Pedagogy Material (Draft)

Unit 1.Teaching and Learning in Higher Education

1.1 Teaching: the concept of teaching and learning at higher education
What is teaching?
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Teaching is defined by different groups in different ways depending on the conceptions
held by the groups. For instance, idealist philosophers define teaching as a process of
transmitting/imparting knowledge, where as pragmatists consider teaching as a process of
facilitating the individuals learning. To a naturalist teaching is helping the individual
develop the potentials he/she posses and become a person who he /she would be. If teaching
is defined by different social groups in different ways, what is the common definition that
helps us communicate?
Teaching is considered by modern pedagogues as a process of facilitating individuals
learning through motivation, coordination, guiding/directing the activities he/she performs
and controlling/evaluating the learning results. Teaching is also defined as a process of
directing the interaction between the learner and the material to be learned, etc. Teaching
can be defined as a set of processes and procedures used by the teacher for the purpose of
making learning happen. Obanya (1998) sees it as the process of bringing about positive
changes in a learner.
If teaching is directing /facilitating individuals learning, what is learning?
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Similar to teaching the psychologists differ in defining learning. Let us see some of them.
Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge through the mental process. It is developing
the mental caliber of the individual.
Learning is a relatively permanent change/modification of the behavior of the learner as a
result of practice. Here the change in behavior is related to the acquisition of knowledge, the
development of skills, and the formation of value systems.
LEARNING
Learning can be defined as an internal process which occurs in the learner. It is a relatively
permanent change in the behavior of a person (the learner). Research by cognitive
psychologists (Brainard, 1997) shows that learning takes place in three stages: the
motivation stage, the acquisition stage and the performance stage.
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The Motivation Phase

The leaner receives a stimulus to learn. This provides the drive (kick start) for the learning
process. He/she selects information from the environment, which is obtained by the sensory
receptors.
The Acquisition Phase
The information acquired is processed after it entered to the short -term memory from which
it can be retrieved and exploited within a very short time. But the capacity of the short-term
memory is very limited. The acquired information, following rehearsal, is stored in the longterm memory.
What other definitions have you come across in your reading?
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1.1.1. Understanding Higher Education
What is higher education? What is the expected of them? Etc.

Higher education institutions are institutions that provide post secondary education and
produce human resource, conduct research, and involve in community services. They are
tertiary level institutions that should educate students to become well informed and deeply
motivated citizens, who can think critically, analyze problems of society, look for solutions
to the problems of society, apply them and accept social responsibilities through lectures,
practical work, fieldwork, tutorials, etc. for the development of knowledge, skills and
attitudes.
To achieve these goals, they need to recast curricula, using new and appropriate methods, so
as to go beyond cognitive mastery of disciplines. New pedagogical and didactical approaches
should be accessible and promoted in order to facilitate the acquisition of skills,
competencies and abilities for communication, creative and critical analysis, independent
thinking and team work in multicultural contexts, where creativity also involves combining
traditional or local knowledge and know-how with advanced science and technology. These
recast curricula should take into account the gender dimension and the specific cultural,
historic and economic context of each country. The teaching of human rights standards and
education on the needs of communities in all parts of the world should be reflected in the
curricula of all disciplines, particularly those preparing for entrepreneurship. Academic
personnel should play a significant role in determining the curriculum. New methods of
education will also imply new types of teaching-learning materials. These have to be coupled
with new methods of testing that will promote not only powers of memory but also powers of
comprehension, skills for practical work and creativity.

Teaching and learning involve the interaction of the learner, the teacher, the curriculum
(knowledge, skills &values) under learning situation.
THE LEARNER THE LEARNING SITUATION
The learners are human beings with their own physical, moral, psychological, mental social
aspects of personality and material and financial resources that influence their learning
abilities. Who are the students of higher institutions?
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The Learning Situation
The learning situation or the teaching environment is the set of resources available for
implementing the teaching/learning process. These include human resources (lecturers,
learners, administrators and support personnel); physical resources (e.g. classrooms, library,
laboratory, and workshops); material resources (teaching material, audiovisual materials and
others) financial materials (operational allowances, scholarships, training grants and others);
and the political and social context (democracy versus dictatorship, peace versus war).
The Teacher and the Learner
Learning is influenced by the teacher - learner relationship. The roles of the teacher and the
learner vary in this relationship. On the one hand, the teacher can be a mere transmitter of
knowledge; the learner is entirely dependent on what the instructor says or does. He or she is
then more of a "recipient" than a "learner". On the other hand, the teacher can play the role of
a guide, or a facilitator. The learner is assisted in becoming autonomous, that is to say, in
being able to plan his/her learning.
The higher education curriculum
What is curriculum? What do you we mean by the higher education curriculum?
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Curriculum is defined as the sum total of the planned experiences of the education level that
is to be offered both inside and outside of the institution. It reflects the aims of the programs,
objectives of the different courses, content areas to be covered, activities and methods of
teaching, the assessment mechanisms, resources required, etc.
How are courses designed? What are the basic elements to be incorporated?

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What do we know about the curriculum and learning environment of higher education
institutions of Ethiopia?
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Let us see the following issues in brief (see the attached documents and notes)
What are (could be) the missions and goals of higher education institutions in Ethiopia?
Missions___________________________________________________________________
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Goals______________________________________________________________________
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What are the profiles of the instructors and students in Ethiopian higher education
institutions?
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Are there theories about teaching in higher education institutions? If yes, what are they?
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1.1.2. MISSIONS AND FUNCTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION
The mission are related to educate, to learn and to undertake research
The core missions and values of higher education are to contribute to the sustainable
development and improvement of society as a whole. It should be preserved, reinforced and
further expanded, namely, to:
educate highly qualified graduates and responsible citizens able to meet the needs
of all sectors of human activity, by offering relevant qualifications, including
professional training, which combine high-level knowledge and skills, using courses
and content continually tailored to the present and future needs of society;

provide opportunities for higher learning and for leaning throughout life, giving to
learners an optimal range of choice and a flexibility of entry and exit points within the

system, as well as an opportunity for individual development and social mobility in

order to educate for citizenship and for active participation in society, with a
worldwide vision, for endogenous capacity-building, and for the consolidation of
human rights, sustainable development, democracy and peace, in a context of justice.
advance, create and disseminate knowledge through research and provide, as part of
its service to the community, relevant expertise to assist societies in cultural, social
and economic development, promoting and developing scientific and technological
research as well as research in the social sciences, the humanities and the creative
arts;
help understand, interpret, preserve, enhance, promote and disseminate national and
regional, international and historic cultures, in a context of cultural pluralism and
diversity;
help protect and enhance societal values by training young people in the values which
form the basis of democratic citizenship and by providing critical and detached
perspectives to assist in the discussion of strategic options and the reinforcement of
humanistic perspectives; and
Contribute to the development and improvement of education at all levels, including
through the training of teachers.
1.1.3. The Higher Education Learners, Teachers and the Curriculum
Understanding the Higher Education Learner
To improve the relevance of education and enhance the quality of education the involvement
of the higher education personnel and students as major actors is very important. National
and Institutional decision-makers should place students and their needs at the centre of their
concerns, and should consider them as major partners and responsible stakeholders in the
renewal of higher education. This should include student involvement in issues that affect the
level of education, in evaluation, the renovation of teaching methods and curricula and, in the
institutional framework setting, in policy-formulation and institutional management. As
students have the right to organize and represent themselves, students' involvement in these
issues should be guaranteed.
An understanding of the characteristics and needs of the learner is a key factor for success in
higher education. The effectiveness of teaching is largely dependent on the nature of the
learner. We need to consider such learner variables as demographics (e.g. age and gender),
psychological characteristics (e.g. motivation and self-concept), sociological characteristics
(e.g. friendship and social linkages), cultural background, religious affiliation, quality of
preparation at the secondary school level, marital status and family background in planning
lessons. The knowledge of such cases helps the higher education teacher to meaningfully
plan and implement a course of instruction for students.

Secondary education is over. With the necessary entry requirements and funds, it is now
time to proceed for further studies within the higher education sub-system The shift from
secondary to higher education begins with a period of transition. The transition period is
characterized by a lot more freedom no more school uniforms, assembly at 8.00 a.m., lights
out, punishment by seniors and inhibition from attending parties. Prospective higher
education learners bring with them various social and educational experiences. We expect
that our interventions would foster desirable changes in behavior and enhance positive
characteristics. Improved understanding of our learners antecedents at the point of entry
would help us select appropriate educational experiences as well as provide adequate
guidance and counseling services. Thus, we need to know many things about the learners and
the situation.
They are in transition. The formal education system in all countries of the world is
segmented into cycles primary, secondary and higher. As the learner moves from one level
or cycle to another, there are changes that are noteworthy for the teacher. At the period of
transition, there are physical, psychomotor, socio-affective, emotional, intellectual
(cognitive) and aspiration changes. As lecturers, we want to take the learner through the
change process in a smooth, gradual and painless way. We want the inter-phase between the
end of secondary education and the freshman year to blend. No bumps, no dramatic shifts
and no agonizing changes. To achieve this, we need a deep understanding of the
characteristics of learners at the two poles end of secondary education and the fresh student
year.
Academic and Social Antecedents of the Higher Education Learner
Who are prospective higher education learners? The majority are young male and female
adults aged between 16-26 years who have had 12-14 years of formal education. They would
have obtained the school leaving certificate with the minimum pass grades to earn them
places in higher educational institutions. As primary and secondary school pupils, their
academic and social life would have been organized and sometimes regimented by
principals, and teachers. They would have been expected to obey laid-down rules and
regulations without question as well as recognize and respect the schools hierarchical
structure of authority. Those who may have had the privilege of attending boarding schools
would have experienced even greater management of their time and indeed of their lives.
Graduates of single-sex schools often have additional problems of adjustment in their
interactions with the opposite sex.
Our learners typical school day could be broken into several very short periods during which
various subjects would be taught in typically under-resourced classrooms, and by teachers
with extremely low morale. With few exceptions, the learners would have been exposed to
predominantly traditional methods of learning and teaching. With regard to assessment, the
educational system of most countries now is in favor continuous assessment. The message
that emerges is that schools are about testing. This has implications for learners attitudes
towards learning and teaching.

The world is in constant changes demanding change in the provision of education at

different levels. The responses of higher education to a changing world should be guided by
three watch words which determine its local, national and international standing and
functioning, relevance, quality and internationalization. "UNESCOs Policy Paper for
Change and Development in Higher Education", Executive Summary, Section V reads as
follows. In the context of these new orientations, every higher education policy should fit
into the particularly complex social dynamics of the training and/or research institutions
(Universities, Teacher Training Colleges, Institutions) that have interfaces with secondary
or "pre-university" education on the one hand and with the world of work and the
development concerns of the States on the other. Set at the extremities of the educational
system, these two entities exert pressure and lay down conditions that cannot be ignored.
Hence, such a policy will emanate from a dynamic compromise between the external
demands and the tasks which the states assign to these institutions.
In this regard, the relevance of higher education should be perceived in terms of its role and
place in society, its mission as regards training and research and the resultant services. It
should also be seen in terms of its linkages with the world of work (in the widest sense), its
relationship with the state and sources of funding as well as its interactions with other levels
and forms of education.
However, under the impact of significant external trends (economic globalization, high
population growth rates, technological innovations and serious financial constraints), the
higher educational institutions are now in crisis in a crucial phase of their development.
Beyond the negative trend (decline in the internal and external training efficiency) the basic
issue is to know what type of institution the states need. Generally speaking, there is an
urgent need for higher educational reform for the purpose of maintaining and strengthening
quality standards among other concerns. It is more than necessary to develop a new
perception of education and training in order to adapt and enhance the systems relevance,
efficiency and quality.
The rapid increase in student enrolments in the Francophone countries is due to the combined
effect of at least four factors namely:
- the rapid increase in the number of secondary school leavers;
- the lack of selection at the time students enter universities;
- the low internal efficiency;
- the generous student-aid policy which encourages students to extend their stay at
university because of the uncertainty of finding job upon completion of the courses.
Of course, such a quantitative expansion should be matched with a corresponding increase in
infrastructures, facilities, teaching staff and scientific and instructional materials so as to
meet the requirements of quality with respect to training and research. Unfortunately, that has
not been the case. In Francophone Africa, it is usual to see a lecture hall designed for 800

students crammed with as many as 3,000. It is also noteworthy that such lecture halls hardly
provide an enabling environment for teaching as they have more in common with markets or
sports studio than with places for reflection. Under the circumstances, access to knowledge is
largely determined by the students ability to arrive 3 or 4 hours in advance to occupy the
best place so as to hear the lecturer.
As a result of the limitation of academic infrastructures and shortage of human and material
resources, the quality of education has declined. Indeed, several institutions were already
forced to cancel practical and field work.
Factors Affecting Learning
During the period of transition, the freshman brings in several characteristics and attributes
that could impact on learning. Some of these characteristics and attributes are discussed in
this section.
Home background
Many learners come from a rural setting. Some have grown up in polygamous homes
characterized by many children and scarce resources. They would speak one or more of the
indigenous language as well as English, French or Portuguese which are major media of
teaching and learning in higher education in Africa. The language question has further
implication because education in a foreign language places the learner at a disadvantage. He
or she is required to master that language before battling with content in education. The
decline in proficiency in English in Anglophone Africa has hampered teaching and learning.
A small group would come from the middle class and would have experienced the benefits of
growing up in urban areas. Some in this group would have traveled widely outside their
homeland and had access to information and various forms of educational materials and
technology. Some others would have enjoyed the benefits of pre-school education and would
be proficient in English, French or Portuguese.
A very small percentage of learners would have had post-secondary school work experience
in either the private or the public sector. They would therefore have acquired skills, which
would serve them well in their future learning. Further they would have had greater control
of their lives and resources than learners who enter higher educational institutions at a
younger age.
Impact of prior experiences on the learners learning
Contrary to popular opinion, our learners are not blank states on which imprints can not be
made, nor are they empty vessels to be filled. On entry, they would normally have knowledge
and skills acquired from their earliest socialization in appropriate means of constructing the
world around them and creative approaches to solving problems. Further they are expected to
be largely at the Piagetian stage of formal operations in their cognitive development and
could therefore be expected to operate at that level.

These positive gains notwithstanding, experience shows several deficiencies which could
constrain the ability or desire of higher education learners to function effectively in the
learning/teaching situation in institutions of higher learning. For example, they are expected
to manage their time as well as do independent work (conduct investigations in their areas of
study). They must also have a view of learning which emphasizes construction of knowledge,
creativity and problem solving. Their school experiences, characterized by external controls,
traditional teaching and learning styles (notably rote learning) and threatening learning
environments have certainly not prepared them to take responsibility for their learning.
The nature of the school leaving examinations has the tendency to encourage regurgitation
of rehearsed opinion and dictated notes rather than evidence of ability to analyze and
synthesize. This impedes the ability to apply knowledge, think critically, solve new problems
by responding in creative ways and reflect on their learning. This situation sends wrong
messages to the students and creates enormous obstacles for learners who gain admission to
institutions of higher learning.
Most of learners behaviors on entry can be explained with reference to their background.
Can you think of instances where other factors would have to be explored?
Selection/Admission criteria and procedures
All institutions of higher learning in Africa have selection procedures designed not only to
ensure that only the best of candidates are admitted, but also because of constraints imposed
by diminishing financial resources, deterioration and inadequacy of the physical structures
and inadequate staffing of departments. As a general rule, prospective learners have to meet
university requirements, which may be credit in five subjects including English and
Mathematics, in the appropriate international examination. Some departments may also
demand a high level of attainment in certain subjects other than those preferred by the
learners to facilitate good performance in the major areas. This means that merely meeting
matriculation requirements does not always guarantee learners a place. For instance, some
institutions, notably Nigerian universities, administer a general university entrance
examination, conducted by the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board (JAMB). Success
in this examination may earn a candidate a place in one university, but not necessarily in
another because admission is offered on the basis of level of performance.
A recent phenomenon is the Remedial Initiative for Female Teachers (RIFT) at Gambia
College, the Gambia, which is intended to correct the gender balance in education by helping
adult female learners who cannot meet the selection criteria to do so by the end of the
programme. These learners are admitted on the basis of performance in a special college
examination. They are then given remedial course of the programme to increase their chances
of passing the international school leaving examination before certification. There are other
reported instances of admission of learners who are under qualified at the beginning but who
became highly proficient after attending specially arranged remedial classes.
Selection procedures are also influenced by equity and gender issues, societal demands in
terms of human resources, and the need to give access to education to special groups for

example military personnel and their dependants. Provision is also made in some institutions
for mature learners. To satisfy these and similar categories universities often have to take
affirmative action. The process of selection/admission can therefore be seen as evaluative,
based on the priorities of the period.
Do you think the selection/admission criteria and procedures are fair, given the paucity of
educational outlets for the school leaver?
What would you say are some of the arguments for retaining or modifying the current criteria
and procedures? How far do you support or oppose them?
Psychological factors are normally resident within the learner. These include intelligence,
motivational level, self-concept and emotional traits. Sociological factors on the other hand,
are usually resident within the external environment. The environment in this case includes
the family, peer and the community. Sociological factors include family background, peer
group influence, school setting and societal expectation. The interaction between these two
groups of factors (psychosocial) is important in student learning
Psychosocial Characteristics
Casual observation is that psycho-social characteristics do provide some general explanation
of learners behavior. We might also look in other areas for explanations which might be
helpful in illuminating learner characteristics. The following list represents some of the areas
that should be explored in relation to the learners psychosocial characteristics on entry into
higher education:
Cognitive development
friendship patterns and linkages
-perception/esteem/ concept
and world view

religious orientation

This list is not exhaustive. You can make additions from your experience
Factors affecting psychosocial characteristics:
Socio-economic Factors
National Economy
Historical factors/colonialism
The Socio-Cultural Factor
Peer Group

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Political Climate
Profile of the Higher Education Teacher
Why do we need to gain understanding of the higher education teacher? Perhaps the
straightforward answer can be found from a quote from Julius Nyerere "It is by gaining
insight of our potentialities that we understand others better". When we know who we are as
teachers, our strengths and weak points, we become well positioned to appreciate our
students and to carry out our teaching tasks more meaningfully. Profiling the higher
education teacher is the central goal of this module.
The mastery of technical skills now takes a back seat to the development of the teacher as a
self-reflective, ethical and continuously developing, competent practitioner. Far from
providing 'tips for teachers', professional programmes emphasize the value laden nature of
teaching and the ethical position of the teacher.
There is a sophisticated discourse concerning teaching and learning in higher education that
many practitioners never appear to interact with. A likely reason is that academics see
themselves as professionals in their own discipline-based research area, rather than as
professionals in the area of university teaching. They qualify and are credentialed by research
in a discipline area and they undertake continuing professional development in that research
area by reading relevant journals and attending conferences. It is important that academics
consider themselves to have a dual professional allegiance: to their professional
(disciplinary) responsibility as a university researcher and to the profession of teaching. The
latter role can be successfully accomplished with teacher training experience.
The professionalisation of teaching is little more than a century old. During its development,
teaching progressed from a primitive, relatively unskilled trade, to an occupation requiring
vocational training, and finally to a profession demanding thorough, specialized preparation.
The preparation of the teacher is viewed increasingly as a continuous process that extends
throughout his or her tenure
General Characteristics of the Higher Education Teacher
Practically, the higher education teacher is expected to be an exemplar in teaching research;
and community service.
The higher education academic is expected to be an exemplar of good teaching, a productive
researcher and someone who can provide good quality extension service to the institution and
to the larger community. Teaching, research and community service are the three
traditionally known clusters of duties of the higher education teacher.
Activity: - Think of the work you do and the work expected of you by your students, the
community, and the administration of your institution. Is this work covered by the three
traditional areas? If your answer is no, provide a list of those activities that are not so
covered.

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Profile as a Teacher
What teaching characteristics are we expecting of a teacher in a higher institution? A listing
of some of these characteristics is provided below.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Good knowledge of the subject he/she teaches

An understanding of how students learn.
A concern for students' development.
A commitment to scholarship.
A commitment to work with and learn from colleagues.
Continuing reflection on professional practice.

In displaying these characteristics, the expectation is that the teacher should have:
1. designed a teaching programme or scheme of work from a course outline,
document or syllabus;
2. used a wide and appropriate range of teaching and learning methods
effectively and efficiently in order to work with large groups, small groups,
and one-to-one;
3. provided support to students on academic issues in a way which is acceptable
to a wide range of students;
4. used a wide and appropriate range of assessment techniques to support student
learning and to record achievement;
5. evaluated their own work with a range of self, peer and student monitoring
and evaluation techniques;
6. performed effectively their teaching support and academic administrative
tasks;
7. developed personal and professional strategies appropriate to the constraints
and opportunities of their institutional setting
1. Higher Education Teaching
A list of the major goals of higher education teaching would include such objectives as
changing students' factual knowledge and competence in the course material, strengthening
various cognitive capacities (e.g., study skills, reasoning, writing and speaking skills), and
fostering intellectual appreciation of the subject matter. For many, imparting knowledge and
skills to students is the major objective of higher education teaching.
Teaching offers singular opportunities for the realization of many important, intrinsic values
in life. It enables, indeed requires the teacher to engage in a never-ending pursuit of
knowledge. The world of the teacher is a world of learning. The opportunity for selfeducation and for satisfying intellectual curiosity is unmatched in any other profession. It is
in the education of others that the teacher finds the secret of his/her own. The teachers role
in educating others is becoming increasingly profound. We have traditionally thought of the
teacher as a dispenser of information. Today he or she must be conceived as something far
more than that. The knowledge explosion has forced upon us, fortunately, a new concept of

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the teacher. It is no longer possible to dispense during the school years all the knowledge that
students will need in their lifetime, so we have come to stress "learning how to learn" as the
essence of modern education. Thus the new role of the teacher becomes that of stimulating
the learners curiosity, sharpening powers of independent intellectual discovery, and
strengthening the ability to organize and use knowledge. In short, it is helping the learner
acquire lifelong powers of self education.
The teacher has often been spoken of as an exemplar of fine scholarship, a model scholar
whom students may emulate, and the very embodiment of his or her discipline. This new role
of the teacher as exemplar, far more profound than a role as mere dispenser of information,
extends the impact of the teacher on the modes of thought and methods of study of the
student throughout life. Thus, the teacher is sustained by the challenge of implanting this
important intellectual vestige in others. To help in guiding another generations chance to
grow is perhaps the noblest form of human expression. How well have you used this
opportunity as a teacher?
Table 2.1 Effective and Ineffective Behaviors of Teachers
Effective behaviors

Ineffective behaviors

Is alert, appears enthusiastic

Is apathetic, dull; appears bored

Appears interested in students and

classroom activities

Appears uninterested in students and classroom

activities

Is cheerful, optimistic

Is depressed, pessimistic; appears unhappy

Is self controlled, not easily upset

Loses temper easily, is easily upset.

