Rock Blasting Terms and Symbols A dictionary of symbols and terminology in rock blasting and related areas like drilling, mining and rock mechanics Editorin-Chief AGNE RUSTAN Division of Miring Engineering, Luled University of Technology Luled, Sweden A.A.BALKEMA/ROTTERDAM/BROOKFIELD/ 1998ROCK BLASTING TERMS AND SYMBOLS“Tis volume is compiled by a group of expen in cooeratin withthe Intemational Society for Rock “Mechanic” Commission on Fragmentation by Shsting Fron coverillsates the /ragmentation throw and angle of breakage aftr lastly tes with one single hoe ihe ingle hoe bling method) in lors limestone quatTy on Golnd, Sweden in 1986 “he lmwstone ha tensile stergth of ~8 MP3 anda high acute impedance of 162 x 10° ken" ‘Only one joint set was fund and twas almost vec. The horizontal being planes ineloded some soft clay lsyers. Te Basho ameter was 9 mm, andthe charge consisted of 33k of Nitro Nobel Dynamexas boom etarge (no subdeiling) pd 5 kgof ANFO as colurm charge. The lasted burden was 107m (sof the critcal burden). R meee 299 Rad 92 cl ‘Asstarzation to photocopy tems fr intemal persona! we or he ncemal or personal we of specific Clients is granted by A.A. Balkema, Roverdam, provided that he base fee of USSI.S0 per copy. pls 'USSO.i0 per page is paid direct to Copyright Clearance Center. 222 Rosewood Dave, Danvers MA 01925, USA. For those organizations that have been granted a photocopy license By CCC. 8 separate system of payment has been amanged. The Te code for users ofthe Transactional Reponing Service is 90 5410 441 4/98 USS 50+ USSO 10 Published by ‘A.A.Balkema, PO, Box 1675, 3000 BR Roterdam, Netherlands Fax 31.10.4135987; E-mail balkema@ balers Intere! site: hipi#wwaralkema nt [A.A Balkema Publishers, Old Poet Road, Brookfield, 05036-9708, USA Fox: 802.276.3837: E-mail: info@sshgatecom ISBN oO ss104416 ©1998 A.A. Balema,Rowerdam Printed in the Netherlands Contents Associate editors Introduction Terminology list Noes forthe user List of symbols and abbreviations ‘Symbols Greek symbols ‘Acronyms, abbreviations and shortened forms References aff vitAssociate editors ‘Claude Cunningham Consulting Mining Eng AECI Explosives Limited Modderfontein House P.O, Modderfonteia, Transval 1645 ‘SOUTH AFRICA Carl Hendricks Assistant Professor Dept. OF Mining & Metal. Eng, MeGill University, 3450 University St. Montseal, Quebec. H3A 2A7 ‘CANADA Hans Peter Rossmanith Dr Institute for Mechanics Technical University of Vienna Wiedaer Hauptstrasse 8-10/325 Wiliam Forney Professor Mechanical Engineering Department University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 USA Roger Holmberg Technical Director Nitco Nobel AB Gytiom SE-713 82 Nora ‘SWEDEN KRY. Simha Professor Department of Mechanical Eng. Indian Insite of Science Bangalore 560 012 ‘A-1040 Vienna INDIA AUSTRIA Editorin-chief Chairman of the ISRM Blasting Terminology Grow ‘Agne Rustan Associate Professor Division of Mining Engineering Lule University of Technology, SE-971 87 Luled SWEDEN vitIntroduction Blasting is a subject which combines many different disciplines. such as mechanics, rock mechanics, physics. chemistry, Beology, geophysics, petrology, seismology. Imining engineering, rock construction engineering, etc. A specialist in one of the Fields mentioned usually lacks precise definitions of technical terms in the other Fields. The existence of a descriptive blasting dictionary of different professional dis- ciplines is therefore essential for a successful and meaningful communication among Specialists and for the development of blasting science. Ths is clearly demonstrated by the figure onthe next page. ‘The idea of compiling this blasting dictionary was brought up at the Third intr national Symposium on Rock Fragmentation by Blasting “Fragblasr J° in Brisbane. ‘Australia, in September 1990. The ISRM Commission on Rock Fragmentation, chaired by Professor William Fourey, formed an editorial Working Group which initially consisted of Claude Cunningham, South Africa, Richard Dick and William Foumey. USA, Roger Holmberg and Agne Rustan, Sweden, and V.S. Vutukur, Australia. Later on the Working Group was extended to include Hans Peter Ross- tanith, Austria, Carl Hendricks. Canada and K.R.Y. Simha, India. However, Rich- ard Dick, USBM and V.S. Vutukus, Australia retired before the tecminology list was, Finshed. Hans Peter Rossmanith did, despite his late arrival into the group, a large contribution to se the scientific and editorial standard of the book. “The objective of creating the dictionary was to make available an extended com- pilation of terms which would help studeats, ceachers, echnicians, engineers, scien tists and practitioners in the field of blasting to become better acquainted with inter- rational definitions and symbols, and assist them when publishing in the field of basting. in the existing literature, mainly short and incomplete glossaries or dictionaries of blasting were found. The most extensive glossaries were developed by Atlas Powder, USA, (65 terms) and the Institute of Makers of Explosives, USA, (293 terms). An- other useful vocabulary list was the USBM "Dictionary of Mining, Mineral and Re- lated Terms’ which contains about 55,000 terms with approximately 150.000 defini ‘The present dictionary contains 1980 terms, 325 symbols, 77 acronyms, abbrevia- ions and shortened forts, 221 references, 32 figures, $7 formulas and 28 tables. Several new and original definitions have been included in the list. About 1/5 of the definitions given in the dictionary have been developed by the working group, pri marily because of the difficulty and large cost associated with finding the original ‘eference for definitions. tn the course of the compilation of this dictionary 18 terms ‘were identified which lack international standards for descriptive and operational efinitions In this dietionary, aot only short definitions of the terms are presented, but also a ‘quantification of some terms is included, and thei relationship to other parameters in blasting is highlighted. This dictionary represents therefore today the most extensive blasting dictionary available and itis a valuable tol and essential for writing papers, *Agne Rustan eck nus cancion epenieg + _ pectin det aurciaiee fe tonto ‘Comparison eee Precalculation eclanvih — gb siandege ne) Pesta + at cesien — Blasting EE epons etc. All scientists, engincers and students working with blasting should get a copy as a desk reference book. T would like to express my sincere thanks to the members of the Working Group for their voluntary and hard work on the dictionary, each member using his special skills and professionalism ina careful examination of the terms and their definitions. 1 also want to thank Dr Finn Ouchterlony of the Swedish Rock Engineering Founda ‘ion, Associate Professor Gour Sen atthe University of New South Wales in Austra- lia, and finally Professor Gunnar Almgren and Associate Professor Shao-Quan Koa at Luled University of Technology, for their contributions and their advice in pre= paring the dictionary. In addition I would like to thank librarian Paul MeMillen from Ireland for his linguistic correction ofthe ditionary. Many thanks are also extended (0 Luled University of Technology, which has sponsored a large part of this work. ‘Agne Rustan Ezditor-in-Chiet Note: Blasting technology is improving fast and new terms are constantly being de- veloped and used. Therefore, it will be necessary to upgrade the dictionary at regular intervals and your comments are therefore very much appreciated, Please contact the Chairman of this Working Group, Associate Prof. Agne Rustan, by Phone +46-920- 91456, Fax +46-920-91935 or Email Agne Rustan@ce.iuth.se Terminology listNotes for the user Sl ois are wed consistently in hs dictionary, where tm stands for meter. Kg for lgram or sons an Aor Ampere Fr se Teas and heir ust recommendation ote os omanony wed prec gven, gf compresive Stengih MPa often recommended seal of Pa Aecovling foe 180 31-9 Standard he decimal comina i used ised of he decal porn (The USA however, has voted again tis Sanda), Weight a force and sunt is Newion (6 bat is weongly wed large pa of the leraue on blaing fo dente mas eg). Teetre weight hs cose guemly been hanged to mas tughout ins teranolgy Ia Beall about explosive properties and methods est cnpoves se documented inte book ‘Explosives by R. Moyen 97? and “Enyctopacdia of Explosives tnd Related Items by Kaye estan, 1989 Some ofthe symoolsnleded ints dcdonary were taken rom he st “nt anal Lt of SymtnsDrting and Bagby Resa a 8 es writen inhale are hose nt recomended tobe used and hey shu therefore be replaced by entries marked by bold. hey souls A abbreviation, a shortened form of a word. eg. Eng. for Engineering. ‘Abel heat test, a test method used (0 astess the chemical stability of an explosive. "The parameter which is determined is te time after which a moist potassium io- dige-starch paper tums violet or blue when exposed to gases evolved by one gram Sf the explosive at 822 °C 180 *F), In commercial nitroglycerin explosives ¢ g this coloration should only develop after 10 minutes or more, In 2 more sensitive wariant of the method, zinc iodide-starch paper is employed. Today the Abel test ie stil used im quality control of commercial nitrocellulose, nitroglycerin and ai- troglyca, but its practically speaking no longer employed instability testing of propellans, The test was proposed by Abel in 1875. Meyer, 1977. This test can aise be used to determine the degree of deterioration of an explosive that may have occurred during the period of storage. McAdam & Westwater, 1958. abrasion, the wearing away by friction. AGL, 1957 and 1969. abrasion value (AV) see ‘tungsten carbide abrasion test’. abrasion hardness, hardness expressed in quantitative terms or numbers indicating the degres o which a substance cesists being worn away by frictional contact with fan abrasive material, such as silica or earborundum grits. Also called abrasion ce sistance; wear resistance. Long, 1960. See also ‘abrasive hardness test’. abrasion resistance, see ‘abrasion hardness abrasive hardness test (abrasiveness), (4), (m or mm), abrasion rests serve (0 measure the resistance of rocks to wear due to friction of surfaces against each ther of compression (impact or indestation). These tests include wear when sub- jected to an abrasive material, wear in contact with metal and wear produced by Contact between the rocks, The tests can be grouped into three categories: (1) SSbrasive wear impact tests; (2) abrasive wear with pressure tests; and (3) atuition tests, See ‘Suggested Methods of Determining Hardness and Abrasiveness of Rocks”, ISRM, 1978. One abrasive hardness test employs 2 rotating abrasive wheel or plate against which the specimen is held. The specimens are abraded for given number of evolutions, and the mass of material abraded is a measure of the abrasive hardness, see “tungsten carbide abrasion test’. There are several other tests suggested in the literature, One index, the Cherchar abrasivity index (CAD), is used in full face boring, A steel cone with a cone angle of 90°, tensile strength (of 200 MPa and Rockwell hardness 54-56 is pulled over the length of | cm of the ock surface. The diameter of the resulting abraded flat on the steel cone, meas- tired in tenths of a mm in a microscope, determines the Cherchar abrasivity index. (Quartz and quartzite have CAL values of about 6 (cutter life = CL = 60 km), and Thmestone about | (CL = 2000 km). CL is approximately inversely proportional to (CAN?. Suana & Peters, 1982 abrasiveness (A), (m or mm), cesistance of rock against abrasion/wear, see ‘abra- sive hardness tests. abrasivity, ee ‘abrasive hardness test (absolute) bulk strength (ABS), (Sp) ($J/n’). use ‘absolute volume strength’(absolute) mass strength (absolute) mass strength (AMS). 6, (M/k), ealenlated eneray per unit mas of explosive. Any such figure must be supported by the name of the detonation code it get f ste enploe. and te convent for dering ny absolute temperature (7), (K) temperature quantified by the Kelvin scale.0°C = lee (6), temperature quanified by the Kelvin seal. 0°C (absolute) volume strength (AVS), (5), (MS/m’), calculated energy per unit vol ume of explosive. Any such figure must be supported by the name of the dona tion code used, the equation of state employed, and the convention for determin energy. absolute weight srengih (AWS), (54) (MAK), use ‘absolute mass strength Abutment, the mass of volume consisting ofthe walls im an underground excavation supporting the roof ofthe excavation abutment height (Fy), (m), se “height of abutment’ acceleration (a), (fs), the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. acceleration due to gravity (g),(mys%), the acceleration imparted to bodies by the attractive fore ofthe Earth. The acceleration hasan international standard value 0f 9.80665 mis! but varies with latitude and elevation on Earth, Lapedes, 1978 accelerometer, an instrument which measures acceleration o gravitational force c2- pable of imparting acceleration. Usually, a piezeo electric or pieze0 resistive cessed as measuring devi. acceptor charge, a charge of explosive or blasting agent which ceceives an impulse from an expiing donor charge esseenenn ms accessories and tools, see "blasting accessories. access tunnel or adit, @near-horzonal passage from the surface by which an un Segond mie ened The a thei ely open fo he race one acoustic impedance (2), (kgim's, Nim? or Pas/m), the product of the Pawave ve- locity and the density of a material. It charactezes & material as to its energy transfer properties. The acoustic impedance is an important quanty in characte Seng ck asi (real ude) and rock fagnenaton anifomiy ines), classification of acoustic impedance values found in the laboratory and inthe feldare given nTable tn te ery endo “The impedance theory describes the energy wansmission from one media to the adjacent, and canbe used approximately when studying how much energy can be transmitted from an explosive in a blasthole to the surrounding rock. The basic theory assumes a plane elastic wave which impacts at normal incidence t an in- terace between wo dismal mates mn steno aaZ acoustic impedance theory 27 ey where the transmitted pressure p, is given in (Pa), p. is the is given in (Pa), pis the incident pressure in (Pa), Zp isthe impedance ratio Z/Z, where Z, and Z, are the impedance's forthe Taterial ofthe incidence wave, and the material of the transmitted wave respec: tively. The maximum energy transmission fom one media to an adjacent is achieved for normal incidence, i, when the acoustic impedance ratio is equal to 1, see “impedance ratio" acoustic impedance of the material ofthe incidexce wave “oble ,Clasifietion of acoustic impedances or diferent kinds of rock and rockike materi Classof Acoustic Examples of materials ‘Acoustic impedance. Expected Scouse impedance Glob egimes) sical impedance (106 Sunder ko’) Lo Fie Vegiow 05 Lighvwegheconarte Sweden, 953 LIZ ~~ ‘Vey Righ Kernmeret col USA, Hearst ak, i376) au 28 Buses sandstone USA, FourneyetzL, $26 ~ is Low S10 Carbonaceous we Russi, 1994 = 688 High ‘Alum ste (perpendicular ohe —$.39611.1~ ‘eding panes) Norway. 1990 Sslemimesone USA. Foumey etal, 945 = 96 Medium 10-15 Laossavara magaetie Sweden. 1989 11.9 = Medium ogee concrete Sweden, 983. 12000 = Charcoal granite USA, Fouroey etal, 12, 1376 jet ernie Steen, 1983, bo Heneyquaraie Sweden, 1983 B= High > 15 Dalen Ina 1973. 2 = Low Shorgestimesione, Sweden, 1983 164 TDL te 1988 Tomas linesione, Tukey. 1993 166 5.6586 rst dnb lai 1973 2 Steinncher Emerg dolomite. Asia (86 = 1993 Stelter Erbergsideite Aust, 186 = 1993 “Tremolite schist. Inia 1973, 13 Kall gatbra, Sweden, 1983 20.8 Divag ema, Turkey. 1991216 Fo Tae Povave vlociies measured inte fel are generally lower than those measured for Tinail sboratry samples. The seus impedance values measured perpencuar to the bed gp lanes in’ Alur sue, Noveay vacy to 2 relaively lage extent depending maily on reese ine samples dry ox wet The acoustic impedance volves were taken for Ausra fom Moser (1993, fr loa from Ramana fe Venkalonaayany (1979), for Norway fom Listed {1580 or Resa fom Pevosyan (1998), for Sweden (om Rustan ota (1983), Nie (198) foe ‘Toney fom Bigin (1991) and Bilgin & Pasamehmeogly (1999), and finally fr USA fom Fourney eta (1976) sd Heute (1978) acoustic impedance of the material of the incidence wave (Zs (kglm?s), the ‘product of the P-wave velocity (c,) and the density (p) ofthe material of the inci- dence wave, Z=60 characterizes a material a to its energy transfer properties. An acoustic or ses mic wave will be reflected and transmitted a a discontinuity which is defined by a Change in material properies. The materials atthe discontinuity can be either a ase g- air aliquid e.g, water or a solid e.g. rock.acoustic impedance of the material ofthe transmitted wave acoustic impedance of the material of the transmitted wave Z), (kelm?s), the product of the P-wave velocity (c,) and the density (9) of the material of the transmitted wave 2 =P It characterizes a material as to its energy transfer properties. An acoustic oF seis~ mic wave will be ceflected and transmitted ata discontinuity which is defined by a change in material properties, The materials atthe diseuntinity can be either a 228g. air, aliquid e.g. water ora solide g. rok acoustic trace, the curve on the ground vibration record that records the sound level acoustic warning, a distinet audible warning used to indicate the progress of blast- ing operations. AS 2187.1, 1996. acoustic wave, & mechanical (longitudinal) wave in gases, liquids and solids. The audible part of mechanical waves has a frequency range between 20 and 20,000, Haz. In blasting, the mechanical waves transmitted in air are called air blast waves. The waves may be described in terms of change of pressure, particle displace. ment, particle velocity, particle acceleration, of density. Acoustic waves can be used to measure the physical properties of rocks, and the composition of gases. Investigations may be made both in situ, and in the laboratory, see also “seismic acronym, a word composed of the intial leters of the name of something, especially an organization, or of the words in a phrase. Examples of acronyms are NATO, RADAR and TEFL. cultural vibration, vibration that is strange and unfamiliar to the observer. Konya & Walter, 1990. adiabatic, 2 thermodynamic state characterized by no heat exchange beoween the working material, and its surroundings (or among different elements of the work ing material) In both ideal and non-ideal detonations the expansion of the deto- nation products beyond the Chapman-Joguet curve (CI curve) closely approxi ‘mates an adiabatic process or adiabatic conditions. A curve which represents the adiabatic process in a pressure-volume diagram is called an adiabat, see also ‘en roy and isentopic". adiabatic compression, a compression process during which no heat is added to or subtracted from a gas volume, and the intemal energy of the gas is increased by an ‘amount equivalent to the external work done on the gas. The increase in tempera- ture of the gas during adiabatic compression tends 0 inerease the pressure at the expense of a decrease in the volume alone, and, therefore, during adiabatic com pression the pressure rises faster than the volume decreases. adiabatic exponent or specific heat ratio (7), the ratio of specific heats at constant pressure and constant volume (C,/C,) of the detonation gases, which varies from about 3,0 at the detonation state to 113 when the gases are fully expanded. AECI, 1993. The adiabatic exponent (y) is assumed to be a function of temperature T (CC). Hommert etal, 1987, y= Cry 4135 10 air cofcussion So L. iabatie pressure or explosion pressure (9) (MPa oF Pa), the pressue in an aabate poocess Ifthe process is caused by explosives ina blasthole, the pees- fore it called borhole pressure (7), ee “borehole pressure. adi acs tonnes nec pastage fom the sua by whch aU erground mine is entered. The adit is therefore only open to the surface at one end adobe charge, a mud-covered or unconfined explosive charge fied in contact with 2 Tock surface without the vse ofa borehole (Synonymous with bulldoue and mud Capping). Alas Powder, 1987 adearee EA) nfSay oe m/month, the linear distance in meters diven during 3 cer tain ime i unneling. ding, raising o shaft sinking, Fraenkel, 1958 advance per round (A), (eof drilled depth or round), see “pl seeeee ts ash of aurog a explosion of ethane and oxygen Carbon di Guide and seam are formed an when the steam condenses fo water a pial Yac- dm is ereate, which causes the inush of ee. Cooper, 1963 air Blast, the airbome shock wave or acoustic transient generated by an explosion. In nerground workings an explosion is acsompanied by a stong nish of ai, e sthen explosives ate used, and iti also catsea By the ejection of ai from large Underground openings owing to the sudden fall large masses of rock, the eo lapse of plas slippage along a fal, or song fo of air pushed outward from the source of an explosion. There are four main types of air blast overpressues defined as follows: SPP or air presire pulse air bast overpressure produced from direct cock