Lecture 3

Safety Practices in Chemical and

Nuclear Industries
Toxic Substance and Confined Spaces

Dr. Raghuram Chetty

Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Chennai- 600 036.

Contents

Toxic substances Definition

Entry Points for Toxic Agents

Effects of Toxic Substance

Relationship of Doses and Responses

Threshold Limiting Values

Exposure Thresholds
Airborne Contaminants

Confined Spaces Hazards

Prevention and Control

Toxicology

Because of the quantity and variety of chemicals used by

the chemical process industries, we must have knowledge
on

The way toxicants enter biological organism

The way toxicants are eliminated from biological

organisms

The effects of toxicants on biological organisms

Method to prevent or reduce entry of toxicants

Toxicology

Long ago, toxicology was defined as the science of

poisons. Paracelsus, an early investigator of toxicology
during 1500s stated the problem: All substances are
poisons; there is none which is not a poison. The right
dose differentiates a poison and a remedy. Harmless
substance, such as water, can become fatal if delivered to
the biological organisms in large enough doses.

A fundamental principle of toxicology is

There are no harmless substances, only harmless
ways of using substances.

Toxicology

Toxicology can be defined as the qualitative and

quantitative study of the adverse effects of toxicants on
biological organisms. A toxicant can be a chemical or
physical agents, including dusts, fibres, noise and
radiation.

The toxicity of a chemical or physical agent is a

property of the agent describing its effect on biological
organisms. Toxic hazard is the likelihood of damage to
biological organisms based on exposure of usage.

The toxic hazard of a substances can be reduced by

appropriate industrial techniques. The toxicity,
however, cannot be changed.

Toxic Substance

A toxic substance is one that has a negative effect on

the health of a person or animal.

Toxic effects are a function of several factors, including:

Properties of the substances

Amount of the dose

Level of exposure

Route of entry

Resistance of the individual to the substance

Response can vary widely and might be as little as a

cough or mild respiratory irritation or as serious as
unconsciousness and death.

Entry Points for Toxic Agents

The development of preventive measures to protect

against the hazards associated with industrial hygiene
requires first knowing how toxic agents enter the body.

The most common routes of entry for toxic agents are:

Inhalation

Adsorption

Entry organ: Skin

Ingestion

Entry organ: Mouth or nose

Entry organ: Mouth or stomach (not a major industrial concern)

Injection

Entry organ: Cuts in skin

Inhalation

Airborne toxic substances such as

gases, vapors, dust, smoke fume,
aerosols, and mists can be inhaled
and pass through the nose, throat,
bronchial tubes, and lungs to enter
the bloodstream.

The amount of a toxic substance

that can be inhaled depends on the

Concentration of the substances

Duration of the exposure

Breathing volume.
Image courtesy: Google Images

Adsorption

Passage through
bloodstream

the

skin

Organic lead compounds, nitro compounds,

organic phosphate pesticides, TNT, cyanides,
aromatic amines, amides, and phenols.

With many substances, the rate of absorption

and in turn, the hazard levels increase in a warm
environment.

Factors affecting absorption rate

Molecular size

Degree of ionization

Lipid solubility

Aqueous solubility

and

into

the

Image courtesy: Google Images

Entry Routes & Method for Control

Entry Route
Ingestion

Inhalation

Injection
Absorption
(dermal)

Entry Organ

Method of Control

Enforcement of
Mouth
rules on eating and
drinking
Ventilation,
Mouth or nose respirators, hoods,
and other PPE
Cuts in skin
Skin

Proper protective
clothing
Proper protective
clothing

Effects of Toxic Substance

The effects of toxic substance vary widely, as do the

substances themselves. However, all of the various
effects and exposure times can be categorised as being
either acute or chronic.

Acute effects/exposure involves a sudden dose of a

highly concentrated substance. They are usually the
result of an accident (a spill or damage to a pipe line) that
results in an immediate health problem ranging from
irritation to death.