Likes fun, has a sense of humor

Is overly serious, too occupied for humor

Recognizes and admits own mistakes

Is unaware of, or fails to admit, own mistakes

Is fair, impartial, and objective in

treatment of students

Is unfair or partial in dealing with students

Is patient

Is impatient

Shows understanding and sympathy in

working with students

Is short with students, uses sarcastic remarks,

or in other ways shows lack of sympathy with
students

Is friendly and courteous in relations withIs aloof and removed in relations with students
students

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Helps students with personal as well as

educational problems

Seems unaware of students personal needs and

problems

Commends effort and gives praise for

work well done

Does not commend students; is disapproving,

hyper-critical.

Accepts students efforts as sincere

Is suspicious of pupil motives

Anticipates reactions of others in social Does not anticipate reactions of others in social
situations
situations
Encourages students to try to do their bestMakes no effort to encourage students to try to
do their best
Classroom procedure is planned and well Procedure is without plan, disorganized.
organized
Classroom procedure is flexible within
overall plan

Shows extreme rigidity of procedure, inability

to depart from plan

Anticipates individual needs

Fails to provide for individual differences and

needs of students

Stimulates students through interesting

and original materials and techniques

Uninteresting materials and teaching

techniques used

Gives clear, practical demonstrations and Demonstrations and explanations are not clear
explanations
and are poorly conducted.
Is clear and thorough in giving directions Directions are incomplete, vague
Encourages students to work through
their own problems and evaluate their
accomplishments

Fails to give students opportunity to work out

their own problems or evaluate their own work

Disciplines in quiet, dignified, and

positive manner

Reprimands at length, ridicules, resorts to cruel

or meaningless forms of correction.

Gives help willingly

Fails to give help or gives it grudgingly

Foresees and attempts to resolve potentialIs unable to foresee and resolve potential
difficulties
difficulties
Let us examine the qualities of the higher education teacher in a little for detail.

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Qualities of the higher education teacher

A teacher must, of course, have those intellectual qualities associated with his or her role as
exemplar of fine scholarship. These include

intellectual curiosity
mastery of his or her field of knowledge and its methods of inquiry
respect for truth
intellectual honesty, and
fundamental understanding of the learning process.

Getting the Class to a Good Start

The following suggestions are intended to help you get your class off to a good start, address
the three important tasks of the first day: handling administrative matters, creating an open
and friendly classroom environment, and setting course expectations and standards.
Taking Care of Administrative Tasks
Take attendance. Call the roll or ask students to sign in. Have a contingency plan if more
students than you can accommodate want to enroll. Check with your department to see
whether policies exist for preferential enrolment. If your course is an elective, plan on
admitting a few more students than you can comfortably accommodate; a small number will
end up dropping your course.
Review any prerequisites for the course. Let students know what skills or knowledge they are
expected to have and whether alternate experience or course work will be accepted. Is help
available for those who do not have all the prerequisite skills? If computer work is part of the
course, will training be provided?
Define your expectations for student participation. Besides turning in all written assignments
and taking exams, what do you expect of students during class?
Hand out and discuss the course syllabus. Have students read the syllabus and then form
groups to identify questions about the course or the teacher. Hearing these questions on the
first day lets the teacher know immediately what concerns are uppermost in students' minds.
Review safety precautions. If your course requires lab work or fieldwork, review safe
practices for using equipment and supplies and discuss emergency procedures. Show students
how to use equipment safely and appropriately.
Review emergency procedures. Let students know what to do in case of fire, evacuation, or
other emergency.

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Bring copies of the required texts to the first class meeting. Make them Know, which stores
besides the campus bookstore stock the texts. Are used copies available? Is the textbook on
reserve in the library?
Creating a Positive Classroom Environment
Introduce yourself to your class. In addition to telling students how you wish to be addressed,
say something about your background: how you first became interested in the subject, how it
has been important to you, and why you are teaching this course. Convey your enthusiasm
for the field and the subject. For many students, the teachers enthusiasm about the course
material is a key motivator for learning.
Ask students to tell you their names, year in school, and major field. What they hope to learn
in the course, tentative career plans, and something about their outside interests, hobbies, or
current employment (if any).
Begin to learn student's names. By learning your student's names, you can create a
comfortable classroom environment that will encourage student interaction. Knowing your
students' names also tells them that you are interested in them as individuals. Call students by
name when you return homework or quizzes, and use names frequently in class.
Setting Course Expectations and Standards
Discuss the objectives of the course. As specifically as possible, tell your students what you
wish to accomplish and why, but also ask for what they want to learn from you and what
sorts of problems they would like to tackle. Be sure to acknowledge all contributionsyour
attentiveness to students' ideas will encourage students participation throughout the
semester.
Ask students to list the goals they hope to achieve by taking the course. Have students, in
small groups or individually, list three to five goals in the form of statements about
knowledge, skills, appreciation, interests, or attitudes. Describe how you propose to spend
class time. How will sessions be structured? How will discussions be organized? Will a
specific time be set aside for questions, or may students ask questions as they arise? Should
questions requiring a lengthy response be saved for office hours?
Give your students ideas about how to study and prepare for class. Study strategies are
especially important in an introductory class. Give examples of questions students might
wish to think about or strategies for approaching the material. Tell students how much time
they will need to study for the course, and let them know about campus academic support
services.
If appropriate, give a brief diagnostic pretest. Explain that this "test" will not be graded but is
designed to give you information on topics students have mastered and areas in which they
need additional review. You could present a list of key concepts, facts and figures, or major

16

ideas and ask students to indicate their familiarity with each. In a writing course, you might
assign a short essay that will allow you to identify students' strengths and weaknesses.
Some Hints to Enhance the Profile of the Teacher
Provided below are some suggestions to enhance your profile as a teacher.
Giving Clear Explanations

Use concrete, real-life, and relevant examples. Present practical applications and
experiences. Use illustrations, graphs, and diagrams where appropriate. Use relevant
audiovisual aids (films, tapes, maps, slides, etc.). Develop effective metaphors or
analogies for difficult concepts. Suggest mnemonic aids for memorizing complicated
ideas. Paraphrase technical explanations in understandable language. Define
unfamiliar terms. Write key terms on the blackboard or overhead. Repeat difficult
ideas in diverse ways. Speak more slowly for difficult or particularly important ideas.
Ask if students understand before proceeding.

Making Clear Presentation

Speak in a clear, well-paced, and expressive manner. Use appropriate teaching aids
effectively (e.g., blackboard, overhead projector, handouts,).

Effective Speaking

Speak at suitable rate, not too fast for understanding and note-taking. Speak loudly
enough for the room. Pronounce words distinctly. Modulate voice; speak expressively
rather than in a monotone. Speak fluently, without excessive pauses or "ums" and
"ahs." Speak naturally without over reliance on verbatim reading (outlines can help).

Effective Nonverbal Presentations

Use facial expressions (e.g., smiling, laughter), bodily gestures, and movement.
Avoid distracting mannerisms (e.g., playing with chalk, rocking). Make eye contact
with students. Move about the classroom; do not fix on a desk or lectern. Display a
relaxed manner. Include humor. Use blackboards, other audiovisual aids, and a
variety of methods. Be enthusiastic and dynamic.

Promoting Student Interest

Describe relevant personal experiences. State your point of view on issues.

Demonstrate interest in the subject matter and in teaching. Present challenging and
thought-provoking ideas. Examine controversial issues. Introduce topics in novel and
interesting ways (e.g., a mystery or paradox). Point out practical applications and
interesting examples. Relate subject matter to current events and student interests or

17

activities. Encourage new ideas from students. Use varied activities, media, and
formats (e.g., guest lecture, panel discussions).
Openness to Ideas

Be open to different opinions and points of view. Let students feel free to question
you, to think independently, and to express dissenting views. Present and explore
points of view other than your own. Be flexible in your thinking. Contrast the
implications of different theories. Let students be creative (e.g., generate alternative
explanations). Demonstrate and encourage original and independent thought.

Promoting Rapport

Be reasonably available for consultation. Talk with students before, after, and outside
class. Learn students names (e.g., use class cards). Show interest in how students are
doing. Show interest in students and their ideas. Be sensitive to student progress and
motivation (e.g., knows when students are having difficulty or are bored). Show
concern that students understand and learn the subject matter. Take action when
students lose interest or have excessive difficulty (e.g., use more examples, modify
requirements?). Make students feel welcome (e.g., announce availability for help, be
approachable). When students seek help, be understanding, patient, helpful, and not
overly critical. Be tolerant of other points of view. Provide opportunities in class for
questions. Engage in give and take with students. Show approval for student ideas
(e.g., positive comments, praise, smile, and nod head). Respect thoughts, opinions,
and rights of students and others.

Effective Communication

Prepare clear objectives for the course. Communicate objectives, course

requirements, and grading criteria. Reduce barriers incidental to student learning
(e.g., undesired ambiguity). Give students sufficient information to prepare for
evaluations. Provide detailed instructions and sample questions for evaluations where
appropriate or necessary. Perhaps remind students of dates and identify important
topics for evaluations. Use clear and reasonable evaluations. (e.g., tests that reflect
course materials). Grade assignments fairly and consistently across students.
Considering class size, grade work promptly and provide helpful feedback. Provide
answers as feedback for objective assignments. Use enough evaluations for adequate
feedback and a fair measure of student learning.

Research and Community Service Profiles of the Higher Education Teacher

Research and community service are as equally important as teaching. Indeed, research is
underscored in employment and promotion of academic staff in higher institutions, much
more so than teaching and community service in many cases. The publish or perish or
publish or be damned entreaty to academic staff of higher educational institutions, rests
largely on the plank of research activities.

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2. Research Profile of the Higher Education Teacher

Among the core goals of a higher institution is to extend the frontiers of knowledge through
research. The academic staffs of the institution are in most cases, given the mandate to
pursue this goal. Thus, aside from teaching, the institution expects its academic staff to be
actively engaged in research that is ground-breaking. We take research here to mean the
process of inquiry leading to the solving of a problem. The problem may be in the sciences,
engineering, environment, medicine, social sciences, education or other disciplines.
Importance of Research to the Higher Education Teacher
Research is important to the higher education teacher in three major ways. First, it enhances
the quality of instruction. A teacher who does little or no research falls back on his or her old
lecture notes year after year. Newness is brought about as a consequence of research.
Research results generated by the teacher or others in the field form the basis for updating
content of lectures and practical work.
Secondly, engagement in research ensures that the teacher is able to supervise research by his
students more effectively. We are called upon every year to supervise the research of our
students for undergraduate and/or postgraduate studies in partial fulfillment of a degree or
diploma. Changes in research methods, materials, analysis procedures and current literature
can only be known by the teacher who is up-to-date in research. Thus, our work and those of
the students we are supervising will benefit tremendously by our active engagement in
research.
The third point of note regarding the importance of research to the higher education teacher
has to do with promotion. As stated earlier, we are expected to "publish or perish".
Promotion is largely based on contribution to knowledge through research and publications.
No papers no promotion; no research, no papers. To move up the ladder, we have to be
steep in productive research. Productive research here means that which result in articles in
refereed journals, books and other scholarly documents.
Characteristics of a Good Researcher
The following are some of the characteristics of a good researcher:

Ability to identify problems

Research is about problem solving. Thus, the ability to identify, state and define the
boundaries to problems is an important characteristic of a researcher. Premium is placed
more on problems of concern to the immediate environment of the researcher. For example,
an educational researcher will be applauded for seeking solutions to pressing educational
problems within the local community or country. Same goes for agricultural scientists
addressing problems faced by farmers in a region or country.

Ability to design an efficient method of solving the problem

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Problem identification is one thing; the methodology for solving the problem is another. The
researcher needs to have the ability to employ an efficient and parsimonious design for
solving the problem.

Resourcefulness in implementing research plan

No research design or plan is foolproof. During implementation, some unforeseen events

may demand changes or modifications to the original plan. The good researcher should be
resourceful in making such modifications or changes. Perhaps equipment needs to be
improvised or techniques adjusted. It is the good researcher who is able to respond quickly to
these challenges.

Objectivity

Research is the pursuit of truth which comes about as a result of an objective quest. In his or
her procedures, data collection and interpretation, the researcher must exercise objectivity,
that is, no bias throughout the implementation of the research plan.

Honesty

Honesty has to do with reporting ones observations as truthfully as possible. Data

adjustments and fudging to suit pre-conceived theoretical positions are hallmarks of the
crooked researcher.

Perseverance

The researcher ought to keep going on the research plan in spite of delays and
disappointments. Difficulties do arise. The researcher never gives up until all the evidence
needed for decision making are in.

Willingness to collaborate with others

Solo efforts in conducting research are good. Joint and co-operative efforts are better, after
all, two heads are better than one. A good attribute is for the researcher to be able to work
as part of a team. He or she should be able to bring knowledge, experience and expertise to
bear on a segment of the research project to complement knowledge and skills of the other
members of the team. It has been observed that collaborate group research projects receive
better evaluation than individual projects.

Ability to supervise others

A researcher should be able to effectively supervise the research work of students and junior
colleagues.

Skills in writing winning grant proposals

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Most high-quality research projects are funded by the institution or agencies external to it.
Funding agencies receive several proposals for funding from which only a few are chosen.
The competition generated by the process demands that researchers are able to write
proposals that have high likelihood of winning grants.

Skills in reporting for publication

On concluding the research, a report on the results is usually sent in a form of an article to a
publication for journal. The skill in writing good quality journal articles for publication
consideration is an important hallmark of a researcher.
3. Community Service
It is not enough for the teacher in a higher institution to be concerned only with his or her
teaching and research. There is the need to serve the community in other ways. By
community we mean both the community within the institution and the community outside it.

Service within the institutional community

This includes committee work and membership of task forces, patron to student and staff
societies, and office holder of staff societies.

Service outside the institution

Examples of service offered by higher education teachers to the community outside the
university are:

Participation in special local and national assignments and services

Delivery of public lectures
Offering of services in ones specialized area e.g. medical care
Office holder of national societies e.g. President of Science Teachers Association.

1.
2.
3.
4.

State the characteristics needed for successful participation in community service.

Prepare a checklist like that developed for research.
Assess yourself and a colleague using this checklist.
How can you improve on your performance on these characteristics?

Curriculum Development in Higher Education

Higher education institutions should promote continuous and interactive partnerships with
the productive sector using both reactive and proactive approaches. They must adjust the
curriculum to meet the needs of the workplace and ensure that new disciplines and
specializations are incorporated into its content. Also, they must help shape the labor
market, on the one hand by identifying (independently of conjectural (short term) interests
of enterprises), new local and regional needs, and on the other hand by designing
mechanisms for retraining and career-switching. Curricula should be organized to stimulate

21

the entrepreneurial skills of students. This requires flexible, innovative and

interdisciplinary approaches. Later, the Tokyo conference also proposes that pedagogical
programmes should be established to encourage students to be more entrepreneurial and
initiative-oriented.
Qualitative evaluation
Quality in higher education is a multidimensional concept, which should embrace all its
functions, and activities: teaching and academic programmes, research and scholarship,
staffing, students, building, facilities, equipment, services to the community and the
academic environment Internal self-evaluation and external review, conducted openly by
independent specialists, if possible with international expertise, are vital for enhancing
quality. Independent national bodies should be established and comparative standards of
quality, recognized at international level, should be defined, Due attention should be paid to
specific institutional, national and regional contexts in order to take into account diversity
and to avoid uniformity. Stakeholders should be an integral part of the institutional
evaluation process.
Quality also requires that higher education should be characterized by its international
dimension: exchange of knowledge, interactive networking, mobility of teachers and
students, and international research projects, while taking into account the national cultural
values and circumstances.
To attain and sustain national, regional or international quality, certain components are
particularly relevant, notably careful selection of staff and continuous staff development, in
particular through the promotion of appropriate programmes for academic staff development,
including teaching/learning methodology and mobility between countries, between higher
education institutions, and between higher education institutions and the world of work, as
well as student mobility within and between countries. The new information technologies are
an important tool in this process, owing to their impact on the acquisition of knowledge and
know-how.
The explosion of knowledge and increasing sophistication of technology, higher education
programmes need to be frequently reviewed and developed to keep pace with the needs of
society and the learners. This part provides a guide to undertaking curriculum development at
the higher education level. The part which consists of four areas that clarify the concepts of
curriculum and curriculum development and describe the prevailing practices in curriculum
development in higher education. The part also presents the determinants and perspectives of
curriculum development in higher education and ends with activities to illustrate what is
involved in curriculum development in practice.
For the purpose of this guide, let us take the curriculum to be the set of activities that are
geared towards the achievement of that institutions educational goals. All the inputs into an
institution are intended to support the implementation of the curriculum and some of the
outcomes of the implementation process include developed talents, acquired knowledge and
skills and improved intellectual abilities.

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The curriculum of an educational institution deals with all the scheduled activities undertaken
in that institution. Where any of these aspects is deficient, the curriculum becomes
inadequate and therefore a subject of improvement and/or revision. Advances in knowledge
and technology also make curriculum revision necessary by including in college programmes
the new and relevant developments to keep pace with the needs of society. In some cases, a
new subject may need to be added to the existing programme and this new subject should be
developed using existing materials in similar programmes elsewhere as resources.
Is Curriculum Development Needed in Higher Education? Yes, it is needed.
The major Reasons for undertaking Curriculum Development in Higher Education
1. Improvement of what is taught in higher education by revising and including current
and relevant content matter.
2. Filling the gaps that currently exist in higher educational programmes.
3. Responding to the needs of society.
4. Responding to research evidence from internal and external efficiency studies of the
higher education sub-sector.
Changes in society tend to immediately require corresponding changes in the curriculum of
higher education institutions presumably because it is the end of formal education and the
last opportunity for entry into the world of work. Besides, higher education has the capacity
to constantly investigate itself in order to make adjustment to improve both its internal and
external efficiency. Also, new developments in various fields and new thinking and visions
may necessitate changes in the curriculum in higher education.
In many higher institutions, the development of a new course or programme of studies is
initiated by the subject department. Here, specialist academics put together topics as they
know them to have been taught elsewhere. The department presents these to the Faculty or
Academic Board where approval essentially gives authorization for the course to start. The
higher bodies of the institution, like the Senate and Governing Councils in the case of
Universities, endorse the decision of the Faculty Board under normal circumstances. These
activities are part of curriculum development in higher education.
There are three types of curriculum commonly used in educational institutions. The first is
one in which all subjects or courses are treated as equal. The second is an integrated
curriculum in which several subjects are fused together in such a way that the identities of the
individuals are lost. Integration of subjects is done so that teaching and learning become
more meaningful and applicable in the real world. Some groups of subjects bear a lot of
relationship to each other and are considered by many specialists to be more effective if they
are fused together. The case in point is that of the natural sciences (physics, chemistry and
biology). These subjects are often considered to have artificial boundaries between them and
that since, in the real world we do not use them separately it is better if they are fused
together as Integrated Science and taught accordingly. A second example of a group of
subjects that have often been fused together at the school level is the social science group,

23

(geography, history, civics etc). However, the extent to which these groups of subject are
treated in integrated form in higher education is low.
The third is the core curriculum. This is the course or set of courses that are deemed to be the
main components of a programme of studies. These courses or subjects are expected to
constitute the programme of studies under normal circumstances. They are required for the
provision of the general skills, attitudes and knowledge required by a programme of training.
In a programme of studies or training where a core curriculum is provided there is usually
another set of courses or subjects referred to as elective or optional subjects. The prescribed
selection of optional subjects plus the core gives the student the full dosage of the
programmes.
Prevailing Practices of Curriculum Development in Higher Education
A common practice of curriculum development in higher education is the construction or
revision of syllabuses for new or existing courses. Many courses in higher education in
Africa were transplanted from Western Europe or the United States of America and the only
form of curriculum development undertaken in respect of these courses is the revision of
what already exists so as to reflect the African context. Another form of curriculum is the
inclusion of new developments in the field of study resulting from research and public
declarations into existing programmes.
Today, many African higher educational institutions teach national languages and used some
of these languages are used as subjects of research for higher degrees. In 1996, a Declaration
was made in Accra, Ghana on the promotion and use of African national languages in
education. In some cases, central governments specific request to a higher educational
institution to mount specific programme of studies.
Some of the successful models of curriculum development in higher education are found
when the development is originated from within the institution. Also, education policy
documents by the Ministry of Education have been found to be effective in promoting
curriculum revision and development in higher education.
The development of courses in higher education in many instances involves the listing of
topics for the several years for which the course is made to run. Rigorous curriculum
development procedures are hardly adopted in these course development exercises.
Prevailing practices in curriculum development in higher education is therefore limited
largely to syllabus construction or revision.
Curriculum Content Format
A few reasons have been given for the need for a change from the course outline format for
curriculum content in higher education to one that should contain more details of the content,
objectives and the use of sound theoretical basis for the selection and organization of content.
Instead of the current elements of topic, and content, we advocate themes, objectives, topics,

24

content and evaluation/assessment guide. The theoretical basis for content selection is the use
of any of four approaches. Details are in Ivowi (1995).
1. Topical approach leads to many topics (much content) based on knowledge
and experience. No clear relationship among content elements.
2. Conceptual approach leads to fewer content clustering around major and
sub-concepts and their interactions. Relatedness of content elements is
emphasized.
3. Thematic approach being a combination of concepts (i.e subsuming of
concepts) has most of the advantages of conceptual structure plus flexibility in
terms of innovative ideas without necessarily being overloaded.
4. Modular approach leads to complete units of instruction that provide
employable skills. This is the common approach in technical and vocational
courses
The thematic approach is recommended for content selection. We are very
familiar with the use of themes and sub-themes at conferences, seminars and
workshops; so generating appropriate themes and sub-themes for our courses
should be fairly easy. As regards content organization, the spiral approach is
recommended; and in fact, it is what is being used in higher institutions whereby
courses are graded in order of difficulty or complexity (e.g. solid state physics I
and II). In the proposed format, the following will feature: theme, topics,
objectives, content and evaluation. The three additions here are themes,
performance objectives and assessment guide. The performance objectives are
particularly important. Given the intellectual level of the students and their access
to literature, this will give them direction in their studies and so make them to
prepare more adequately for the courses. The assessment guide gives very specific
and clear indication of the level at which a test should be pitched in a domain.
Some Practical Hints on Course Development and Implementation
Provide basic information. Include the current year and semester, the course title and
number, the number of units, the meeting time and location. Indicate any course meetings
which are not scheduled for the assigned room. List your name, office address (include a map
if your office is hard to locate), office phone number, email address, website URL, fax
number, and office hours. For your office hours, indicate whether students need to make
appointments in advance or may just stop in. If you list a home telephone number, indicate
any restrictions on its use (for example, "Please do not call after 10 p.m.").
Describe the prerequisites to the course. Help students realistically assess their readiness
for your course by listing the knowledge, skills, or experience you expect them to already
have or the courses they should have completed. Give students suggestions on how they
might refresh their skills if they feel uncertain about their readiness.