dis- placement ofthe face or mounding of the blast collar: RPP or rack pressure pulse ie baat overpressure produced from vibrating ground; GRP or gas release pute, ir blast overpressure produced from gas escaping from the detonating explosive ihuough tock Traces and SRP or stemming release pulse, a blast overpressure produced from gas eseaping fom the blown-outstering. The most damaging Petes of ir Blast are caused by unconfined srface charges, Air Sas overpressure for unconfined surface charge may be estimated fom the following formula: @ For confined borehole charges, ac bast overpressure may be estimated fam: pa33(%2 {re where pis pressue in (kPa), Q explosive charge in (kg) and R is distanes (rom the charge in (m). Atls Powder, 1987 air blast foeusing, the concentration of sound energy in a small region at ground level due to refraction of the sound waves back 0 the earth from the atmosphere, ‘Tis oveus under certain meteorological conditions, for example during inver- air concussion, see ‘air last.airdeck blasting airdeck blasting, a contcolled contour blasting method where airspace is replacing the column charge. The method was initially developed for controlled contour blasting of large diameter holes on the surface. A plug atthe bottom of stemming, is used to prevent the stemming from falling ito the column volume. Chiappetta, & Mammele, 1987, Airspace can also be used a8 a substitute for told stemming material between multiple charges in a blasthole, Airdox, tradename for carridges of compressed air of very high pressure (70 MPa) charged into “Airdox" cylinders, which are inserted into the drill holes. Special valves fited with the “Airdox’ cylinders permit sudden release of the compressed air atthe back (bottom) of the borehole. Airdox aze employed to break sot rocks (eg. coal), and do not ignite a gassy or dusty atmosphere. air gap test, gap test with air as medium between charges, see “gap tet. air loader, a charging machine which uses compressed air to transport the explosive int the blasthole. See ‘charging machine’ air pressure pulse (APP), (,), Pa oF dB), air blast overpressure produced from direc rock displacement atthe face or movnding of the blast collar, see also “ait bast’. Atlas Powder, 1987. air shaft, a shaft used for ven‘ilation of mines, downeast when transferring fresh air from the surface to the underground workings and upeast when discharging ex hausted air o the surface. alignment deviation or error (D,), (degrees, mm or %), angular, relative or per Centage deviation from the intended angle of driling in collaing, aluminium, a metal aluminized ANFO (ALANFO), a mixture of ANFO and aluminium powder (AL), ‘The adding of aluminium powder increases the strength of the ANFO explosive. aluminized explosive, an explosive to which aluminium has been added inthe form of powder, grains, or flakes. This increases the mass stength ofthe explosive, be cause ofthe large amount of heat of oxidation produced when aluminium is oxi ized alluvial, materials such as loose gravel, sand, and mud deposited by streams. alluvial mining or placer mining, the exploitation of alluvial deposits by dredging, hydraulicking, or drift mining. The alluvial could be deposited in stream beds beach dunes or onthe ocean floor. ambient noise levels (2,,), (Pa or dB), existing background noise levels. FEM, ‘American table of distances, 2 quantity-distance table published by the Insitute of| Makers of Explosives (IME) as pamphlet No, 2, which specifies safe distance for explosive storage from inhabited buildings, public highways, passenger railways, and other stored explosive materials. USBM, 1983. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), a non-profit organization that provides a management system in which producers, users, ulimate consumers, and representatives of government and academia develop technical information in the published form of agreed upon documents called “voluntary consensus stan- dards’. Current membership is over 29,000 organizations and individuals, world- wide, with a total unit participation of well over 80,000 in 137 technical commit tees. In addition to the 6600 standards contained inthe 48 volume Annual Book of ASTM Standards, ASTM also provide numerous other technical publications and related material which have evolved from commitee activities, ASTM, 1982, angle of breakage aamonia gelatine, see “ammonium nitrate geligite ammonium nitrate (AN), 2 chemical compound represented by the formula NENOy ls properties are: molecular weight 80,04, cclouriess, orthorhombic (2163 10 +325 °C), density 1725 ken? (at +25 °C), meting poim +169.6 °C, Soluble in water a5 well sin ethyl alcohol. AN is used in crystalline or pelletized form in explosives, and as a ferliser. Bennet, 1962. ammonium nitrate and fuel oil (ANFO), 2 noa-water-esisant explosive ideally composed of 94,0 0 94.3 % ammonium nitrate (AN), and 5,7-6,0% fuel oil (FO), “The quality and density ofthe AN pris, the quality of the fel, andthe cont of the overall mux is important forthe explosive performance Inthe USA, ANFO is called a blasting agent because it isnot cap sensitive. ammonium nitrate gelignites, explosives similar to straight gelatines except thatthe main consiten {s ammonium aizate instead of sodium nitrate. In te USA the term ammonia geltines is use amplitude (4), (m or mm), the maximum positive or negative value of one period in 2 eyelic changing quant. a amplitude of particle aceleration (4,),(ms"or mmf) se ‘amplitude and accel- eration’ amplitude of particle displacement (4), (m or mm), see ‘amplitude and displace- amplitude of particle velocity (A,) (ms oF ms), see ‘amplitude and velocity" Anchor bol, metal od or pipe puted into deilholes which are normaly dled pec- pendiculr (0 the rock surface being ceinforced. It may be glued by cement or ep- xy in the hole cr fastened at the bottom by some mechanical device. Anchor tolts normally have a length of a couple of meters. [ANFO charger or loader), a machine consisting ofa pressure vessel for explosive orege and a semiconducting charging house connected tothe pressure vessel ‘© bused to charge (load) ANFO info blasthole. usually upholes angle of breakage (0), ()y the angle between the two sie cracks formed by the reakout prism when a hole is blasted parallel toa feee face (bench blasting) or perpendicular tothe fee sutace (crater blasting), ee Figure 1. The angle depends a » Figure. Angle of treskage in 2) Bench asng ant b) Crater btn, fn the rock type, and it varies between 120-160" in bench blasting. The angle de- Greases a litle withthe size ofthe burden. Rustan etal, 1983. angle of caving (9), (). see ‘angle of failure’.angle of failure angle of deposition (8), (*, see ‘angle of repose (in deposition) angle of dumping (8), se ‘angle of repose (in deposition) angle of failure (9), (), angle of yield or angle af caving, the angle between the failure surface and a horizontal surface, angle of friction (6, oF 8), (), the maximam angle at which a body will be in rest, ‘when the body i placed on an inclined plane, se Figure 2. See also ‘angle of re- pose’. Angle of friction Fur 2 Ange of ction (i eine he naximu ale douse of body on in clined plane, angle of internal friction (6), () the angle between the abscissa andthe tangent of the curve representing the relationship of shearing resistance to normal stress act ing within a soil. ASCE, 1958, See also Figure 28 under the enty ‘shear angle’. angle of pouring (8), (2), see ‘angle of repose (in deposition’. angle of repose (in deposition) (6,), () angle of rest, angle of pouring, angle of dumping, angle of deposition or natural slope angle, the maximum slope with re spect tthe horizontal at which a heap of any loose or fragmented solid material will stand without sliding or come o rest when the material has been deposited. angle of repose (in loading or draining) or angle of slide (6), (), the maximum slope with respect to the horizontal at which a heap of any loose or fragmented solid material will stand when itis loaded frora the botom of the heap. This angle is slightly lager than the angle of repose (in deposition). angle of res (8, or 8). °), Could be either the “angle of repose in deposition” or “angle of repose in loading’, se ‘angle of repose in deposition’ or ‘angle of re- ose in loading” angle of shear (visual) in uniaxial compression (B), (9, the angle beoween the planes of maximum shear which is bisected by the axis of greatest compression, see Figure 3, page Il. Rice, 1960. Not wo be mixed with angle of internal friction or shear angle (9). angle of slide (8). (), see “angle of repo angle of veld (g). *), see ‘angle of failure’ angle reading instrument, an instrument to determine the angle of... the drill rod (vertical and/or horizontal) when stating a dil hole, collaring, or inthe hole. loading’ 0 arc height ! oy =n eden , 93. = minor stress direction |e Gq =normal stress on shear plane x" eshear stress olong shear plane —| 7 [= B =angle of shear UL I Figure 3, Definition of angle of shear @cavsed by the failure plane a in biaxial compression angular deviation in dling se bending deviation” ; ara eeaucney (oh ead or) defined by © ~2af where fis the eueney inf anisotropy, directional dependence ofa physical quantity characterizing 2 mate Hare ke are snsotrpie. Anisotropy can arse i rock de tthe reaction armel Sueses,Seirenaion metamorphism or du to the facusng ding flasang and mining activites Antotropy ean Be quatifed by measurement of Scum wave vlonties in diferent deco. AN rll sal sere or pelts (ess than 5 mm a damete) of ammonia tate ws opposed to aes, Konya & Wate 1990. apenge opening with diferent shape, When the term is used for chancterza in of jens i denotes the With of te joint. apparent srater th cavity cause by cater blasting as it exists before he broken tetera i emoved appropriate authority, ee Yegulator authority seero eet ie ave of saterent in wating bythe eglatory authority eting out arto aay ack mace or tng which approved ules otherwise sed. AS 218711996, . approvinate potenta strain energy release rate (Gy) (Jn?) energy seeded 9 Crete ne rack surfaces, (SRM, 1988 aquattum technique, high-speed photographic echaiqu for examining he devel- arian of a datnaton tad propagation of shock waves in 2 tansparet mater CAI Nocto be confused wih aquarium et, bubble tex or underwater uation test eto measue the presse ofan underwater explosion, Lesd and sae membranes are employed. snd the eximateof the parameter i based 08 erst ane deformation ata fanction of the performance ofthe explosive and of the dutunce om the explosion site The measuring apparatus, consising of pi ita and anvil esembles the Kast brisance meter, see also ‘bisane™. Meyer, i977. arch height (m8 “eight of archarching arching, a process which occurs when the curent to a blasting cap is too high, and the resistance wire in the fuse head explodes instead of being heated up. This ‘causes a light arch which may desuoy the function of the blasting cap. ‘Ardeer tank fume test, est method for blast fumes similar to Crawshaw-Tones area (A), (m), the physical quantity, the measure of the size of a two-dimensional surface, oF region on such surface. Lapedes. 1978. armor plate test, See ‘projectile impact test armour stone, large blocks used in sea-defence structures such as breakwaters, Fa- ‘ourable conditions for armour stone production are large burdens. small spac- ings, low specific charge (0.2 kg/n?), and simultaneous firing of all holes in a row, Wang eta, 1991 artificial barricade, an artificial mound or revetted wall or soil embankment of a ‘minimum thickness of 0,91 m, in USA. IME, 1981. A-scale, the scale of 2 sound level measurement instrument in which an in-built iter discriminates against low frequencies. It approximates the frequencies which can bbe heard by the human ear. Konya & Walter, 1990. asymmetric charge location (ACL), eccentric location of a eylindrical and elon- gated charge ina blasthole. attenuation, decrease in amplitude of a wave a5 a funetion of distance of propaga jon from its tource. There are thre causes of seismic wave attenuation, geomet- ‘ical damping or spreading (divergence) dependent on decrease of pulse magni- tude due to larger and larger space over which the pulse extends and material damping or internal damping decrease of pulse magnitude from viscous damping and seartering losses due to reMection and refraction axial coupling ratio (R,), (%)s the ratio between the length or volume of the bla thole being charged f6 the (otal available length or volume for charge in a blas: thole. axial decoupling ratio (Rg), (%)y the catio between the total length or volume of a blasthole to the length or volume of the section of dh blasthole being charged, axial priming, system for priming blasting agents in which the core of priming ma terial for example a detonating cord is placed lengthwise aloug the charge back, the etn of any underground excavation wack ar verbrealersk volume broken beyond the pare defined bythe ast tow of slates ance depth (on) the maximam depth broken beyond he plane defined by the ast ow of lasoles bat, dtnage, eduction ofthe rock mass sength athe back of an excavation by ‘at back Steal filed imo open stopes underground to stabilize the rock and t0 tnt sabidence ofthe round surface. The baci material may consis of ae vot lings satu snd et bask hal wf tle ining or stoping. Singh de Wondra, 1989, Suppested ston lature for dil oes in development Deadings i given in Figur Back boles a. Helper holes > cere h 27 Stoping holes.” | cut notess | AP [beret rs Side- oF rib holes Litters Figwe 4 Suggested nomenclatre for dil hoes in development adigs back-up detonator, an extra detonator used for the safe detonation of a charge in @ round. The use of back-up detonators isereases the probability of detonation if the first detonator fails Dback wall, final wall in surface blasting. ballistic pendulum (mortar), a testing device for explosive strength which meas- lures the impulse of an explosive, The laboratory instrument consists of a heavy Bballistic dise pendulum mortar in which a standard explosive charge mass is fired, and the an- Ble of recoil is measured. Historically it was used to calibrate explosives strength against that of blasting gelatine. The 10 g explosive sample is, However, insuffi- cient for many modem explosives to develop their characteristic energy release at a cenain blasthole diameter. ballistic disc, a cylindrical charge witha half spherical liner at one end turned with the convex side towards the charge and where the cylindrical and half spherical liners consist of spun sheet metal. The charge may consist of the high energy ex- plosive composition RDX/TNT/wax. Its a shaped charge used for clearing hang, lips im underground metal mines. The charge is supported on a telescopic leg stand, that allows adjustments for aiming atthe target boulder. Sen, 1995 BAM fall hammer test, se “all hammer test’ BAM steel tube test, a shock test of explosive under confinement in astet cylinder and by initiation from a detonator and booster (RDX/wax 95/5). The sensitivity of ‘solid or liquid can be measured. This testis needed for the United Nation clossi- fication. Persson et al., 1994, band, applied to a stratum or lamina conspicuous because it differs in colour from adjacent layers. A group of layers displaying colour differences is described as, being banded. A.G.L., 1957 and 1960, banded (adjective), the property of those rocks having thin and nearly parallel bands of different textures, colours, or minerals. barren rock, ee "waste (rock)" barricade (noun), grown-over earth embankments erected in order to protect uild- ings which may be endangered by an explosion. The top height of the barricade ‘must be at least one meter above the building being protected. The required safety distances between explosive manufacture buildings or storage houses can be halved if the houses are baricaded. Meyer, 1977. barricaded (adjective), the effective screening of a building containing explosives from a magazine or other buildings, railway, or highway by a natural or an artifi- cial barvier. A straight line from the top of any side-wall ofthe building contain. tug explosives to the eaves line of any magazine or other building. oF to a point 36 m above the centre of a railway of highway shall pass through such a barrier. IME, 1981, base charge, the detonating component (usually PETN) in a blasting cap, initiated by the priming charge or the initiation element. It also sometimes refers to the charge loaded into the bottom of a blasthole, usually called bottom charge. basin, a depressed area with no surface outlet The term is widely applied, e.g. toa lake basin, to ground water basin, to a shallow depression on the sea floor, (0 a circular depression on the moons surface, of 10 a tidal basin, Bates & Jackson, 1987, beanhole connector, a connector usually made of aluminium. crimped at the end of the safety fuse, and connected toa plastic igniter cord for easy initiation of multi- ple shot holes. Sen, 1992. Becker-Kistiakowski-Wilson equation of state, one commonly used equation of state. Mader, 1979. bedded deposit, a mineral deposit of tabular form that generally lies hosizontally and is commonly parallel to the stratification of the enclosing rocks. A coal seam 4 bending isa ypial ted deposit: tes may conan indus minors and some ae metaliferous, Grego 1983 eld ie sedentary o aie rocks, the division plane thst separate Speed Iyer, beds or st AG. 1957 and 1960 eee ted eck orth ears est generally covered by overburden vol sorter ele ating ayers of sedimentary roc, usual spurte by asia o i egy. Te ec can fen be ea sept log thes ples. earn ig te ly ofthe aero 2 bedded Formation. "The bedding Spc- vag dsrbed in Table SRM, 1981 “Table 2 Bedding spacing. After ISRM. 198 Description Very thickly bedded “Thikly bedded Mediuim bedded “Thinly bedded Very thinly bedded Laminated bel wire 0 onnectng wr’ AS 17 1, 1996 , So ee aol sro Inova te tp oa eral ne Ben or cies which oes arid vera ornelined down noe ee Scsce Te night of bench vane anal fo a fe eters 9 aa aia re onmon enc height nse mining. Benches ae 1 ole mining bu sometime on lage unegroud ope- by oF tasting, ncscnvationnetodwhere benches ae sed in tps When he ae ne aque on or ever ows of Sasol re cil peal et eto ined ee foc. The boom ofthe Pes re more cies 1 ee Te Coutncment depends onthe cation ofthe Basta La TH ape ae tanning sr open sping. he tp pa ofthe ert i pi festng)and he im pa ken 6 Sse itches ve ee hoon hols wench ight i a see eg fb ae ee eect ccqnien wheres ighallis woke in ses o it aoa eee fomaton perp fo he ans fa conga sro ne crt meme app oa lng at SRM, 175 eee rseiatio oes ining (fami o )x dein et the led fm the ested onentton Beading de on genie by dyn and fens sabes of he dling 8 See eee es dence m hardness of ieret xk ype he £5) ee Stand ai el te dling mes, andthe sits theaseberm berm, a horizontal shelf or ledge cut into an embankment or sloping wall. or an open pit or quarry to break the continuity of an otherwise long slope, forthe purpose of strengthening and increasing the stability of the slope, or catching or aresting slope slough material. A berm may also be used as a haulage road or serve as 8 bench above which material is excavated from a bank or bench face. The term is sometimes used as a synonym for bench. USBM, 1968. biaxial compression, state of stress caused by the application of compressive and ‘normal stresses in (wo perpendicular directions Bichel Gauge fume test, 2 test method for blast fumes similar to Crawshaw-Jones fame test, see ‘Crawshaw-Jones fume tes inary explosive, an explosive based on two ingeediets. such a8 nitromethane and ammonium nittate, which are shipped and stored separately and mixed atthe job site to form a high explosive. USBM, 1983, inary image, digitized picture in image analysis. Dit wear index (BWI, a measure of resistance against wear determined by the abra- sive hardness, see ‘abrasive hardness test, The value is used to pedict the life time of drill steel equipment. Iis a function of the drilling rate index (DRI) and the abrasion value (AV), see “tungsten carbide abrasion tes’. Selmer-Olsen & Blindheim, 1970. black powder, a low explosive" consisting of a mixture of sodium or potassium si- uate, carbon, and sulphur. Black powder was first used in underground mines in 1627. Today itis seldom used as an explosive, because of its low energy. poor fame quality, and extreme sensitivity to sparks. Black powder 18 used in safety fuse, and as an explosive for quarrying dimensional stone lack powder fuse, see ‘safety fuse blast or shot (noun), the process of inducing shock waves and quasi static gas pres sure by explosives for breaking rock, welding different metals together, demol ishing buildings or initiating seismic’ waves for geophysical purposes. See also “blasting” Diastability, ability of rock of any material 0 fragment when being blasted. The ‘most important physical and mechanical rock propenies for blastabilty include: 1) Acoustic impedance, 2) Rock structure and friction properties ofthe discont ruities. Disferent test methods can be used to determine the blastabilty: 1) De- termination ofthe rock constant, whichis a specific value of the eesistance ofthe rock to the explosive force, determined by ial blasting, see ‘rock constant’ Fraenkel, 1954, 2) Small-scale crater blasting (cones) is used to determine the ‘optimal charge depth in full-scale crater blasting. 