Effects of Toxic Substance

Acute effect/exposure are

Sudden

Severe

Typically involve just one incident

Causes immediate health problems

Effects of Toxic Substance

Chronic effects/exposures involve limited continual

exposure over time. Consequently, the associated
health problems develop slowly.

The characteristics of chronic effects/exposure are:

Continual exposure over time

Limited concentrations of toxic substances

Progressive accumulation of toxic substance in

body

Little of no awareness of exposures.

Effects of Toxic Substance

When a toxic substance enters the body, It eventually

affects one or more body organs. Part of the livers
function is to collect such substances, convert them to
non-toxics and send them to the kidneys for elimination
in the urine

Effects of Toxic Substance

Chronic effects/exposures

However when the dose is more than the liver can

handle, toxics move on to the organs, producing a
variety of different effects.

The organs that are effected by toxic substances are

the blood, kidneys, heart, brain, central nervous
system, skin, liver, lungs and eyes.

Various responses to Toxicants

Effects that are irreversible

Carcinogen causes cancer

Mutagen causes chromosome damage

Reproductive hazard causes damage to

reproductive system

Teratogen causes birth defects

Various responses to Toxicants

Effects that may or may not be reversible

Dermatotoxic affects skin

Hemotoxic affects blood

Hepatotoxic affects liver

Nephrotoxic affects kidney

Neurotoxic affects nervous system

Pulmonotoxic affect lungs

Carcinogens

A carcinogens is any substance, that can cause a

malignant tumour or a neoplastic growth.

Medical researchers are not sure exactly how certain

chemicals cause cancer. However, there are a number
of toxic substances that are either known or, are
strongly suspected to be carcinogens.

Examples: coal tar, pitch, anthracene oil, soot, lamp

black, lignite, asphalt, bitumen waxes, paraffin oils,
arsenic, chromium, nickel compounds, berylium,
cobalt, benzene, and various paints, dyes, pesticides
and enamels.

Asbestos Hazards

More than 70% of the commercial buildings in use

today contain asbestos in some form -because of its
useful characteristics such as fire resistance, heat
resistance, mechanical strength and flexibility.

In mid-1970s medical research tied asbestos to

respiratory cancer, scarring of lungs, etc and it was
finally banned by EPA in 1989.

Asbestos Hazards

When asbestos becomes crumbly, it releases fibers into

the air that are dangerous when inhaled. Asbestos can
be released into the air if it is disturbed during
renovation or as a result of vandalism.

Permissible exposure limit (PEL) is 0.2 fibers per cm3 of

air for an 8 hour time weighted average.

Toxic substances & the organs they endanger

Blood

Kidneys

Heart

Brain

Benzene
Carbon monoxide
Arsenic
Aniline
Toluene

Mercury
Chloroform

Aniline

Lead
Mercury
Benzene
Manganese
Acetaldehyde

Eyes

Skin

Lungs

Liver

Cresol
Acrolein
Benzyl chloride
Butyl alcohol

Nickel
Phenol
Trichloroethylene

Asbestos
Chromium
Hydrogen sulfide
Mica
Nitrogen dioxide

Chloroform
Carbontetrachloride
Toluene

Some of the widely used toxic substances and the

organs they endanger

How toxicants are eliminated?

Toxicants are eliminated or rendered inactive by the

following routes:

Excretion: through the kidney, liver, lungs or other

organs.

Detoxification: by changing the chemical

something less harmful by biotransformation.

Storage: in the fatty tissue.

into

How toxicants are eliminated?

Toxicants that are ingested into the digestive tract are

frequently excreted by the liver. In general, chemical
compounds with molecular weights >300 are excreted
by the liver into bile. Compounds with lower molecular
weights enter the bloodstream and are excreted by the
kidneys.

Animal Testing

How is toxicity tested?

Most toxicological data is collected using small rodents

e.g. rats, mice, Guinea pigs, as surrogates for human
beings.

There are numerous advantages to using such animals.

