominal shelf depth shall not exceed 12 in. (305 mm) for each face;
and (3) parallel rows of double-faced book stacks shall be separated by aisles not less than 36 in. (914 mm) wide.
k
In addition to the vertical live loads, the design shall include horizontal swaying forces applied to each row of the seats as follows: 24 lb per
linear ft of seat applied in a direction parallel to each row of seats and 10 lb per linear ft of seat applied in a direction perpendicular to each row
of seats. The parallel and perpendicular horizontal swaying forces need not be applied simultaneously.
l
Uninhabitable attic areas without storage are those where the maximum clear height between the joist and rafter is less than 42 in. (1,067 mm),
or where there are not two or more adjacent trusses with web congurations capable of accommodating an assumed rectangle 42 in. (1,067 mm)
in height by 24 in. (610 mm) in width, or greater, within the plane of the trusses. This live load need not be assumed to act concurrently with
any other live load requirement.
m
Uninhabitable attic areas with storage are those where the maximum clear height between the joist and rafter is 42 in. (1,067 mm) or greater, or
where there are two or more adjacent trusses with web congurations capable of accommodating an assumed rectangle 42 in. (1,067 mm) in
height by 24 in. (610 mm) in width, or greater, within the plane of the trusses. At the trusses, the live load need only be applied to those portions
of the bottom chords where both of the following conditions are met:
i. The attic area is accessible from an opening not less than 20 in. (508 mm) in width by 30 in. (762 mm) in length that is located where the
clear height in the attic is a minimum of 30 in. (762 mm); and
ii. The slope of the truss bottom chord is no greater than 2 units vertical to 12 units horizontal (9.5% slope).
The remaining portions of the bottom chords shall be designed for a uniformly distributed nonconcurrent live load of not less than 10 lb/ft2
(0.48 kN/m2).
n
Where uniform roof live loads are reduced to less than 20 lb/ft2 (0.96 kN/m2) in accordance with Section 4.8.1 and are applied to the design of
structural members arranged so as to create continuity, the reduced roof live load shall be applied to adjacent spans or to alternate spans,
whichever produces the greatest unfavorable load effect.
o
Roofs used for other occupancies shall be designed for appropriate loads as approved by the authority having jurisdiction.
p
Other uniform loads in accordance with an approved method, which contains provisions for truck loadings, shall also be considered where appropriate.
q
The concentrated wheel load shall be applied on an area of 4.5 in. by 4.5 in. (114 mm by 114 mm).
r
Minimum concentrated load on stair treads (on area of 2 in. by 2 in. [50 mm by 50 mm]) is to be applied nonconcurrent with the uniform load.
b

19