3) Multiple hole blasts on the half scale. Bergmann etal, 1973. 4) Critical burden rests. Rustan etal, 1983. 5) Single hole blast tests at different burdens in the laboratory or on the fll scale. Rustan etal, 1983 and Rustan & Nie, 1987. blast area, te area near a blast with the influence of lyrock or concussion. blast casting, a blasting method used in surface coal mining where the overbucden is, casted (thrown) by blasting a large distance. This makes it possible to mine the underlying coal with less overbucden haulage blast damage, damage caused by blasting, eg. excessive ground vibrations and/or air pressure and/or Nyrock blasthole blast damage index (BD, (D,)sis define bythe ratio Between the induced test from blasting and the dynamic tensile strength for the rock mass, Its a dimen- slonles indieator analogous to the reciprocal of safety factor and may vary be> ween 0-3. Tis used as an index to quantify the damage from blasting under- (round on the surrounding rock mass. The blast damage index Dy is defined according to Yu & Vongpaisal, 1996 as follows: set is vgs the vector sum of peak particle velocities in three onhogonl diee- Teese she density of rock mas in (kg/m!) and cy the P-wave velocity in vey Fite quali constant (0-1), and oy the dynamic tensile strength ofthe rock eae in (ay The corelation between Dy and typeof damage, see Table 3. “able 3. Blast damage index Dy and typeof damage. Alter Yu & Vongpasl (196) Bist damage inden Type of damage Wy ___ ee $0.05) "No damage to underground excavations, Maxim allowable vale for fey permonet workngs.©g.erusher chambers, shafs, permanent shops, ce Dit, purp Aouses ee 02s Ne noviceabe damage Maximum tolerable value for long erm wockings, safe access, rere stalons, lunch oom et os Mlnor and desereescbbing effects. Maxim tolerable vale fr ine mein term workings. eg ain drift. main halage ways. 07s Neto dons abi damage Mima ele ie fovtemporry working e.g. tose cus dail fs, stope accesses, to Mejor ondcominuots cobbing allure, requiring inensfed rehabilitation Severe damage 0 an entire opening, causing rehabilitation wok dificult ‘or imposible Major ving: normally eculing in abondoned aceeses blast design, design ofa blast operation which includes the layout of the blasthole pattem, the selection of explosives, decking, delay times, initiation pattem, stem ‘ming, and necessary safety measures blasted burden, true or effective burden (B,), (m), shortest perpendicular distance from the cente or centre line of the charge to the fee surface created by earlier ‘charges fired in the round. Tre exact shape ofthe free surface created by earlier Firing charges cannot always be determined. The size of blasted burden, after the blastholes have been drilled, depends on the firing sequence. blaster (USA), shotfirer (UK), a qualified person in charge of a blast. Also, a per: son (blaster in-charge) who has passed atest, approved by some authority, which certifies his or her qualifications to supervise blasting activities. USBM, 1983, blasters” galvanometer, see “blasting galvanometer blasthole, a cylindrical opening drilled into rock or ather materials forthe placement ‘of explosives. 0blasthole dewatering blasthole dewatering, the process of dewatering boreholes before charging with the help of compressed air operated pumps or electrical submergible impellent pumps. blasthole diameter (@), (m), the diameter of the borehole into which the explosive is placed, blasthole liner, often a thin plastic envelope to protect non-water-resistant explo- sives from water in the blasthole. The explosive is filled into the liner in charging When ANFO is charged pneumatically, plastic borehole liners should not be used because of the risk of initiation of the explosive by static electricity. blasthole plug or sealer, see ‘borehole plug” blast induced damage zone, the zone around a blasthole where new eracks and di- lation of rock mass is caused during blasting. The blastinduced damage zone is the result of a complex interaction of mainly the rock quality (eg, the Barton Q- factor), the (linear) charge concentration (kg/m). the confinement (e.g. the burden and spacing), the delay time between contour holes and the decoupling, The ex- tent of the damage zone can be determined by vibration measurement, seismic re fraction technique, extensometers, gas pressure measurement, hydraulic meas- lurement, acoustic emission, and by diamond drilling, (The last method is performed by drilling a hole clase o the perimeter before blasting and observing the joint and erack frequency. The observation in the hole is repeated after blast. ing and the new cracks are counted. The increase in crack frequency is taken as a measure of blast damage), ‘The blast induced damage zone at surface blasting can be divided into three categories according to Mojtabai & Beattie, 1996. The heavy damage zone where the rock is totally shattered and fragmented. Each rock black is completely sepa: rated or loosened and an excavator can dig trough most ofthe material with litle cor no difficulty. Large craters sometimes form on top of the muckpile or near the bench toe. The medium damage zone (called only damage zone by Mojtabai and Beattic), is characterized by large, wide-open radial cracks as well as fractures that form parallel to the bench face. Some other fractures have openings as wide 15 125 mm. Ground heave and an increase in volume are alse apparent. The minor damage zone is characterized by small, closed fractures that normally run parallel to the bench face. Very litle ground heave may be present. This type of daunage ‘may not be considered serious, but it is expected to be more severe in the lower portion of the bench where the explosive columa is placed. In Table 4 the vibra- ‘ion levels for four different kind of rock types are shown, Sec also "blast damage index BDI * for underground damage’ “Table 4. Vibration levels (m/s) for different rock spes an damage clases, Afler Motz & Beatie, 1996, Rock ype Uniaxial com RQD Minor damage Mediom Heavy pressive (8) zone damage zone damage zone Sureagih (MPs) (ives) (aes) ous) Sofi senine 2 0ISS15S355 > 355 Hoard schist so 23035050400 Schultze grave 40 047 4704700, porphyry 0 Kons ns. blasting efficiency blasting, a chemical-physical-mechanical process including the initiation (fring) of| Srqlesives for the purpose of breaking materials such a5 col re, ined tne fr ele materials, moving the material, splitting off rock blocks for building pu- poses, demolishing building and constructions or generating seismic waves, The Explosive is often located in dil holes in rock, but sometimes, eg. in boulder Binstng, it ay be located onthe suface of the rock mass. Compared with pac- ing Ue charge in borehole, sueface charges require a specific charge up to 10 times in excess, bt typiealy 3 times fr correct placing ofan appropriate lay-on charge tasting accesories, norrexplsive devies and materials use in lasting, sich as, cap erimpers,tamping bags, basting machines, blasting galvanometers, and car tedge punches. In South fia, this erm strictly refers to initiating deviees for explosives, e, capped fuses, igniter cords, detonating cords, electric blasting caps et. blasting agent, any explosive which is composed of non-explosive ingredients and amb be iied In wconfned condos by a standard No, 8 blasting cp “These explosives consist predominantly of ammonium strate, basting cap or (eemented ea, small neal (almiium) tae closed a one end and containing a small amount of primary explosive ~ 1g. For delay caps a pyrotechnical substance is used to crete the proper delay time. Blasting caps are Fitted by a safety fuse detonating cord, shock re of ype e.g. NONEL, deto- dating pas in laste tubes or electcie cutent. The itation ofthe explosive can be achieved dredy by the methods mentioned or via a Booster. The unit, deto- ator cap and booster together, is called a primer where a detonator isthe ele- tented eap assembled withthe shock tube, the electric wires or the safety fase. A booster is used shen the charge cannot be initiated by a detonator onl. ‘Seismic’ tasting caps needs a high degee of uniformity of firing and thezefore they have a reaction time often < | ms. blasting cap No- 6, a blasting cap with a base charge of 0.22 g, Sen, 1982. blasting eap No. 8, a blasting cap containing 0.40 t0 0.45 g of PETN bast charge at specifi gravity of 1400 kg/m, and primed with standard mass of primer, de- pending onthe manufacturer. USBM, 1983. blasting cap No. 8 star, 2 blasting cap with a base charge of 0,88 g. This is the ‘common blasting cap sed in most mining, Sen, 1992. blasting eap test a method for esting blasting caps. Among the many tests are four major ones: 1) Water resistance test, 2) Drop test, 3) Snatch test and 4) Vibration test blasting circuit, the electrical circuit used to fire one or more electric blasting caps. ‘USBM, 1983, blasting crew, a group of persons who assist the blaster or shotier in load in, and firing a blast, basting diary, se “blasting log" blasting efficiency (m, the tio of useful energy output to energy input in blasting Ta rock blasting the explosive energy is transformed into wave propagation and quaststate gas presute energy inthe blasthole. The wave energy is used for fracturing (cracking), frictional losses in the rock, and throw, and is finaly lost. the surrounding air a6 noise. The quasistatic pressure is used to bend the rock vying 19Dlasting equipment prism bewesn the two side cracks, to extend the ail cracks staring lose othe blastae wal and to eet he rock rs baning equipment tol, inser and achinery wed for harging and Bs ing operons, ef. pines ples, deph pages, vibration monies. orge boxes resistance gages, ANFO leases, basing fee “fet ie" Dastingglvanometer, an elect isrument wo measure the resistance of ane: wie Wasting cei Is poweed by eg a siver clone cell and basa bu Coren liming device Only devices which ave been proved bythe authors fe permite tbe used forts psp biasing glting a gelins mint of 82% glycerin and 8% nio-cellse Geizocoto) cia song (ug) esplsive, has high water essence, and Sill one of the most power explosives. Used asa standard for explosive Seng Gregory 1980 Basing in frozen gravel, ecinigues oblast in ffosen gravel The techigue for ang equal t that of ding in rock Both sus nd burn cts have been tested Dick, 197, blasting lg «wien record of information about a specie bast as may bere ty aw or regulon. Alas Powder 1967 basting machine, an electra lectromechanical or eleconic device which po- vides electrical nergy to sting creat forte purpose of energizing etc biasing caps. A CD-tpe basing machine ses cepacors forthe cleeve di charge blasting machine-generator, a blasting machine generating energy by twisting the handle oa genemtor fasting mat covering, utlly made of srap des, lags, ropes oF wie eae, ‘placed ove alata reduce yor Diaing os itrogiye Blasting lon ex lat Csi’ Basing powder, powder conning lest tte, nd ints place more charcoal than lack powder econo 65 to 75% pause mse, 100 15% fh, nd 15 to 20% charoa Inthe Uned State, sodiun nai se age Inplace of potassium sit Fy, 192 biasing scheme, se "blast design tasting site se Di site Blasting supplies, ineloes explosives, sting cap, ses and ancilary exuipment such as charging pols, sting nachines. teste blasting switch, a switch vse to connect» power source toa basting circ, The ‘itch an be loeted ina sure sande ihe anger gas outbursts is ven jin the underground. ane Wah danse of * . ‘basting wbratio, the par ofthe energy from 2 Bas that manifest ise ack ass vibrations which ae raat from he immedi last rea trough the ork fms and overayng sl Ser ao “sisic waves ‘ast ayout, he dling pases an ination dea layout Blast pattern the geometry ofthe dil hols ld cut on the top ofa bench or the rel pater afer deiling x he bt ofa bench. Also the geometry the ei 2 blowpipe holes at the face of @ drift or tunnel including the burden and the spacing distance and their relationship to each other. ISRM, 1992. blast site, the location where the explosive material is handled during charging, in- “luding the perimeter of blastholes and 15 m (50 ft) in all directions from charged holes or holes to be loaded. In underground mines. 4,5 m (15 {0 of solid nb or pillar ean be substituted for the 15 m distance. These rules are used in the USA ‘Alas Powder, 1987. blast plan, see “blast design’ blast pressure, see ‘borehole pressure’ blast vibration monitoring, the technique to measure the blast vibrations in the fround andlor air pressure around a blast. The technique for blast vibration fronitoring is described in “Suggested methods for blast vibration monitoring’. see ISRM, 1992. blind shaft, en underground shaft, connected to the main shaft by a drift or transfer station. blistering, see ‘mud capping’ blister shooting see ‘mud capping’ block hole, small hole driled into a rack or boulder into which an anchor bolt oF ‘small charge of explosive may be placed. Long, 1960. block holing, the breakage of boulders by loading (charging ) and fring small explo- sive charges, Atlas Powder, 1987. See also popping. block size, ock block dimension or volume resulting from the mutual orientation of “intersecting joint sts, and the spacing of the individual joint sets. The block size can be quantified according to standard procedure. Classification of block size, see Table 5. ISRM, 1981 ‘Table 5 Classifstion of block size After ISRM. 1981. Descripion A) ‘ery ag Books <1 Large bloke 13 Medium-sized blocks 0 Small leks 1030 sal Books > block size inde, is estimated by selecting by eye several typical block sizes and taking the average dimensions. ISRM, 1978 block size in situ, the joints and planes of weakness in a rock mass éefine the size of the blocks in situ. Several methods have been proposed in the atempt to deter: imine the block size in situ. These methods are the parametrical, the simulation ‘nd the computational methods. Wang & Latham, 1990. blocky hale, see ‘block hole” blowpipe, & metal pipe which is connected t0 an air or water hose, of both, to clean ‘Out blast holes before charging or to remove stemming in the event of a misfired Charge. The blowpipe should be made of copper or any material which will not 2body waves cause sparks when itis in contact with rock or other materials, because a spark ‘may initiate the explosive, body waves, are transverse (shear) and longitudinal (mainly compression but also @ small tensile part) waves both also caled seismic waves. They propagate in the interior of an elastic solid or in fuids with shear resistance. In water only longitu- dinal waves can exist because the shear strength of water is zero. The body waves are not related to a boundary surface. A perfectly sharp distinction between body waves and surface waves is difficult to make unless the waves are plane or spheri~ cal booster, a cap sensitive explosive with high detonation velocity used in small quan- tities to initiate and improve the performance of another explosive, the latter forming the major postion of the charge, A booster does not contain an initiating device. bboot-leg, butt or gun, that portion or remainder of a shot hole in a face after the ex plosive has been fired, A situation in which the blast fails to cause total failure of the rock because of insufficient explosives for the amount of burden, or owing to incomplete detonation of the explosives. boreabiliry, see ‘drilability’ borehole, cylindrical hole drilled by a mechanical device or jet-piercing equipment into the rock. borehole binocular, periscope or strata scope, instrument for singular observation of the borehole wall and in which the illumination is created by a bul. borehole deviation, see “drilling accuracy’ borehole deviation measurement, the measurement of the deviation of a borehole. Different techniques may be used such as accelerometers (change of inertia), gy- roscope, photography of concentric rings (Maxibor), using a light in the hole, or observing a reflex pushed into the hole, etc, For measurement on the surface 3 vertical borehole deviation device “Borepak’ is commonly used. It consists of a set of interlocking 2 m long and 63 mm in diameter rods containing microchips and inclinometers. A sighting device (binocular or theodolite) atthe top of the borehole is used to mark the position of the collar and the drilling direction. An. electronic notebook is used to collect the required data for input into a personal computer to obtain a plot ofthe hole. borehole diameter (d), (mm or mm), the mean width of the cross-section of the bore- hole. The borehole diameter varies depending on drilling conditions and equip~ ment. A nominal diameter must be assumed for the purpose of calculating mass per meter of explosive in the borehole. Normally the diameter is larger than the Gril bic size, and it decreases with length in upholes, but because of flushing it in- creases with depth in downholes. In scientific work itis important to determine the actual mean hole diameter. The size of the blasting operation controls the size (small intermediate or large) of the diameter of the boreholes. A suggestion for classification of borehole diameters is given in Table 6. borehole length (,), (m), the length ofthe borehole as measured along the axis from. the collar to the bottom of the hole. borehole liner, see “blasthole liner’. Dorehole plug, material used 10 block a borehole with the aim of fixing the explosive within a certain length of the borehole, Borehole plugs are made of wood or plas- borehole pressure Table 6, Definition of borehole sie according tothe diameter. Boren ie Taegan ies om) Suc ines (om) Snalltoreble <0 intermediate 5.200 creole tone > 200 Linge brcholes tic materials, inflated tyres or gasbags, and sandfilled bags. The poly-deck gasbag isa selfinflating bag available in a range of sizes fom 75 mm to 400 mm in di ‘ameter. The inflation is caused by reaction of diluted hydrochloric acid and bicar- ‘bonate producing CO, gas. Borehole plugs may be used in open stoping or in ver~ tical retreat mining. They can also be used to separate deck charges of to create air decks borehole pressure or explosion pressure, (py), (MPa), the theoretical pressure ex- trted of the borehole wall by the explosive after the detonation front has passed, Sand before any expansion of the borehole wall has taken place. The borehole pres: Sure at the maximem expansion of the blasthole diameter but before the break down is called the equilibrium borehole pressure (py,) (MPa). The enexBy &X- panded up to this point is defined as the shock energy and the typical operating pressure during this phase ranges from the equilibrium borehole pressure of about 1000 MPa and depending on rock and explosive properties, down to 30 MPa. In the older literature the borehole pressuce is calculated before expansion of the di- meter. This pressure is calculated for the explosive gas density equal to the den- sity of the original explosive, and in classical theory (ideal explosives) itis quoted 2 Pe fe 0 (ideal fully coupled explosives) where py isthe borehole pressure in MPa, p, is the densiy of the explosive in kgf and c, the detonation velocity ofthe explosive in mvs. This formula cannot be used for decoupled charges and non-ideal explosives. ‘The borehole pressure before expansion of the borehole and using radial or axial decoupled charges ean with reasonable reliability be calculated according tthe following formula: nba where pp = borchole pressure (MPa), pe = density of the explosive (kg/m), eg = Velocity of detonation (es), Rq = axial decoupling, percentage of explosive col umn charged (%). de = diameter of the explosive ater charging into the blasthole (im), dy = diameter of the blasthole (m), k = a value which has to be determined experimentally on site. The value of k is ~2.6 according to Atlas Powder, 1987, For ideal explosives (military explosives) and decoupled charges, e.g. linear rt ont anedcud raven Bborehole TY shaped charges used for contolled contour blasting, the value of & isin the ange of 4106, Bjaraholt, 1981 “The relation between borehole pressure and volume of the gases follows from the equation of state ofthe explosive. IF the gas pressure is above 100 MPa the equa- tion of state is expressed by pV" = const. whele pis the pressure (MPa). Vis the 42s volume (7) ¥the adiabatic exponent, (In thermodynamics x is used as sym= bol instead of borehole TV, a TV-camera which is serving the borehole wall bottom, the floor in any underground operation. Fraenkel. 