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Give an overview of the course's purpose. Provide an introduction to the subject matter and
show how the course fits in the college or department curriculum. Explain what the course is
about and why students would want to learn the material.
State the general learning goals or objectives. List three to five major objectives that you
expect all students to strive for: What will students know or be able to do better after
completing this course? What skills or competencies do you want to develop in your
students?
Clarify the conceptual structure used to organize the course. Students need to understand
why you have arranged topics in a given order and the logic of the themes or concepts you
have selected.
Describe the format or activities of the course. Let students know whether the course
involves fieldwork, research projects, lectures, discussions with active participation, and the
like. Which are required and which recommended?
Specify the textbook and readings by authors and editions. Include information on why
these particular readings were selected. When possible, show the relationship between the
readings and the course objectives, especially if you assign chapters in a textbook out of
sequence. Let students know whether they are required to do the reading before each class
meeting. If students will purchase books or course readers, include prices and the names of
local bookstores that stock texts. If you will place readings on reserve in the library, you
might include the call numbers. If you do not have access to the call numbers or if it makes to
reading list look too cluttered, give students as their first assignment the task of identifying
the call numbers for the readings. Let students know that this will make it easier for them to
locate each week's readings, and more importantly, it will give them practice in using the
library's electronic resources.
Identify additional materials or equipment needed for the course. For example, do
students need laboratory or safety equipment, art supplies, calculators, computers, drafting
materials?
List assignments, term papers, and exams. State the nature and format of the assignments,
the expected length of essays, and their deadlines. Give the examination dates and briefly
indicate the nature of the tests (multiple-choice, essay, short-answer, take-home tests). How
do the assignments relate to the learning objectives for the course? What are your
expectations for written work? In setting up the syllabus, try to keep the workload evenly
balanced throughout the term.
State how students will be evaluated and how grades will be assigned. Describe the
grading procedures, including the components of the final grade and the weights assigned to
each component (for example, homework, term papers, midterms and exams). Students
appreciate knowing the weighting because it helps them budget their time. Will you grade on
a curve or use an absolute scale?

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Discuss course policies. Clearly state your policies regarding class attendance; turning in
late work; missing homework, tests or exams; make-ups; extra credit; requesting extensions;
reporting illnesses; cheating and plagiarism. Include a description of students' responsibilities
in the learning. You might also list acceptable and unacceptable classroom behavior ("Please
refrain from eating during class because it is disturbing to me and other students").
Invite students with special needs to contact you during office hours. Let students know
that if they need an accommodation for any type of physical or learning disability, they
should set up a time to meet with you to discuss what modifications are necessary.
Provide a course calendar or schedule. The schedule should include the sequence of course
topics, the preparations or readings, and the assignments due. For the readings, give page
numbers in addition to chapter numbers--this will help students budget their time.
Examination dates should be firmly fixed, while dates for topics and activities may be listed
as tentative. Provide an updated calendar as needed.
Schedule time for fast feedback from your students. Set a time midway through the term
when you can solicit from students their reactions to the course so far. See "Fast Feedback"
for ways to get feedback from students.
List important drop dates. Include on the course calendar the last day students can
withdraw from the course without penalty.
Estimate student workload. Give students a sense of how much preparation and work the
course will involve. How much time should they anticipate spending on reading assignments,
problem sets, lab reports or research?
There are several other weaknesses in current practices of curriculum development in
higher education. In the first place higher education curriculum has remained largely teachercentered. The teacher is conceived as a reservoir of knowledge while the students are a
repository to receive knowledge from the teacher and return it on demand. It is advisable that
the curriculum becomes more learner-centered so that the learners initiatives are developed
for use in the world of work. The learners would also have the confidence of practicing what
they have learnt.
The practice of constructing syllabuses and not undertaking systematic curriculum
development appears to have discouraged curriculum reform projects in higher education.
Curriculum reform projects are usually innovative in procedure and products and since
higher educational institutions have continued to remain largely unchanged in their curricula
offerings no reform projects could be undertaken.
The approach to curriculum development in higher education is largely ad hoc rather than
systematic occurring as and when individuals or groups of individuals had been influenced
by their own training. Most of the time, changes come through students who have had
training in Western Europe or the United States and are recruited in our institutions to teach.
Their experiences are brought to bear on the systems they meet and so even though the

27

institutions strive for relevance they cannot because outside influences continue to supersede
policy directives. Besides, policy directives on higher education in the area of curriculum are
very few.
Consequently, traditional subjects and practices abound and remain unquestioned. The old
school subject of English or French Grammar, Geography, History, Chemistry, Physics,
Biology, etc. are common place. It appears the metropolitan institutions of higher education
have continued to influence our institutions through these courses. Newer subject areas like
remote sensing, aeronautics engineering, environmental resources management are still
outside the reach of some higher educational institutions in Africa. Even in the institution
where some developments are taking place in these directions these movements are very
slow. The curriculum is kept very narrow and the process of expanding is very slow.
Curriculum reforms taking place in various Institutions of Higher learning are in pursuit of
this objective. New degree programmes have been developed to replace irrelevant
programmes, and there is increasingly more use of locally authored texts, however, it should
be noted that not every aspect of the curricula can be Africanized given the universal nature
of certain truths in the various disciplines. What is required is a new working definition
which translates knowledge into development. Constraints pertaining to inadequate facilities,
equipment and lack of instructional material, and crowding which hinder effective
implementation of curricula thus affecting quality, need to be addressed.
The Needs and Goals of Society as Determinants of Curriculum Development
The national philosophy of education in a country affects the content and structure of
education. This national philosophy is an expression of the needs, goals and aspirations of
society in the field of education. The aims and objectives of all activities in the field of
education should derive from the needs goals and aspirations of society Curriculum
development, which is the planning of these activities, is thus influenced by the needs, goals
and aspiration of society.
The aims of education in many African countries do not always express the needs, goals and
aspirations of society. Curriculum development in higher education is therefore faced with
the dilemma of planning and developing curriculum based on aims which are not of the
society.
The study of the society involves identification of the needs and goals of society that can be
used as influences on curriculum development in higher education. The need for relevant and
functional human resource by society to provide the expertise required depends on the
curriculum materials planned and developed. And it is in this sense that curriculum
development, especially in higher education, is considered to be very important in the
development of education and human resource in any nation.
Curriculum development for higher education should take place at various levels and must
involve a cross section of society especially those from industry and commerce (the private
sector) to ensure more relevance. Involvement of national governments is ensured by

28

representation on various committees of senior officers of government. Statutory provisions

are made in the composition of committees of higher education, like university senates,
boards of governors and councils of polytechnics and colleges of education. The
presentations made to these committees by the institutions are usually critiqued by
representatives from central government from a funding point of view and not relevance to
the society. It is advisable for higher education institutions to obtain comments on their
submissions from government offices from the point of view of relevance so that the
institution is not blamed for the irrelevance of its curriculum offering. New programmes of
study in higher education institutions that are the result of public declarations by government
must be developed together with officers of government. The capacity to effectively
participate in such activities must always be present within government ministries.
1. You are appointed dean of your faculty in a field of study that has a strong professional
association at the national level. What steps would you take to involve the executive and
indeed members of that association in curriculum development efforts in the faculty?
Global Consideration: Gender sensitivity and Environmental Awareness
Gender sensitivity and environmental awareness are two global considerations that are given
attention in curriculum development efforts for all educational institutions.
The need for increased female enrolment in higher education is desperate in African
countries. Every effort is being made to increase the enrolment of females in higher
education. The curriculum in higher education must contribute to the phenomenon of gender
balance in the institutions and one way is by avoiding sexist biases in the curriculum in these
institutions. The content matter of subject areas and learning experiences must not favor any
particular sex. In programmes on Home Economics, Food Technology and Teacher Training
which have been traditionally offered by women or Agriculture, Engineering and Physics,
which have been traditionally offered by men, caution must be exercised in the development
of curricula to avoid gender bias.
Psychological Determinants of Curriculum Development in Higher Education
Planning and development of curriculum for higher education involve the identification and
study of the attitudes and values of the target group in that sub-sector of the education
system. A study of learners needs and interests are also advised to be undertaken including
their social and cultural background (patterns of learning, authority and authority figures
within the home and family, norms, values and customs). The language of the learners would
also be studied, the languages used, spoken and understood and the relationship of the mother
tongue to the language of instruction. The cognitive development of the learners should
particularly be studied to understand their ability to comprehend idea and processes and the
stages in which the learners are in relationship to the current demands of syllabuses. All of
these psychological features of the learners are important to the curriculum because they
determine the learning experiences to be proposed.

29

The first of the stages dealt with is selection or survey of content matter. The content is
sometimes taken from existing documents (e.g. existing syllabuses, college prospectus
spelling out the courses in each programme, books and research journal, articles in related
subject areas for a new course that is to be originated). The selection of content is in three
parts:

identification of topics
sequencing of the topics according to one of the known methods of arrangement of
content matter (e.g. spiral, simple to complex, concrete to abstract or known to the
unknown). A spiral arrangement is one in which the same topics are presented at the
different levels of the system with increasing complexity and difficulty.
definition of the scope to be reached in the treatment of each of the topics.

All learning, whether at university, school or in the work place should be organized to help
learners achieve these outcomes. The critical outcomes state that learners should be able to:
1. Identify and solve problems and make decisions using critical and creative thinking.
2. Work effectively with others as members of a team, group, organization or community.
3. Organize and manage themselves and their activities responsibly and effectively.
4. Collect, analyze, organize and critically evaluate information.
5. Communicate effectively, using visual, mathematical and/or language skills in the modes of oral
and/or written presentation.
6. Use science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility towards the
environment and health of others.
7. Demonstrate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by recognizing that problemsolving contexts do not exist in isolation.

These outcomes have been adopted by SAQA and agreed by the Departments of Education
and Labor after a great deal of debate and consultation with a wide range of stakeholders.
They reflect essential qualities that all South Africans will need if we are to build a new
democratic society and to create a thriving economy.
Objectives of Higher Education in Ethiopia (proclamation no 650/2009
According to the proclamation, the objectives of higher education are to:
1/

prepare knowledgeable, skilled, and attitudinally mature graduates in numbers

with demand-based proportional balance of fields and disciplines so that the
country shall become internationally competitive;

2/

promote and enhance research focusing on technology transfer consistent with

the country's priority needs;

30

3/

ensure that education and research promote freedom of expression based on

reason and rational discourse;

4/

design and provide community and consultancy services that shall cater to the
developmental needs of the country;

5/

ensure institutional autonomy with accountability;

6/

ensure the participation of key stakeholders in the governance of institutions;

7/

promote and uphold justice, fairness, and rule of law in institutional life;

8/

promote democratic culture and uphold multicultural community life;

9/

ensure fairness in the distribution of public institutions and expand access on

the basis of need and equity (p.4979)

1.1.5. Working in Higher Education

Teaching in higher education instructions involves
1. Designing courses and curriculum

Teachers in higher institutions develop their course outlines and involve in

curriculum development activities. The current pace of technological and
social changes is impelling teachers to think beyond what is in practice.

There is the demand to produce graduates who have the necessary knowledge,
skills and values/attitude towards life/the world of work.
(Possible elements include: the preliminary parts such as name of institution,
course title course No, Cr/hrs, contact hrs, classification (prerequisite . . .); course
description, learning outcome, contents, methods, resources, evaluation
mechanisms, references, etc)

Curriculum development/design is wider than course development. It

involves writing materials, developing resources, conducting tryout practice,
assessing and providing feedback, etc.

In both cases, the designer considers the learners' need and ability, societal needs,
the various development areas such as intellectual, physical, emotional, social,
moral developments, etc of the learners. Therefore in designing a
course/curriculum, the designers need to consider:

Student as whole (see students as people rather than simply as intellects,)

Change: - bring significant change in knowledge skills, and values.

31

Motivation (make students active participant)

Provide transferable skills

Service the community, broadening responsibility, etc.

applicable to life;

How do we write course objectives?

What are the sources of course objectives, contents, methods evaluation mechanisms?
2 Teaching/lecturing we teach students and not contents" Discuss it. Normally, teaching in
higher education institution has been lecturing. What is it?
Can it be modified? If yes, how?
3. Supervising: - this involves guiding students' activity such as projects, thesis,
dissertations, we provide support; encourage independence and developing the interpersonal
relationships.
4. innovating (making use of new technologies)
- Use of communication/information technology to enrich what students learn on the specific
issues.
The use of machines such as computers to make conferences, get e- mail on responses,
give assignments, audio, visual, audio-visual and multimedia systems.
What are the positive and negative effects of these technologies?
5. Assessing and evaluating
It can be seen as assessment for learning and assessment of learning. What does it mean?
How do we assess students? Is it possible to evaluate our methods/courses? How?
5. Teachers conduct research and involve in community services. How do you
evaluate it?

1.2. Learning and Related Issues

1.2.1. Strategies and Styles of Learning
The concept of learning styles refers to individual typical ways of processing information
and seeking meaning (Parkay, 2006: 169). These differences have also been called learning
modes, learning style preferences, or cognitive styles. According to Forrest W. Parkay and

32

associates (2006:169), students preferred learning styles are determined by a combination of

hereditary and environmental factors.
Multiple Intelligences
While many learning theorists believe that intelligence is the general ability to learn to
acquire and use knowledge. Others believe that the weight of the evidence at the present
time is that intelligence is multidimensional, and that the full range of these dimensions is not
completely captured by any single general ability (Sternberg, 1996: 11).
Howard Gardner proposed in Frames of Mind: Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1993a: 8)
that there is persuasive evidence for the existence of several relatively autonomous human
intellectual competences (referred to) as human intelligences. He suggested that there were
at least seven human intelligences:

Logical-mathematical intelligence;

Linguistic intelligence;

Spatial intelligence;

Musical intelligence;

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence;

Interpersonal intelligence;

Interpersonal intelligence;

Naturalist intelligence.

The concept of multiple intelligences is directly useful in teaching-learning process as well as

in curriculum planning. He noted also that educators should be cautious about characterizing
the intellectual profiles of students.

1.2.3. Learning Tasks

Learning tasks are open questions put to a small group who have all resources they need to
respond.
(a) Inductive task: Invites learners to clarify where they are, at present, in terms of new
content, where they begin their study, and what their present conception of the topic
33

includes. It begins with the lives and experiences of the learners. It sets the stage for
learning by sharpening perception. It tells the learner what s/he has to learn as well as
find out what s/he perceives s/he already knows. It is either a rude awakening or a
corroborating experience. Then, the dialogue begins. It may be a warm-up activity.
Content of learners perceptions is the substance of the task. It aims to connect new
knowing with the former learning, and prior knowledge with new content. It helps
self-motivation for new learning.
(b) Input task: Invites the learners to grapple directly with new content/tasks. The new
content is presented, the challenge is set, and the gauntlet is thrown. It involves
presenting substantive concepts, data, skill sets, and attitudes for examination,
comparison, reflection, practice, editing, rearranging, reconstructing. This is done
within the frame of a learning task. New material is met head on. It is presented as an
integral part of the learning task, for learners to work over, struggle with, contest, and
usually recreate to fit their context. Constructed knowledge is the result. This involves
dialogue; deep understanding; the thought characteristic of a skilled practitioner in the
field, and action from reflection, not memory.
(c) Implementation task: It invites the learner to implement new knowledge, skills and
attitudes in the learning environment, immediately, implementing them in the
workshop, class, or session, in a safe environment. This is done to get feedback on the
learners interpretation as well as practice the behavior. Offer practice and
reinforcement. Let learners know what they know.
(d) Integration task: learners are invited to apply what they have learned to their life and
work. This may be done through a projection task inviting the learners to imagine
what integration of such would accomplish in their workplace or life. It may involve
sending a report later for scrutiny by supervisor or instructor. These tasks examine
transfer, the use of such in their workplace or life. Offering feedback on such ensures
that the task gets accomplished and reinforces it at the same time. It is an ongoing
opportunity for assessment, without being a testing task.

34

Authentic learning tasks

Authentic learning tasks are whole-task experiences based on real life (work) tasks that
integrate skills, knowledge, attitude and social context. Instruction is organized around the
whole task. Usually in an easy to difficult progression, this scaffolds learning support from
lots to little as learners progress:
Identifying what an authentic learning task can be challenging. The term is often used
without any real guidance on how to identify whole tasks and then transfer them to a training
context. I stumbled on the following framework from Authentic Task Design, a research
project of the University of Wollongong in Australia. They suggest 10 research based
elements for the design of authentic tasks in web-based learning environments. I thought it
was a useful guide. Hope you do to.
1. Authentic tasks have real-world relevance
Activities match as nearly as possible the real-world tasks of professionals in practice rather
than de-contextualized or classroom-based tasks.
2. Authentic tasks are ill-defined, requiring students to define the tasks and sub-tasks
needed to complete the activity
Problems inherent in the tasks are ill-defined and open to multiple interpretations rather than
easily solved by the application of existing algorithms. Learners must identify their own
unique tasks and sub-tasks in order to complete the major task.
3. Authentic tasks comprise complex tasks to be investigated by students over a sustained
period of time
Tasks are completed in days, weeks and months rather than minutes or hours, requiring
significant investment of time and intellectual resources.
4. Authentic tasks provide the opportunity for students to examine the task from different
perspectives, using a variety of resources

35

The task affords learners the opportunity to examine the problem from a variety of theoretical
and practical perspectives, rather than a single perspective that learners must imitate to be
successful. The uses of a variety of resources rather than a limited number of pre-selected
references require students to detect relevant from irrelevant information.
5. Authentic tasks provide the opportunity to collaborate
Collaboration is integral to the task, both within the course and the real world, rather than
achievable by an individual learner.
6. Authentic tasks provide the opportunity to reflect
Tasks need to enable learners to make choices and reflect on their learning both individually
and socially.
7. Authentic tasks can be integrated and applied across different subject areas and lead
beyond domain-specific outcomes
Tasks encourage interdisciplinary perspectives and enable diverse roles and expertise rather
than a single well-defined field or domain.
8. Authentic tasks are seamlessly integrated with assessment
Assessment of tasks is seamlessly integrated with the major task in a manner that reflects real
world assessment, rather than separate artificial assessment removed from the nature of the
task.
9. Authentic tasks create polished products valuable in their own right rather than as
preparation for something else
Tasks culminate in the creation of a whole product rather than an exercise or sub-step in
preparation for something else.
10. Authentic tasks allow competing solutions and diversity of outcome
Tasks allow a range and diversity of outcomes open to multiple solutions of an original
nature, rather than a single correct response obtained by the application of rules and
procedures.

36

1.2.4. Common Learning Theories

Learning theorists and researchers have not arrived at universally accepted, precise definition
of learning; however, most agree that learning is a change of individual's knowledge or
behavior that results from experience (Slavin, 2003).

It is generally acknowledged that

there are two families of learning theories behavioral and cognitive and that many subgroups
exist within these two families (Parkay, et al, 2006, pp. 165-169).

i) Behavioral learning theories

Behavioral learning theories emphasize observable changes in behavior that result from
stimulus-response (S-R) sequence that begins and ends outside the individual learner, and
learning is the product of design rather than accident.
Furthermore, learning is regarded as a conditioning process by which a person acquires a
new response; and motivation is the urge to act, which results from a stimulus. Behavior is
directed by stimuli from the environment, and a person selects one response instead of
another because of the particular physiological drives operating at the moment of action.
A major construct of S-R behavioral learning theories is the reward response.
-

A response must be rewarded learning to occur

What counts as a "reward" varies from learner to learner. Rewards are often effective
for certain types of learners:

Slow learners;

Those less prepared for a learning task and

Those in need of step-by-step learning

John B. Watson (1849-1936) and B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) are the two principal originators
of behaviorist approach to learning. Watson asserted that human behavior was the result of
specific stimuli that elicited certain responses. His view of learning was based partially on
experiments conducted by a Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov, who noticed that a dog was
working with salivated shortly before it was given food. Pavlov discovered that by ringing a
bell when food was given and repeating this several times, the sound of the bell alone (a

37

conditioned stimulus) world make the dog salivate (a conditioned response).

Watson

believed that all learning confirmed to the Pavlovs S-R model, which has become known
as classical or type S conditioning Expanding on Watson's basic S-R model, Skinner
developed a more comprehensive view of conditioning known as Operant (or type R)
conditioning.
Skinner's model was based on the premise that satisfying responses are conditioned,
Unsatisfying ones are not; as he put it: "the things we call pleasant have an energizing or
strengthening effect on our behavior" (Skinner, 1972, p.74) He believed that educators could
turn their attention from ill-defined inner qualities and facilities to the observable and
manipulability by focusing on external conditions that shape and maintain human behavior.

ii) Social Learning Theories

Social learning theories which are widely endorsed by sociologists, anthropologists, and
social psychologists maintain that human beings have an unlimited capacity to learn. This
capacity, however, is limited by social expectations and by constraints on behavior patterns
that the immediate social environment considers appropriate. According to this view, the
learning process is primarily social, and learning occurs through socialization. Socialization
occurs in a variety of settings, and the job, and it continues throughout life. According to
Albert Bandura (1997, p. 12), the originator of social learning theory, virtually all learning
phenomena resulting from direct experience occur on a vicarious basis by observing other
peoples behavior and its consequences for them. Banduras view of learning is often
referred to as modeling or observational learning.
(iii) Cognitive learning theories
Cognitive learning theories focus on the mental processes people use as they acquire new
knowledge and skills. Unlike behavioral theories, which focus on observable behavior,
cognitive theories focus on the unobservable processing, storage, and retrieval of information
from the brain.