They are small and relatively easy to maintain in good
health in the laboratory. With a life expectancy of
typically 2 years, one can see the effect of a lifetime of
exposure in a relatively short time.

Designing toxicological experiments

Manner of dosing

There are several pathways for dosing. Most

commonly, the test substance is added to the
food or water, placed directly into the stomach by
gavage, injected into a vein, coated onto the skin,
or added to the atmosphere the animal breathes.

The final toxicity values obtained usually differ

according to the path of entry into the body.

Designing toxicological experiments

Manner of dosing

The chosen path reflects the following concerns.

What will be the manner of exposure of workers in the

plant? It should be replicated as nearly as possible in
the testing. For e.g. a solvent to be used for degreasing
parts may make contact with the skin of the worker or
its vapors may be inhaled, but it is highly unlikely that
the worker would ever swallow any. Testing should
concentrate on exposure to the skin and lungs.

The actual design of the experiment depends on

how the dose is to be administered and what
responses are to be studied.

Designing toxicological experiments

Manner of dosing

Length of testing time

When the dosing is for a limited time - acute

The animals lifetime study - chronic

Variability among animals

The toxicity of a compound is not a constant term

for all animals. Differences are sometimes
displayed between animals of even very closely
related species.

Relationship of doses and responses

Safety and health professionals are

interested in predictability, when it
comes to toxic substances.

How much of a given substance is

too much?

What effect will a given does of a

given substance produce?

Relationship of doses and responses

These types of question concern

dose-response relationships.

A dose of a toxic substance can be

expressed in a number of different
ways
depending
on
the
characteristics of the substance, e.g.

amount per unit of body weight

amount per body surface area

Extrapolating Animal Data to Humans

In spite of all the advantages, using mice or rats to

predict toxicity to human involves many risks.

The difference in size between human and small

rodents is a major problem. The observation that 1 mg
of a compound makes a white rat ill dose not mean that
the same amount of would make a human ill.

Extrapolating Animal Data to Humans

Most commonly doses are listed in milligrams of

compound given the animal per kilogram of animal
body weight. Thus the dose of 1mg per 250-g rat is a
dose rate of 4mg/kg.

One assumes that the same dose rate should affect the
human, and that 280 mg would have roughly the same
effect on a 70-kg human. Because of difference
between rats and humans this is almost certainly not
exactly true, but it does provide a useful first
approximation of toxicity to humans.

Example

25 mg of a narcotic substance under study causes a

200 g rat to sleep for 1 hour. What is this dose rate in
mg/kg?

25 mg 1000 g 125 mg
x
=
200 g
1 kg
1 kg

Example

As a first approximation, what dose would be needed to

produce the same effect on an 80-kg human?
1g

125 mg
x 80 kg = 10,000 mg x
1 kg

= 10.0 g
1000 mg

Example

What dose would be predicted to put a 32 kg dog to

sleep?

1g
125 mg
x 32 kg = 4,000 mg x
= 4.0 g
1000 mg
1 kg

Doses

Three important concepts to understand relating to

doses are:

Dose Threshold

Lethal Dose

Lethal Concentration

Dose Threshold

The minimum dose required to produce a measurable

effect.

Of course, the threshold is different for different substances.

In animal tests, thresholds are established using methods

such as:

Observing pathological changes in body tissues

Observing growth rates (are they normal or retard)

Measuring the level of food intake (has there been a

loss of appetite)

Weighing organs to establish body weight to organ

weight ratios

Lethal Dose

Lethal dose of a given substance is the dose that is highly

likely to cause death. Such doses are established through
experiments on animals

When lethal doses of a given substance are established, they

are typically accompanied by information that is of value to
medical professionals and industrial hygienists.

Such information includes:

the type of animal used in establishing the lethal dose

how was the dose administered

the duration of the dose.

Lethal doses do not apply to inhaled substances.

Lethal Dose

That all animals, no matter how carefully

selected, do not respond identically to a
given dosage now becomes a problem
in communications of the findings.