1954. bottom bench, underground bench, blasted after the excavation ofthe top heading. [ito Nobel, 1993. bottom charge (Qj), (kg), the mass of charge used (0 break the rock mass at the ‘botiom of a blasthole. Normally the bottom charge is given a lager bulk stvengih (the charge concentration should be ~2,5 times the charge concentration in the ‘columa), because of the larger confinement atthe bottom of the hole bottom heading ~ overhand stoping, method of blasting used for adits, tunnels, and drifts. The lower part, or bottom heading, is either driven in steps or to the full length, whereafter the upper partis broken out by stoping or slabbing. Fraenkel, 1958, bottom initiation, initiation ofa charge atthe botiom ofthe blasthole. bottom load, see “bottom charge’ boulder, oversize rock fragment from blasting to be disintegrated by following blasting (secondary blasting), mechanical or other methods into small sized pieces suitable for further handling. Boulders ean normally not be handled by the loading equipment, and/or by the crusher in use. boulder frequency (/,), (No1000 tor No,/1000 m?), number of boulders per 1000 { (metic ton) oF 1060 i! of rock broken, Boundary Element Method (BEM), eumerical technique based on segmenting the surface of the body area only. Advantageous for the calculation of large move. iments of rock mass during blasting. The boundary element method provides dis tributions of stresses and displacements over the boundary of the domain (area) under consideration. box euty the initial cut driven into a rock mass, where intially no open sides existed, see Figure 5, inserted into the borehole with the aim of ob yy Figure 5, Box ct ater Kennedy, 190) brittleness “This cesults in a highwall on both sides ofthe cut. Swelling of the cock will occur both vertially and horizontally. Kennedy. 1990. In Australi the term box cutis also used fora patter of holes adopted for blasting to a new level below an ex: isting floor (eg in shaft sinking or to create a deeper level in surface mining). branching of a crack, division of «propagating crack into two or more cracks. Ade- iquate crack propagation energy is a necessary condition for the branching of cracks 10 occur. branch line, the length of detonating cord or signal ube running between (and con- ‘nected 1) the tunkline and the primer. AS 2187.1, 1996. break, a class term including fauls, ruptures, fractures, joins, fissure and other es- ‘continuities in rock formations. breast holes, blastholes in drifting or tunnelling located next 10 the roof Holes and ‘with blasting action downwards. Singh & Wondrad, 1989. breast hole helper, a blasthole located next to a breast hole and initiated before the breast holes in waneling. idgewire, a resistance wire which connects the ends of the leg wires inside an tlectric blasting cap. It is embedded in the ignition charge of the blasting cap, lect squib or similar deviees, The Fine wice, sometimes a platinum wite, 1s heated by the passage of the elecric current to igaite the ignition charge. bridgewire detonator, contain of an incandescent bridge made of thin resistance ‘wire which is made to glow by the application of an electric pulse. An igniting pills built around the wire by repeated immersion in a solution of a pyrorechnical Tateral ina solvent, followed by dying. The igniting flash acts directly onto the detonation serface in the case of instantaneous detonators; in delayed-action deto ators itis sent over a delay device onto the detonating pill so as to produce a ‘watertight bond with it, Non-armed bridgewice detonators have an open casing, into which a detonator nay be inserted. Meyer. 1977 bridging, a term used to indicate that the continuity of an explosive column in a borehole is broken. This may occur, either by improper placement. asin the ease of slurries of poured blasting agents. or where some foreign material has plugged the hole. Konya & Walter, 1990. Drisanee, the rise time and amplitude of the transient pulse caused by a certain ex plesive in a blasthole ofa certain diameter in cack or placed free in water or ait. ‘Fhe rise time and amplitude depend on both the characteristics of the explosive (velocity of detonation (c,) and its confining medium (Young's modulus). An ccaplosive with a high cy has @ higher brisance. A rock with a high value of ‘Young's modulus will get larger rise ime and strain amplitude. brisance test (Hess, see ‘Hess cylinder compression test brisance test (Kast, see ‘Kast eylinder compression test Drisance value, see “brisance test (Kast), brittle fracture in fracture mechanies a fracture characterized by the lack of plastic deformation atthe erack tip. brittleness, proneness of a solid to crack at low stress level before the onset of plas- tie deformation. See also “fracture toughness. brittleness (Criability) test Sip (Swedish) , a measure of rock resistance to crushing due to repeated mass-drop impacts (impact wear). The rock material to be ested by impact wear, 05 kg with a density of 2650 kg/m? in the fraction of 11.2 -16,0 5broaching bility. Tanwock, 1989. pred eek el ‘aya & Walter, 1990. ere Beste [sm Stemming) Figue 6. Bue blasting (afer Kennedy, 1990), % duced in the final contour row, bi a6 the two rows (buffer cows) next fo the ontout row. The dil hole diameter isthe same in the buffer 201s in the pro- Geetion blast area, Holes are located half to three fourths ofthe normal production bast values. Subdeiling is totally avoided forthe butter holes. buffer row, the row next t0 the ast row (perimeter oF trim rom) of the main blast. ‘These holes have inereased stemming to prevent cratering back at the surface trough the perimeter row. Kennedy, 1990 building stone blasting, see “dimensional stone blasting’. building demolition blasting, the demolition of buildings by explosives bulk density or apparent density ofan explosive before charging (Py (kel), the mass ofthe explosive divided by its volume before charging into the blasthole. bulk density of explosive (after charging) (p,) (kg/m), the mass of explosive in the borehole divided by that volume of the-biathole which is charged. For car trudged explosives the bulk density is lower than the explosive density because of Uiffeulty of getting 100% packing of the explosive and for powder explosives, Tike ANFO, the bulk density will be larger because the explosive needs to be compressed lite to get it ofasen in upholes, bulk explosive, explosive material prepared for use without packing, These kind of explosives wil Fil the cross-section of the borehole after charging (decoupling ratio= I) bulkhead, 2 panition (wall) builtin in an underground structure ora structural fining to prevent the passage of ai, water, or muck, ISRM, 1975. boul ix, see “bulk explosives’ bulk modulus (R), (Pa), modulus of volumetric expansion or inverse of compress- ilay tincompressbily) a derived quantity characterizing the inverse compressi~ bility of s material. [cs a quantity that expresses a materials resistance co elastic changes in volume. Itcan be calculated as follows; na2ganltye._€ 3°" 30-29) XI-w where p isthe hydrostatic pressure in (Pa) and ¢is the volumetric strain 2 is the Tame"s constant and G the shear modulus in (Pa) valid for isotropic media, and v is Poisson's ratio, Eis Young's modulus in (Pa), p the density of the material in (kg/m, ¢, is the longitudinal wave velocity in (avs) and c, isthe transverse wave velocity in (mis). 1/K = compressibility, (x) (I/Pa). bulk specific volume (v3), an Mk), bulk volume per unit of mass bulk strength (5), (MJsin), energy released per unit volume of explosive. Usually expressed as relative bulk strength (RBS), (sy). when related to the bulk strength of a standard explosive such as ANFO. (ANFO is the normal reference explosive with densities between 750 and 870 kg/tn’, wile blasting gelatine is often quoted having adensity of 1550 kg/m, bulldoze or mud capping, see ‘adobe charge bulled hole, a blasthole which has been enlarged (chambered) to accommodate ex- ‘ca explosive over a portion of its length (usually at the bottom) by exploding @ small charge. AS 2187.1, 1996. bulletcresistant, ability to resist penetration by a bullet. The US standard for maga- abullet sensitivity Zine walls oF doors (of constriction) stipulates resistance t penetration by a butler ‘of 150:grain M2 ball ammunition having a nominal muzzle velocity of 822,96 m/s {2900 fuse} fred from a 0.30-calibre rifle a a distance of 30.48 m (100 fd) per pendicular tothe wall or door. Dulettest, a methed 0 test the sensitivity of explosives with respect o impact. Bul- ets are shot against a sample of the explosive. The velocity ofthe ballet i in creased until the explosive is intted balling, a procedure intended to enlarge a section ofa blast hole (usually the botiom) in order to accommodate exra explosive over that section, AS 21871, 1996 bull hole, Targe empty cents hole ina pale Role cut. Ofofison, 1990. See “parallel hole cur bunch connector, detonating cont prepared in wo loops though which upto 20 hock tubes leading to detonators in blasthole: canbe iiiate by the detonation from the cord. The cord is initiated by a detonator attached to a shock ce. This {ype of initiation is commonly used in dit and tunnel basing burden, abbreviation for “burden distance see ‘burden distance’ burden, burden in Bench Blasting (B), sy shores perpendicular distance berween the centre line ofa charge an the fre or buffered face burden, burden in crater Blasting (8), (m) shores perpendicular distance berween the cenite of a charge and che free surface. Usually the terms “charge depth’ or “depth of burial” are used in the lerture burden, blasted burden (irue or effective burden) (By, (m), shortest perpendicular distance from the eenue line ofthe centre ofa charge tothe fee surface creied 'y earlier charges fred inthe round, The exact shape ofthe fee surface created by ealier fring charges cannot always be determined because it depends on the real delay times and fring Sequence burden distance, shortest perpendicular distance between the cente line or cent of charge and the free surface, burden, drilled burden (8), fn, the burden distance measured inthe plane con- ining the collars of bastholes, between the front row blastholes and the face or between one row of blastholes andthe next row. This distance is oaly equal 10 pcteal burden when the bench is vertical. With inclined hoes, foc geometrical ‘easoas, the drilled burden is always larger than the practieal burden. Durden, maximum burden (By), (the largest burden distance which can be used for good fragmentation if al boreholes are located at their correct postions (no borehole deviation). Because ‘good fragmentation’ is difficult o define in quan titative terms the use of the term “maximum burden disiance” is noc recom: mended burden, spcimum burden (B,), (m), the burden distance for which the combined cost of deiling, blasting, micking, hauling, and crashing is minimum burden, optimum breakage burden (B,), (0), in bench and crater blasting the bur den distance which, for a certain charge size, gives the maximum amount of rock broken, In the interest of safe breakage, the burden distance in rater blasting should usualy be slighty smaller than the optimum breakage burden. bburden, optimum fragmentation burden (8) (a) the burden distance which gives the maxima surface cea of fragmented rock. 28 burning rate burden, practical burden (B,), (m), the planned burden used in blasting which is de- rived by subtracting the greatest blasthole deviation (caused by driling) from the ‘maximum burden. For vertical benches 8, burden, reduced burden (B,), (i), the reeued burden is defined as 2-55, where Bis the practical burden and S, is eke practical spacing, If the properties ofthe rock and explosives are not known in detail, the following formulas, based fon regression analysis of burdens and spacings used in more than one hundred surface and underground mines, can be used for rough estimates of the reduced burden, Rustan, 1990, For surface mines with blasthole diameters of 90-380 mm; ++ 525 expected maximum value Bee = 37% expected minimum value where dis the blasthole diameter in m. It is assumed thatthe decoupling ratio is equal 6 | For underground mines with blasthole diameters of $0-165 mm; 4 404% expected maximum value 136% ~ 25% expected minimum valve ‘where d isthe blasole diameter in m. Ic i assumed thatthe decoupling ratio is equal | Formulas including rock and explosive properties, se Kou & Rustan, 1992. burden velocity (vy rms) the average velocity of the burden rock mass after de tachment from the solid rock mass. It depends on the suength ofthe rock and ex: Plosive, and the confinement (burden, blasthole inclination. et). By high speed Photography an empirical formula has been developed, Chiappeta, 1991 AL where v, isthe velocity ofthe burden (mus). &, and fate constants depending on explosive and rock properties. and B is the burden distance (). Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM), the International Bureau for ‘Weighs and Measures, established in 1875 and located in Sevres near Pars. burn cut, a cut where all holes are drilled parallel to the tunnel axis and slightly up- ‘wards Yor dewatering, and where all the dill holes are of the same diameter see Figure 7, Some of the holes are charged heavily. while others ate left without 2 ‘charge to accomplish the swelling ofthe rock. The distances between the oles are small (-0.2 m) and usually a square pattem for the centre holes is used, burning Fate, the linear burning rate of = propellant is the rate at which the chemical ‘combustion reaction is propagated by Both thermal conduction and radiation. The 2burst current white = empty holes or relief holes Figure 7. Burcu (alter Alas Cope 1982), combustion gases are flowing in the direction opposite to that of the combustion progress (unlike in detonation). Meyer, 1977. burst current, the value of the current at which the bridge-wire or foil explodes. RISI, 1992. ‘bus wires, the (wo wires, joined to the connecting wire, to which the leg wires of che ‘electric caps are connected in a parallel ciccuit, see Figure 8. Each leg wire of each, cap is connected to a different bus wire. Ina series-in-parallel cicuit. each end of ‘each series is connected to a different bus wire. USBM, 1983. Bur wire Caps q Connecting wer Bus wie Parallel eiveuit Bus wire ——- =] Connecting wire Caps h Seresin-parallel circuit Figure 8, Definition of tus wires in an inition circ butt button bit, percussive bit having tungsten carbide buttons. They are manufactured in sizes from ~35 mm and upwards, butt or socket, incompletely blasted hole which after the blast may still contain €x- plosives and is thus considered hazardous. acap, see “basting cap fap erimper, 2 mechanical device for ering the metalic shell ofa Blasting cap Securely 10a section of inserted safety fase. IME, 1981 capped fuse, safety fase to which a basing cap hasbeen crimped on 0 one end ‘capped primer, a package oF catcidge of cap-sensitve explosive which is specii- ally designed to transmit detonation to other explosives. and sehich consins a blasting cap. USBM, 1983 capping station, a special location expressly used for preparing capped fuses. AS 2187.1, 1996. cap sensitive ee ‘cap sensitivity” cap sensitivity, sensitivity of an explosive to initiation by atest blasting cap No. 8 {0.80-0.45 g of PETN) ora faction thereof. The base charge of blasting cap No.8 may be different in other counties. Im South Afscathe charge mas is 08 g cap sensitivity test, atest to determine the sensitivity of an explosive to shock from Ba standard detonator. Is used as one ofthe enter for classifying energetic ma- terials as explosives inthe United Nations Haaards Division 1.5, Persson etal, 1994 cap wires or leg wires, the two single wires or one duplex wire extending ou from fan elecsc blasting cap. IME, 1981 carbon monoxide, CO is a poisonous ga, tasteless, odourless anda by-product of the detonation ofan explosive. An inadequate amount of oxygen inthe explosive causes the formation of excessive carbon monoxide coment in the Blas fumes, Cardox, a tradename for a system that uses hollow carwidges made of alloy see and filled with liquid carbon dioxide, which, when initiated by a mixture of potassium perchlorate and charcoal, creates a pressure, 70-130 MPa, adequate to break ard tundercu col. USBM, 1983. careful blasting, see ‘controlled basting’ Carrick delay detonator, a special designed detonator where the rbe is made of a non-slagging bronze element, a opposed to the aluminium used in conventional Setonators. Ths the possibly ofthe ignition of pos-blast gases fom the hot molten aluminium particles (called sagging is eliminated. I is special designed basting cap for use in gassy coal mines. Sen, 1995, carton, a lighoveight inner container for explosive materials, usually encased in a ‘substantial shipping container called a case. Alas Powder, 1987 cartridge, a performed unit of explosive enclosed in thin or tick paper or plastics to 1 pregeermined diameter and length cartridge count (stick count), a method of expressing the mas ofan explosive cat- {ridge by listing dhe number of earrdges per 23 kg (50-pound) case (inthe USA), ‘This incorrect measure should be ceplaced by grams or kilograms per cartridge, because other countries may have other ease masses, for example South Africa (25 ke. cartridge density the ratio between the mass of an explosive catrdge and its vo: 2 ‘channel effect cartridged explosive, explosive enclosed in thin or thick paper or plastics 0 a pre- determined diameter and length ‘cartridge loader, device to blow cartridges by means of compressed aie through @ plastic hose into the drill hole. Ths results ina high bulk explosive density. cartridge punch, a wooden, plastic, oF non-sparking metal device to punch an ‘Opening in an explosive cartidge © accept a detonator ora section of detonating cord, IME. 1981 cartridge strength, see “bulk strength’. ase, a substantial outer shipping container meeting the US Department of Trans- ‘oration (DOT) specification for explosive materials. Atlas Powder, 1987. case insert, set of printed, precautionary instructions, including the US fnstitute of ‘Makers of Explosives (IME) Do's and Don'ts, which is inserted into a case of €- plosive materials. Adas Powder, 1987, ‘case liner, a plastic or paper barter used to prevent the escape of explosive materials from acase, Aas Powder, 1987. cast blasting, see ‘bast casting” ast booster, a high density explosive unit designed to provide a high detonation ‘locity and a high detonation pressure, for adequate initiation of the ‘mainvcolumn charge. It may be made up of a more sensitive inner core to accent Initiation from a detonating cord and detonator. The inner core may be made of Pentolite (a SO%/S0% mixture of PETN and TNT) or only PETN. Sandhu & Pradhan, 1991 ‘cast charge, a charge of solid high explosive used to detonate less sensitive explo sive materials. See also ‘cast booster cast, extruded or pressed booster, a cast, extruded, or pressed sold high explosive ved to detonate explosive materials of lower sensitivity. Alas Powder, 1987. casting of explosives, increasing the density of an explosive atthe manufacturing bY ‘casting. This increases the brisance ofthe explosive and this technique is therefore Used for military explosives but also for primers and boosters or commercial plosives. catt pile, spoil or spoil bank, the pile of material that is cast or moved, from its ‘riginal postion by an excavating machine, as opposed t that loaded into havlsge equipment, It is usually composed of waste material cast primer, primer with hard consistency, used (0 initiate blasting agents. Usually ‘an explosive with high detonation velocity, See also "cast booster’ cautious blasting or controlled blasting, blasting with ceraia limitations due to surroundings eg. limitations concerning flyrock. ground vibrations, air shock waves. Nifo Nobel, 1993. See also ‘controled blasting’ centralizer, dling accessory used to make the dil string rotate on the same axis i ‘oder o reduce borehole deviation. centres, the distance between two adjacent parallel blasthole. certified blaster, a blaster authorized through governmental agency certification €© prepare, execute and supervice blasting, chambering, see ‘springing’ channel effet, effect where a shock wave in air, in the gap between a pipe charBe ‘and the blasthole wall, moves faster than the detonation front ia the explosive ‘The pressure generated from the air shock wave may be large enough to dead- 3 wae‘Chapman-Souguet plane press the explosive, and decelerate the detonation front completely. This effect ‘may occur at certain decoupling ratios, e.g, when using pipe charges in controlled contour blasting. Johansson & Persson, 1970. Chapman-Souguet plane (Cl-plane), the interface separating the steady and the non-steady regions at the detonation front. The boundary between the energy re Jease which is supporting the detonation front, and hence driving the detonation velocity, and the energy which is leased too late for this. In an ideal detonation, all erergy supports the detonation front, and the CI zone thus coincides with the tend of the reaction zone. The extent t0 which the measured detonation velocity {alls shor ofthe theoretical value is an indication of the proportion of energy re leased behind the CI plane. charge (noun), 1) A quantity of explosive. 