38

According to cognitive learning theories, the individual acts, originates, and thinks, and this
is the important source of learning, but in the case of behavioral learning theory, the
individual learns by reacting to external forces.
Cognitive learning theories emphasize:
-

personal meaning

discovery learning

generalizations

principles

advance organizers

coding, and super ordinate categories

Cognitive views of learning provide the theoretical basis for current approaches to
authentic pedagogy and assessment of learning that emphasis the importance of teaching
and learning high intellectual quality & teaching understanding.
iv) Gestalt-Field Views of Learning
During the first few decades of the 20th century, several psychologists in Germany and later
in the United States began to look at how learners organize information into patterns and
wholes.

Gestalt is a German term meaning Configuration or pattern, and Gestalt

theorists maintain that wholeness is primary; one should start with the total aspects of a
learning situation and then more to particulars in light of the whole. Thus, obtaining an
overview is often an important step to learning.
(v) Constructivist Learning Theories
Since the mid-1980s, several educational researchers have attempted to identify how learners
construct understanding of new material. Constructivist views of learning, therefore, focus
on how learners make sense of new information how they construct meaning based on what
they already know. In part, the roots of constructivism can be traced back to Gestalt views of
learning in that learners seek to organize new information into meaningful wholes.
According to constructivism, students develop new knowledge through a process of active
constructivism. They do not passively receive or copy input form teachers or textbooks.
Instead, they actively mediate it by trying to make sense of it and relate it to what they
already know (or think they know) about the topic (Good and Brophy 2003, p. 398).
The following are seen as common elements of constructivist learning theories:

39

Learning should equip students with knowledge, skills, values, and dispositions
that they will find useful both inside and outside the school.

Instructional goals emphasize developing student expertise within an application

context and with emphasis on conceptual understanding of knowledge and self
regulated application of skills.

The curriculum balances breadth and depth by addressing limited content but
developing this content sufficiently to foster conceptual understanding

The content is organized around a limited set of powerful ideas (basic

understandings and principles)

The teachers role is not just to [resent information but also to scaffold and
respond to students learning efforts.

The students role is not just to absorb or copy input but also to actively make
sense and construct meaning.

Students prior knowledge about the topic is elicited and used as a starting place
for instruction, which builds on accurate prior knowledge and stimulates
conceptual change if necessary (Good and Brophy, 2003, pp. 420 421)

A common element of constructivist approach to curriculum planning and

teaching is known as scaffolding that is, providing learners with greater support
during the early phases of learning and then gradually reducing support as their
competence and ability to assume responsibility increase.

The concept of

scaffolding is based on the work of Lev Semenovich Vygotisky (1896 1934), a

well-known Russian Psychologist.

Vygotisky coined the phrase Zone of

Proximal Development to refer to this view, effective instruction neither exceeds

the learners current level of understanding nor underestimates the learners
ability to learn independent of the teacher.
Generally, one can summarize orientations to learning as follows.
Aspect

Behaviorist

Cognitivists

Humanist

40

Social learning

Constructivist

Learning theorists Guthrie, Hull, Pavlov,

Ausubel, Bruner, Gagne,
Maslow, Rogers

Bandur, Rotter

Dewey, Piaget, Vygotisky

Skinner, Thorndike, and

Kohler, Lewin and Piaget
Watson
View of the learning
Change in behavior

Internal mental process

A personal act Interaction
to

process

(including

insight,
fulfill potential

information

processing,

with

and
Construction of meaning

observation of others from

in experience
a social context

memory, perception)
Locus of learning Stimuli

in

external
Internal

environment

cognitive
Affective

structuring

cognitive needs

and
Interaction of a person,
Internal construction of
behavior,

and
reality by individual

environment
Purpose

of
Produce

education

change

behavioral
Develop
in

capacity

desired
skills to learn better

direction
Teachers role

and
Become
actualized,

selfModel new roles and

Construct knowledge
behavior

autonomous

Arrange environment Structures

to

content

elicit desired response learning activity

of
Facilitates
development

Models and guides new

Facilitates and negotiates
of roles
a and behavior

meaning with learner.

Socialization;

Experiential learning;

whole person
Manifestation

Behavioral
in

objectives;
Cognitive

development;
Andragogy;

adult learning

Competency-based

Intelligence; learning and

Self-directed learning
Social roles;

education;

memory as function of

Skill development and

age; learning how to
learning

learn;

Mentoring;
control.

Self-directed learning;
Locus

of
Perspective
transformation;
Reflective practice.

1.2. Teaching as a Profession and Related Issues

Profession: is a form of employment or occupation, which is respected in society as
honorable, and is only possible for an educated person and after getting training in some
special branch of knowledge (An Oxford Dictionary).A profession is a an occupation that
provides a special service to the community based on accumulated knowledge, skills and
wisdom. It also controls the entry qualifications and work standards of the members.
Thus, one can understand it clearly; it is an employment that demands an individual to
pass through training. It has the following characteristics.
According to Nafukho, Amutabi and Otunga (2005), to have a clear meaning of a profession
requires one to understand what constitutes a profession. Flexner (1915), one of the
pioneering scholars in defining emerging professions, observed that profession must:
(1) involve intellectual operations;
(2) derive their material from science.
(3) Involve definite and practical ends;

41

(4) Possess an educationally communicable technique;

(5) Tend to self-organization; and
(6) Be altruistic (Cervero, 1988: 6). This was regarded as a static
approach for defining a profession.
The second approach for defining a profession is known as the the process approach. In this
approach emphasis is placed on the circumstances by which an occupation professionalizes
(Merriam and Brockett, 1997: 219). To understand the meaning of a profession, the fourteen
characteristics of the professionalization process advanced by Houle (1980: 35-70). He
observed that the professionalization process has the following characteristics:
Clarifying the function of the profession; Mastery of theoretical knowledge;
The capacity to solve problems;

Use of practical knowledge;

Self-enhancement;

Formal training;

Credentialing;

Creation of subculture;

Legal reinforcement;

Public acceptance;

Ethical practice;

Penalties;

Relation to other vocations;

Relation to the users of the service.

Hamilton (2002) noted that members of a profession must maintain high standards of
performance restrain self-interest and promote the ideals of public service in the area of
their responsibilities. In turn, the society accords them substantial autonomy with which
to regulate themselves.
Every profession:
1. Involves an intellectual activity/ body of subject matter knowledge/ and system of
skills;
All professions demand mastery of subject matter that help the individual learn the
theoretical aspect and undergoing a certain period of training to develop the required
skills to perform the particular activity. Teaching as purposive social activity is a
profession because teachers have to attend study area(s) in a certain subject(s), which
they are supposed to teach/ perform.

2. is practicable/practical;

42

This is related to the freedom/ autonomy the individual gets to practice the activities
without any restrictions, or impositions. Teaching satisfies this for it is done openly and
legally without any restrictions.
3. requires an extended period of preparation for entry;
This is related to taking special training to handle the activities prescribed.

An

employment is considered as a profession, it is possible to do it after taking training.

Teaching satisfies this for it s a job that is done after long time training.
4. has literature and unique languages of its members;
This refers to the presence of an area of research and specific terms, concepts principles,
laws and theories through which those who are involved in that particular job
communicate among themselves easily. For instance, teachers, engineers, medical
personnel, accountants, etc communicate among themselves with their own languages.
Example: the word test, and 2 times 3, and 3 times 2 have no similar meanings to a
teacher and medical personnel.
5. is organized
This is a criterion related to forming an association/ organization to formulate admission
standards, make negotiations on the services, promotion, education, social and economic
benefits, etc of its members with the employers. In this regard teaching is a profession for
it satisfies this requirement.
Teaching is a profession for it satisfies all of all the above mentioned criteria.
6. performs specific functions for personal and social purposes;
This is related to the contributions that a particular occupation or employment makes to
the individuals personal life and to the society as a whole. Teaching satisfies this
criterion for teachers earn their living through what they do as teachers. The society also
gets its trained manpower/special service from schools. The medical doctors,
accountants, managers, lawyers, engineers, etc are results of teachers. Therefore, it is a
profession.
Furthermore, teaching as a profession demands:
1. Commitment to the ideal service of human kind rather than to personal gains;
2. Undergoing a relatively long-period of training to acquire the knowledge and
skills;

43

3. Meeting the admission qualifications (criteria) and keeping up-to date through inservice programs;
4. A high level of intellectual energy;
5. Forming organization
6. Trying to get opportunities for advancement, specialization and independence;
7. Ensuring permanent membership in the profession and taking teaching as ones
life-long career.
Teachers who decide to be permanent members of the profession can contribute better
than those who are always ready to leave the profession.
Teachers have commitments to their students, the home and the community, and the
profession

1.3.2

Teachers Professional Code of Ethics

The teachers professional codes of ethics are related to their accountability to their
students, the profession, their employers, the home and the community.
A. Teachers responsibility to their students
This refers to such responsibilities as respecting their rights, providing good
education that would enable them to become productive citizens, helping them set their
future goals, etc.
B. Teachers commitment to the profession
Teachers are expected to perform their duties as teachers being honest to their
colleagues, treat their colleagues as they want to be treated, acknowledge the works of
others, and work towards the improvement of the profession.
C. Teachers responsibility to their employers
Every employee is expected to accomplish tasks the employer wants him/her perform in
the organization faithfully and honestly with the required quality.
D. Teachers responsibility to the parents and the community
Parents have the right to say about the education of the children. Thus, listening to them
and respecting their opinion is mandatory. A teacher never blames the parents for what

44

they say on the education of their children. The community is the body that supports the
school financially, materially, and guards the school from destructive activities.

Unit 2 Expected Qualities of Instructors

Effectiveness in teaching is seen in terms of achieving instructional objectives. Thus, an
effective teacher is the one who achieves his/her objectives with a minimum energy,

45

time, material, finance, etc. Thus, teaching effectiveness is concerned with the learning
outcomes, which the students gain.
Effectiveness is determined by concrete factors and personal qualities. The concrete
factors are related to the basic, identifiable, measurable and acquired issues which can be
achieved through training. They include general knowledge, specialized knowledge,
professional knowledge & skills. The personal factors are related to personal qualities
which are more natural than acquired and are difficult to quantify.
The personal factors are teachers personality traits that affect students behaviors. It is
true that, Students behaviors are greatly affected by teachers overall behavior and acts
(Azeb Desta, 1983). Thus, teachers being the important persons in schools need to have
good qualities. According to Teka Wolle (2004), an effective teacher is the one who:

has good character;

That is, some one who respects truth, is a person of words and actions, a model,

has positive attitude to others, etc.

remains being a student all through out his/her life;

Teaching dies when a person feels that he/she knows all what is required. Teachers

never stop learning.

knows him/her self and the environment;

knows the learners as well as the subject he/she teaches;

identifies and develops his/her special interest and has the ability to be adaptable
to situations;

combines courage and adaptability.

A good teacher is a person who works being guided by a slogan; It is my duty to

turn adversity into opportunity

In general, a good teacher is someone who has breadth of interest, is helpful and cooperative, is considerate and kind for individuals, plays good leadership, takes initiative,
has self-confidence, has the capacity of appreciativeness, has tact, sympathy, patience,
interest in the subject, students and teaching, has personal magnetism, sociability, has
pleasing voice, makes use of standardized language, controlled pitch, has self-control,
enthusiasm, poise, reserve, alertness, good personal appearance, firmness and

46

impartiality, has good judgment, foresight, honesty, intelligence, modesty, simplicity and
punctuality.
Teachers qualities include the teachers capacity of creating students feeling of
acceptance by responding to students ideas, calling students by their name, giving
recognition, taking students questions seriously, avoiding ridicule and sarcasm, showing
respect for human personality, encouraging friendliness, refraining from sending students
from class, giving encouragement at times of failures, and avoiding the use of fear as
motivation.
The qualities also include making use of different methods and techniques such as
problem solving instead of reciting, becoming realist rather than verbalism, learning
through action, encouraging individual and group learning, guiding and all- round
development, democratic human relations as opposed to authoritarian or laissez-faire
type, etc.
In general, effectiveness in teaching depends on the teachers

ability to stimulate interests in learning;

attention to students responses; giving well-developed assignments/projects;

frequent use of illustrative materials;

wealth of commentarial statement;

effective methods of appraising

students work;

freedom from disciplilinary problems;

use of well-established examination

procedures;

an appreciative attitude;

providing definite study help; use of appropriate class procedures; Willingness to

skill in asking questions;

experiment.
Teachers style of teaching such as the use of voice, gait/walking/, facial expression,
gesture; etc contribute to the effectiveness of teachers .Similarly, pace (sense of
timing),use of ones creative power (imagination),use of materials (illustrations),
combing feeling and intellect such as love, hate, anger, frustration, interest with the
factual, which contribute to qualities of teachers.
To sum-up, the qualities of effective teachers are related to their personality,
preparation, lesson planning, avoiding side tracking, reviewing main body, illustrations,
guiding questions, deciding on scope and depth, presentation, that is, the ways by which

47

they convey/impart/, demonstrate, the use of visual materials, chalkboard adequately and
effectively.

Good human relations are established in schools, and teachers develop a culture of
learning from each other and helping each other.
Teachers have taken the initiative to develop their profession.
Teachers have used teaching strategies that encourage students problem solving
capacities, talents and tolerance.
The learning experience and achievement are maximized for every pupil.
Teachers solve local educational problems through research conducted individually or
with others.
Each one of these modules is designed to take 20 hours to complete in each of the first
three years of post-induction service. Each school is expected to appoint a CPD
facilitator and a CPD committee.
Teachers
Ascertain that teacher trainees have the ability, diligence, professional interest, and
physical and mental fitness; appropriate for the profession.
Create a mechanism by which employers, training institutions and the Teachers
Association participate in the recruitment of trainees;
Teacher education and training components will emphasize basic knowledge
professional code of ethics; methodology and practical trainings.
Teachers will be certified before assigned.
1.3.3. Skills and Qualities of Effective Instructor
Effective instructor can have the following qualities:
(a) Ability of working with students:

Have prior experience working with youth in alternative education settings. It

is important to understand what students are going through and to talk to them about
issues important to them.

Maintain student confidentiality as appropriate.

Show respect for students and establish rapport with them.

Appreciate students individuality.

Practice tough love. Support students while remaining firm as an authority figure
who enforces rules, has clear expectations and follows through with appropriate
consequences.

Accept the students where they are. Do not push them too hard to change, do not preach
to them nor force ones own thoughts and opinions on them.

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Have high expectations of students. Students tend to rise to a higher level of

achievement if they are expected to improve and encouraged to do so with
compassion and pragmatism.

Provide positive reinforcement.

Elevate or advance students who are doing well to positions with greater status,
Privilege and responsibility (e.g., allow long-term students to lead parts of classes or
to substitute when the instructor is absentwith school staff in the room.)

Be flexible. Change lesson plans as needed and provide repetition to meet the special
education needs of students.

Demonstrate consistency in the classroom. Maintain a structure that remains the

same over time

Help students personalize what theyre learning by drawing connections between

teaching and real life and telling humanizing stories that youth will relate to.

Help students set goals and support them in achieving them. Find and use
appropriate incentives to support students pursuit of their goals.

(b) Personality Characteristics:

Have a sense of humor, light-heartedness, and positive outlook on life.

Have patience, perspective and the ability to not take things personally.

Demonstrate consistency, predictability and reliability. This means showing up

on time and committing to teach for the full quarter or semester.

Be available to students outside of class (i.e. meet with individual students if

needed.)

Live what you teach. Lead by example and be a good role model.

Exhibit creativity and inquisitiveness.

Demonstrate empathy, caring and attentiveness.

Be non-judgmental, listen well and remain open to questions.

Have a strong sense of self, be honest with students and have good personal
boundaries.

In addition, he/she would:

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Break the lesson into small steps when working with different abilities and skill
levels.

Be passionate for the discipline.

Be highly competent and confident in your ability in the discipline.

Have experience in teaching the discipline. While novices sometimes do well with
youth (they are younger and may build easy rapport with youth), it is best to have
someone who is more seasoned and able to handle alternative education youth.)

Demonstrate the discipline to students to establish your credibility and authority; it

also
gives them an example of what to strive for.

Convey the ethical and philosophical aspects of the discipline and guide the
students in practicing these principles in class and outside of class.

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Unit 3: Principles, Methods and Techniques of Teaching in

Higher Education

3.1. Principles of Teaching: the Concept and the common Principles

Teaching is a law- governed activity. It usually involves a two-way communication, which is
guided by specific principles. Teachers are expected to observe certain principles in their
planning, organizing, directing and checking activities.
Similarly, teachers need to develop the skills of selecting and applying specific principles of
teaching. Thus, in this subsection, the different principles and their applications are
presented.
1.2. Definitions and Characteristics of Principles of Teaching
The subsection deals with the principles of teaching and their characteristics.
What are principles of teaching?
Principles of teaching are generalized statements about teaching activities, which govern the roles
of the teachers and students both inside and outside the classrooms.
They help teachers perform their activities in specific directions and acceptable manners.
They are used as regulators of what the teacher does. They help teachers get sufficient
information on issues related to motivation, readiness, and mechanisms of self learning,
ways and means of making students active participants, creating an environment to make
instruction clear, understandable, applicable and finally durable.
The identified characterizing features of the different principles of teaching include that they
are:
1. Universal are valid in teaching all subjects at all levels of the schooling system. That is
to say whatever subject is taught by a teacher at any grade level, he/she must consider the
different principles of teaching.
2. Essential are applicable in the totality of the instructional process, which means that
they are applicable in planning lesson, organizing the learning environment, presenting
lessons and constructing the evaluation instruments for evaluation purpose.

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3. Compulsory- they make teachers effective in achieving the instructional objectives and
efficient in the use of time, energy, materials, space, money etc their teaching activities.
Effectiveness and efficiency are interrelated terms, which represent different issues.
Effectiveness is always related to the achievement of instructional objectives while
efficiency is used in relation to the wise use of resources such as time, energy, and
financial and material resources. Therefore, the principles of teaching make teachers to
achieve objectives of their lessons with minimum expenditure of resources.
4. Socially determined the principles are results of long years of observation of life
activities and the observation of the principles of teaching in all instructional activities
help teachers satisfy the demands of the society and meet the needs of the learners at all
levels.
The Main Principles of Teaching and their use in Teaching
The different principles of teaching and their applications are presented below.
1. The principle of planning lessons in line with the curriculum;
Teachers are both planners and practitioners. They are expected to refer to the curriculum
materials. The curriculum/course gives the appropriate information on the subject under
consideration. It is obligatory to follow the curricular documents in planning lessons. It
helps teachers achieve the desired end results. It makes the outcomes fit to what has been
planned. If a teacher has no access to the above-mentioned documents and plans as he/she
feels and thinks, the results of teaching become the result of what the teacher has set rather
than what was expected in planning the curriculum.
A teacher who doesnt have the syllabus will directly write objectives of his/her own rather
than focusing on the intended profile.
2. The principle of linking / connecting school learning activities to social life;
Teaching has purpose. There is no education for the sake of education. Students need to
acquire knowledge, develop skills and form value systems, which will help them, respond to
life requirements. Therefore, all what a teacher teaches must be related to economic, social
political, cultural etc life outside of the school. It must enable students to discharge their
responsibilities in the society.

They want to be productive economically, responsible

socially, stable emotionally, active politically and culturally and appreciate art, music and
literature.

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Therefore, the teachers lessons need to unite the theoretical to the practical activities.
The lessons should enable students to think creatively and critically as well as to be able to
see reality objectively.
Teachers need to show where and how the theoretical lessons can be applied in actual life
situation. Practice helps students associate what they learn with the thing that is represented.
It also helps students remember what they learned to a longer period of time.
3. The principle of verbalization in instruction;
The principle advocates making students verbalize of what they are learning in their own
words. The exchange of ideas takes shape and develops through languages. Therefore, to
get a clear understanding and meaning of the material to be learned, students must be
encouraged to talk on the content Areas. Retention increases as the learner articulates what
he/she learned.
For instance, the following data give as the capacity of individuals after different activities.
10% of what is read;

20% of what is heard;

30% of what is seen;

50% of what is heard and seen;

70% of what is articulated (spoken, expressed clearly), and

90% of what is participated in (worked or done) are retained for a certain period of time.
If verbalization contributes to the understanding and retention of what is learned, it is
appropriate to make students involve in giving their opinions, exchange their views, etc. in
the classroom. Therefore, the application of the principle is dependent upon teachers ability
and skill on encouraging students to define, explain, or elaborate in their own words by
highlighting important features or attributes they are introduced to.
4. The principle of making instruction clear by using different instructional media that
appeal to the different senses;
According to many educators, all knowledge must be built on sufficiently clear and lively
perceptions and conceptions. Researches conducted in the communication area indicate
about 11% of human learning comes through the sense of hearing; 83% through the sense of
sight; 3.5% through the sense of smelling; 1.5% through the sense of touching and 1%
through the sense of tasting.
Therefore, teachers need to use different audio-visual materials that appeal to the different
sense organs. The more the teacher uses different teaching aids, the better is the opportunity
to the learners to acquire knowledge, develop skills and values with a minimum of energy
and time.
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The teaching materials could be real objects, models, still pictures such as photographs,
drawings, charts, graphs, posters, mobiles, tape recorders, etc. The scientific basis for the
principle elaborates that the beginning of knowledge is sense perception. No ideas are
formed without sense perception
5. The principle of recognizing individual differences in teaching:
According to the psychologists, every person is an individual. He/she possesses different
features that make him/her different from others. Similarly, they tell us that there has been no
duplication anywhere. There is no and there will be no one in the future who will be exactly
the same as any one of us. However, as no two individuals are exactly alike, they are more
alike than they are different. This in turn makes the grouping of students in a class and
making them learn together.
Individuals differ in their perception, intelligence, maturity level and rates, responses to the
demands of the society and needs as well as interests. Thus, the implication of this to
teaching is that teachers should consider the presence of the individual differences in a class
and try to accommodate the differences. Grouping students and giving tasks that match to
their ability, experiences and skills serve the purpose. Therefore, teachers shouldnt expect
all their students to learn in the same way at the same pace. They perceive the something in
different ways. Thus, to reduce the differences giving a number of examples or use different
audio-visual materials that clarify the issue under discussion is advisable.
Grouping students and reducing the gap can best be done depending on the nature of the
subject and students. For instance, mixed ability grouping provides students to exchange
their views and share their experiences. Similarly, students involvement in individualized
instruction helps resolve some of these problems.
6. The principle of uniting instruction with scientific findings and procedures
Things are in a state of constant change. What was taken as functional at one time becomes
obsolete at other times. What was workable becomes out of fashion / out dated. The
principle advocates the need for focusing on scientific procedures, techniques and recent
findings. It gives emphasis to relying more on the how of things rather than on what of
them.
Teachers need to make themselves up to date through personal efforts not to be out dated.
Search for recent research findings and teaching their students on the basis of workable

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principles, laws and theories are the expected responsibilities. If they dont provide lessons
that are dependent on those recent findings or on the procedures of doing things, they may
teach those rules, formula, laws, principles and theories, which dont work in the actual
situation. For instance, teaching Daltons Atomic Theory today as a working theory makes
students out of date.