Do we select the lowest dose that

caused a susceptible animal to die, the
highest necessary to kill the most
resistant animal, or an average dose?

To resolve this, the fist step is to prepare

a dose-response curve from the data.

Percentage mortality is plotted against

Log dose in mg/kg. This is also called as
Probit Analysis (Probit = Probability
unit).

Lethal Dose

At the centre of this curve is found the dose that is estimated to be

fatal to half the recipient animals. This dose, the acute LD50 is
predicted to be lethal to 50% of the animals, and is the most
common value used to describe the relative toxicity of a compound.

Once the curve is established it is possible to describe other

measures of toxicity such as LD5 (dose lethal to 5% of animal
sample) or LD95.

Toxicity class and LD50 values

Toxicity
Rating

1
2
3
4
5
6

Descriptive
Term

Extremely toxic
Highly toxic
Moderately toxic
Slightly toxic
Practically nontoxic
Relatively harmless
Compounds

Glycerol
Ethanol
Ethylene glycol
Acrylic acid
Hydroquinone
Acrylamide
Acrylonitrile
Nicotine
Dioxin

(single oral
dose in Rats)

4-hr inhalation
LC50 in Rats
(ppm)

Extrapolated Dose
(g) for 70-kg
Human

<1 mg
1-50 mg
50-500 mg
0.5-5 g
5-15 g
>15g

<10
10-100
100-1,000
1,000- 10,000
10,000-100,000
>100,000

<0.07
0.07-3.5
3.5-35
35-350
350-1000
>1,000

LD50 wt/kg

LD50
(mg/kg, rats, oral)
25,200
10,300
8,500
2,600
320
170
93
1
0.001

Dose-response curve for ethyl

alcohol

Lethal Concentration

A lethal concentration of an inhaled substance is the

concentration that is highly likely to result in death.

With inhaled substances, the duration of exposure is critical

because the amount inhaled increases with every unprotected
breath.

In this case, the dose taken by the animal dose not have to be
adjusted to the size of the animal (e.g. when intake is through
lungs), the standards are based on the concentrations of the
substance in the environment of the animal. The toxicity is
expressed as the LC50, or concentration lethal to 50% of the
test group.

The units in this case are usually either parts per million (ppm)
or mg/m of air.

Threshold Limiting Value

The Threshold Limit Values (TLV) for chemical substances is

defined as a concentration in air, typically for inhalation or skin
exposure.

TLV refer to airborne concentrations of substances and

represent conditions under which it is believed that nearly all
workers may be repeatedly exposed day after day without
adverse health effect.

Its units are in parts per million parts of air (ppm) for gases and
mg/m for particulates such as dust, smoke and mist.

Threshold limits are based on the best available information

from industrial experience, form experimental human and
animal studies, and when possible from a combination of the
three.

Threshold Limiting Value

Substance

TLV (ppm)

TLV (mg/m3)

Acetic Acid

10

25

Acetone

750

1188

Ammonia

25

17

Benzene

1.6

Carbon Dioxide

5000

9000

Chloroform

10

49

Ethyl Alcohol

1000

1880

Formic Acid

9.4

Nitric Acid

5.2

Toluene

50

188

TLVs of Some Common Chemicals

Threshold Limiting Value

TLV (also called exposure threshold) is a specified limit on

the concentration of selected chemicals. Exposure to
these chemicals that exceed the threshold may be
hazardous to a workers health.

Three types of TLVs for chemical substances are (1) timeweighted average, (2) short-term exposure limit, and (3)
exposure ceiling.

The Time Weighted Average (TLV-TWA) is the average

concentration of a given substance to which employees
may be safely exposed over an 8 hour work day or a 40
hour work week. Workers can be exposed without adverse
effect.

Threshold Limiting Value

Short-Term Exposure Limit (TLV-STEL) is the maximum

concentration of a given substance to which employees
may be safely exposed for up to 15 minutes without
suffering irritation, chronic tissue change, or narcosis to a
degree sufficient to increase the potential for accidental
injury.