2) Explosive placed ina dill hole or con fined space. AS 2187.1, 1996. charge of load (verb), to put the explosive ino the borehole, arrange the fuse. squib and tamp. charge concentration linear (q), (kg/m), mass of explosive per meter of dell hole Nitro Nobel, 1993. charge distriburion per area, (theoretical), (q,)y(kglen?), mass of explosive used per contour area cut by blasting. Use ‘specific spitting mass of explosive (energy) per area’ charge density (p,.) (kg/m), see ‘charged explosive density’, This term is often ‘wrongly used to denote linear charge concentration (kg/m) charge depth (B), (tm), see “burden or burden in crater blasting charge mass, (Q), (kg), the mass ofthe charge. charge mass per delay (Q), (Kg), the mass of explosive charge considered t0 dto- nate in a delay with a separation larger than 8 ms tothe next delay. charged explosive density (pics (kg/m’), the ratio of the mass of the charge in che charged section of a borehole o the volume ofthat section ofthe borehole. Multi- plication of the mass strength of an explosive by the charged explosive density Yields the bulk strength (volume strength) of the explosive. Foe liquid explosives the density ofthe explosive will increase with the height ofthe explosive column due to the hydrostatic pressure. For very high blastholes the explosive may be dead pressed by the increased pressure. charge load (a), (Keli, see ‘specific spitting mass of explosive (energy) per area’ charging, the act of placing explosives inthe desired position for firing. AS 2187.1, 1996, charging density (p,). (kg/m), see ‘charged explosive density’. Tis term is often, ‘wrongly used to denote linear charge concentration (kg/m). charging equipment, see ‘charging machine charging hose, plastic hose used for transportation of bulk or carridged explosives, into the blasthole charging machine, mechanical device to transport (sometimes also pack) the explo- sive into the blasthole. It is used both for cartidges and bulk explosive. Usually different machines are used for powder, cartsidges, and liquid explosives like slurry and emulsion explosives. charging rod, see ‘tamping rod’. cherry picker, a device that lifts the empty car to let the loaded car pass underneath ‘The system can only be used in relatively igh tunnels. Alas Copco, 1982. ey class B explosives chevron blasting, blasting technique where blastholes are tied up in such a way that ‘ingle holes inthe front row detonate together with a lagging hole in each subse- {quent row, see Figure 9. A tie-up which initiates the hole immediately behind the Fole in the front is called a VO Chevron, while one tied tothe hole next othe hole in the front is called & VI, and 50 on. An ‘open chevron’ opens at the end of the bench with two free faces. A ‘closed chevron’ opens in the centre of the bench and moves outwards from this postion. Cunningham, 1993. Rectangular patter ‘Staggered pattern “VE vi vo vi vi vo * Closed chevron Open chevron NN NNN NOU Figue 9. Chev, open nd closed nation (ater Cnningha 195 ‘choke blasting, blasting with insufficient expansion space. A choke blast i therefore ‘considered @ misfire. Blasting against fill or broken rock with sufficient space is Called butfer blasting. Typically, 30% expansion space is required to avoid choke blasting in underground excavations. Model and half-scale tests show that the fin est fragmentation is obtained with 40 to 50% expansion space. In the cut in a de- ‘elopment round, the minimam expansion space needed for the first blasthole is 1010 15%. chopping. see ‘stabbing’ Chute, a mechanical construction tthe bottom of a shaft by which the flow of ore or ‘waste rock through the shaft can be regulated to fill mine cars or tucks, for haul- age to a deeper shaft cireuit, a closed path for conveying electrical current, See also ‘series blasting cit~ cuit’, “paralle blasting cicuit’ and ‘series in parallel blasting cicuit'. circuit tester, see "blasting galvanometer’. (Cl-plane, see "Chapman-Jouguet plane’. class A explosives, explosives, as defined by the US Department of Transporation. that possess detonating or otherwise maximum hazard, such as dynamite, nitro- alycerin, lead azide, blasting caps, and detonating primers. Atlas Powder, 1987. 200 (Quart, dole, gabbre ase B Highsrengs {0-200 Marble, granite, geist © Medium stengih 30-100 Sandstone, soe shale D Low stength 25.50 Coal sitstone schist E___Verylowsrength a5 Chai roeksat compressive stress (0), (MPa), normal stress tending to shorten the body inthe di- rection in which i sets, ISRM, 1975 computer aided blasting (CAB), the use of information technology and digital timing systems in improving experts, blast modeling, data banks and appropri ate sensing and conte sysems $0 a 0 optimise blasting effets computer code, codes developed for calculation of burden, blast geometry, frag- ‘mentation, throw ete. Persson et al, 1994, conceptual modeling, a technique of representing a mental image of an actin or ‘object in the form of mathematical equations and logical relationships. Anon., 1992. concrete blasting, the demolition of concrete by explosives. Lauritzen & Schneider, 1992. concussion, the inaudible part ofan air bast. Frequency below 20 Hz. Persson etl. 1994, “me concussion charge or bulldoze, 2 ready-made charge put in close contact with the surface of a boulder withthe purpose to demolish it. The charge is usually en closed by a plastic envelope making it easier to obtain a close contact between the charge and the boulder surface. condensor-discharge blasting machine, a blasting machine that uses batteries or magnets to energize one or more condensors (capacitor), whose stored energy is teleased into blasting ciccuit. USBM, 1983. conductivity (hydraulic) or permeability (4) (m/s) se8 “hydraulic conductivity confined detonation velocity or confined velocity of detonation (js), ¥e- locity of detonation ina defined diameter hole and confinement. Steel pipes are not recommended for these measurements, both for the sake of safety, and be- cause steel can give misleading resuls. confinement or degree of confinement () constaining effect of the environment ‘on the explosive charge. The confinement of a charge depends on the strength and density of the surrounding material; the number, orientation, shape, and other characteristics ofthe ee faces tothe gravity field the distance from the blasthole orcharge tothe fee faces; the static or confining stress Feld working onthe mate- ‘ial; the material properties surrounding the free faces, -. ai, water or buffered rock; and finally the amount of rock being broken by the blast. No general system has been developed for quantifying confinement. An estimate of the degree of confinement () for benches with different inclinations is obtained by the use of a “fixation factor" which is used to multiply the practiea! burden forthe ealelation 38 controlled blasting of the burden adjusted to the degeee of confinement. The degree of confinement (Gxation factors ()) are shown in Table 8. “able &, Degree of confinement (xaion factors) wed in bench blasting, After Langefors & Kiser, 1978 ——E—— Blasthole inclination Verieal 3: 2 Free botom [Bench with ore row of ales io 09 as 075 Downward stoping, one row ofholes_ 08 07 085080 conic shaped charge, a metal cone where the outside is covered with a ayer of ex: plosives, eg. PETN because a high deronation velocity is necessary. A metal jt is formed upon detonation which exerts a strong penetration effect on the rock, conjugated joints/faults, two sets of joints or faults that formed simultaneously un- er the action of field stess conditions (ustally shear pairs). connecting wire or firing wire, any insulated wires (usually of lighter gauge than the Firing cables) used in a blasting circuit to extend the length ofthe eap wire (leg or leading wes) tothe shot firing cable. ‘connection sleeve, one end of a stiff pipe charge, which has a smaller outer diameter than the othe: end, and where the larger diameter end of another charge ean be pushed over. about 20-30 mm. The pipe charges can therefore be added to a con- tinuous charge with a length which is a multiple ofthe charge length connector, metallic ot plastic device to connect two detonating cords in order to a: complish a delay of the detonation between the cords. constitutive equation er material law, stress-strain relationship or force ‘deformation function for particular materials continuum mechanies, field of mechanics where a material is considered to form a Continuum. Deals with the lead capacity of solids where the local stress and dis- placement fields are continuous, The material modelled can not have any discon~ Tinuites like fault and joints but the material itself is damaged due to the presence fof microscopic defects such as micro cracks, flaws or voids contraction, a shortening of a word by using only some of the leters in the word eg, Dr for doctor. contour, perimeter, the final profile or surface planned in an excavation. contour blasting or controlled contour blasting, see ‘contralied contour blasting! ‘contour holes or perimeter holes, blastholes drilled along the final contour oF pe- rimeter of the excavation. contour ratio, ee ‘half east factor’ Controlled blasting, special blasting technique where ground vibrations, throw. and backbreak ace controlled, This is often accomplisted by using decked charges at large hole blasting and initiation of each deck with a separate delay, thereby re ducing the maximum charge mass (weight) detonated per delay. Another tech nique is to use decoupled charges. In the USA this term is used to define only controlled contour blasting, 2”controlled contour blasting controlled contour blasting, special Blasting method where special cae is taken to avoid overbreak and damage of the remaining rock surfaces, The method is used in tunnels, drifts, raises, open pits and production blasis, and itis designed to minimize overbreak and leave clean-cut solid walls. The last row of holes is charged witha reduced linear charge concentration. The rows next to the contout may also have reduced charge concentrations in order not to give a larger damage than the contour cow. Hole spacing and burden are reduced to minimize overbreak and obtain a more stable contour. Four different methods regarding initiation are in use: 1) smooth blasting where the contour holes should be intiaed with the same delay after all other holes have been initiated, 2) prespliing, where the contour holes are iniisted first, and withthe same time delay, 3) cushion blast- Ing, which may be a combination of smooth basting and prespliting, see ‘cushion Blasting’ and finally 4) micro-sequential contour blasting, the same method 23 smooth blasting but with shor delay time (1,5 ms) between the blasthole in the Contour row, Reduction of the charge concentration can be achieved by decou- pling the charges. by using pipe charges or reducing the sirength ofthe explosive. Controlled crack initiation a the blasthole wall can be achieved by notching the borehole mechanically after drilling by a special notching tool oF using linear shaped charges. The borehole pressure used in controlled contour blasting in drifts should normally be inthe order of 70-150 MPa. When linea shaped charges. are used, the borehole pressure can De reduced to 20-40 MPa, controlled trajectory blasting (CTB), a method to control the trajectory of throw in cast blasting co-operating charges, simultaneously detonating charges or charges where the time delay between charges are <8 ms. cordeau detonant fuse. a kind of detonating cord, see “detonating cord’. core load (g), (gin, the explosive core of a detonating cord, characterized by the number of grains. Use gin ‘corner cut, blast where swelling can occur in three directions, see Figure 10. oRNER cur Figue 10. Comer cut (ater Kenedy, 1990). Cornish cut, akind of parallel hole cu 0 coupling romant cut a pre hoe cut where lasioles ae focted a an inca dis Corot Sve uncharged Holes which ze used for swing ofthe wae ao igue ti. wong ar consucted aod the my Hl ool. A te ol eallede templar canbe eto get the fs ing of oles in Fe ae ed accion, The method ie wsed in taneling, Langston & rinse. 1978 ee gue {1 Coromant cut wit ewo empty holes ST, Numbers ia mm (ater angefon & ikem 1978, correlation coefficient (R), 2 number expressing the fitness of a curve to measure Ment data R varies between O-l where | represents the case when all measure tment poins are located on the ite line country rock, the rock traversed by or adjacent to an ore deposi. Fay, 1920. Coupling (electrical), capacitive or inductive coupling from powertines, which may transfer electrical energy into an electric blasting ciecut coupling (blasting, mechanical in blasting coupling concerns the efficiency of the transfer of energy from an explosive reaction into the surrounding rockin a bore: tole or on the surface of rock. Perfect coupling prevails if there are no losses due th absorption ov cushioning (sr between explosive and rock). The amount of en- ergy varseeddepenis on he impedance tose impedance ato coupling (drilling), metal piece which joins the dill rods Coupling (explosive in blasthole), the degree and quality of interaction (filling) of he eaplosive charge with the borehole volume and borehole wall. tis defined by the welume of explosive in relation to the total volume of the blasthole. There &x- 41coupling ists to kind of coupling ratios: axial coupling ratio and radial coupling ratio. The radial coupling ratio « gor 4 30 mim diameter calsn charge in 100 mm bla thole is 0.25. Bulk loaded explosives yield complete coupling (1,0), inthe charged parts Untamped cartidges are decoupled. See also “decoupling” coupling Gointing), the at of connecting or jointing two or more distinct pat if ratio (R,), (dimensionless, the ratio of the diameter of the charge tothe diameter of the blasthole in charged par of the blasthole coupling sleeve, see ‘connection sleeve" covering, protection of a round to avoid Niyrock, see “basting mat” ovolume (@), (mfg), the volume occupied by a gas when iti compressed to is maximum density, the effective volume ofthe atoms anor molecules them coyote blasting (shooting) a method of large-scale blasting in which large charges of explosives are fired in small adits or tunnels driven, at the Tevel of the floor, inthe face of a quarry or slope ofan opea-cast mine. crack, a displacement discontinuity in a solid or at the interface between solids. In blasting the term crack is often used to characterize the blast induced extension of| the fracture network crack aspect ratio (Ru), dimensionless), the ratio of the maxiemum width (crack Opening the lenge crack erack bifurcation, the process ofa (propagating) crack diving ino to or several cracks. This occurs when there is an excess of rack driving force in the stress wrk driving force ia the su crack frequency (f), (Nom), number of cracks, crossing 2 | m section ofa stra line in a borehole or on the rock surface ° " rack length (1), (m), (maximum) extension of a planar erack crack morphology, the topography of and the markings on the fracture surfaces, studied forthe determination and analysis ofthe sate of sess tensile, shear, et) andthe conditions which led to the rupture. crack mouth opening displacement (bq), (mm), the opening ofa propagating crack axe crack mou xp, Kozak 198 penngereroness crack opening displacement (2), (mm), the width ofa propagating crack ata de- fined time (time ). Korzak, 1989, =— crack propagation, the process of crack extension. Crack propagation is contolles by imegularits, grain boundaries, and planes of weakness. Te real area of frac- ture surfaces is larger than the nominal acea of facture. The cial stain energy release rate measured often shows considerable seater. The process of crack propagation is fanly complex, involving various stages, such as crack initiation, subscritical crack growth, the critical condition of instability, unstable crack propagation, crack branching crack arrest and possibly crack reintiation. Reini- tiation of erack as well as crack branching are phenomena often observed and fundamental for fragmentation blasting. crack propagation velocity (,), (mis, speed of movement of the front ofa crack, The crack velocity depends on the physical, mechanical, and other properties of the rock or rock mass, and varies from 0 up tothe Rayleigh wave speed. Values, up to 38% of the velocity of sound have been measured. Johansson & Pessoa, a2 Crawshaw-Jones fume test 1970, Larger values have been measured in limestone under special conditions. Petrosyan, 1994. crack range, the volume of solid material surrounding a crack that experiences Tmageified strains which arise fom the stess intensifying effect of the erack, Gill ser, 1993, crack resistance or crack resistance energy (G). (Nim), see ‘strain energy release rate’ crack surface, the surface area of a crack created during crack extension. In a rock Totmation the suefaces of eracks may be non-planar, in case of insufficient clear- lance, Friction (shear stresses) and interlocking (normal stresses) may be present along sections ofthe crack. ‘crack vridth (8), (mam), the maximum with or opening of a erack which is subjected to tensile opening stresses or intesnal compression. crater, an excavation, normally cone of bell shaped, in rock or soil created by an ex- plosion on or below the surface. Apparent crates and true craters are formed, see “apparent and true crater’ crater blasting, # blasting method where the blastholes are drilled perpendicular to the sueface being blasted, and the holes are charged with a concentrated charge (length of charge < 6 times the blasthole diameter) near the surface. Afte: blasting ‘a crater is formed. The quantity of interest is the burden (charge depth) associated with the maximum valve of rock volume broken per kg of explosive used. This burden is called the optimum breakage burden (Byy) and can theoretical be pre- dicted according to the formula developed by Livingstone, 1956. 8 where By isthe optimum breakage burden distance in (m), kis a constant of pro pottionalty expressing cock and explosive properties, and @ isthe mass of explo- Five im (kg). A data analysis for more than 1000 craters, formed in different Kinds Of rocks and due to different sizes of charges varying from model scale up to su- per seale (nuclear) resulted inthe following empirical formula. Dick et al, 1990. KYD Livingstone crater formula log (83, + 72) =1.846 +0312 log O where By is the optimum breakage burden distance or charge depth ris the ap- parent eater radius and Q is the equivalent TNT charge mass. crater charge test, the burden (charge depth) in erater blasting is varied by single hole blasting of craters until the optimum depth (optimum breakage burden) is reached. This burden is defined as that burden that gives maximum volume of broken rock. The charge depth is thereafter increased until no breakage oecurs, the critical depth or critical burden. The selected burden should always be a litle less ‘than the optimum breakage burden, CravshaveJones fume test, a small sample of the explosive is detonated ina closed tank, and the reaction products analysed for its content of toxie fumes. The con- centrations measured with these laboratory scale methods are generally quite di ferent from the concentrations measured in full scale, The method works with a very small quantity of test explosive to be detonated and this influences the deto- nation performance. Many blasting agents witha large critical diameter can not be 3tested because they don’t detonate in small sample sites. Ardeertonk method and Bickel Gauge method use similar layouts, Persson eal, 1994 creep atime pendent plete of ahs cased by Ss, Lapedes, 1978 rest, the lp of the face in a bench created by a previous shot. Konya & Walter, ‘500, P by a pr Konya lt crimp, the folded ends of a paper explosive cartridge, or the circumferential depres: ‘Sonat the open end of blasting cap which serves to secure the fuse. IME, 198] 2540 Comelete bree up of rock mast Damage criteria indifferent rock types, se “blast induced damage zone’. ‘damage zone, see ‘blast induced damage zone’ ‘damping, the reduction of the amplitude of a vibration of a body or ofa system due to dissipation of energy. imemally or by radiation. ISRM, 1975. See ‘attenuation or Q-factor’. dangerous goods classifiation (United Nations), this classification is made to fa: cilitate the safety at ransporation of dangerous goods. A division into 10 classes hhave been done by United Nations with respect to the different general ypes of dangers encountered with different materials. The classes are listed in Table 10, dangerous goods classification “Tobie 10, Clasifision of dangerous goods. Aer United Nations 190. Caes_Sebstnce Explosives ee (Gates compresed ligufed: dissolved uoer pressure or deplyerigeted Fhmvmable igus Flammable solids substances liable to spontaneous combustion, substances (eich in onaet with wate) emt Rammable gases ‘Guiding svbtances organic peroxides Poisonous oxi) and nfectios substances Radioactive mateals Corrsives Group Ll, and Mieetoneoos Substances and ails with multiple hazards 3 4 nce a material has been classified, itis included in the long list of dangerous foods, an alphabetic list of common articles and substances providing details of Enasification, labelling, and rules regarding is transportation. Class | contains all, taplosives, and is subdivided into six divisions with the respect to the materials tehaviour in a fire, such as its propensity for mass detonation or mass explosion or forereating a mass fie hazard, see Table Il. Table 1 Hazard divisions of aes Explosives After United Nations 1990 ‘Case _Horrd division of explosives Enanples TEU as detonating explosive hazard ‘Dynan, cstboosers capes uns wae ps sn ses 1a Non.masdeonatogtagnenpradicing, Arman wit ope ars 1a Waive minor st oe agen hzare_Nondtontn opens an exis U2 TERRE AER NGtcctatmen taard Chae etre fe face. oer Char Cexposser spleens explosion of ANFO. noe: sensi emo, wate ‘5 Srmunton alent se es stores, pekages lasing agents ve eee ativcnsonces —— Eamendy no commer expe In addition tothe divisions, materials belonging to Class | Explosives are also di vided to into 13 compatibility divisions divisions A-N with the respect to the Tevel of eisk for explosion following flame initiation, see Table 12. “Table 12. Compaitiy groups of class: Explosives. After United Nations, 1990 ‘Group _ Substance A Primary explosive ibnce 8 Primary explosive substance without teat two safety fentres © Propelan explosives 9code Continued D Secondary denang expo two ore sey tors Secondary eoaing core wih into, but wih popeling charge Scconiary detosingchorge with int ed poplin chrge Pyrtehice Explosive nd wit phosphorous Explosive and fae gd Exponve amd once agen Explosive wit spc ik hypegoe, ter ated, phos) Package protects against all hazards. pos Enel without iisior x propling charge, oracle wh data-shift code, a code applied by manufacturers to the outside shipping containers and. in many instances, to the immediate containers of explosive materials, 1 aid In ther identification and tracing, IME, 1981. {ay box, a container used atthe work site for holding daly requirements of explo- sives. D'Autriche method, a method of determining the detonation velocity of an explo- sive by employing two pieces of detonating cord and a witness plate IME, 1981 dead pressing, desensitization of an explosive caused by excessive pressure on the ‘explosive before itis detonated, thereby causing an increase in the density ofthe explosive, Explosives exhibit a critical density above which detonation is inkib For example if the density of ANFO is increased above 1200 kg/m?, dead pressing will result dead pressure, see ‘dead pressing” dead rock, the material removed in the opening of mine which is of no value for milling purposes. Fay, 1920. A more common used term today is ‘waste rock’ debris, collection of particles such as eck Fragments, sand, earth, and sometimes of Banic matter, ina heterogeneous mass, as found a the foot of a cliff. Fay, 1920. decay time, the time interval required for a pulse to decay from its maximum value to some specified fraction thereof. decibel (AB), the unit of sound pressure, The unit is commonly used when monitor- ing air blasts from explosions. deck (charge), (Q,), (kg), an explosive charge which is separsted from other charges in the biasthole by stemming or by an ait cushion. «Atlas Powder. 