7. The principle of integrating (coordinating) different subject areas;

According to this principle, the knowledge of an individual about the main properties and
features of the environment guide his/her practical activities. The environment in which we
live in is composed of the physical and social phenomena and processes. This environment
serves as source of human knowledge. The images, ideas, concepts, judgments, conclusions,
laws, principles and theories are formed from what is sensed and processed from the
environment.
The different subjects that one studies are taken as expressions of the meanings of mans
experiences about the environment. This, in turn shows to us that the different subjects are
inherently integrated. The division of knowledge into the different subjects is to make to the
studies systematic, easy and convenient. Therefore, every teacher who teaches different
subjects in schools need to show the relationships and try to use the students experiences,
knowledge and skills acquired and developed through other subject(s).
Similarly, a teacher who teaches his/her subject at any grade level must consider the
subjects that are taught by other teachers and try to discuss with them to relate the students
experiences and avoid repetition of what students have learned and save time and energy.
The experiences acquired need to be exploited. It helps avoid contradictions with any of the
ideas, concepts, laws and theories learned and minimize boredom.
Asking students to relate, associate, integrate, etc is the best mechanism of integration. For
instance, how do you relate deforestation to draught? What other examples would you give
to the process? Therefore, integration is related to horizontal relationships that exist between
the different subjects included in a certain grade level.
It is manifestation of the relationships that exist between the different subjects and their
areas. For instance, subjects in the natural sciences are closer to each other than they are with
the social studies.

However, this doesnt mean that they dont have any relationship.

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Naturally, no subject is totally independent of other subjects as mans life is full of

integration. Integration enriches students experiences and avoids fragmentation.
8. The principle of the leading role of the teacher and the independent activities of the
learner;
As you are familiar learning is a personal function of the student. It is he/she who learns. It
requires the individuals active involvement in the instructional process. The teacher is to
guide the students in their interaction within the environment. No teacher can make students
to learn what he/she likes if the learner has no interest, the necessary background and if
he/she doesnt involve actively.
Therefore, the teacher motivates students, guides, acts as a stage setter, an organizer, and a
controller. The teacher shouldnt feed ready-made facts, ideas, concepts, laws or theories.
He/she must emphasize on main ideas, concepts, principles, laws and theories and make
students involve in the activities physically, mentally and emotionally.
Thus, a teacher is expected to create a conducive environment for learning. The physical set
up and the social and emotional environment need to be properly arranged. The teacher
should be sympathetic, kind, considerate, etc but firm in his/her stand. The students efforts
in the classrooms and outside of the classrooms help them learn more and better than relying
on only what the teacher does.
9. The principle of making lessons understandable / comprehensible/
The principle favors the adjustment of lessons to the mental abilities of the learners.
Students learn at their best when the lesson fits to their present understanding level.
Every student demands the presentation of a lesson from what he/she knows and proceeds to
what he/she doesnt know. The basic rules in the presentation of lessons are that:
9.1 presenting lessons from the known and proceeding to the unknown.
It is natural to present a lesson from what the students already know to those facts, ideas,
concepts, etc which they dont know. The already known helps the learner integrate or
connect the new, which is coming in. A lesson on the regional issues can easily be taught
after a lesson on the zones. The formation of words can easily be taught after teaching about
alphabets and syllables.

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9.2. Starting lessons from the simple and preceding to the complex
This is a rule of presentation that a teacher must present those contents, which are the
prerequisites for those contents, which have to come later. We shouldnt forget that what is
simple to the presenter is not necessarily simple to the learners. For instance, teaching
multiplication before division makes lessons better understandable than trying in any other
ways. If anyone starts in the reverse way, it becomes very difficult to grasp the operation.
9.3. Presenting lessons from the easy and proceeding to the difficult
The rule advocates the consideration of the psychological and the logical arrangements. It is
appropriate to start from the basics of something and gradually moving to those which are
difficult. In every subject you find the easy contents and the difficult ones. Teaching letters is
easier than teaching how to form words, or write complete sentences following the
grammatical rules of the language under treatment. Teaching addition is easy to that of
subtraction.
9.4. Starting from the concrete and proceeding to the abstract;
The learners imaginations are greatly aided by concrete materials. Presenting lesson with
the support of concrete things help students better understand than presenting them verbally.
Small children learn better with concrete things than with verbal abstractions.
For instance, a lesson in Biology becomes interesting with the help of models, pictures, and
illustrations of bodies, etc. However, as the students grow and get matured, they can learn
abstractions. However, concrete things make lessons more understandable than abstract ones.
9.5. Starting from the whole and proceeding to the parts (specific) and the vice versa
It is found out that perception is better when it is on whole objects than on specific parts.
The presentation from the whole to the part is simple for it is very general and easily
observable. For instance, one can say something better on the whole/general ones than on the
particular issues which need a thorough knowledge. The rule is an expression of the
deductive approach/analysis. It is a process of teaching by applying general rules or
principles to a concrete situation.
Example: All green plants produce their food

Man is mortal;

Tadesse is a man

Therefore, Tadesse is mortal.

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The presentation of rules, formula, theory, law, procedures first and trying to show its
application in different situations is the application of the rule.
The part to the whole is a process of starting from particular cases and finally trying to make
generalizations, rules, laws or theories. A good example of this could be that a person who
repeated by observes a piece of paper floating in air may conclude that, a piece of paper
floats in air. The approach is an expression of inductive approach. One may give a number
of examples first and finally lead to a certain conclusion.
9.6 Starting from the immediate and proceeding to the remote
It is a rule that proposes the presentation of those things, which are known to the learner and
proceeding to those, which are remote. For instance, in social studies it is common to start
from the family issues to the Kebele, and then to Wereda, Zone and Region, Country,
Continent, and then to the World. The knowledge gained about the immediate environment
serves as a foundation for those that come later.
10. The principle of applicability and durability of the results of learning;
The main results of teaching are the knowledge, the skills and values. These achievements
gained by the leaner need to be retained and applied in new and different situation in the
students life.
Retention of results of learning is possible if the student a chance to practice, drill, exercise,
repeat, apply, systematize, or make summaries of what is learned.
Thus, to make knowledge, skills and values durable, solid and permanent, the teacher must
provide exercises, tasks or problems that require the application of the learned rules,
procedures, formula, theory or principles.

Repetition, exercises, application, drills, and

systematization solidify and stabilize the material learned.

11. The principle of seeking economy of effort;
This principle advocates economical use of time, material, energy, space and money.
Presenting ones lesson in a direct and purposeful way is highly demanded. Time, energy
and materials have to be used wisely. The teacher should attempt to achieve the objectives of
his/her lesson with a maximum efficiency. Both students and teachers time, energy,
material, etc will be saved.

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12. The principle of defining the objectives of the lesson

Informing students about the objectives of the lesson ahead of time makes learning fruitful.
Students learn at their best when they are familiar with the objectives of the lesson. It
motivates them and concentrate all their and attention exert their energy to what is expected
of them. Therefore, teachers are advised to inform their students about the objectives of the
lessons at the beginning of the session.
13. The principle that knowledge is acquired but not inherited
Students acquire knowledge, develop skills and form value systems as long as the lesson is
presented in a logical manner. It is true that every individual learns as long as the anatomical
and physiological systems are functioning well. The assumption of the principle is that no
body is born with knowledge, skills, or values. He/she learns these through interaction
with the social and physical environment.
Hence, presenting ones lesson taking into account the logical sequence of the subject makes
students learn.
In general, principles of teaching regulate the teaching and learning activities. The
teachers proper consideration of the principles of teaching makes teachers effective and
efficient. There are teaching principles that are applicable in teaching facts, concepts,
principles, generalizations, theories, etc.
For instance, the following activities enable the learners to remember facts, principles,
generalizations and theories. According to Azeb (1983), the following principles help
students learn in a better way.

An intention to learn well and to remember often aids memory.

Perceiving how the components of the task are related facilitates memory.

Practice in using information (not just repetition) helps the learner to remember it

Evaluating the adequacy and accuracy of ones information is essential for attaining
independence in learning factual information.

Similarly, to help students in skill learning the following work as reference principles.

Feedback enables the learner to adjust his/her performance so that it can be corrected.

In learning complex skills, cues may help the learner complete the task and thus learn to
perform the proper sequence of steps.

Learning skills requires practice.

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3.2. Methods and Techniques of Teaching: Concepts, classifications, the Methods and
their Application
Methods of teaching are ways or means by which teachers import or convey a given
subject matter content to the learner and enable him or her to acquire knowledge develop
skills, and form attitudes, habits, convictions, characters, and value systems.

Thus, methods are tools for the teacher to transmit the message to the learners and make
them interact with the external factors in the teaching and learning environment. They have
to be selected and be applied to achieve the intended educational objectives.
In other words, one may consider

Methods of teaching as series of discrete steps the teacher uses or takes to achieve
educational objectives.

They are the sum total of the teachers work with learners to

determine learners goals, to plan, organize, guide and facilitate their roles in carrying out
their goal seeking activities and to evaluate their achievements.

Other educators consider methods of teaching as follows. It is more comprehensive and an

all inclusive definition.
Teaching method is the rational ordering and balancing of lessons in light of knowledge and purpose
of the several elements that enter into the educational process by taking into consideration the nature
of the learners and materials of instruction and the total learning situation including steps,
procedures, subject matter and instructional activities (Azeb Desta, 1983)

As it can be seen from the above definition, teaching method is a sequential arrangement of
contents and activities on the basis of their appropriateness to students developmental levels
and educational outcomes aimed at. It is an orderly planned progress towards a given and
co-ordinate system of principles for the performance or conduct of practice. Example:
Lecture method, discussion, etc.
Techniques of teaching refers to how will and effectively the teacher applies and follows
specific steps, procedures, ways and manner in teaching or performing specific teaching
acts

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It is related to the details of specific elements of procedures required in the execution of

instruction or teaching such as specific ways of presenting instructional materials, conducting
instructional

activities,

maintaining

classroom

discipline,

questioning

technique,

reinforcement, mechanisms, etc.

Classification of Methods of Teaching
There are different kinds of classifications of methods of teaching. For instance methods of
teaching are classified as traditional and modern methods depending on:
-

the nature of the involvement of students and teachers;

the consideration of educational / teaching objectives and

their modernity (time in use)

Methods of teaching are traditional if the objectives of teaching are taken as, Filling in the
minds of the learner with knowledge Those methods of teaching, which consider the
individuality of the learner and guiding the instructional activity to draw out the potentialities
of the learner are modern methods of teaching
In the traditional methods the teacher centralizes power and dominates the classroom
activities by making students passive listeners specifically in the traditional methods the
teacher:
-

conducts recitation (learning by heart or memorization by mechanical repetition) of what

is to be learned;

is assumed to be a know all and source of knowledge;

motivates learning through warning of failure and punishment;

gives lessons / tasks without involving students;

evaluates the performances of students by hearing the recitation / reproduction of what

was learned.

In the traditional methods, the student teacher relationships are autocratic type. They are
teachers dominated or centered ones. In terms of time they are the oldest methods of
teaching.
The modern methods attempt to involve the students actively and develop skills and values in
addition to the acquisition of knowledge. The students participation in the teaching
learning process, especially in planning, organizing and performing the different tasks under
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the guidance of their instructor(s) is very high. In this category of methods, much attention is
given to directing students efforts towards learning by doing rather than through
memorization or recitation of the learned materials. Encouragement and guidance in the
activities are given instead of warning of failure and punishment. The modern methods
include problem solving, group discussion, project work, students independent activities
/study, individualized instruction, etc. They have activities that require making analysis,
reasoning and forming generalization on the basis of the data collected. Applications of what
are learned in particular and new situations are common activities. The methods enhance
democratic teacher student relationships
Both the traditional and modern methods are in use today. The traditional methods are
useful in teaching and memorizing rules, theorems, theories, drama, formula, medical
instruction, etc. The modern methods are also useful in making instruction applicable, solid
and durable. They make the use of modern instructional technologies possible and are
student centered. They are based on recent psychological and scientific findings.
The classifications of methods of teaching also include classifying methods of teaching as:
1. teachers presentation methods
2. teacher students conversation methods and
3. students independent work methods
In teachers presentation method, the teacher plays a significant role in the classroom the
teacher is more active than the students.

This approach is useful in presenting new

information, giving preliminary review or summarizing issues, making conclusion, etc.

These categories of methods are appropriate for effective transmission of contents that help
students develop cognitive knowledge and abilities.
In these methods the presentations are formal and verbal. Students listen and observe what
the teacher explains and demonstrates. Questions are also asked to check the students
learning and to revise the issues under treatment.

The methods include lecture,

demonstration and displaying methods.

Teacher students conversation methods are those which make students active
participants. They are made to answer questions posed and ask questions whenever they are
in doubts and need further explanations the methods combine the teachers and students

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activities. In these methods the teacher is not considered as source of information, but a coinvestigator.
They are multi directional verbal interactions. The common methods of this category are
the factual and problem (heuristic) conversations and group discussion methods.
The students independent work methods are methods where the student carries out
his/her activities at his/her own pace and time. He/she will do it with self responsibility,
self planning and self actions. The student involves actively in practical and purposeful
learning activities.
The roles of the teacher in these activities are so little and the control is not felt very much.
He/she encourages the students to have good experiences and conduct experiments to
discover principles by themselves. The methods include the assignment, project and problem
solving methods.
Other classifications put the different methods as student centered, teacher centered and
active methods.
Whatever, the classifications are the different methods of teaching are the tools for the
teacher in his/her interaction with the students and the materials to be taught under a certain
classroom condition. He/she must select the methods and use them in his/her teaching.

The Major Methods of Teaching: Mechanism, Applications, Advantages

and d

Disadvantages

The Lecture Method: It is the oldest teaching method, which is identified as a method of
explanation or clarification of contents to students verbally. It is a method where the teacher
is more active and students are made passive. It is usually a one way communication where
the teacher narrates or presents on social or natural events, processes, procedures, etc by citing
authorities in the field of the subject but not students.

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The lecture method can be classified as unmodified and modified lecture. The unmodified
lecture is a formal lecture where the teacher talks for the whole of a period without a pause /
interruption. In this form of lecture method, the teacher doesnt check students learning.
He/she doesnt ask questions and will not allow any student to ask questions. Usually the
teacher doesnt write points even topics and subtopics on the chalkboard.
This form of the lecture method is highly applicable in higher learning institutions where
the students are matured, well experienced in taking their notes and referring to other
related materials in the libraries. The students are passive listeners and observers depending
on the topic, which is under treatment; the use of instructional aids is almost unthinkable.
This form of lecture saves time, manpower and helps the teacher to cover large portion
within a short period of time.
The teacher usually uses different audio visual (AV) materials. The pauses or the breaks in
the middle of the lecture help students get chances of systematizing, exercising, applying,
processing, etc of what they are learning. It gives an opportunity to check the theoretically
treated issue against the reality. The feedback the teacher gets help him or her evaluate the
effectiveness of the method employed, the conditions, and the problems of the learners, the
teaching environment, facilities, etc and to make an immediate remedial measure. It is
applicable at primary, secondary and higher learning institutions.
The Advantages of the Lecture Method
The lecture method benefits the teacher for the teacher is the one who selects, refers, plans,
or outlines, organizes and presents the material. It is a method which is usually used to:

Introduce new topics;

Revise the already taught material

Help students integrate the new lesson with the earlier;

Make correction on common errors;

Arouse interests of the learners; etc.

All these advantages of the method depend on the teachers ability and skill of planning,
organizing, delivering lessons and asking question.
Thus, the advantages of the lecture method include that

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a) it is an effective way to introduce new information, methods of doing something,

procedures of work, etc.
b) it helps to summarize major concepts, principles, theories, etc of a lesson effectively;
c) it is a suitable teaching method to demonstrate models and to clarify matters that confuse
students;
d) it saves time and helps to overcome shortages of manpower and materials;
e) it ensures a systematic acquisition of knowledge; etc.
Disadvantages of the Lecture Method
The lecture method as a method of teaching has the following limitations.
1. It is less effective in stimulating students interests;
2. It is sometimes a boring approach for it doesnt combine mental and physical activities;
3. It gives no real social experience by giving emphasis to facts, principles and theories
being too formal;
4. It is an approach where skill learning is so minimal;
5. It doesnt encourage students activities that demand efforts from the students;
6. It doesnt promote creativity o help students to develop responsibility;
7. It doesnt fit to small children unless it is modified and adjusted to the learners
8. It favors either the bright or the slow learners
9. It is a one way flow of ideas, concepts, etc and makes students mini library or stores to
keep every information
2. The Demonstration Method: Definition, Nature and Classification
The Demonstration /performance/ method is a visualized presentation that involves showing
how to perform an act or to use a procedure, or showing an experimentation of important
processes, events and procedures of work.
The method uses real objects, natural phenomena, models and processes to show and tell. It
involves verbal explanation and practical illustrations, handling or operating equipment or
materials in the classroom, in the laboratories, workshops and outside the classrooms. It is a
method of teaching that develops both mental and motor skills of the learners. It involves
observation, imitation, participation and practices.
The demonstration (performance) method has two major forms. They are:
1. formal demonstration method;
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2. informal demonstration method

In the formal demonstration method, all the explanations and demonstrations are done by the
teacher /demonstrator/. Students are simple observers. They sit or stand at a place where
they can listen and observe about the demonstration and the practical activities respectively.
Formal demonstration is usually done when there is no sufficient materials, time and when
there is the need for too much care in the demonstration.
The informal demonstration (performance) method is the form where students are made
active participant individually or in-groups. In this form, the teacher demonstrates the part of
the demonstration or the whole of the activity, or process or procedure and makes the
students involve in practicing what was demonstrated. The participation of the students
depends on the availability of sufficient materials the time required and students ability and
skills in handling the equipment or materials in use. If students have no experience in
handling the materials, the choice is always to be formal demonstration.
Both forms of the demonstration method involve explanation and demonstration. However,
the informal form of the method involves practice of students, the supervisory activities of
the teacher while the students are performing the activities and finally the evaluation of the
results. Thus, one can see five components of the demonstration method, which can be done
in dependently or concurrently in some cases. The five components include:
1. Explanation a stage where the teacher gives explanation on the objectives procedures
and expected results of the demonstration;
2. Demonstration showing the mental and physical activities in a sequential order in front
of the students. It can be done concurrently with the explanation;
3. Students performance a stage where students are given chances to practice the
different activities as they are demonstrated. Usually more time is given to students
practice.
4. Instructors supervision a component part of the demonstration method where the
teacher walks around and visits what individuals or groups of students are practicing.
The purpose is to make a follow up and help students on their practice students
performance and instructors supervision can be done concurrently.
5. Evaluation a stage of passing judgment on the performance of students. It is done after
students have done the activities thoroughly.

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The training models fixed to the

demonstration purpose will be removed. The evaluation is to be done individually and

the students must be told when they will be tested.
Advantages of the Demonstration Method:
The demonstration method:
1. makes individuals more likely to believe what they see than what they hear or read;
2. makes use of real objects or models;
3. makes pacing flexible and the demonstrator can move at a pace desired by the students;
4. makes repetition possible until students learn the skill completely;
5. involves students in the actual activities and make them learn from their own practice;
6. motivates students when performed well;
7. links theory and practice and fosters creative thinking;
8. makes supervision and prevention of errors possible;
9. gives opportunities to students to make use of the same equipment / tools as their
teachers;
10. helps students to see developments / progress and fixing facts and principles.
The Shortcomings of the Demonstration Method
The demonstration method has the following limitations.
1. It requires a considerable time and expense to obtain the necessary materials;
2. most of the time heavy objects are difficult to transport;
3. if small objects are used, there is a strict limitation on the number of students who can
adequately observe the demonstration;
4. if a limited number of materials are available, some members of the groups may not be
occupied while one individual is going through the process of imitating what he/she has
seen being demonstrated;
5. usually a certain pace suits to the teacher and not to individual students;
6. sometimes, it is costly in terms of teachers time, rooms, etc.
7. some activities may not be slowed down for they may have effects on students and the
teacher (E.g. Chopping an onion)

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Students usually lose attention, if the demonstration is too long; too much involved; and
cover too many materials. Therefore, it is advised that demonstrations should be short in
terms of time, short in terms of steps and cover few materials.
It is very important that the teacher must consider the class size, the length of time at hand,
the availability of materials, and students experience at the planning stage. All students
must follow the safety rules and do the demonstrations just after the teacher has done the
tasks. If it is not, it may expose the students to danger and results in damages to the schools
property.

3. The Group Discussion Method: Definition, Nature and Condition for Use
In-group discussions, students usually discuss on a topic, make a review, clarify points, make
corrections, apply their earlier knowledge and skills and reinforce their learning. The method
is particularly suitable to contents that involve matters of opinion. It can be applied when the
objective of the lesson is to bring about changes in the attitudes of the learners. One can use
it whenever there is the need for obtaining feedback about the learners level of
understanding and ability to apply the already acquired knowledge.
When should a teacher use the group discussion method?
The situations where one uses the group discussion are many and varied. The possible
conditions to use the group discussion method could be:
1. When the teacher expects the ideas of students to analyze a problem and decide on a plan
of action;
Most of the time, group discussions at any level provide opportunities to get better ideas; to
make analysis; and device mechanisms to make sensible decisions.

A group usually

generates better ideas if it discusses freely and genuinely.

Example: One may get better ideas from group discussion on mechanisms to control the
spread of malaria better than doing by oneself.
In the above example, students may discuss in-groups and forward a number of alternatives
measure to be taken. This works in grouping students into smaller groups to get the ideas of
each student on the issues. They all involve in the search for solution and at the same time
they will do all what they should do for its realization.