The exposure Ceiling (TLV-C) refers to the concentration

level of a given substance that should not be exceeded at
any point during an exposure period.

TLV-Time Weighted Average

Recommended
maximum
exposures are expressed on
the basis of time-weight
averaged (TLV-TWA).

Calculations of a TLV-TWA
assumes an 8-hr day and 40hr week. The exposure levels
of the compounds are
measured
in
regular
intervals.

TLV-Time Weighted Average

The TWA exposure is

calculated by multiplying the
concentration of compound
in each analysis by the
length of time of exposure to
that
level.
These
are
summed and divided by the
total time to produce an
average exposure level.

Evaluating Exposure to Volatile Toxicants

A direct method for determining worker exposure is by

continuously monitoring the air concentration of toxicants
on-line in a work environment. For continuous
concentration data C(t) the TWA (time-weighted
averaged) concentration is computed using the equation:
1

TWA =
8

tw

C(t) dt
0

where C(t) is the concentration (in ppm or mg/m3) of

the chemical in air
tw is the worker shift time in hours

Evaluating Exposure to Volatile Toxicants

The integral is always divided by 8 hrs, independent of

the length of time actually worked in the shift. Thus, if a
worker is exposed for 12 hrs to a concentration of
chemical equal to the TLV-TWA, then the TLV-TWA has
been exceeded, because the computation is normalised
to 8 hrs.

Continuous monitoring is not the usual situation because

most facilities do not have the necessary equipment
available.

Evaluating Exposure to Volatile Toxicants

The more usual case is for intermittent samples to be

obtained, representing worker exposures at fixed points
in time. If we assume that the concentration Ci is fixed (or
averaged) over the period of time Ti,
the TWA
concentration is computed by
TWA = C1T1 + C2T2 + CnTn / 8 hrs

Evaluating Exposure to Volatile Toxicants

If more than one chemical is present in the workplace,

the combined exposures from multiple toxicants with
different TLV-TWA is determined from the equation
n

i=1

Ci
(TLV-TWA)i

where n is the total number of toxicants

Ci is the concentration of chemical i with respect to
the other toxicants
(TLV-TWA) is the TLV-TWA for chemical species i.

Gas monitors & detectors

Gas Chromatogram

Image courtesy: Google Images

Sample Problem

Given an exposure level of 2 ppm for 10 hr per week, 3

ppm for 20 hr per week and 4 ppm for 10 hr per week,
what is the TWA for this exposure?
Exposure (ppm) Time (hr)

Product (ppm x hr)

10

20

20

60

10

40

40

120

TWA = 120 ppm x hr /40 hr = 3 ppm

Sample Problem
Determine the 8 hrs TWA worker exposure if the worker is
exposed to toluene vapour as follows:
Duration of
exposure (hr)

Measured
concentration
(ppm)

2
1
3

110
330
90

TWA = C1T1 + C2T2 + C3T3 / 8

= 110(2) + 330(1) + 90(3) / 8
= 102.5 ppm

Sample Problem

Because the TLV of toluene is 50 ppm, the worker is

overexposed. So additional control measure needs to be
developed. On a temporary and immediate basis all
employees working in this environment need to wear the
appropriate respirators.

Sample Problem
Air contains 5 ppm of diethylamine (TLV-TWA of 10 ppm), 20
ppm of cyclohexanol (TLV-TWA of 50 ppm) and 10 ppm of
propylene oxide (TLV-TWA of 20 ppm). Has the TLV-TWA level
been exceeded?
n
Ci
=

i=1

(TLV-TWA)i

5/10 + 20/50 + 10/20

1.40

The sum of the fraction for the various components of the mixture are
added, and if the total is more than 1, exposure goes beyond acceptable
limit.
Because the quantity is greater than 1, the TLV-TWA has been
exceeded.