1987. The stemming between decks in dry holes should have 2 minimam length of 6 times, the diameter of the blasthole and in wet holes 12 times the diameter ofthe bias. thole. The stemming material that works best should have a particle size between 10 and 1/20 of the diameter of the blasthole. Konya, 1996, deck charging (decking), the procedure charge decks. deck loading (decking). the loading of decks. Use “deck charging decline, a drift driven dowawards at an angle from the horizontal compose to esate o spi costuent prof elements, 8 by means of chemical agents or by natural decay. Especially 1 cause to decay’ 10 rot. Stan shemial yy y- Especially y 30 delay element decomposed, rock oro altered and leashed by sir and water. A sate of rock or oe there the origina material fabric i stl imac, but some all of the mineral dainsare decompoted (. weathered ork). decoupled charge, see decouling™ decoupling norly a separation by ac between the surface of an explosive charge Sd the blasthole wall where ii charged or sections of the Blasio Tele une harged. There are two types of deoupling aval (Ra) and radial (R,) decou decouling ratio (Rs thera between the diameter ofthe lao tthe diameter the charge, Fogason esl, 1965. The inverse of decoupling vai elled cou- ing rati. detageation, an explosive ection asocated wih a moving phase change such as 3 ‘afd combustion sich moves through an explosive mater ata veloc salle than the speedo sound (subsonic velocity: no shock wave produced). defagraton fo detonation transition (DDT) transition fem subsonic velocity (0 horaton velocity and vce versa. denagration to detonation transition test (DDT-tes, the test substance i filles ina closed tbe standing on witness plate and igition ofthe substance is tmae by «hot wie. The esti used to determine the tendency fore subsance to Undergo ransion fom deflagration to detonation This test wl be compulsory in fare for approval of explosives cording to Hazards Divison 1.5 in the UN Clastiaion Peston etal, 1994 deformation, a change athe Shape or siz of 2 slid body duet esses, tempers deformation lamellae, closely spaced parallel planar features which donot cross fran boundaries and fequetly conten minute cavities and inclusions. Giles 1993, degre of confinement, se confinement’ degre of freedom in prespliting, see ‘pcespliting degree of packing (P), (2), percentage of the volome of a blasthole occupied by delay, 2 stinct predetermined intl of ie between the intadon of two con: sceaive charges in onder to allow for epaat ing of he explsive charges. delay blasting, 2 blasting technique where delay detonators or relay conecors ae hed inte separate charges at ferent times delay eap se Dlasting ap" ‘day connector short intcrval delay device uted together with detoat shor delay basing. Oaison, 1990 delay detonator, a elecie or noreleetc Blasting cap which is designed to x: lode a» specie ime after the cunt o gion is ated. delay electri Blasting cap, an let Blasting cap wih a builtin dla that delays ap detonation at prodesernied tine intervals, from mliseconds up to a second or mot between successive delays USEM, 1983 delay element, hat part of lasting cap which causes a delay barween he iiiaton nd he tin of detonation ofthe ase charge ofthe cap. The dy element ust- aly consists of 2 pyrotcheal materi, but micro-lecwones can aso be sed, See elctoic detonator cord for 3delay interval delay interval, the nominal rime delay between the initiation of adjacent periods ina delay series, or the nowinal time between successive detonations in a blast delay period, a designation given toa delay detonator to show its relative or abso late ime ina given series. Aas Powder, 1987 delay relay, a device incorporating a blasting cap delay arangement to be used when delay are arranged together with detonating cord. AS 2187-1, 1996, delay series, a series of delay detonators designed to satisfy specific Blasting r= aquicements. Basically there ae two types of delay series: millisecond delay series (MS) with delay intervals inthe millisecond range, and long period delay series (LP) with delay times inthe order of seconds. delay tag, a tag, band. or marker on 2 delay electric blasting cap or a non-electric delay Blasting cap denoting the delay Sequence andor the actual delay firing time IME, 1981 delay time (0 (3, time interval between the initiation and detonation ofa detonator. Delay times Tess than 3.3 ms per meter of burden cause premature shearing be- tween holes, and coarse fragmentation. Sandhu & Pradhan, 1991 demolition blasting, a blasting technique specifically designed for demolition of buildings, towers, bridges and industrial installations. Destruction occurs by de- stroying interlocking systems lke beams, pillars, plates and steel girders. Sanda and Praghan, 1991 density of expiosive (bulk) (p), (kg/m, the mas of explosive per unit volume “The density of explosive may increase alter charging, ei powdered explosive like ANFO is used, or decrease, e.g. if a cartridged explosive is used. The density of explosives normally varies between 800 and 1680 kg/m? before charging ‘When liquid explosives are uted in downholes, the density atthe bottom will de: pend on the height of the explosive column, due to hydrostatic pressure. density of explosive (after charging) (,.), (kg/m?) the bulk density ofthe explo: sive in the blasthole after charging may'ineease e.g. (ANFO) or decrease (e.g. cartidged explosives) density of explosive (before charging) (9, (kel), see ‘density of explosive (bull) density of packing (Pc (ksh) use “density of explosive (after charging)” density of rock mass (pp, (kgf, the density of rock mass in sis density of stemming (Dui) (0, Cag’) the bulk density of stemming. Department of Transportation (DOT), a USA authority regulating the transporta. tion of explosives. Atlas Powder, 1987 epi of burial (B),(m), see burden or burden in eraer Blasting” 45-90" dip). icected hydraulic impulse fracturing, wo high pressure water jets (150 MPa) Taunched from a nozzle which is inserted into a borehole are used 10 ereate two ‘opposite slots. The borehole and the slot are filled with water. Then, another noz tle is inserted int the hole with 2 membrane which can withstand pressures from 25, 50, 75 oF 100 MPa, The tube to the nozzle is tightened at the collar of the borehole. The pressure active on the membrane is increased by the high pressure ‘waterjet pump until the membrane sudéenly breaks and an impulse pressure is elivered to the water in the borehole and ihe slot. The force needed to break the tock is hereby reduced, a8 the area over which the pressure is acting has been in- creased by the slotting, Hamsmelmann, 1995 directional blasting or cast blasting (Coa), the use ofthe kinetic energy of blasting {to move the rock larger distances. The method is used both in mining and civil engineering. The ballistics of directional blasting has been described in detail by Chemigovskii, 1976, directional drilling, techniques o dill more precisely towards the intended target. direct priming, se “prising” dise cutter, a disc usually made of hardened tough steel mounted on an axle and sometimes with hard metal buttons around the periphery. Several dises are pushed Sgtinst the rock face while rolling on the rock surface and breaking hand-size pieces of rock, The echaique is used in full face boring of tunnels ise fracture, generally a planar dise-shaped crack. A disc crack can be created per- peadicular to the borehole axis atthe bottom of a blasthole in drifting or tunnel Ting by a special designed shaped charge. Occurence of this type of erack at the bottom ofa blasthole may reduce the confinement. Bjaraholt, 1987, discontinuity, an interruption in the physical stale of a steucture oF coafiguration. “uch as induced by joins, racks, bedding planes faults, laps, seams, inclusions, fr porasty's. A discontinvity may oF may not affect the usefulness of a part. To 8 Tavge extent. the discontinuous character of rock has a significant effect on coke sin and transfer of stress across the cock interfaces, and hence on is strength and Geformational behaviour. Brown, 1981 discontinuity spacing, the spacing between the discontinuities in the rock mass. A ‘classification scheme is given in Table 14, Table 4 Clasification of decominuty spacing. After Baty & Brown, (199) Description Spacing om) Exivemely ele spacing <0 ‘Wey clove spacing no Clore spacing 0200 Mocerate spacing 20-60 Wide spicing ‘ao-x ery wide spacing 2000-6000 36000, 37discrete element block modelling discrete element block modelling (DEBM), numerical cechnique where the con- tinuous or discontinuous rock mass is modelled by distinct elements. In blasting it can be used to simulate large rock movements, for example rock theow during blasting disintegrated, a condition of rock in which itis weathered toa soil, where the origi- nal material fabric is still ntact, The rock i friable, but the mineral grains are not ‘decomposed. Compare with “decomposed” dispersion, dependency of wave velocity on wave frequency. displacement (u), (mm or m), the linear distance from the initial to the final posi- ton of an body or a partiele in a solid, regardless ofthe length of path followed distance of throw (R), (m), distance ofthe dynamic displacement of a body or part thereof. In blasting the length of throw has theee meanings: 1) The maximum throw of one single fragment. 2) The maximum throw of the main part of the round (where the muckpile ends) and 3) The distance of movement of the centre point of gravity of a rock mass from its origin in the beach tothe centre of the muck pile formed after blasting, All distances are measured along the horizontal plane. distortion, a change in shape of a solid body due to stress. distortional, transverse, shear wave or S-wave, see ‘seismic waves’, use S-wave. disturbed zone, zone around an excavation in tock characterized by stcess cedisti- bution (stresses have changed their magnitude or direction due tothe excavation), itch blasting, the formation of a ditch in soft (et) earth by the detonation of a se- ries of explosive charges. IME, 1981. itching dynamite, a dynamite which is characterized by a large gap distance {propagation distance) from one charge to another, still Keeping the detonation travelling through the Tine of canidges and aie gaps in ditch blasting. Usually a nitroglycerin based dynamite is used. dobie, see ‘mud cap’ dome, a special type of antclinal periline where the dip is radial, ie. in plan (hori oatal) View, and the structure is close to circular, The synclinal counterpart of a dome i termed basin. donor, an exploding charge producing an impulse that impinges upon an explosive “acceptor” charge. IME, 1981. ope, a mixture of fuels and oxidizers and other non-explosive ingredients. IME, 1981. Individual dry, non-explosive ingredients that comprise a portion of an ex: plosive formulation. Atlas Powder, 1987, ddo’s and don'ts, a list of safety precautions (IME Safety Library Publication No. 4) Printed by the Institute of Makers of Explosives pertaining to the transportation, storage, handling, and use of explosive materials, and inserted in cases of explo: sive materials and cartons of detonators. Adas Powder, 1987, double load or double charge, a charge in a borehole separated by a quantity of in ert material (drill cuttings, clay, sand) for the purpose of distributing the blast ef- feet, or for preventing part of the charge blowing out a a seam or fissure, in which case the inert material i placed so as 0 include the seam, Fay, 1920. double pipe test, a steel pipe is filed with explosive, and placed on top of a witness Pipe, which in tum sits on a heavy steel anvil. The witness pipe is @ small- iameter, thick-walled pipe whose deformation is used to determine the energy 5B drag cut cpt of the explosive. The sel acl provides slid ied base forthe deor- Graven action ofthe explosive to work past. The deformation ofthe ripe isa fc af te doce on pg mth ier er of deformation rere Senin peste energy release. Lownds & du Plessis double ping iition technique where the individual chorge contin vo prim wie Rually oe of Wem placed near te top and he other near te bottom ofthe Stool, an ete inated simultaneously. Safety reasons al for double pi tata make sre haa feast one of he peers inated if one detonate al Stig cae of paral spacement of the explosive column th charge is vided Se pane Large damter holes underground (more tan 100 fv I dame te oten have two primers Ln ding top ping i prohibited double spiral ent, ee"Coromant cu. double Veet, uti tunneling where the boreholes are died at an angle to each ter ine ina V-form anda ferent high Double" means two adjacent V's Stereach her See "Vt and Figur dana sate shat sed for transfering fesh ar rom the surface ote under round workings downline,» line of detonating cord o¢ non elec plastic biog in Wasthole Vransmiving the detonation from the ck ine or surface delay system Gown the hole othe primer The primes i tached (othe bom end and additonal prim Cirinay be sid down the cord inthe ete of ecking andor mip prim. downthe-ole hammer (DTD, pecusiv orharmer dell wher the bi-devng vrechanisme (percussive and oan) ae loeted immediatly behing the dil bit Sac smal ough in ameter to pert to eter an follow the Bit dow into treble dled drag bi, ruc teamer shaped dil it wih cuting action and hard met inser ‘along the edge. aoe vinctasetenss drag ent fa ype ofan eu), tunneling method where he ital eut is performe Te suing & th ace by downward traced an tnclnes Wastes slong the hate wth ofthe Noor evel see Figute 14 Ablastng method employed in ma tow underground openings. Sen, 199. ewan Trantvere section Longitudinal section Figue 14 Drag cut ale Sen 199). 59 portation. The mechanical wear and transportation are effected by rain, running ‘water, waves, moving ice, or winds, which use rock fragments to pound or to rind other rocks to powder ox sand. Fay, 1920 erosion, in image analysis the process of reducing the size of overlapping fragments in image analysis until the fragments do not overlap. As a result ofthis operation the undisturbed projection ofeach fragment appears on the screen and is then used for digitizing European Federation of Explosive Engineers (EFEE), an European organisation {or explosive manufacturers established in Aachen, Germany, in October 1988. ‘The council of EFEE has developed plans for the unification of the legislation and the education of European biasters. Jonsson, 1992. excavarabiliry, see ‘diggability”. excavation zone of disturbance (EDZ), (R,) (mi), the zone affected by an under: ground excavation regarding changes in any property. i. stesses, deformation, chemical environment, water drainage, etc. This zone is generally larger than the calculated blast induced damage zone, The changes in rock properties are due (0 6 explosion the redisurbution of stresses in the rok because of the excavation. Pusch & Staa~ foes, 1992 exothermic reaction, a chemical reaction whichis accompanied by libertion of heat expanding agent, 2 chenieal compound of which the swelling. properies are Rehieved BY miking eg. water and ime (CaO) to form Ca(OH), The compound iS poured into sali Borcholes forthe purpose of breaking small volumes of rock tehererestetion on ground vibrations and flock ae lage. The expanding agent breaks the rock silently without causing ground vibration problems. Jana, 199 expansion agent, see expanding gent. Expansion volume, the volume of sir or Hquid (wate) where the blasted ock can expand, Ifthe void where the material expands is less than 13% of the volume bemng blasted, the breakage mechanisms will be adversely affected andthe rock fregments will tend fo itrlace, which results in compressed material. Is under- {round blasts of great sie, ti recommended that the available expansion volume be larger than 25% to achieve an adequate flow of rocks cowards the loading pins and avoid the formation of hang-ups. a cuagel and dit diving, ithe vol tie ofthe void Inthe cui 00 smal, the phenomenon of sinterizaton cr plastic Setormation ofthe finely broken material will occur. Whenever possible iti == onvnended tat the available expansion volume be more than 15% ofthe actual ‘volume ofthe et Jimeno etal, 1995. expansive demolition agen, se “expanding agent explode, the term has two definitions: 1) A portable apparatus (basting machine) for generating the energy for firing detonators. The term is used mainy in the fied and a beter term to use is blasting machine, 2) Detonator blasting cap, or 1 fulminating cartridge placed in a charge of gunpowder or other explosive, and ciploded by electrity of by a fuse. Fay, 1920. exploding bridge wir, wir that explodes upon application of curent.Ittakes the lace of the primary explosive ian electric detonator. USBM, 1983, exploding bridge wire detonator (EBW), an electric detonator that employs an ex Doing bridge wite rater than a primary explosive, An exploding bridge wire EetonatorFunetons instantaneously. USBM, 1983 exploding fil initiator (ED) a foil that explodes upon application of « current ‘Alo called a slapper. RIS, 192. explosion, a violent and rapid exothermic chemical reaction which genentes heat, Tight and noise, whereby mixtures of gases, solids o igus react with the almost instantaneous formation of gaseous pressures near sudden heat celesse, I includes both rapid deflagration, detonation of chemical explosives andthe process of n+ elear explosion. There must always be a source of ignition and the proper tem- perature limit must be reached to iit the reaction explosion energy (Q,). (MUNK. see “heat of explosion’. explosion heat (0). (MiTKa)- see heat of explosion’. iplosion presare or borehole pressure (py), (MPa), the pressure ofthe gaseous products ofan explosion when they occupy the volume previously occupied by the solid explosive which means no expansion of the blasthole. Usually ihe explo Sion pressure Is abou half of the detonation pressure. See also borehole pressure. Calculation of detonation pressure, see “dtonation pressure’ oexplosion state explosion state, the physical conditions behind the detonation zone in an explosive regarding, eg. pressure and temperature explosion temperature (T,), (K), calculated temperature of the fumes of an explo- sive material under the ‘assumption of detonation without any expansion of the fumes. As in any combustion, the absolute