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2. When the teacher feels that there is the need to expand the total amount of information
obtained in the class by drawing out suggestions and opinions from many students, not
from the teachers;
This helps to enrich the information on what is to be discussed whenever the teachers
experience is limited.
For instance, a teacher may make his/her students to discuss on:
a) activities that are to be done to reduce soil erosion in the immediate community or
in the country as a whole?
b) measures to be taken to overcome the problem of illegal hunting in the near by
park:
It definitely results in a lot of ideas. Better ideas can be forwarded by the group members
and expand the amount of information which individuals might have acquired from class
lectures.
3. When the teacher wants to make his/her students to get an understanding of a program, a
principle or a policy;
This is one of the important points to justify the need for group discussion. It is a common
experience that a deep understanding of a program has a positive effect on its
implementation. Distortions may occur when a program or a policy is implemented without
having a clear understanding. However, distortions and failures can be reduced, if views are
exchanged and opinions are forwarded regarding the issue in question.
The questions depend on students level of understanding and the nature of the subject. For
instance, the question could be on, Students role in preventing HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia?
The students discussion under the guidance of their teacher provides them a chance to get
better understanding on the policy.
4. When the teacher wants to incorporate the discussion method as an essential part of most
other methods;
The group discussion method can be used along with other methods.

Lectures,

demonstrations, field trips, role-playing and some other methods may become more effective
if they are followed by group discussions.

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Forms of Group Discussions

There are different forms of groups for group discussions. There are decision groups, which
are organized to discuss and reach at a consensus decision on a discussion matter. In this
form it is compulsory to discuss on the issue and arrive at a decision on a plan of action.
The other form of a group is a learning or exploration group whose activity is to guide each
student to gain new ideas and to discover personal meanings through group interaction. The
learning group encourages mutual assistance, interactions and respects the dignity and
integrity of individuals. It has more educational value than a decision group.
The different learning groups can be classified as:
1. Buzz group
2. Panel discussion group
3. Seminar group and
4. Brains forming group
1. The buzz group Discussion
It is a discussion situation whereby the class students are divided into small groups of three
to six students for a brief discussion. Then, the whole class later reforms for reporting the
results.
A Buzz group discussion is necessary when:
a) it is difficult to get a class start to discuss in a larger group;
Sometimes, the class atmosphere becomes too formal and no one says much. The, it is
necessary to group students into small groups and make every body say some thing in
smaller group.
b) teachers want some suggestion from the entire class or when the teachers want to make
class action to be based on the recommendations from all. Definitely the small group
makes it possible for everyone to express his/her own views.
c) students seem to be getting tired or bored.
d) students hesitate to make critical comments in a large group; They will feel free to give
ideas / comments when they are in smaller groups.
Procedures on Conducting Buzz group Discuss
To make effective use of a buzz group discussion, the teacher must do the following
1. Dividing the whole class into smaller groups of three to six students;
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2. arranging their seats in a circle, so that they face each other;

3. asking them elect a chair person and a secretary;
4. telling the students the question for discussion; one must be sure that the students have
understood it. If it is possible write it on the chalkboard. Make the task simple and just
one question.
5. telling the students the amount of time they will have for discussion, possibly 5 to 10
minutes.
6. observing the groups and giving help to anyone who doesnt seem to understand the
procedure;
7. a few minutes before the time is up, telling them that there are x minutes for the
discussion. If there is an extension of time, announce to all groups. But dont let it be
too long, for a buzz group session is always a brief discussion;
8. calling the group back together again and asking the secretary from the first group to
report. Summarize the main points on the chalkboard. Call on the other secretaries
requesting them to mention only new points which were not brought out by the first, the
second, etc. It may become a time consuming and boring if you allow all the groups
present all their findings.
2. The Panel Group Discussion
Panel group discussion is a discussion between a group of three to six people who have a special
knowledge and interest in the topic to be discussed.
A panel discussion group has a chairperson, panel members, and audience. More often the
teacher who has invited the panel members act as a chairperson. This will ensure that the
discussion satisfies the needs and the interests of his/her students. It must be clear that the
audience have no opportunity to express their views. They participate as listeners. Their
questions will be addressed to the panel members through the chairperson before they come
to the panel discussion. The students may raise additional questions.
Panel discussion shouldnt last more than an hour. The topic for discussion may involve
different people from different discipline. For instance, the topic for the discussion could be
The Relationship between Training Programs and National Development in Ethiopia. The
panel members could be an educator, a social worker, an economists, etc.

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In panel discussion the panel chairperson has the following responsibilities.

1. The chairperson (teacher) contacts members of the panel before the meeting. He/she
briefs them about the purpose of the panel discussion, the background of the learners, and
some important points, which need to be covered about the topic during discussion.
2. The chairperson gives an introduction, which should include the topic and, the purpose of
the discussion, the names and qualifications of the panel members and the time limits of
the discussion.
3. The chairperson presents questions prepared with the help of the students to the panel on
the topic.
4. The chairperson provides opportunities for all panel members to express their views and
he/she summarizes the points made by the speakers.
3. Seminar Group Discussion
A discussion after a student or group of students is made to prepare original paper(s) on
different topic(s) and is made to present it/them. It is a method where the discussion will be
conducted after the presentation.
The method is common in teaching at higher learning institutions where the students are
more matured than in the lower grades. However, students at the lower grades can
present a report on a task that corresponds to their level of understanding.
The advantage is the involvement of students in the discussion. They learn how to listen to
what others talk and express their own ideas when they are given the opportunity.
4. The Brainstorming Session / Group Discussion
A discussion session by the whole group of a class to forward solution to a problem
creatively. It is a conference technique whereby a group seeks as many answers to a
problem posed as possible by collecting all the ideas contributed spontaneously by its
members.
The purpose of the discussion is simply to elicit a number of ideas about and responses to a
problem. In the brainstorming session, there are four basic rules to be observed. The basic
rules are that:

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1. criticism is forbidden and adverse judgments of ideas must be with held until late;. Thus,
no one is allowed to make a negative remark. Judicial judgment is ruled out.
2. free wheeling is accepted, i.e. the wilder the ideas the better. Thus, unusual ideas are
encouraged;
3. quantity is wanted. Because the greater the number of ideas the greater likelihood of
devising solutions to problems;
4. combinations and improvements are sought. I.e. in addition to contributing ideas of their
own, participants should suggest how the ideas of others can be improved or how two or
more ideas can be synthesized. A secretary notes all the suggestions that are advanced.
Later a judging committee usually composed of other members of class screens these
ideas.
Advantages and Shortcomings of the Discussion Method
The group discussion method as a two-way communication has the following advantages.
1. In discussions different views and opinions are forwarded. This enables students to
comprehend an issue from different angles;
2. It exposes students to valuable experiences which develop their skills of listening and
speaking
3. It gives the students an opportunity to analyze and synthesize facts at a higher intellectual
development.
4. It provides the possibility of constant feedback between the teacher and the students.
When the response is erroneous or inappropriate, immediate modification can be
introduced and justified
5. It helps students to learn and function efficiently in a group setting.
6. As it is fewer teachers centered, it allows students a chance to develop their ideas.
In general, group discussion enhances personal growth and competence. Students develop
their communication skills, professional attitude and intellectual abilities.
The shortcomings of the discussion method are related to preparation and presentation group
discussions have to be planned properly before the discussions. If group discussion is not
well planned and directed, it consumes time unnecessarily. Only few students may dominate
the situation. Thus, the group discussion method becomes productive if the teachers plan and

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conduct it properly one shouldnt forget that the group discussion method is an approach
where the teacher and students work together in small groups. They discuss on questions and
reports it serves as a discussion panel. The students are allowed to carry on discussion on a
topic make reviews, clarifications, corrections, applications, and reinforce their learning by
attending the presentations of groups independent works. If the teacher expects other things
it doesnt serve.
4. Role playing Method
The role playing method is an approach, which is carried out by the guidance of the teacher,
and it is presented before observers. It involves the spontaneous acting out of a prescribed
role in a given realistic situation by two or more actors. Thus, it can be defined as follows.
Role playing method is unrehearsed dramatization in which the players attempt to take
situation clear to themselves and to the audience by playing the role of participants in the
situation. There is no script to be studied.
The dialogue and actions of the actors grow out of the situation as it develops in the ways and
directions the individuals lead it. It is not a play acting or dramatization. It is a method
where the instructor and the other students in the class serve as observers and critics.
Role-playing is a form of experience learning. It is more impact than everyday experience. It
involves observation, discussion, and analysis, i.e. systematic reflection on the experience
with the aim of learning something from it.
It makes evident what a person has as the ability to do, thus illustrating dramatically the gap
between knowledge and ability to apply it or the gap between thinking and doing. It also
teaches the interrelationship between intellectual solutions to problems and the emotional
aspects of implementing these solutions.
The role playing method is a uniquely effective method of stimulating real-life situation in
which persons are trying to persuade each other or reach an agreement. After every act of /
role in a specific situation, there is a discussion.
The role playing method plays a great role to train students in skills of dealing with other
people and helps them understand other students feelings and reactions. Because the
method provides the opportunity to experiment with ways of handling other people in

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different situations without the loss and expense which would result from practice in real life
situations without the loss and expense which would result from practice in real life
situations. For instance, schoolteachers can be trained by this method on How to maintain
discipline in a disturbing class and school directors learn How to resolve student teacher
disputes through role playing method.
Shortcomings of the Role-playing Method
1. The learners acquire more direct experiences of feelings and concepts than reading,
discussing and attending lectures.
2. It have the loss and expense which would result from practicing in real-life situation
3. Motivation is seldom a problem and concentration is easy to maintain, because everyone
is interested and readily perceives the application of the episode to him/herself. On top of
that, everyone in the audience quickly identifies with one or another of the characters and
follows.
4. It provides practical experiences in human relations and serves as a means for changing
attitudes. It also provides opportunities to see oneself. It brings reality to classrooms and
it does so dramatically and convincingly.
5. It brings theory to life and teaches that ones perception of a situation is not always like
others.
5. The Questioning and Answering Method
It is a method of posing a series of questions to students in order to promote thinking and
understanding. As a method, it is an informal assessment technique, which is used with large
groups of students. It is a way of ascertaining the existing level of learning or entry behavior
in the introduction to a lesson and/or assessing the learning that has taken place at the end of a
lesson.
The method can have a number of questions that may involve students capacity to recall or
involve in making analysis and thinking to respond/solve a problem. Thus, there could be
variations. The common questioning mechanisms include:

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1. factual questioning method where the questions demand students ability to recall or
reproduce the learned facts, ideas, procedures, techniques, classifications, rules, laws,
formula, theories, conventions, articles, etc.
These questions are questions of what, where?, who?, when? etc.
They dont demand analysis, but simple recall of the established facts, ideas, etc. as they are.
2. Problem solving questioning (Heuristic) method
It is an aspect of the questioning and answering method, which requires critical thinking;
making analysis; and passing judgments. These are questions where the answers to a
question are plenty and diversified. They are questions of why?, how?, Is?
Group participation questioning method
A method where the teacher asks a question that involves group discussion of those who are
near by to each other and giving answers through a representative the answers could be
plenty and diversified.
The questioning and answering method stimulates students to get new knowledge, to solve
problems, to form attitudes, conviction to develop abilities of arguing, interpreting, and
linguistic skills and abilities. The method:
1. makes students active participants and feel that they are contributing to learning
2. helps teachers identify misconceptions at an early stage;
3. can be built from simple to the complex;
4. demands advance preparation of questions on major points;
5. provides opportunities to exercise, make drills or practice;
6. develops the ability to think, organize, indicate relationships, evaluate, etc of students;
7. helps to find out the students knowledge, area of interest, agreements and disagreements;
8. assists the teacher to get feedback on quality of learning; etc.
To make the questioning and answering method effective the teacher must:
a) formulate clear and precise questions
b) adapt the questions to the students level of maturity and capacity;
c) make all students active participants;
d) state the questions before naming a student to respond;

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e) give enough time to think over and must demand complete answers;
f) listen to the given answer carefully and evaluate it;
g) not repeat the wrong answers to avoid confusion and not to affect the feelings of these
made errors;
h) be able to respond quickly to the students answers
i) use praise and other encouragement;
j) be active in accepting students responses in positive manner;
k) paraphrase students responses but not answering ones own questions.
6. The project Method
It is a method where students are usually given an individual topic for an in depth analysis.
They often have to work independently do a kind of research and report either in writing or
verbally to a group. The project could involve a group of students working together on
different aspect of the same problem.
It is a co-operative study where students are grouped and are made to produce tangible
product. It is done with relatively little direct interaction with the teachers
The teacher is required to identify the task(s) and give direction clear instruction. He/she
must make a continuous follow up and give appropriate advises on how the students(s)
should accomplish the task(s) at hand. The teacher combines the results and forms the
whole.
The project method has a great application in teaching practical subjects which may involve a
number of skills and direct contact with actual life problems. The projects could be on
construction of model houses, growing crops, preparation of food, collection of insects,
rocks, cultural materials, plants, seeds, sample products, models, etc. There are a lot of
project types.
The common types of projects are classified as:
a) the producer type - where the emphasis is to actual construction of a material object or
article,
b) the consumer type - where the chief concern is to obtain either direct or vicarious
experience, such as reading and learning stories, listening to music etc.
c) the problem type - in which the chief purpose is to solve a problem involving the
intellectual process;

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e) the drill type - where the objective is to attain a certain degree of skill in a reaction as
learning a vocabulary.
Specific criteria to make projects useful
Yes, there are specific, criteria to make projects useful. Thus,
1.

timely - projects should be related directly to the lesson and vocational interest. They
should suit to the particular mental and chronological ages of students
Environmental and seasonal factors need to be considered:

2. useful - the practical aim of the project must be identified. It must fulfill a long-standing
need. The learning experiences in a project must be capable of being applied in life;
3. challenging - project should neither be too simple and easy nor too long and difficult. It
must challenge the students being in between.
4. economical - projects should not unnecessarily tax energy and money of students. There
should be optimum use of the time;
5. rich in experience - a lot of experiences of the sociable nature should be provided in a
projects. It must be capable of correlating different subjects and practical activities of life;
6. enhancing co-operation it should allow students to think and plan independently and co
operatively. The project (s) should be implemented in such a way that the students are
kept active both physically as well as mentally.
The project method provides the following advantages.
it provides a conductive environment for learning through practice and
independently;
it gives satisfaction and happiness to students;
it provides situation to create unity of different subjects;
it provided sufficient opportunities to the students to work co-operatively for
common purpose;
it cultivates virtues like tolerances, independence, open- mindedness, resource
fullness, etc.
it discourages cramming and memorization.

It stresses problem - solving,

thinking and reasoning;

it provides freedom to work enthusiastically on self-chosen projects;

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 it solves disciplinary problems for students dont get time to involve in anti-social
acts;
it makes learning durable, and makes students to get they joy and learn in a
natural way.
Limitations
Yes, it has its shortcomings: According to authorities it has the following shortcomings or
problems.
a) A project method is a time-consuming this is so for students are left to work on their
projects by themselves. They may take long to complete the work.
b) It is very expensive in terms of getting financial and materials required.
c)

It requires highly trained teachers who are well rounded in many fields of study.

d) The materials required for project method may not be available easily and cheaply.
e) The assignments may be limited to a certain area of study. Therefore, it creates a problem
of assessment of what students have learned in a particular area of study.
f)

It is difficult to identify the share of work of individual members of the group if it is a

group project.

g) Over use of a group project method creates a dependency of an individual on a group.

7. The Problem Solving Method

It is an instructional method whereby the teacher and students attempt in a conscious,
planned and purposeful effort to arrive at some solution to same educationally significant
difficulty.
It is a combination of many methods where trial and error approach is applied. The students
are expected to collect data on the basis of the problem, process the data and analyze it to
come up with solutions. Problem solving is a skill that can be learned. it is a method where
students are placed In situation(s) requiring self-directed learning under the teachers general
guidance.
Tasks or exercises are given to enable the learners make their own discoveries. It is obvious
that the best way to teach is to give the learner the direct practice in using his her own
intelligence.

In the problem solving method guides the students to form principles

generalizations, laws and theories (inductive approach) from his/her particular experiences or

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he/she deduces rules as a consequence of conformation with an important problem. It

stimulates students to ask questions and acquire knowledge.
It helps students develop their reasoning power in depth. It is applicable in all subjects and
life situations. Fields in the social and natural sciences provide better opportunities to
exercise it than in other subjects. The method is classified as inquiry and project methods.
In the use of problem solving method the following steps are observed.
1.

Identifying and defining the problem. Make a clear conception of the problem and
state it in a manner that it leads to a solution.

2.

Formulating a hypothesis /basic questions to answer the questions.

3.

Collecting and organizing the data and information

4.

Making analysis of data collected.

5.

Drawing conclusions on the basis of findings

6.

Applying the findings (results).

The method:
a)

develops the cognitive skills of searching for information and data processing, the
concepts of logic and causality that would enable the individual student to inquire
autonomously and productively;

b) gives the learners a new approach to learning by which they could build concepts
through the analysis of concrete activities and the discovery of relationships between
variables;
c)

helps the learners capitalize on two intrinsic sources of motivation, the rewarding
experiences of discovery and excitement that is inherent in autonomous searching and
data processing. The method allows learners to demonstrate and develop a wide range
of skills and personal qualities, which include the ability to show initiative, to take
responsibility and plan, to solve problems, to make decisions and communicate
effectively. It is a highly active and participatory method, which gives opportunity for
involvement.

It stimulates students thinking, reasoning power and improves their

knowledge. It makes students self-reliant.

8. The Field Trip, Method
Field trip method is a planned visit to places outside of the regular classroom to obtain
information directly and study real situations.

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The visits can be used to develop critical thinking and broaden the horizons of the learners as
they see different things and activities. They can also be used to make the relationship
between the school and community programs closer.
Every field trip has three major parts. They are:
1. pre-trip discussion period;
2. the trip itself; and
3. the post-trip discussion period.
What are the main activities to be done at the different parts?
1. The pre-trip discussion is a phase where the teacher is required to select the place to be
visited and discuss about the visit with the students and the concerned bodies.
In planning a field trip, the teacher is required to:
a) arrange the visit with the relevant authorities and obtain permission for the trip from
the school administration;
b) discuss the purpose of the trip with the students and emphasize specific point to be
observed;
c) give background information to arose interests;
d) prepare and distribute any materials to the learners which can be used profitably in he
course of the trip;
2. The trip itself:- on the trip the teacher should draw the students attention to points of
interest. He/she should mix with the students, be observant and must ensure the students
to be adequately protected.
3. The post trip discussion
After the trip, it is important to hold a post-trip discussion period to summarize what was
seen and draw conclusions about what was learnt. It is a stage to determine the value of the
total experience to the group by raising questions for further study.
9. The student Independent study method
It is a method of teaching where the student is allowed to work independently according to
hi/her ability, plan time and pace.
The method is established on the assumption that learning is best achieved when it is
individualized. As a method, it permits the learner to learn mainly through his/her own
active involvement in practical and purposeful learning activities.

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The method provided opportunities for self-planning, self-responsibility, self-pacing and

success in action.
The students independent study method helps the student:
a)

acquire a more conscious, deeper and long lasting knowledge;

b) develop positive attitude towards learning;

c)

develop the spirit of inquiry and efficiency in acquiring knowledge; and

d) expose to real life situations.

However, students who lack purpose, self-initiative and self-discipline may not wholeheatedly participate in independent learning activities. Its creates individualism if it is used
frequently prepare lists of topics that can be done independently.

10. Team Teaching method

Team teaching is any plan where two or more teachers plan, organize and teach the same
group of students cooperatively. It can be defined as,
Any form of teaching in which two or more teachers regularly and purposefully share
responsibilities for planning, organizing, presenting, and evaluating lessons prepared
for the same group of students.
The team teaching method, when properly conducted, it provides a balanced program of
large group instruction, small group discussion and independent studies.

To make it

effective, large numbers of students attend lectures commonly, and then, they will be
grouped into smaller groups for discussion. If will be followed by independent studies by
every student. They may go on investigating some thing new in the area.
Although there are variations in team teaching method, the two major forms, which are in
use, are:
1. Hierarchic team
2. Synergetic team
What is a hierarchy team?
The hierarchic team is a teaching team that may be likened to a pyramid, with a team leader
at the apex, master teacher just below and regular (assistant) teacher at the base.
It gives a means for professional advancement. The team leader gives leadership and gets
benefits from what he/she does.
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The synergetic team is a team formed of two or more teachers working together as a
professional equal. There is no master regular teacher concept. The leadership rotates
according to need or interest. One of the team members assumes leadership for a certain
period and unit of work and relinquishes it for the next. The stress is one working with, not
for colleagues. Permanent leader for administrative purposes can be selected. But the leader
doesnt receive extra-pay or privileges for accepting the assignment.
The teams vary in their approaches from limited co-operation to complete association. So
they are sometimes referred to as co-operative or associative teams. Students learn from
teachers, from each others interaction and from themselves as independent actors.
The teachers involve in the study of the curriculum, develop the objective, and determine
essential ideas (contents) to be taught. They answer the questions:
1.

What can the students learn from the large group instruction?

2.

What can the students learn from small group discussions?

3.

What can students learn from their personal/independent activities?

How teams can be formed?

The teams can be organized on:
a) The unit specialist team approach - a team organized by considering the members
expertise on different units of work. The team members are from the same subject area,
but differing in area of interest and experience within the same subject.
Example; to teach geography, the team members can be geographers, having differences
in the interests they have developed to the different topics. One may be interested in
physical geography while others may have interests in cartography, economic,
demographic, etc. areas.
b) The differentiated team approach: -is a team formed of members from different
disciplines. For instance to teach the Geography of Ethiopia, the team members can be a
chemist, a Geographer, a Biologist a Political scientist a Demographer, a linguist, etc. to
present lessons that are related to soil distribution, wildlife, strategic location,
population, linguistic distribution, etc. as field specialists.
c)

ad - hoc team approach - is a team organized in one of the above forms and works for a
short time. it doesnt last long. A few teachers who are interested in some innovations
are asked to discuss their innovations of classroom teaching to one group of learners.

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What are the advantages of team teaching method?

Team teaching method provides the following advantages. Team teaching:
1.

stimulates though and discussion among teachers who are jointly responsible for a group
of students;

2.

develops a strong sense of involvement and responsibility among students;

3.

gives adequate opportunities to the students for free discussion/expression;

4.

provides opportunities for the development of human relations which are essential for
social adjustment.

5.

provides opportunities for the students to get better knowledge, make proper use of
resources, staff, etc.;

6.

helps to make lessons fit to the needs of the learners and maintain classroom discipline;

7.

helps teachers to evaluate the work of one another, to improve their own teaching and
instruction

8.

provides a flexible class size and help to provide guidance for the learners as well as
inexperienced teachers, etc.

In order to learn a skill, the learner must first attend to the task.

The learning of a cognitive skill presumes the availability in memory of the prerequisite
cognition and skills; etc.