Permitted Exposure Level (PEL)

The difference between TLV and PEL is the agencies

from which they come. TLVs are developed by the
American Conference of Governmental Industrial
Hygienists (ACGIH). PELs are developed by the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
They both serve the same purpose and their values are
very similar or even identical in many cases

The level of the chemical in the workplace should be

monitored, and the level found should be no higher than
the permitted exposure level.

Permitted Exposure Level (PEL)

Simple formulas can be used to calculate compliance and

safety when PELs are known for all components of the
mixture.

A fraction is made of the actual level of a chemical divided

by the PEL, where both values must be in the same units.
The sum of the fraction for the various components of the
mixture are added, and if the total is more than 1,
exposure goes beyond acceptable limit.

Airborne Contaminants

It is important to understand the different types of

airborne contaminants that may be present in the
workplace.

Each type of contaminants has a specific definition that

must be understood in order to develop effective safety
and health measures to protect against it.

Airborne Contaminants

The most common types of airborne contaminates are:

Dusts

Fumes

Smoke

Aerosols

Mists

Gases

Vapours

Airborne Contaminants

Dusts

Dusts are various types of solid particles that are

produced when a given type of organic or inorganic
material is scraped, sawed, ground, drilled, handled,
heated, crushed, or otherwise deformed.

The degree of hazard represented by dust depends

on the toxicity of the parent material and the size and
level of concentration of the particles.

Airborne Contaminants

Fumes

The most common causes of fumes in the workplace

are such manufacturing processes as welding, heat
treating, and metalizing, all of which involve the
interaction of intense heat with a parent material.

The heat volatizes portions of the parent material,

which then condenses as it comes in contact with
cool air. The result of this reaction is the formation of
tiny particles that can be inhaled.

Airborne Contaminants

Smoke

It is the result of the incomplete combustion of

carbonaceous materials. Because combustion is
incomplete, tiny soot and/ or carbon particles remain
and can be inhaled.

Airborne Contaminants

Aerosols

Aerosols are liquid or solid particles that are so small

they can remain suspended in air long enough to be
transported over a distance. They can be inhaled.

Mists

Mists are tiny liquid droplets suspended in air. Mists

are formed in two ways:

when vapours return to a liquid state through

condensation,

when the application of sudden force or pressure

turns a liquid into particles.

Airborne Contaminants

Gases

Unlike other airborne contaminants that take the form

of either tiny particles or droplets, gases are formless.

Gasses are actually formless fluids. Gases become

particularly hazardous when they fill a confined
unventilated space.

The most common sources of gases in an industrial

setting are from welding and the exhaust from internal
combustion engines.

Airborne Contaminants

Vapours

Certain materials that are solid or liquid at room

temperature and at normal pressure turn to vapour
when heated or exposed to abnormal pressure.
Evaporation is the most common process by which a
liquid is transformed into a vapour.

Effects of airborne toxics

Airborne toxic substances are also classified according to the

type of effect they have on the body. The primary
classifications are:

Irritants

Asphyxiant

Narcotics/Anesthetic

For reporting the toxicity of airborne toxicants, no adjustment

is necessary for the ratio of animal to human size. One
assumes that the rat and human each breath an amount of air
that is in proportion to the size. The dose is therefore listed in
terms of the concentration in the air, with no reference to
animal size.

Effects of airborne toxics

Irritants

Irritants are substances that cause irritation to the

skin, eye and the inner lining of the nose, mouth,
throat and upper respiratory tract.

Asphyxiants

Asphyxiants are substances that can disrupt breathing

so severely that suffocation results.

Asphyxiants may be simple or chemical in nature.

Effects of airborne toxics

Simple asphyxiant

is an inert gas that dilutes oxygen in the air to the point

that the body cannot take in enough air to satisfy its
need for oxygen.

CO2, ethane, helium, hydrogen, methane and nitrogen.