temperature is given by: Qn. Time) where Q,, is total heat released at constant volume, my, is mass in kg of each prod- ucts of the reaction and ¢, isthe specific het a temperature T, Jimeno eta, 1965. Explosion temperature can also be defined as the calculated temperature of the fumes of an explosive material whichis suppored io have been detonated while confined in a shell assumed to be indestructible and impermeable to heat: the cl culation is based on the heat of explosion and an the decomposition reaction, with allowance for the dissociation equilibria andthe eelevant pas reaction (thermody namie ealeulation of decomposition rections). The real detonation temperatuc in the front of the shock wave of a detonating explosive can be estimated on the sirength of the hydrodynamic shock wave theory, and is higher than the caleulated explosion temperature. Meyer, 1977 explosive, any chemical compound or mixtre that reacts at high speed to liberate as and heat and thus cause high pressures. High explosives detonate, low explo- sives deflagrate. Bath high and low explosives can be initiated by a single No. 8 blasting cap as opposed to blasting agents which eannot be 50 initated. The team includes slow burning compositions used for initiation systems, such as detona tors, detonating relays, fuse headset, which are covered by explosives regula: tions. Explosives can be classified into four main groups: high explosives, blast- ing agents, low explosives and ‘special explosives’, see Table 16. In Some eases ‘explosive subsites’ may be used of explosives, High explosives Blasting agers Low explosives Special explosives Explosive sites INT ‘ANFO ‘Black powder Seismic Expanding agene Dynamite Slunies Trimming Mectanical methods Celatins Emulsions Pemissbie Waterjet, Hybrid charges ANFOlury Shaped charge Je pering Binary Compressed aga Lox guid explosive characterization, explosives are characterized for blasting purposes by Ian parameters, ke density, detonation velo, explosive Rea, mass ength, 0 explosive cxposve charge ss) (Qs (ks the amount of explosive cbarge in kg chased res taste coy tone. IME, 196 exemption eal (Ca eal snnt of explosive used fora specific tak exlanve dec, seek. {ifs destin eee hte energy [0 Oi. see eat of expose ic captavings method to engrave pltues on aetal sheets wih ihe help of FE eee are yatween the sheet real fo be fomned 30d he matin caro Sa esance ofthe ae Gung the foning process. Some cena a san ediom fo waster te impels fom the expoive othe vi at crolove fring operations are cea out under watt tank Pela ing hey sel matinee. Pesson ely 1998 eploive heat 2). (0g) see heat of xpson". ; eet forms une of explosives to form mete se also “explosive engraving Srjtndeet nl esse spleen spoil (ql, gn se liear charge concentration” : selesine loading factor or powder factor qh gh). ee “specifi charg’. Fee eee ex oindpensable elses forthe sceessul performance ee a operation. Tis inlodes be ene essay Timed) djnarte and ohne han beplosten, ses. wate ges emulsion, lasing agen. back pom sete pouen nig explosives, ctontors, safety fates, guts, deans secon igner cod and gies cexltsine oly sensitizers for explosives suc a5 nizopycein, eles ents! and metrluintate Aas Power, 1987 explosive performance, see explosive Sette Performance term (EP) an empircal tem which allows comparison of Freee gupmentason performance of ea volumes of iferent explosives a Pee puri distance one oreole diameter. The EPT term was denved 09 pint tess in he dierent ock pes EPT = (0.36 + 9) where EPT = explosive performance tem. pe = density of explosive (kom, ¢g = ‘dlociy of detonation (rus). 0, =eaeulted maximum expansion work of explo- ve (heal). ep = Pevave velocity (05), Rgy = volume decoupling ratio, TT the numercA value of te EPT is higher than that of a standard explosive, a tester fragmentation performance, ie. smaller average fragment size is inferred. Tincwises salle umber than that of the standard explosive indicates inferior ormance. Bergman & Riggle, 1973. exhsives priny secondary, and terary, a casfcaton of explosives where The explosives are aanged in descending order of initiation sensitivity (asa result of a pusicular type of stimulus). One obains an almost continuously graded se- Gente. tnitating explosives are called primary explosives and high explosives inexplosive substitutes are called seconidary explosives, Tertiary explosives contain such substances as ammonium nitrate, and fll close to the low end of the sensitivity sale. explosive specifi (q) (kgin), see ‘specific charge’ explosive strength, (Q,). (Mirkg). a value characterising the amount of energy per Unit volume released by an explosive upon detonation, The explosive steength is, often related 10a standard explosive explosive substitutes, rock breaking methods replacing explosives such as com- Dressed afe/gas. expanding agent, mechanical methods, water el and jet piercing. explosive test, method or technique to assess/determine the properties of explosives ‘There are many different tests, eg. 1) Abel heat test, 2) Freezing and thawing tei, 3) Liquefaction test. ) Impact sensitivity test 5) Friction impact sensitivity tex, 6) Air gap sensitviy test, 7) Velocity of detonation test, 8) Waterproofiess test. 9) Strength of explosive est and others. The UN have developed intemational stan~ ards for testing of explosives, see UN, 1990. The Nordic counties recently de- veloped a standard, ‘Nordtest Scheme for Testing Commercial Explosives", based mainly on the UN standard. Anon, 1990, explosive welding, two plates can be welded together if the plates are placed hori zontal in close contact and on the top is placed an even layer of explosive. At the detonation of the explosive the impact from the upper plate will be so high that iis cold-welded o the lower sheet. Stainless steel can forexample be welded against ordinary stel by this method. explosively actuated device, any tool or special mechanized device that is actuated by explosives, such as jet tappers and jet perforators. The term does not refer to propellant-actuated devices. Atlas Powder, 1987 external detonation test, deonation of an explosive under low confinement (ai). external fire test, atest to determine how fire affects the explosive in the wansport packaging and whether the substance explodes when itis subjected to fie. This test method is needed for the United Nation Hazard Division 1.5. Persson et al, 1994, EXTEST, abbreviation for European Commission for the Standardization of Expl sive Tests. Student-Bilharz, 1988 extra (ammonia) dynamite, 8 éynamite that derives the major portion ofits energy from ammonium nitrate, aso called ammonia dynamite. IME, 198 extraneous electricity, flows of current that circulate ouside a normal conductor, in blasting i is the eleteical energy, other than the actual Firing eurent, which may bbe a hazard in connection with electric blasting caps. It includes stray current, sai let, lignin, raio-tequeny energy, and epsciive oF inductive coupling, ‘exudation, a separation of oily ingredients out of explosives duting prolonged stor- age, especially a elevated temperatures, For nitroglycerin based cartridged explo- sives a condition when feee nitroglycerin can be traced. This condition is very dangerous, F fabric, orientation in space of the elements composing the rock structure, ISRM 1975. face, fee surface in a blast. I is any rock surface exposed (0 air, water oF buffered ‘of tunnels and stopes in an under- {area is opened by blastholes with successively Targer inclination tothe free face. See Figure (7. Sen, 1995 forizontal setion Transverse section He Figure 17 Fan cu afer Sen 1995. fa el, he dnc froma pin of inert in lation ta geome quant see: J eralic atu of» 6a or tunel Te mt between Re ea scr el shuld be deter cach speci we of he ec Fer iar ge dumet hole Hsing onthe surtce, be ein gett an re a are elas n eg drone rel a seit areas tom he exsvaton dt or ue eee mt nde opened ses Unde he epee lating of 2 Sa cack developed and te ak etd a sll peut ihe wae beak afatigue life fatigue life, the mumber of cycles of stress that can be sustained prior t failure fora tated test condition. A.S.M. Glors, 1961 fatigue limit, there are two limits for fatigue; the lower limit is characterized by the threshold value AX, (I loading cycle) and the upper limit (infinite number of loading cycles) is given by K. fault, in geology a geological zone of disturbance such as a fracture or a fracture zone along which there has been shear displacement of the two sides relative (0 fone another and parallel to the fracture. (This displacement may be as small as a few centimetres or as large as many kilometres) feathered plastic collar, a device made of plastic to centralize pipe charges at their ‘connections in contour blasting. When the pipe charges are connected, the feather is activated and its diameter isa ltde larger than the hole diameter. When the pipe charges are pushed into the borehole, the pipe charges are automatically locked FEM, acronym for finite element method. feed, component of rotary or percussive rock dlls upon which the paeumatic or hy Wod, ste Fi: Wits OW) i Faw 18 Detniion of est fa rock fragment on the bs ofthe ng (Lh () a ‘height (H) of a fragment, = a ans fragment size distribution, relationship between the cumulative amount of frag. ‘ments (%) passing different mesh sizes and the mesh size. A fragment size dist- bution can roughly be quantified by mesh sizes with 10,50, and 100% ofthe mass passing (kyg, Asp. and yy), oF if the distribution Follows the Rosin-Rammler- Sperling (RRS) distribution, by Ky andthe slope of the distebution or uniformity index n. Upon calibration to the blast site a prediction of fragment size distibu- tions in rock blasting can be based on formulas such as Kutsnetzov-Rosin- Rammler formula (Kuz-Ram) after Kuznetaov, 1973 and Cunningham, 1987 or the Swedish Detonic Research Foundation formula (SveDeFo-formula) after Ouchterlony eta, 1990, fragment sie distribution insite, see “block size in sit’ frame grabber, in image analysis itis aterm used for the (wo operations digitizing and storing the image in the memory free face, an unconstrained surface almost fee from stresses; e.g, a rock surface ex posed 10 air or water or buffered rock that provides room for expansion upon fragmentation. Sometimes also called open face freezing of a blast (mechanically), the semvfusing and non-ejection of the pulver- ied rock or ore in the cut portion of a basting round, generally caused by pro Viding insufficient void space (swelling) for the initial holes blasted in the eut Reasons for freezing may be too litle or no delay between charges, and/or exces- sive charge masses, freezing and thawing test, cold-warm temperature test applicable only to ni Iwoclycerine (NG) explosives ofthe gelatinous type, The explosive sample in the 8 fume classification foxm of an unrapped 100 gram carcdgeis placed into atsttube of suitable di tensions, The tube is closed with a velvet cork and Kept at a temperature of {0-8 °C for 16 hours, followed by 8 hours at room temperature, The test is re peated for 3 days and examined for any abnormality with respect to gel break: ingfoozing out ofthe NG. Sangh & Pradhan, 1991 Ieeung of nitroglycerin, may occur azeady at +10 °C. The frozen carcidges are Tnsae in handing, while improvised thawing operations are risky. The feezing is prevented by adding ntroglyeal tothe nitroglyeern. frequency (), (2), number of cycles per uit of time Trequeney of cracks J, (oJ), te numberof cracks erssng a staight line per ‘nit Length frequency of discontinuities (), (Nos) the numberof discontinuities crossing & ‘straight line per unit length frequency of joints (, (Non), the number of joins crossing a straight line per unt length ftiability value (Sy), 4 measure of rock resistance to erushing by repeated mass- drop impacts, Procedure to determine the Fab see “briteness (riabily) test (Sp) Tamsock, 1989. ftietionalcoeicient Gy, se ‘oefTicent of triton” fiction sensitivity or ition test of explosive material, the sensitivity to fiction an be identified by eabing a small quantity ofthe explosive in an unglazed po Celain mortar, The sample being tested Is compared against a standard specimen. Meyer, 1977. There are several tet methods developed inthe World but an in national standard method is lacking. One method t test the sensitivity of an ex: plosive with respect to stesses similar to those which occu when charging with pneumatic carte loaders performed as follows: the tes apparatus consists of brook of granite witha semi-cylindrical groove with a diameter of 30 mm, and length of 50 em. A cylindrical metalic sider witha diameter of 25 mm anda length of 80 mm is pressed by 2 pneumatic cylinder against the bottom of the groove where the explosive is being placed. The slider is pushed back and forh by another eylinder with an automatic valve until the explosive detonates.Johans- son & Persson, 1970. fuel, a chemical compound or an element in an explosive which eeaets with an ‘dizer to form gaseous detonation products and cause a release of heat. When alu- tinium is used as fuel, slid and liquid residual products are produced and energy is liberated fuel othe fel usually No, 2 desl fue, used in ANFO, USBM, 1983. {ull face boring, the process of mechanical fragmentation of the face in deifing by & full face boring machine. The advance is maily controled by the hardness and the direction and numberof joint sts inthe rock mass, and varies up ta maxi- ‘mum of about 6 nvhour in soft rocks. Diameters of up to 20 m have been drilled by this method fulltaer, a machine for ful face boving (mechanical boring of the ful ace are). fame classification, a quantification ofthe amount of fumes produced per kg of ex- ‘losive or Blasting agen detonated Based on the result the explosives are divided into different fame classes. Inthe USA this classification is performed by the In stitute of Makers of Explosives (IME) Se also “IME fume classification nfame quality fume quality, a measure ofthe toxic fumes tobe expected when a specific explosive is properly detonated. See also "fume classification’ fumes, the gas and smoke (more specifically the noxious or poisonous gases) given off by the explosives upon detonation. The character of the fumes is largely influ- enced by the completeness of the detonation, the degree of confinement of the charge and the size of the detonator. The fumes depend also heavily on the com- position ofthe explosive. Fuse or safety fuse, a long flexible small diameter tube containing a core of black powder used for igniting black powder or fuse type blasting caps. fuse cap oF fuse detonator, a detonator that is initiated by a safety fuse; also re ferred to as an ordinary blasting cap, Atlas Powder. 1987. fuse cutter, a mechanical device for properly cutting @ safety fuse clean and at ight ‘angles to its long axis. IME, 1981 fase detonator, see ‘fuse cap fase head, the electric resistance wice in a blasting cap surrounded by 2 material (ashing mixture) which is sensitive to heat fuse igniter, a pyrotechnic device which bums witha veny ho jeting lame which is used to ensure ready ignition of safety fuses. AS 2187.1, 1996, fuse lighter, a pyrotechnic device for the rapid and reliable lighting of a safety fuse also 2 stick of material which burns with an intense flame and will aot be extin Buished by the ignition flame from the fuse 80 G gallery, rift (tunne)) which will act asthe upper part of a future underground cay em. Nitto Nobel, 1993. galvanic action, physical-chemical process characterized by the flow of a current caused when dissimilar metals contact each other or through a conductive me~ dium. This action may cteate sufficient voltage to cause premature Firing of an tlecttic blasting circuit, paticulaly inthe presence of salt water. Konya & Wal ter, 1990 galvanometer or blasters’ galvanometer, see "blasting galvanometer’. angue, the mineral material in an ore, forming part of a vein or lode, that is not Commercially useful. Gangue minerals are discarded as tailings 28 soon as they tan be separated from the useful or valuable minerals, during the concentration process, Gregory, 1983, gap, the gap is the greatest distance at which, under certain given conditions, a Priming cartidge (donor) is capable of initiating 2 receiving cartridge (receptor) gap sensitivity, see “gap test ap test, atest to determine the greatest distance at which, under certain given con. ditions, a priming cartridge (donor) is capable of initiating a receiving canidge (receptor) The same type of explosive is usually used as donor and receptor. The gap distance will be affected by any change in strength which may occur in the explosive, The test gives information about the sensitivity of explosives to mois- ture, temperature, efe. The gap test can be cartied out with the cartridges uncon- fined in air or confined in water, in blastholes or in iron tubes. The gap may be Filled with air or solid material. See also "gap" Gasbag, a trademazk fora nylon bag with an inner bag encasing an aerosol, e.g. pro- ‘pane or butane. The Gasbag is used for implementing airgaps in charge columns It is for example used in airdeck blasting. Once inflated each bag is capable of ‘withstanding pressures upto 10 MPa, gas detonation system, a non-electric initiation of detonators by means of a plastic tube containing an explosive gas. {gas release pulse (GRP), (,,) (Pa or 4B), ir blast overpressure produced feom gas escaping from the detonating explosive through rock fractures, see aso “air blast. ‘Atlas Powder, 1987 gas venting, the uncontrolled escape of the confined borehole gases to a free face (chrough fissures, cracks of weak rock horizons). ceducing the heave action of the charge, before adequate breakage and displacement can oecur. gathering arm loader, a machine for ioading loose rock or coal. It consists of Itactor mounted chassis carrying a chain conveyor. the frontend of which is built into a wedge-shaped blade. Mounted on this blade are two arms, one on either ‘side of the chain conveyor, which gather the material from the muckpile and feed into the loader conveyor. The tal or back end of the conveyor is designed to ‘swivel and elevate hydraulically so that coal or stones can be loaded into a ear or conto another conveyor. Nelson, 1965. BL5), a series of standard sizes of wires such as the American Wire Gauge (AWG), used 10 specify the diameter of a wire gelatin, se “gelatin explosive" gelatin dynamite, a dynamite prodvced by geatnizing nitroglycerin wit colldivm cotton before sding an absorbent. Bennett, 1962 gelatin explosive, an explosive or blasting agent that has 2 gelatinous consistency ‘The term is usually applied o 8 gelatin dynamite but may also be used in combi- nation with a water gel. generator blasting machine, a blasting machine operated by vigorously pushing down a rack bar or twisting a handle. Now largely replaced by condenser dis charge blasting machines. USBM, 1983, German evt, see ‘pyramid cut. eomechanies, the mechanical responses of all geological materials. including soils ‘Brady etal. 1993, igeomechanies {in mining). the subject describing the occurence, conditions and ‘progress of the mechanical processes inside a geoinateral (soil intact or broken tock) caused by mining activity. geometric damping (spreading), se ‘atenvation’. eophone, a detector placed on the ground or mounted rigidly onto a rock surface or building (foundation) to measure the particle velocity of the structure. The meas tucing principle most commonly used for measuring blast vibrations is based on electromagnetism such as created when @ magnet is moving in a metallic coil and thereby inducing a currendvoltage in the coil proportional to the particle velocity Geophones are designed to measure vibrations within certain fequency ranges sass micro-ballons, se “micro-ballons grade (mineral content), in mining this term refers to the elative content of valu- ableleash ingredients contained in a material and is ated as high, low. et. rade, the elevation ofa road, railway, foundation and s0 on in excavations. When given a value such as percent or degrees, the grade is the amount of fall or incli- hation as compared with a unit horizontal distance for a ditch, road, etc. “To rade’ means t level ground iregulavities to a prescribed level. Konya & Walter, 1990, grade level, the floor level inthe open pit rain boundary crack, a microcrack slong a grain boundary. See also ‘microcrack’. {rain, old measure for mass based on the mass of one gran (seed) 7000 gains are ‘equal to 0.454 kg or | Ib. “Grains per meter is stil used to quantity the charge concentration of detonating cord (grainsim). The eecomumended uni day is p/m, grain size distribution, distebution ofthe sizeof grains of minerals in rocks ‘gravitational acceleration (@), (mis), the acceleration caused by the mass of the earth, agrey level in image analysis, aterm used to characterize the vel or degree of dark- ness or brightness of pixel srizzly blasting, basting of feagments which cannot pass the grizzly gross vehicle mass, (GVM), (kg), the total mass of the vehicle inclusive fuel and ‘maximum permitted load. The term gross vehicle weight should not be used gross vehicle weight (GVW), (kg), ee ‘gross vehicle mass" 32 gunpowder: ground fault, electric contact between a part of the blasting circuit and the ground (can) ‘ground release pulse (GRP), (p,,), (Pa or B), sir biast overpressure produced from gas escaping from the detonating explosive though rock fractures. See also “air blast. Atlas Powder, 1987, ‘ground vibration (mm/s), vibration of the ground induced by elastic waves ema- nating from a blast or pile driving, ete; characterized by vibration particle veloc- iy, and usually measured in millimetres per second (rirvs) regarding damages 10 rock and buildings. When measuring damage to electronic equipment such as ‘computers vibration acceleration forms the basis of assessment and validation due to blasting, ‘ground vibration transmission calibration, determination of the ground vibration transmission characterises of a region. Konya & Walter, 1990, ‘guar gum, is made from cnished guar seeds and is used to thicken slurry and water gel products. ‘guhr, or silica gui isa diatomaceous earth, See "diatomaceous earth’. Buhr dynamite se “dynamite. gunpowder, see ‘black powder’. 