Nowadays, the active learning methods are the repeatedly raised issues. What are they?
Which methods are considered as active learning methods?
Active learning refers to techniques where students do more than simply listen to a lecture.
Students are DOING something including discovering, processing, and applying information.
Active learning "derives from two basic assumptions: (1) that learning is by nature an active
endeavor and (2) that different people learn in different ways" (Meyers and Jones, 1993).
Research shows greater learning when students engage in active learning. It is important to
remember, however, that lecture does have its place and that you should not do active
learning without content or objectives
The following active learning techniques used in small and large classes, and with all levels
of students in any discipline. (But, it is up to the teacher to choose the appropriate active
learning techniques for the concerned topic)
1. Think-Pair-Share

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Give students a task such as a question or problem to solve, an original example to develop,
etc. Have them work on this 2-5 minutes alone (think). Then have them discuss their ideas
for 3-5 minutes with the student sitting next to them (pair). Finally, ask or choose student
pairs to share their ideas with the whole class (share). I have used these in classes ranging
from 12 to 340 students.
2. Collaborative learning groups
These may be formal or informal, graded or not, short-term or long-term. Generally, you
assign students to heterogeneous groups of 3-6 students. They choose a leader and a scribe
(note-taker). They are given a task to work on together. Often, student preparation for the
CLG has been required earlier (reading or homework). The group produces a group answer
or paper or project. These work best in small to medium size classes, but I have also used
them in a class of 340 students. If interested, see my short paper on "Collaborative Learning
Groups in the Large Class: Is it Possible?" in Teaching Sociology, 1993, 21, 403-408.

3. Student-led review sessions

Instead of the traditional instructor-led review session, have the students do the work. For
example, in my review sessions, we spend half the time working in small groups. Each
student is to ask at least one question related to the material he or she doesn't understand, and
to try to answer a question raised by another student. Students can also practice discussing,
illustrating and applying difficult material or concepts, or drafting exam questions. For the
second half of the review session, the whole class works together. Students may ask
questions; other students volunteer to answer them. All students who ask or answer questions
receive a "treat" (I bring small candy bars, gum, and boxes of raisons). I try to only speak if
there is a problem. Again, I have done these in classes as large as 340 students. Be sure to
explain what will be going on ahead of time so students are less frustrated when you don't
stand up there and simply review the material or give the answers or tell them what to study!
4. Games
Games such as jeopardy and crossword puzzles can be adapted to course material and used
for review, for assignments, or for exams. They can be used at the individual, small group or
full class levels. There are now some computer programs, for example, to help you create
crossword puzzles.
5. Analysis or reactions to videos
Videos offer an alternative presentation mode for course material. Videos should be
relatively short (5-20 minutes). Screen them to make sure they are worth showing. Prepare
students ahead of time with reaction or discussion questions or a list of ideas on which to
focus; this will help them pay attention. After the video, have them work alone or in pairs to
answer critical questions, write a "review" or reaction, or apply a theory.

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6. Student debates
These can be formal or informal, individual or group, graded or not, etc. They allow students
the opportunity to take a thesis or position and gather data and logic to support that view,
critically. Debates also give students experience with verbal presentations. Some faculty
members ask students their personal view on an issue and then make them argue the opposite
position.
7. Student generated exam questions
This can be used for review or for the actual exam. This technique helps students actively
process material, gives them a better understanding of the difficulties of writing reliable and
valid exam questions, helps them review material, and gives them practice for the exam.
8. Mini-research proposals or projects; a class research symposium
Have the students work on designing a research study on a topic from the class. In some
situations, you may be able to have them collect data during class time (observe some
situation or give out some short surveys) or you may have them doing this as part of an
outside-of-class project. Either way, have students present their research in a class research
symposium similar to what we do at professional meetings. Invite other faculty and students.
9. Analyze case studies
Bring in case studies for students to read (for example, I will put a case example of sexual
harassment on an overhead). Have students discuss and analyze the case, applying concepts,
data, and theory from the class. They can work as individuals or in groups or do this as a
think-pair-share. Consider combining this with a brief in-class writing assignment.
10. Keeping journals or logs
Have students make journal or log entries periodically (on paper or computer, in or outside of
class). Require a brief critical reflection or analysis of each entry as well. For example, in my
gender class, students must record instances of sex inequality (sex discriminations, sexism,
sexual harassment against women or men) they observe. They then discuss this instance
applying course terms and theories. Be aware of ethical issues if you ask students to record
and analyze personal events or issues.
11. Write and produce a newsletter
Have small groups of students produce a brief newsletter on a specific topic related to class.
Students should include articles with relevant research, post information on upcoming related
public events, and so on. Share these with faculty and students in related courses or in the
major.
12. Concept mapping

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Here students create visual representations of models, ideas, and the relationships between
concepts. They draw circles containing concepts and lines, with connecting phrases on the
lines, between concepts. These can be done individually or in groups, once or repeated as
students acquire new information and perspectives, and can be shared, discussed, and
critiqued.
NB:PLEASE INCLUDE OTHER ACTIVE LEARNING METHODS

Unit 4: Preparation, Utilization and Preservation of Instructional

Materials
Group Exercise of 15 minutes:
Divide the whole group into two, where each group could still be divided into small groups
of five for similar activity. Each group uses the 15 minutes to discuss and come up with a
report of their discussion about the questions listed under their respective group.
Group one :( could be many groups of 5 rather than one of many students, depending on the
size of the whole group)
What are instructional materials? List the various IM used in T&L of Higher
Education and state strength and limitations of each.

Group Two: (could be many groups of 5 rather than one of many students, depending on the
size of the whole group)
What do you suggest are the roles of instructional materials in teaching and learning at
the Higher Education level? Discuss effective utilization procedures of the major groups
of IM
There will be group report for another 15 minutes followed by whole class discussion.
What is Instructional Material (IM)?
IM is the means of encoding course content for presenting the content to students to be
sensed for learning purposes. It serves as a means of creating an indirect link in the space
between lecturers' intention and students learning. Meaning or understanding is a mental
process in individuals. They cannot be sent out of the individual. Words and pictures that can
be produced (encoded) in a physical form out of the individual represent ideas and meanings
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in the mind of the individual. These are content forms that others learn how to read and listen
and infer meaning out of them. When the content is new knowledge to be learned, the form it
is found out of individuals' mind is called Instructional Material. Examples are content
written on chalkboard or whiteboard, textbooks, pictures on paper, overhead presentations,
handouts, etc.
As there are many senses to be stimulated, the methods of presentations are numerous. There
has been continuous development in the creation of encoding mechanisms, which perhaps
started with the manipulation of body parts to create word of mouth. In the interest of over
coming human physical limitations and strengthening our sensory capacity many devices
have been created that can help to:

Store,
Reproduce and
Disseminate or distribute content to individuals and groups, near and far.

The list of the created materials is numerous. They serve different social interests. Some have
crossed thresholds of Higher Education lecture halls. All the Printed materials (books,
picture, maps, charts, graphs, diagrams...), the tele-devices-like television, computer,
telephone, audio devices, the different display boards, (chalkboard, Bulletin B., Whiteboard,
OH, LCD presentation, Film show on TV screen, ...) are but a few of the many that are
applied in lecture halls.
These materials when used to carry instructional content to be learned by students are named
Instructional Materials. They are many. Thus we have to be selective. Here our interest is the
Higher Education Teaching and Learning and we will limit it with instructional materials
most used at HE level.
There is no all-perfect device created yet. Each has its own unique strength that justified its
creation and limitations that could be alleviated by use of other means.

There is nothing good or bad of the materials/ devices.

The good and bad are of the Users the materials/ devices.
If we prepare and use it effectively it helps us to achieve our objective to the highest degree
possible; if we misuse it then we fail to achieve our objectives. Lecturers of HE need to have
clear idea about the production and proper utilization of instructional materials in order to
achieve their objectives better and help students learn better.
Instructional Materials can be prepared at various levels. It can be produced at a central level
to be distributed to users like books, films, printed procedures, large pictures, diagrams, maps
and the likes. Usually professionals are employed to do the preparation at central levels. But
there are also multiple IM prepared locally by instructors such as handouts or modules,
chalkboard or whiteboard displays, diagrams, OH presentations, LCD Displays and the likes.

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Wherever the production, the utilization part is all the time of the instructors. Here again the
focus will be on what individual teachers can do in the preparation, and utilization as well as
in the preservation (prolonging the use time) of IMs.
4.1 Production of Instructional Materials
Group Work:
What are the repeatedly used IMs in Higher Education of Ethiopia at present?
From the group work and whole class discussion repeatedly used IMs will be identified. The
list may be too much if we try to consider all the various disciplines taught and learned at
higher education level. Thus we have to be selective. The following list of groups of IMs
may help in the selection process.
Instructional Materials at Higher Education in Ethiopia

Printed materials: Text books, instructor handouts, course modules,

worksheets, printed visuals like diagrams, maps, charts graphs, etc.
Display materials: Chalkboard, Whiteboard, bulletin board, cloth board
displays,
Three dimensional displays: Real materials, models, simulators,
Projected displays: Overhead, Opaque, Motion picture,
Electronic Displays: Video, Television, Computer, Internet, DVD,LCD
Audio presentation: Radio, tape, CD, DVD
Etc.

Instructors Role as Information Source

There is one undeniable fact in all-instructional situations.
The most versatile, audiovisual, flexible, user
friendly and on the spot presenter of information is
the INSTRUCTOR.

As such, one of the major roles of an instructor besides the planning, organization,
facilitation, management, assessment and evaluation roles is being information source to
students. As a matter of fact, a decent observation of what goes on in most lecture halls of
Higher Education institutions in Ethiopia reveals that the information delivery has been
taking the instructors domineering role, even when the presentation can be done better by
other means.
Effective end result of all the instructional materials depends on the effort exerted to
systematically plan and produce the instructional materials.

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Instructors should develop their communication skills their encoding skills meaning the
way they speak and write, and their decoding skills (their reading and listening).
They have to project there sound out so that each attendant of their speech can hear
and listen to it.
Their free handwriting on paper or chalkboard should be easy to read from any spot
on the lecture hall. Letter shapes should be accurate and given enough space and size.
The lay out should be attractive and colorful. There should be no overwriting which
obscures readability.

Production Procedure
Group work:
What are the important procedures of producing instructional materials for HE Teaching
and Learning?
Each specific instructional material takes specific procedure of production. Here you will
look at the common and general procedure to serve as the starting point for all IMs
production process.

Identify the instructional objective that the material is to satisfy. Is it core

information delivery? Or is it additional illustration? Or self directed
instruction? Or is it supplementary information?
Familiarity and usability of IM by the students and other users
Relevant and selected content.
Well planned structure and organization. Sequence, coherence, illustrations,
and examples should be considered
Decision on production time, resources, space and expertise.
Visual dominance
Clarity, simplicity and colorfulness (attractiveness)
Imbedded checking mechanism for student involvement
Means of prolonging use time ( question of cost effectiveness)
Evaluation of utilization

4.2 Utilization and Preservation Techniques

Group Work:
Suggest general procedure of IM Utilization
Utilization procedure

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Utilization of each IM may differ in some ways. Here again one can identify some steps that
should be considered in all kinds of IMs utilization. The following is an Example:
Making sure pre-activities are done such as organized content, produced
appropriately, well rehearsed by presenter, and environment arranged
Clearly stated objectives notified to students or users at the start
Clear direction of how to use IM given
Students exposed to content of instructional material well instructed about what to do
with the instructional content.
Making sure that students are acting according to directions.
Facilitating activities and giving necessary support
Assessing students participation and keeping record
Making sure that objectives are met from student feedbacks.
Making summative evaluation keeping record of comments.
These are general procedures for all the utilization of all IMs. Specifics of some of the
outstanding instructional materials are briefly given under.
Paper-Based Teaching and learning Materials
Modules, Handouts, and Worksheets
Perhaps one of the most frequently used instructional materials in colleges and universities is
the module or hand out to serve as the main source of information for students. Worksheets
serve to involve in exercising instructional content. The effective utilization of these
instructional materials demands selection of content considering the objectives and target
population (students).
The instructional role of the three varies. Modules are written to serve as self instructional
material where:

Content is structured in units and sections having introduction, body part summary,

Objectives are clearly stated at the beginning of a module, unit, and section,

There are step by step development from sections to units

There are inbuilt questions to probe student thinking, to check student learning and
achievement of objectives

There are self-check test question at the end of units with answers given at the end of
module.

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Reading material list and other reference material list are give.

The writing style of the module is conversional type with a lot of action verbs used.
Simple, easy to understand and short sentences are used in the writing of content and
illustration with a number of examples.

Modules combine content and methodology in the presentation. They are written as standalone learning materials.

Handouts can be a page size or many paged instructional material. Usually they are used as
support material. They contain important points to be studied by students. They serve as
review materials for lectures and discussions done in class. They can also serve as lecture
notes.
Worksheets contain exercises to be worked out by students outside class time. They can be
open ended or closed time with specific information to be filled in by students.
All the paper based instructional materials can be reproduced using different methods.
Photocopying and stencil duplicating are the common methods. Many-paged materials are
bind together and distributed to individual or groups of students.
All these printed materials have the advantage of serving as repeated reference material for
student individual study. The printing gives the content prolonged lifetime than the
ephemeral verbal explanation.
Pictures
Another paper-based material is picture. Pictures are of two forms: photographic and graphic
pictures.
i) Photographic Pictures (Still Pictures)
Still pictures are photographic (or photograph -like) representations of people, places and/or
things. They directly imitate reality and show the reflection on a flat surface or paper in
frozen or still state. Photographs or realistic paintings or story pictures are examples of this
group.
ii) Graphic pictures
Graphic pictures are non-photographic, hand drawn pictorial representations of processes,
entities or relationships. They are all mental constructs and not direct imitations of reality.
Some of them may have some clues or hints of reality like cartoons or sketches while others

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are totally abstract like graphs. Under this group you have charts, graphs, posters, maps,
diagrams, cartoons, and the likes.
Pictures in general are visualizing means or present information to human sense of sight.
Most learners are visual minded, so pictures are a great help in teaching.
Advantages:

They give easily recallable visual imagery

They remind the learner of the meaning and help him/her communicate

They are summarizing devises. A picture reminds stories of events. One graph or
chart briefly shows content that takes several pages of explanation.

They help the teacher save his/her voice and time.

They serve multiple purposes- to introduce, illustrate, review or summarize a

lesson

Relatively they are abundant and easy to use

The picture clues or hints can suggest movement, time, depth, texture and the
likes

Etc.

Limitations:

It does not show present situations

Graphic pictures may allow distorted interpretation

May direct to wrong conception of dimensions of size, width, height, etc.

Utilization Procedure:

The picture should be large enough for the entire class to see clearly.

Small pictures can be used for pair work, group work, and games.

The picture should illustrate, at first glance, the point under the study.

The colored pictures are more effective than black and white ones and can be used
for many purposes.

The picture should fit into cultural pattern of the learner.

The picture should tell the learner something familiar to connect it with real life.

The pictures should be labeled to ease classroom practice.

Pictures should not be confusing.

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What must you do to ensure that you have good pictures available when you
need to use them? Here are some suggestions:

Build a collection of pictures all kinds of pictures: big, small, black and
white, colorful from various sources: magazines, newspapers, books,
calendars, brochures and leaflets, posters, catalogues, book jackets, those
downloaded from the Internet, by writing to commercial and social
organizations, even drawing your own pictures.

Organize your collection by storing and labeling them appropriately. Large

pictures should be stored separately from small pictures.

Mount pictures that you are going to use regularly or if the mounting helps
them to be shown more effectively.

Make copies, enlarge or minimize the pictures as needed. Todays

photostatting machines can easily do this work for you.

What factors must you consider when selecting a picture for a particular lesson?
Jot down your ideas and compare them with the suggestions below.

Appeal: the picture should capture the interest and imagination of your
students.

Relevance: the picture should be appropriate for the purpose of the lesson it
must contribute directly to the aim of the lesson. Dont use a picture just
because it is attractive or that your students find it fascinating.

Recognition: The significant features of the picture should be within your

students knowledge and cultural understanding.

Size: If you are showing a picture to the whole class, it must be large enough
to be seen clearly by all. For pair and group work, the picture can of course be
smaller.

Clarity: Avoid crowded pictures they can confuse and distract your
students. The relevant details must be clearly seen. Choose pictures with
strong outlines and contrast in tone and color to avoid ambiguity.

The other non- paper based groups of instructional materials include the following:
a. Realia (real instructional materials)
Realia are all the living and non-living materials that are around us. Realia are people and
real objects that give us information. "People" means anybody in the environment: students,
teachers, visiting people, etc. The teacher can make use of his/her movements, gestures,
signals, mimics, and hands. When you use them for learning purpose, like for instance, the

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person in front of the class or objects, artifacts, records, stamps, coins, old tickets, ticket
stubs, postcards or specimens used in class, they are grouped as Non-projected Visuals. They
are visuals because they are seen, sensed through sense of sight.
Advantages:

Give students a chance of direct sensory contact with reality leaving rich visual
imagery in the mind, which helps for visual identification thereafter.

Overcome the problem of verbalism - overuse of meaningless words.

Gives way for exploration or doing student research

Serves as reference point for meaning formation of other words.

Arouses curiosity and motivates learners,Etc.

Limitations:

All realia can not be used in class

Open to different interpretation unless the teachers guide learners.

Demands extra effort from teachers to collect and organize.

Utilization Procedure:

Real objects should be small enough to bring into the classroom but large enough
to be clearly seen by the group

Use recognizable objects from the environment.

Prepare the materials well in advance of presentation

Keep information simple and clear.

For better understanding, when possible use cutaways, cross-sections, etc.

Make sure each learner has more or less similar interpretation of the realia.

b. Models or Mock- ups

Models are artificial (person-made) copies of reality made of different materials like: Paper
Mache, plaster of Paris, mud, wood, and any king of metal. Models are imitations of reality
with change in size and/or complexity. You make it bigger or smaller and remove
unnecessary complex parts of the reality for easy comprehension and understanding.
Mockups are models, which magnify and show only a part of the whole entity. For example a
model of human body that exaggerates and shows only the "Blood Circulation System" is a
mockup. It suppresses (does not show) the other systems and the skeleton that make up the
human body.

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Advantages:

Simplify reality for better understanding.

Removes the dangers of dealing with reality; students can manipulate at their own
convenience.

Usually, it is easily portable from class to class

Gives concrete visual basis for complex ideas and understandings.

Helps to correct misperceptions

Can create student interest for learning

Can stimulate inquiry and discovery.

Limitations:

Oversimplification may hide the complexity and danger of reality

Imitation may give way for imperfection; in correct imitation can cause imperfect
conception. e.g. a model of a donkey painted green

Requires time, energy and money for its preparation.

Utilization Procedure:

Should be used when it is appropriate and when the reality is not around.

To that much possible, the shape, size, color and body proportion should resemble
the reality it stands for.

Students should be careful while using them.

c. Simulators
Models imitate physical features. Simulators are models that imitate reality with the action
and interaction. It gives chance to dramatize actions. Airplane pilots learn part of their
training by using simulators. Computers have simulation games that you may have tried. You
may create simulation in your class by letting adult students practice community activities in
class. One corner of the class can serve as a service giving office where students act as
service givers and receivers.
Advantages:

Less expensive and less risky than the actual.

Gives the same kind of feeling as the actual to responsible learner.

Is interesting for learner

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Limitations:

Is costly

May create distorted conception about actual action

Can not be used all the time

Utilization Procedure:

It should be planned before hand with clear learning objectives.

The environment and necessary simulators should be prepared before the action.

Students should be informed about the role they play during simulation.

Teachers should check that learning is taking place with the play action of
simulation

Achievement of objectives should be checked.

Display Materials:
The way visuals are displayed is as important as the way they are prepared. If visuals can not
be seen; if they do not attract and hold attention; if they can not present visual content clearly
then all the effort put into the preparation becomes fruitless. Display mechanisms have equal
importance and should not be overlooked. Visuals are presented in different ways to sight.
Under normal condition movement of hands, facial expressions and body movements
accompany the verbal communication. In addition to these, there are also many display
materials, of which many are boards.

a. Chalkboards (blackboard)
The oldest on-the-spot visualizing devise that you find in the classroom is the chalkboard,
usually known as blackboard because of the black paint used to cover the surface most of the
time. Nowadays there different colored boards commonly using chalk to write on. Hence the
name chalkboard is replacing blackboard. The moment you have an idea that you want
visualize you rush and put it on the chalkboard.
The base material is plywood; framed all round for protection and the smooth side serves as
chalkboard surface after painting. It is the most common visualizing aid available to teachers
in the classroom. It is the signpost of teaching -learning.
Usually the smooth surface of plywood is used for chalkboard surface. We roughen it a little
bit by sand paper to add to the adhesion between paint and surface. Then it is cleaned and the

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paint applied in an evenly distributed manner. Using two different directions in applying the
paint helps for even distribution-one horizontal all over the surface and the second time
vertically. Next cover the whole surface with chalk dust; leave it to dry; clean the chalk dust;
and then you get easy to write on and easy to erase chalkboard surface.
Advantages:

Spontaneous visualization and easy to copy and study.

Easy to write on and easy to erase. It is ready for use in a matter of seconds.

Usually large sized to be seen by whole class at a time.

Point by point Chalkboard presentation allows students to follow explanation.

Relatively cheap means of visualized presentation etc.

Limitations:

Depends on the skill of the user

Not for permanent or long-time visual presentation.

Can be used only when you have a piece of chalk at hand.

Utilization:
What is important in chalkboard presentation is easy readability. Illegible or obscured work
shatters student learning. When using chalkboard, some points should be kept in mind:

Start each lesson with a clean blackboard.

Write legibly and large enough so that the students can read without difficulty

Organize the material effectively so that students can easily understand what you are
trying to do.

Number items that belong together.

Do not write unnecessary material on the board

Watch your own spelling and punctuation for correctness

Use colored chalk for special effect

Underline the main points written on the board

Erase all unnecessary material at the end of the class hour

You should give care to the chalkboard. Do not use wet duster to clean the board surface;
do not use scotch tapes, sharp edged materials on the board surface.

Chalkboard is for on the spot visualization. Do not draw diagrams that you want to keep
for long time on the chalkboard. Put it on paper.