Chemical asphyxiant

by chemical interfere with the passage of oxygen into

the blood or the movement of oxygen from lungs to
body tissues.

CO, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulfide.

Either way, the end result is suffocation due to insufficient

or no oxygenation.

Effects of airborne toxics

Narcotics/Anesthetic

Are similar in the meaning carefully controlled dosages

can inhibit the normal operation of the central nervous
system without causing serious or irreversible effects.

This make them particularly valuable in a medical setting.

However if the concentration of the dose is too high,

narcotics and anesthetics can cause unconsciousness
and even death.

Examples: methyl-ethyl-ketone, acetylene, ether,

hydrocarbons and chloroform.

Confined Space Hazards

Confined space means a space that has any of the

following characteristics:

limited openings for entry and exit;

unfavorable natural ventilation;

not designed for continuous worker occupancy.

It includes, but is not limited to, boilers, manholes,

furnace, pressure vessels, cargo tanks, ballast tanks,
sewage-tanks, bins, pits, tunnels, pipes, pump-rooms,
compressor rooms, cofferdams, void spaces, duct
keels, inter-barrier spaces and engine crankcases.

Confined space e.g. cargo tanks

Image courtesy: Google Images

Confined Space

Image courtesy: Google Images

Confined Spaces Hazards

Atmospheric hazards

Oxygen Deficiency

Oxygen Enriched

Flammable atmosphere

Toxic or Irritating Atmosphere

Confined Spaces Hazards

Physical hazards

Fixed & portable mechanical equipment

Electrically energized conductors

Fluids: Liquids, powders & gases

Thermal Condition : Hot or Cold

Engulfment by finely divided material

Ionizing and non-ionizing radiation

Contact with corrosive substances

Confined Spaces Hazards

To evaluate the confined spaces, the following limit values

should be used.

Testing for oxygen

Any atmosphere with less than 20.8% ( 0.2%) oxygen

by volume should not be entered. Oxygen
measurements should be carried out immediately
before entry into the confined space.

Testing for flammable atmosphere

A space with an atmosphere with more than 5% of the

Lower Flammable Limit (LFL) or Lower Explosive
Limit (LEL), on a combustible gas indicator should not
be entered.

Confined Spaces Hazards

Toxic gases/ vapours must be less than the

Permitted Exposure Level (PEL).

carbon monoxide (PEL <35 ppm)

or any other hazardous materials as determined by

the use of the space.

Confined Spaces Hazards

Image courtesy: Google Images

Test the Atmosphere

Always test the

air at various levels
to be sure that the
entire space is safe.
Good air near the
opening does
NOT mean there
is good air at the
bottom!

Good Air

Poor Air

Deadly Air

Oxygen Scale

21 %

Oxygen Enriched

19.5%

16%
14%

6%

Oxygen Scale

Minimum for
safe entry
Impaired judgment
& breathing
Faulty judgment
Rapid Fatigue
Difficult breathing
Death in minutes

Toxic atmosphere: Toxins

are measured in parts per
million (ppm). Under no
circumstances
should
anyone enter a confined
space exceeding the limits
specified below.

Confined Spaces Hazards

An oxygen deficient atmosphere has less than 19.5%

available oxygen (O2). Any atmosphere with less than
19.5% O2 should not be entered without an approved
self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA).

The oxygen level in a confined space can decrease

because of work being done, such as welding, cutting or
brazing, or even corrosion.

The O2 level is decreased if oxygen is displaced by

another gas, such as CO2 or N2. Total displacement of O2
will result in unconsciousness, followed by death.

Oxygen toxicity

Oxygen toxicity is caused by exposure to oxygen at

partial pressures greater than those to which the body is
normally exposed.

Exposures to partial pressures of oxygen above 1.6 bars

(160 kPa) are usually associated with central nervous
system oxygen toxicity. Since atmospheric pressure is
about 1 bar (100 kPa), central nervous system toxicity
can occur where ambient pressure is above normal.

Severe cases can result in cell damage and death.