8H hhackle marks, in feactography, topographic feature used to denate conjugate crack surface markings formed by normal andlor shear forces, They are characterized by a plumose pattern diverging {tom the point of origin of fracturing inthe direction of propagation, Carrasco & Saperstein, 1977 half east factor (HCH) (half haze’ or half pipe) (%), the percentage of the visible Jength of identifiable blastholes "bares" or “half cass’ over the fotal numbers of| meters of perimeter holes drilled. half-second detonator oF timing (HS), initiation using delay detonators with a nominal hal. second delay between sequenced numbers. hammer, see ‘hammer drill” hhammer drill, drill machine where the energy is transmitted fom the hammer vig drill rods to the dil bit ata cerain frequency. The driving mechanism may be of peumatic or hydraulic ype. hammer drilling, the action of a hammer dill machine. hhangfire or misfire, failure of a charge 0 explode atthe time expected, After the un: successful initiation, a time period must elapse before the blasting area may safely be revisited, and precautions to deal with the misfire must be taken immediatly. Mistires are always dangerous. hanging wal, the wall or rock on the upperside of an inclined vein. In bedded de- ‘posits it is called the roof. Atlas Powder, 1987, hardness or abrasive hardness (4), resistance of » material to indentation or ‘seratching, Hardness is a concept of material behaviour rather than a fundamental material property. As such the quantitative measure of hardness depends on the type of test employed. hardness test, 2 test method for the resistance of a material to indentation oF scratching, The hardness of rock is dependent on the type and quantity of the various mineral constituents of the rock and the bond strength tha exists between the mineral grains. Taree types of tests have been developed to measure the hard ness of rocks and minerals: 1) Jadenzaion tests (for example the National Cos Board has developed a cone indenter hardness index. Whittaker etal, 1992.), 2) Dynamic or rebound tests, the Shore scleoscope or Schmidt impact hammer test (see also ‘point load strength’), 3) Scratch tests (Talmage and Bierbaum devices) See, ‘Suggested Methods for Determining Hardness and Abrasiveness of Rocks" ISRM, 1978, hardpan, boulder, clay. or layers of gravel found usually @ few feet below the sur- fare and so cemented together that it must be blasted or ripped ia order to exea hnavlage, che drawing or conveying in cars or otherwise, oF movement of men, sup plies, ore and waste both underground and on the surface. Lewis & Clark, 1964. heading, a horizontal level, airway, or other excavation driven in an underground 84 heat of formation heading and bench, a method of tunneling in hardrock. The heading is in the upper Pat ofthe section and is driven only around or two in advance ofthe ower pat br bench. Fraenkel, 1954 heading blasting, see ‘coyote Blasting’. AS 2187.1, 1996 healed joint a joinc which has been "welded" together 6y a filling material such as ‘quar, calcte,eidote, ee healed mierocrack, a microerack which has healed in geological vies by contactor deposition of filer materia heat (Q), Dis defined by |= 1 Nm. Heat and work have the same nit and the difference between them is only the sate of energy. Heat could be vansfemed (9 mechanical energy (work) and vice verse. Energy in Wanst due to decrease in temperature between the source Fom which the energy is coming and the sink es ward which the energy is going. Besanjon, 1985). beat and fritin testa test to examine the sensitivity of an explosive to heat and {rition, Heat can affect every explosive and cause thermal decomposition whieh tay lead to detonation, At room temperature, water based explosives do not burn Stable under almosphesic pressure and therefore the ests must provide some de pee of confinement to allow for pressure built up. Examples of heat and impact tess are Koenen test Princess incendiary spark test extemal ire tx for UN Haz rds Division 15, dflgratio to detonation transition test, and Woods test. Pes on eta, 19%, heat of combustion (2), (MUNKe), represents the ealoric equivalent of the tou combustion enecay ofthe given substance. It is determined ina ealorinerc bomb lnder excess oxygen peste. The heat of combustion is usually employed to find the heat of formation. The heat of combustion depends only onthe composition of the matenal and not on any other factor such a8 Toading density or other factors Meyer, 197 ‘heat of detonation (Qs (Ig), se eat of explosion’ heat of explosion (@,), (Meg), the heat liberated ger unit of mass of explosive during the chemical eaction or decompesiion ofan explosive material. including explosive mixtures, gunpowder, or propellant, ete. The magnitude depends onthe themodyeamie sate of the decomportion products, Q, can experimentally be determined by specific laboratory tests and can theoretically be predicted if the chemical produts formed during the explosion process ae Keown. Following the calculations recommended by different sources. varying results ae obtained “Thecefore figures fom different sources cannot be compared reliably. The Q, of ANFO (66 fuel oil) at a density of $00 ky? should be estimated 1 be about 33, Mifkg. Some sources estimate “useful energy” by assuming an arbitary volume of pressure (100 MPa) below which the expansion of the gases fails to do exra ‘work. This has the effec of increasing the elative strength of high density explo Sives. The explosive energy can he divided ino 6 different pats (eas see Figure v9 heat of formation or heat of reaction (2), (MUIKg), the quantity of heat consumed 0 liberated ina chemical reaction, as hea of eombustion, heat of neuteabzation or heat of formation. Hackh, 1944. Foran explosive te difference inineral energy between the explosion state and standard temperature and pressure (STP). The en ergy which is bound during the formation ofa given compound fom its consti 8sheat of reaction | Zone Enerey Traian enegy sweet wih i the detonation wave ” 2 Potential shock energy : 3 Straineneayaound the breole Behind ethan wave 263 Bans ercey™ 42° Fragmentation pd heave energy 43 Stameneey in buden a ecape 5) tonereay v 2Beseaes abroue mass suengh ss Figure 19. Pressure-volame diagram (p-V dagran) for 3 blasthole illsirating how the explosive ‘nergy canbe divided int tferet areas after Lownds 1986) ent elements at constant volume (energy of formation) or at constant pressure (enthalpy of formation, which includes the mechanical work performed atthe sta ble state, 25 °C and 0,1 MPa). The knowledge of the energies of formation of the presumed reaction products makes it possible to calculate the hea of explosion. heat of reaction, see ‘heat of formation hheat sensitivity test, a method to test the heat sensitivity of an explosive. These are several tests developed, see “Koenen test’ and "Woods ies. heat to detonation transition (HDT), a thermal quantity needed to start a detona: tion by heating the explosive rapidly. hheave, the extent to which the broken mass of rock is moved and displaced from its ‘original location. AS 2187.1, 1996. heave or bubble energy (HE), the energy provided by the gas needed to lift and throw a mass of rock in blasting heavy ANFO, an emulsion explosive which contains more than SO mass-% of ‘ANEO. heave damage zone, see “blast induced damage zone’ height (F), (m), the perpendicular distance between horizontal lines or planes pass ing through the top and bottom of an object. Lapedes, 1978. height of arch (Ff), (m), the vertical distance from the bottom ofthe arch tothe top ofthe arch ina tunnel or dif height of abutment (H,,),(m), the height ftom where the vertical wall ends in a drift, tunnel, incline, decline, room or tope and the curved roof stars to the high- est point ofthe roof height of bench (1), (em), the vertical distance between the loer- and top level of a bench, height of tunnel, drive, crosscut, adit, Incline or decline (1) (m), the maximum vertical distance of the cross-section of an excavation opening. helper holes, the blastholes next tothe contour holes ina round. 86 high velocity detonation Hercudet, a trademark for a non-lectic initiation system. A special blasting ma- ‘chine is connected to the detonators By thn plastc tube which closes te cise. ‘The blasting machine injects a gaseous mixture of two components, oxygen plus 2 fuel gas, into the circuit, and the explosion stats when the whole line is filed with the mixture. The detonation is propagated at a speed of 2400 ss, initiating the detonators along its way, but not the explosive in contact with the tubes, which ‘means that bottom priming is also feasible. Hertz (), (Hz), @ unit used to quantify te frequency of vibrations in eycles per sec ‘ond, In blasting used in connection with ground vibrations and air blasts. Hess eylinder compression test, a test methed for explosive which defines the “breaking power’ of the explosive which is related to the fragmentation capacity of the rock. A cylindrical lead block (length 65 mm and diameter 40. mm) is placed with the end surface ona steel plate with a thickness of minimum 8 mm. A Eireular steel plate of 4 mm thickness is placed on the top ofthe lead cylinder and fn that plate # 100g ofthe explosive with acylindrical shape and diameter 40 mm is placed and detonated by a blasting cap. The deformation ofthe lead cylinder is measured, Jimeno etal, 1995. heterogeneous, micro structural propery of materials showing different groperties (mechanical, optical, electrical, et.) at different points in the material. Eg coarse-grained granite, breccia ete. hexogen (RDX), of eyclotrimethylenetcnitramine CyH,NjOg. It consists of colour Tess crystals with a heat of explosion of 6025 ki/kg, a density of 1800 kg/m, 3 melting point of +204 °C and a detonation velocity of 8750 mis. An explosive substance used inthe manufacture of compositions B, C-3, and C-4. Composition Bis useful asa cast primer. high energy electric detonator, an electic detonator equipped with a fuse head "which requires a higher curent than normal for initiation. The initiation eneegy is rormally quantified by the impulse, nJ/. Standard detonators which require 05 ‘A.of current fire at about $ mJ/O. The most resistant detonators, tp 3, require ‘about 1500 mJ/O, and 5 amps of minimum current. high (energy) explosive (HEX), an explosive with a very high rate of reaction and [pessure which creates a shock wave to propagate through the explosive column at {high velocity called the detonation Velocity. High explosives require the use of a detonator for initiation. Upon detonation a shock propagates through the columa fof the explosive. Examples of high explosives are Nitroglycerin, TINT, slurs, and PETN, Permiteds (or permitted explosives) aze a special type of high explo- sives for use in gasy or dusty coal mines. High explosives detonate as compared to low explosives which deflagrate and high explosives possess much greater con- cenirated strength than low explosives such as black powder. igh strength explosive see “high energy) explosive” high temperature blasting, blasting which is caried out in material ata temperature “greater than 100 °C. AS 2187.1, 1996 high velocity detonation (HVD) explosives, a class of explosives characte‘ized by a high velocity of detonation, e.g, military explosives. There is a graded transition from high to low velocity of detonation. Examples of explosives with high deto- nation velocities are military explosives. There is, however, no sharp limit ber tween high and low velocity of detonation. 3highveall highwall (bench, bluf or ledge), a nearly vertical face atthe edge of a bench on a surface excavation and most usally used in coal strip mining. hoisting, the vertical or near-verial transport of broken ore up the shaft from an ore pocket to the ore bins on the surface or underground. hole deviation, see ‘diling accuracy’. hhole diameter (2), (mm or m), the mean cross-sectional widéh ofthe borehole. homogeneous, property of a material exhibiting the same properties at all material points. Opposite to heterogeneoss. hhook up, to connect the initiation stating points (tails) of all blastholes for the pur pote of achieving a single source detonation. hoop stress, tangential stess. horizontal bench blasting, bench blasting by using horizontal drill holes instead of vertical or inelined drill holes. horizontal pressure (py) (MPa or Pa), pressure directed pespendicular tothe grav- ity field hot material, any material which atthe time of charging is at a temperature of +70 SC or over. FEM. In Austalia hot material has a temperature of 55° t9 100 °C, AS 2187.1, 1996. hot spot, smal air pocket in the explosive which collapses when the detonation front reaches the pocket. This collapse causes a large temperature and pressure increase inthe explosive, A lage amount of hot spots favours the detonation. hot storage test, a test applied in order to accelerate the decomposition of an explo- sive materia, which is usually very slow at normal temperatures, in order 10 be Able to evaluate the stability and the expected service life ofthe explosive from the identity and the amount of the decomposition products. Various procedures. appli cable at different temperatures, may be employed for this purpose. Meyer, 1977, hour), (h), @ unit of time equal t 3600 s. HS-detonator, see ‘half second detonator HU-detonator, a detonator with very low sensitivity to electric current. Hugoniot curve, a pressure-volume curve which obeys the Hugoaiot equation. 1.C. 8137, 1963, A pressure-densty curve could also be called a Hugoniot curve, Jo hansion & Persson, 1970. Hugoniot elastic limit (HEL), (MPa), pressure above which the material behaves in ‘a plastic rather than elastic manner. Experimental determined values forthe HEL fre of the order of 3000 to 4000 MPa. For granite a HEL-value of 6000 MPa have been found. Johansson & Persson, 1970. Hugoniot equation, a relationship between pressure (p) and density (p) of @ material ‘as determined by the shock wave equation for conservation of energy (W). The ‘equation reads 2s follows: Horvat +) where subseript 1 and 2 denotes the state at time | (before detonation) and time 2 (after detonation). human response to vibrations, the reaction of a person to different vibration levels Konya & Walter, 1990. W.-W = a hyfrocode hydraulics the branch of science and technology concerned sith the mectanies of fluids, especially liquids. Lapedes, 1978. hydraulic conductivity or permeability (c4 (avs). is a measure of the Now of = Tiguid in porous or cracked material, Hydraulic conductivity is the product of the permeability coefficient (2) and the hydraulic gradient (dp) cu thdp (Darcy's aw) where ey is the hydraulic conductivity oF permeability in (evs). kis the perme: Sbulty efficient in (mn) and dp is the hydraulic gradient or pressure fill meas- ted in (Pa). For cock a distintion must be made regarding the conductivity of the tock type (aking into account only pores and microcracks) and the conductivity Stake total rock mass (including faults and joints). The hydraulic condusvity of trystlline rock varies normally, from the surface and down to 150-200 m depth. between 10 and 10°! avs. The effective porosity in intact crystalline rock is very Small, only about 0.01%, and therefore the water low mainly depencs on the faults and joints and not on the pores and microcracks. The corresponding poros- ity for Cambrian sandstone is about 1% and for gravel deposits about 15%. A general ck sinictural scheme for igneous rock has been established with the following typical hydraulic conductivities, see Table (7. Pusch & Borgesson. 1992, ‘The hydraulic conductivity i size dependent with smaller rock volumes yielding smaller values fr the hydraulic conductivity because no large cracks will be included in small samples. “Tale 17. Bulk hydrovlie conduits dependent on the rock mass volume considered and pming between jens and fui, Afr Puen & Boxgesson (1992) Fes Spacing Seoween Bulk hydric conduciviy (m8) evn ard fut m) Range Mean sive Tae ender acon? re ronson whist a ‘mao Weis tt 3a Soin woo? Hop onder ck one ce eeiterion eden % 2 jones wwe 3a 08b7 ‘Hpac incite everest ee car tecioa p ia som rows 1 hydraulic impulse fracturing, ee “directed hydraulic impulse facturing’ hydroeode, class of computer codes used to model the deformation and flow of sol- fds and Muids, The dynamic behaviour of 2 continuous medium is governed by conservation laws (specifically conservation of mass, momentum. angular mo- mentum and energy) and by constitutive equations which give relatirs beeween the state variables which characterize the medium. Hydrocodes as ame contain Several fuid-telated equations of state and elastic-plastic material models, and are esigned in such 8 way that new constitutive equations can be added relatively 89hydrodynamics easily, The term also denotes computer codes which use elemental connections ‘between particles to wace the development of stresses and reactions in a body or uid following initial smal, hydrodynamics, the study of motion of a fluid and of the interactions of the Mid with its boundaries, especialy in the incompressible inviscid case. Lapedes, 1978 hydrodynamic fluid, a class of materials which behave similarly t0 an ideat incom. pressible fluid with file or no viscosity influences. hydrodynamic theory, the theory of dynamics of materials subjected to large pres: ‘sures and temperatures, see also ‘hydrocode". Rock materials can turn into a hy’ rodynamic stat at pressures on the order of 10,000 MPa Ideal detonation velocity or velocity of detonation (cy), (ms), see “ideal velocity ‘of detonation’. ideal explosive, 2 explosive where the chemical reaction is completed atthe end of the Chapman-Jouget zone, and which tends to detonate near its maximum detons- tion velocity eegardless of confinement and charge diameter. Miltary explosives are often ideal explosives compared with commercial explosives which ae aon ideal ideal velocity of detonation (c,), (mis), the velcity a which the detonation frat in ‘thigh explosive will pcogressively advance under ideal physical conditions such as lage explosive diameter and large confinement. It is the detonation velocity Calculated by means ofa “good” ideal detonation code, which should tally with the measured detonation velocity for a large diameter well-confined explosive. For 'ANFO of density 800 kg/m. and with a 6% diesel fuel content for example, the ideal detonation velocity is about 4800 mvs (IDEX code). Actual measurements, based on energy celease behind the Chapman-Jouget zone may be les than this. ignitacord, see ‘igniter cord" igniter cord, a small-diameter pyrotechnic cord which burns with an extemal flame at the zone of burning and at uniform rate, and is used to ignite a series of safety fuses. Depending on the manufacturer, the fas igniter cord burns at 0,1667-1,0, ras (110 6 slim), whereas slow cord burns at 0,022 00,0333 mis (30 6 45 s/n). Slow cord is usually more water-resistant than fast cord. Al kinds of cords are susceptible to ignition by accidental blows from rock, steel, et igniter cord connector, a slotted and recessed metal tube containing a pyrotechnic ‘material which is used to connect igniter cord to safety fuse. AS 2187.1, 1996 igniter fuse, see “igniter cord’. AS 2187.1, 1996. Ignition, the act of igniting, or the state of being ignited. The term is specifically used in mechanies forthe at of exploding the charge of gases in the cylinder of an i temal-combustion engine. The firing of an explosive mixture of gases, vapours, or other substances by means of an electric spark igniting pill, see “fuse head ignition, the process of starting a thermal reaction in an explosive material or fuel ignition cable, see “shot firing cable” IME fume classification, a classification of fumes based on the amount of poison: us of toxie gases produced by an explosive or blasting agent. The IME fume classification is expressed by Table 18. IME, 1981 Table 18. Clasietion of foes om explosives. Aer IME, 1981 ses pet (2 203 re) cards of explosive ie) Poon

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