Vessel Entry Requirement

Entry permit system
Permit elements
Identification & job description
Description of the hazard
Precautions already taken while preparation
Isolations
Gas test results
Communications
Special equipment or precautions
Identify entrants and stand by rescue
Hot-work permit involved
Any other relevant information
Issue, authorization and acceptance
Competing the permit procedure

Respiratory Protection
When effective engineering controls are not feasible to control
breathing contaminated air, appropriate respirators shall be used.

Air-Purifying Respirator (APR)

Dust Mask

Half Face

Full Face

Powered Air-Purifying Respirators

(PAPR)

Supplied Air
Respirator (SAR)

Dust Mask

Air-line

Hood style

Facepiece style

Self Contained
Breathing
Apparatus (SCBA)

Image courtesy: Google Images

Tight -Fitting Coverings

Quarter Mask

Full Facepiece

Half Mask

Mouthpiece/Nose Clamp
Image courtesy: Google Images

Loose-Fitting Coverings

Hood

Loose-Fitting
Facepiece

Helmet

Full Body Suit

Image courtesy: Google Images

Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)

An atmosphere-supplying respirator for which the

breathing air source is designed to be carried by the
user.

Image courtesy: Google Images

Positive & Negative Pressure SCBA

An action conducted by the respirator user to determine if the respirator is
properly seated to the face.

Negative Pressure Check

SCBA will be either "positive pressure" or "negative pressure" operation.

In negative pressure SCBA air is delivered to the wearer when he
breathes in, or in other words, reduces the pressure in the mask to less
than outside pressure, hence the name "negative pressure". Any leaks in
the device or the interface between the mask and the face of the wearer
would reduce the protection offered.
Image courtesy: Google Images

Positive & Negative Pressure SCBA

Positive Pressure Check

Positive pressure SCBA addresses this limitation. By careful design, the

device is set to maintain a small pressure inside the facepiece. Although
the pressure drops when the wearer breathes in, the device always
maintains a higher pressure inside the mask than outside of the mask.
Thus, even if the mask leaks slightly, there is a flow of clean air out of the
device, automatically preventing inward leakage under most
circumstances.
Image courtesy: Google Images

Prevention and Control

Most preventive and control strategies can be placed in

one of the following four categories:

Personal protective equipment (PPE)

PPE imposes a barrier between the worker and the

hazard but dose nothing to eliminated or reduce the
hazard, e.g. safely goggles, face shields, gloves,
boots, full-body clothing, respirators.

Prevention and Control

Engineering controls

Strategies for replacing a toxic material with one that

is less hazardous or redesigning a process to make it
less stressful. Isolating a hazardous process to
reduce the number of people exposed & introducing
moisture to reduce dust.

Ventilation

Exhaust ventilation involves trapping and removing

contaminated air. Typically used in processes such as
abrasive blasting, grinding, polishing, buffing, and
spray painting/finishing.

Prevention and Control

Administrative controls

Involves limiting the exposure of the employees to

hazardous conditions using strategies such as,
rotating schedules, required breaks, work shifts.

Summary

Definition of toxic substances

Entry Points (Inhalation/ Adsorption/ Ingestion/

Injection

Effects (acute / chronic)

Relationship of Doses and Responses

Dose Threshold/ Lethal Dose/Concentration

Threshold Limiting Value

Airborne Contaminants (Dusts/ Fumes /Smoke /

Aerosols/ Gases/ Vapours)

Summary

Confined Spaces Hazards

Oxygen scale

Respiratory protection

Prevention and Control

Engineering controls/ ventilation/ PPE/

administrative.

References & Further Reading

David.L. Goetsch, The Safety and Health Handbook

Prentice Hall, 2000.

D.A. Crowl and J.F. Louvar, Chemical Process Safety:

Fundamentals with Applications, 2001 (2nd Edition).

R.G. Smith and J.B. Olishifski, Industrial Hygiene

Chicago National Safety Council, 1988.