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b. White Board (Multipurpose Board or marker boards)

White Board is a board for visual presentation or for writing on the surface using special
marker. It is also named multipurpose board because you can use the white board for writing,
drawing, displaying visuals, or showing films. These boards are common in training rooms
and are sometimes fitted in teaching rooms instead of or additional to conventional
chalkboards. They consist of large sheets of white or light-colored plastic material with a
surface texture suitable for writing or drawing on using appropriate felt pens, markers or
crayons, and can be used in much the same way as chalkboards.
Advantages:

It is dustless. There is none of the mess that always results when chalk is used.

A much wider range of colors and tone strengths can be used, and the resulting
display is invariably sharper, better defined and clearer than is possible using
chalk.

A marker board - unlike a chalkboard - can double up as a projection screen or a

bulletin board if required.

Limitations:

There is, however, one possible problem that can arise with marker boards: difficulty in
cleaning the surface properly so that 'ghost' marks are not left behind. For this reason, it is
strongly advisable to use only the types of marker pens or crayons that are recommended
by the manufacturer of the particular board you are using, and to make sure that you
know how the board should be cleaned. In some cases, simply wiping with a dry or damp
cloth can do, while in others a special cleaning fluid or solvent is required. In both
writing and cleaning, always make sure that suitable supplies are readily available - pens,
cloths and erasers.

Initial and replacement costs for ruined marker boards are high.

Utilization:

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The techniques for producing displays on marker boards are basically the same as those
described for chalkboards. Write easily visible words and diagrams and erase when you are
done.

c. Bulletin Boards
The second most used visualizing device that
you see in school compounds is Bulletin Boards.
Bulletin means information. Bulletin boards are
visual information boards. The bulletin board
surface is soft and can easily be pierced by any
sharp edge of pins, thorns, thumb tucks, etc for
attaching the visual on paper material on to the
board.
Different kinds of visuals like photographs; students written works, diagrams, charts, posters,
different kinds of graphs and maps are displayed for presenting visual information to
viewers. Bulletin or notice boards are the same in the way they are made, but bulletin boards
are different from notice boards in that notice boards are mainly for showing memorandums
or notices while bulletin boards are mainly for displaying visual of educative use.
Advantages:
Bulletin boards are eye catchers; they attract attention at a distance.
They act as continuous reminders of visual content.
Allow reshuffling of placement of visuals
Many students can participate in the organization and placement of visuals
Etc.
Limitations:
Will loose attraction if displayed visuals are not change for a long time.
Cannot stand being wet.
Utilization:
The utilization procedure of bulletin board is common to all display materials

You start considering audience and purpose of display.

Effective use demands planning about design of visual placement and the labeling
of parts.

Size depends on the expected number of audience - the more the number of
audience the bigger the size will be.

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Replace or change position of visuals quite often. Do not put too many visuals at
one time; rather replace each after short time.

When too many eyeholes are seen as a result of long use, paint the surface with
thick paint or cover it with large piece of cloth or paper.

Attractiveness depends on how well you have worked on the organization of

visual placement

. Cloth boards (Felt, Flannel, Shash boards)

The Cloth board (which is also known as the felt, flannel, or shash-board depending on the
cloth material covering the surface of the board) relies on the fact that shapes cut out of felt,
flannel or similar fabrics will adhere to cloth surfaces to display the posted material. Such
systems can be used both to create permanent or semi-permanent wall-mounted displays, but
their most important application is in situations requiring the movement or rearrangement of
pieces. They are, for example, ideal for showing how words can be joined together to form
phrases and sentences, and illustrating basic arithmetical and geometrical concepts.
Advantages:
It does need straight pins to attach the visual on to the board surface.
Portable and flexible use Etc.
Limitations:
May need extra cost for the cloth material.
e. Flipcharts
Still another useful display material for visual information is Flipcharts. These constitute a
simple and, when used in an appropriate context, highly effective method of displaying
information to a class or small group. Such charts consist of a number of large sheets of
paper, fixed to a support bar, easel or display board by clamping or pinning them along their
top edges so that they can be flipped backwards or forwards as required.
Such charts can be used in two basic ways. First, they can be used to display a succession of
pre-prepared sheets, which can be shown in the required order either by flipping them into
view from the back of the suspension system one by one, or by revealing each successive
sheet by flipping the previous one over the back of the suspension system out of the way.
When preparing such flipchart sequences, it is best to keep the message or information
on each sheet fairly simple, since this increases their impact. Also, it is obviously essential to
make sure that they can be read or seen clearly by all the members of the class or group; you

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should check this by inspecting them from the back of the class, from the furthest distance in
the room from which they have to be viewed, or from appropriate positions around table-top
versions.
The other main way in which flipcharts can be used is by providing an instantly renewable
series of blank surfaces on which material can be jotted down on an impromptu (on the spot)
basis in the course of a lesson, group discussion or other activity. They can, for example, be
used to list replies from class members to questions or ideas generated by buzz groups.

When a series of flipcharts is produced arising from discussions and questions, it is often
useful to arrange that they can continue to be visible. This can be done using adhesive tape to
stick completed charts onto doors, walls, window frames and other surfaces of the room.

Advantages of Using Flipcharts

Simple to use
Inexpensive
Portable
Need no electricity
Effective they help to focus your learners attention
Useful for background information
Can reveal successive bits of story
Can be used to record ideas from discussions and keep for future reference

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f. Accordion Fold and Folding EaselThese are two easy to prepare but very useful display materials for teachers.
Accordion Fold is simply a chain of connected hard papers in a series folded in a way that
one fold goes opposite to the other. It serves just like photo albums- to preserve mounted
visuals and to display them.

When opened the folds on either side look like the part for pumping air into in an accordion
musical instrument.

Attachments of Accordion Fold

Attached

Accordion fold is advantageous for preserving and displaying small instructional visuals.
Folding Easel is only for display one picture at a time. It is also easy to prepare. You take a
medium sized rectangular piece of hard paper. Cut it diagonally on the longer side of the
triangular piece or the side that you cut diagonally, cut out an L shape of small piece that
later serve as bottom support of the picture. Then attach the two triangular pieces together as
in 3 on the figure. You can use folding easel to display small visuals.

Folding Easel
The major advantage of these display materials is letting the hands of teacher be free during
teaching. They are easy to prepare from cheap materials and are easy to carry from class to
class.

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g. Radio and Audio Recordings

Just like the visuals there are also audio representations that are used for learning and
teaching purposes.
Radio is a technical means of distributing audio information to a very wide coverage. Audio
signal is distributed over space through electromagnetic waves that can be collected radio
antennas. Selecting specific transmission wave lines link the station to radio piece at school
levels
Audio Recordings are means of storing audio information for re-hearing. Sound can be
recorded on gramophone, reel-to-reel tape, cassette tape, compact dick (CD), and digital CD
and audio cards.

Advantages
Direct reference
Summarized representation
Endless variety
Wide distribution
Simple storage means
Live and up to date information of radio
User familiarity and friendliness
Limitations

Overlooking individual and cultural difference

Open to misinterpretation
Culture bound
Open to technical failure.
Projection Equipment
Different kinds of projection equipment (projectors) are being used in educational
institutions. You have to know how they work to include them in your plan and
implementation. Not knowing how these devices are operated and used properly can cause at
least frustration and failure in communicating ones ideas.
The easiest and simplest way of studying about these devices is reading the manuals that
manufacturers send with the equipment. You are not expected to be a technician but you need
to know about some basics of the equipment if you want to effectively use it or supervise its
usage.

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There many kinds of projectors, but here you will study the ones most used for educational
ends. These are: Filmstrip, Side, Opaque, Over Head (OH), Motion Picture and Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD). You will study each in turn, but first some common features of
projection equipment
Television and Computer Screens
Still other display materials for visuals are Television screens and Computer monitors.
Television is perhaps the most important form of communication ever invented. It is certainly
the most popular and influential in our society. It is an effortless window on the world,
requiring of the viewer only the right time and the right channel, or for the nondiscriminating viewer, any time and any channel.
Computer presentation of information could certainly benefit from the color, motion, and
sound that television offers. Television viewers could similarly benefit from the control and
personalization that is promised by computer technology.
Computer displays are generally designed for close viewing, usually in an office
environment--most often as a solitary activity. The display is sharp and precise. Displays
strongly emphasize text, sometimes exclusively so. Graphics and color are sometimes
available. Displays are generally static. Only recently have computers been given interesting
sound capabilities.
Television, on the other hand, was designed for distant viewing, usually in a living
room environment, often as a group activity. The screen is alive with people, places, and
products. The screen can present text, but viewers are not expected to receive much
information by reading. The sound track is an essential part of the viewing experience.
Indeed, most of the information is carried audibly.
Both television and Computers are being used for educational purposes inside the
classrooms. Too much is being recorded and stored in these communication devices that it
will be very defective to think of instructional situations devoid of their display. If you don't
use them, you will be living out too much of present day information.
Recent Trends in Audiovisual Media Technology
Currently the trend seems to be Merging of Media, creation of information superhighways
and the decrease in size and price of devices that are more users friendly.

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A major trend of our age in the development of audiovisual media technology is that of
observable combination created or Merging. Now computer has merged all audiovisual
means of presentations together.
The digitization of print, images, and sound made these combinations possible.
Digitization has allowed systems of storage, retrieval and transmission of information that
made some of the old single medium obsolete. Why do you need a slide when your digital
camera can feed your computer with digitized information to be stored, retrieved and
transmitted through your computer to any where in the world.
It leaves no one in doubt that in the near future the common language of most educated
people is going to be computer language as ones print used to be. The moment you have an
idea you will be running to use your computer language in its varied forms-calculator, image
recording in digital form (digital camera), writing, etc. It is very difficult to think of a
person's success without the use of computer language. You would not be the one to miss it,
would you? Computer did not only dominate in changing other signals into digitization but
also created a way transmitting huge amount of information through satellite communication
and the fiber optics cable connections. One satellite stationed over Atlantic can transmit over
30,000 phone calls simultaneously.
The electronic devices that are used for audiovisual recording and retrieving are becoming
more potable and easy to use (push button) devises. The price is also going down as time
goes on. As such change is the order of the day. So, it is up to you to keep up with the change
in order to be successful in whatever works you do including your community adult teaching.
4.3

Searching instructional resources from technological source

We are living in the computer age, in the digital age where most information seems to be
stored, processed, reproduced, disseminated and retrieved in digital form in bits and bytes
form. It seems to be obligatory for Higher education graduate to be well versed in the
utilization of the digital system. Thus it goes with out say that instructors should be all the
time be searching for instructional resources from internet services to help there student
qualify for work demands of their time.
Browsing the World Wide Web (WWW)
Computer allied with the tele-devices of the present time like the digital telephone system
and satellites has created information superhighway to all who have the connection. Higher
education institutions have such access though there are disparities of quality among
institutions.

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It is mandatory that instructors and students browse through possible sources using the
available means. As mentioned earlier He can afford loosing information that is stored
manipulated and distributed through computers.

Unit 5: Classroom Organization and Management of the

instructional activities in higher education
1: Definitions and purposes of classroom organization
What is classroom organization?

Classroom organization is a deliberate creation of the learning environment by considering

the instructional objectives and the specific activities to be done by each student to achieve
the desired end results.

Classroom organization as a conscious arrangement of the classroom in its totality to achieve

the instructional objectives can be seen in terms of:
a) patterns for arranging participants (small group versus whole class presentation);
As we discussed it in one of the earlier topics, the arrangement of activities that fit to
students active participation helps the teacher and students to achieve the intended
objectives efficiently. It is identified that the active involvement or action / reaction of
students provides them with the chance to acquire the desired knowledge, develop the
specific skills and form the required value system.
Some methods definitely require small group involvement while others demand the
involvement of the whole class. Thus it is the duty of the teacher to identify the activities
and group students or involve each of them independently.
b) resources used or resources of information;

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Some instructional materials require the organization of students and activities individually
or in-groups. For instance, reading a book mostly an individuals activity while watching a
film and later involve in a discussion is a group task. Hence, the kinds of resources to be
used dictate the kinds of classroom organizations.
c) the roles and responsibilities for carrying out immediate actions and events;
Activities such as oral answering and writing workbook entries usually demand arranging the
tasks for individuals. Here each student is required to act individually and learn what is set
for him/her. By doing this, the teacher helps students acquire the knowledge, develop the
skills and form the appropriate attitudes, convictions, habits and characters.
d) rules of appropriateness
Some kinds of classroom or field or workshop activities demand students to behave in some
way while others dont allow some kinds of behaviors. For instance, group discussion
method definitely encourages active involvement of students in talking while seatwork
demands silence.
Thus, teachers consider a number of variables and organize activities. A change in one or
more of the above mentioned dimensions represent potential change in the nature of the
situation in which students and the teacher work. The basic unit of classroom organization is
the activity. Activities are relatively short blocks of classroom time. Activities are
distinguished by duration, the number of students involved, the public or private nature of
students responses, the roles of participants, the focus of the content and processes, stability
attending and features related to evaluation and feedback.
Therefore, the types of classroom organizations are determined by the instructional
objectives to be achieved. The kinds of activities, which the students have to involve
actively, also affect the choice of the arrangement.
According to researchers such as Berliner (1983) and Stodolsky (1981), the classroom
organizations differ in their nature. For instance, the classroom can be organized for a
reading circle, seat work, one-way or two way presentation, silent reading, construction
group, play, game, individualized seat work, discussion, demonstration, tests, contests,
students reports, tutorials, checking work, group work, etc.
In addition to activity types and students behaviors, classroom organization includes the
arrangement of the physical environment or students seating arrangements. The pattern of

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the seating arrangement will be determined by the kind of classroom activity that is taking
place and the teaching strategy the teacher wants to employ.
The major patterns of the classroom seating arrangement include:
1. Making students sit in rows facing the teacher and the blackboard
In this arrangement, students are made to sit according to height. The tallest student sits at
the back and the shortest at the front benches. Other factors such as short sightedness or
hard of hearing make students to sit in one of the front seats with little regard for height. It
has advantages and disadvantages.
What are its advantages?
The advantages of these arrangements are that:
a) it appears to be very convent for formal teaching of a lot of students in one class;
b) it makes the blackboard in front of all students and becomes easy and accessible
to the teacher and the writing can be seen easily by all students;
c) it makes easy to move between rows and orderly distribution and collection of
instructional materials;
d) it makes the management of students discipline easy through row monitors
The disadvantages include that:
a) the student at the back side cannot see the work or practice of student in the front
side;
b) it is difficult to the teacher to evaluate each students work in the classroom;
c) it is not convenient to practice different methods of teaching such as small group
discussions, demonstrations, etc.
2. The clusters pattern Arrangement
This pattern seating arrangement is characterized by the formation of little clusters of
students in different positions in the classroom. It is very much convenient for buzz-group
discussions.
This pattern provides the following advantages:
a) It makes students to communicate easily with each other;
b) It is easier for students to work as a team and to help each other as peers;
c) Movement from one cluster to another is not too restricted;

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d) Leadership and co-operation are two important elements of classroom relationship which
result from this kind of seating arrangement;
e) It makes the management of the classroom discipline easy when there is the need for
students to work on group projects or solve problems together.
In cluster grouping, the size of each group should not be more than six members there is no a
fixed rule as to how the teacher should each group member. How ever, it can be done
randomly or by considering the abilities or compatibility of group members. At all times,
there must be some one who acts as a leader. The leadership should rotate.
The arrangement is not convenient to teach large class students and it is time consuming.
3. The Horse Shoe Pattern Arrangement
An arrangement where the teacher sits in the center, half way along the diameter this
arrangement provides the following advantages:
a) It can be used when the lesson entails a lot of discussion;
b) It enables the teacher to check every member easily and help;
c) It enables students to consult with each other;
d) It is easy to rearrange the group without wasting time and vice-versa.
4. The Round table pattern Arrangement
It is a good arrangement for discussion lessons. It can be round or square. Unlike the horse
shoe arrangement, the authority of the teacher is completely decentralized and formal
leadership roles are played down considerably. There is usually no group leader in this
arrangement.
Its advantages include that:
a) it is an arrangement convenient when there is anything to be recorded or to be listened on
tape;
b) it is useful when there is just one object to be used as display for a lesson. It can be
placed at the center for all to see and comment upon;
c) it enables the teacher to see what is going on at different locations where his/her students
are;
This pattern: a) is not convenient to use different teaching aids simultaneously;
a) Creates students misbehavior in class.

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Teacher

In general, classroom organization as an arrangement of activities, students, classroom

resources for instruction differs from time to time and activity to activity. The instructional
objectives and the activities to be done will dictate it. Some activities demand larger space to
move freely while others require silent seat works. Some demand talking loudly while others
need no noise. Some require the use of different instructional materials with a maximum
care while some dont need materials at all.
Thus, classroom organization is a prerequisite to achieve objectives easily, if the teacher fails
to organize the students, the activities and the whole class for the required task resources
such as time, energy, money and materials will be wasted. Students may involve in some
kinds of misbehaviors.
2: Classroom Management: Definition, Purposes Classifications and Causes of
Classroom Misbehaviors.
What is classroom management?
Classroom management is a process of organizing and conducting a class so as to
make instruction effective and efficient. It is a process of managing the teaching
and learning activities to get maximum students learning. It is a process of
establishing and maintaining order.

It requires careful planning and providing students with pleasant and supportive climate for
learning; creating interests and desires to learn and achieve; establishing control; avoiding
disciplinary disturbances and promoting effective students learning.
Of course, effective classroom management depends on the nature of the task at hand. For
instance, laboratory classes allow students for a great amount of conversation and movement

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and lecture sessions require quiet attention and purposeful conversation. Thus, effective
classroom management requires:
1. good planning;
Preparation of ones lesson by identifying the instructional objectives, lesson contents,
methods of teaching, materials, organizing a learning environment, setting rules, etc.

2. Conducting the class;

It demands the ability and skills to use the selected methods, materials, appropriate styles,
pacing, motivating and guiding students, etc.

3. Monitoring
It is a process of maintaining classroom order or discipline by using different approaches and
techniques. Thus, one can conclude that in its wider sense.
Classroom management can be taken distinctive pattern of activities by which teachers
establish and maintain conditions whereby individuals in the classroom can apply all
their rational and creative talents to the challenges of educational tasks. The essence
of classroom management is establishing an effective co-operative classroom system
and successful handling of the human behavior problems, which arise in any
organized face-to-face work group.

Why should teachers manage their classes? What are the areas to be managed?
2.1. Purposes and Areas of Classroom Management
Obviously, effective classroom management helps in the advancement to the fulfillment of
the objective of teaching and facilitates learning classroom management aims at:
1. promoting an environment (physical and emotional) to be conducive to effective
learning;
2. guaranteeing class time to be used for learning effectively;
3. securing the support and co-operation of students in classroom activities; and
4. ensuring the active and meaningful engagement of students to the learning task at hand.
2.2 Areas of Classroom Management

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What are the areas of classroom management?

Classroom management involves managing:
1. Contents of the lesson(s)
Contents are elements of subject matter, which helps the learners in the acquisition of
knowledge, the development of skills, habits, attitudes, values, etc. Thus, every teacher is
expected to:
a) select the contents that suit to the ability level and experiences of the learners;
b) master the subject that he/she teaches;
c) arrange / sequence the contents in their logical order in a learnable manner
starting from what is simple and proceeding to the complex from what is easy and
proceeding to the difficult, from what is concrete and proceeding to the abstract,
from what is known and proceeding to the unknown, etc. satisfy this requirement;
d) decide on the amount of contents to be taught within a given time;
e) focus on the major structural elements such as ideas, concepts, principles, laws,
etc.;
f) give emphasis on the relevant, significant meaningful, durable and keeping a
balance between scope and depth, etc.
2. Methods of teaching;
Methods of teaching as ways or means by which teachers transmit / convey subject matter
contents to students to achieve the intended objectives need to be managed.
management of methods of teaching includes:
a) the ability to select the methods and apply them in concrete situation;
How does a teacher select methods of teaching?
Normally, methods of teaching are selected by considering:
1. the instructional objectives;
2. the nature of the contents to be taught;
3. the ability, experience, maturity level, needs and interests of the learners;
4. the facilities / conditions of the school; and
5. the teachers personality

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The

b) presenting the lesson by making students active participants;

c) accepting students feelings, ideas and questions
d) responding to students questions;
e) reinforcing students activities;
f) applying the major principles of teaching;
g) considering individual differences and accommodating them; etc.
h) the use of appropriate questioning techniques that involve students in applying their
earlier knowledge and skills such as making the questions convergent (factual nature),
divergent (multiple responses questions) and commenting.

3. time allocated to a given lesson;

The different activities of a teacher and students are done within the given time. All teachers
are expected to manage their time properly. The time management involves:
a) distributing the time to the different activities;
b) keeping ones pace of presentation;
c) making appropriate decision on the right time to make students active participant
or involve them in doing individual seat works or in group activities
d) fixing the time for questions in the middle or at the end of the lesson;
e) displaying teaching aids at the right time;
4. materials and space;
Teachers at all levels are expected to manage the materials and spaces set for the
instructional activities. The management includes:
a) the use of the appropriate instructional materials / teaching aids;
b) the application of the rules in the use of the chalkboard;
c) the management of students seat;
d) the arrangement of materials in their proper order;
e) making the classroom hold enough seats and other resources
What other management areas are left?
5. managing students behavior and their social relationships through a democratic
way;

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Every teacher in a classroom instructional setting is expected to manage students behaviors

and must create good relationships between the teacher and the students and among the
students themselves.
How can it be achieved?
It requires:
1. creating conditions for students good interpersonal relations;
2. preparing the classroom atmosphere for co-operation, mutual help and concern to each
other as opposed to conflicting conditions;
3. creating mechanisms to identify individual differences and accommodating them; etc.
Classroom management is seen as set of activities by which the teacher establishes and
maintains those classroom conditions that facilitate effective and efficient instruction. It can
be described as an act of a teacher taken as preventive or curative activity to administer so
as to minimize or to put an end to any classroom misbehavior respectively.

Any act of a student that violates the established or implied classroom rules or any act
of a student that disrupts the normal teaching and learning process is misbehavior

What are the causes for students classroom misbehaviors?

There are various factors that make students to misbehave in classrooms. Some of the causes
for students misbehaviors could be te4achers, school and home environments and the
students themselves.
How does a teacher become a cause for classroom misbehaviors of students? Write down
your own experiences
Causes of classroom misbehavior
1. Teacher related causes
One of the factors for classroom misbehaviors of students is the teacher him/her self. The
teacher / becomes the cause of classroom misbehavior because of one or many of the
following factors.
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1.1.

Poor teaching one of the teacher related causes which can be a result of

a) poor mastery of the subject taught. A teacher who doesnt have a thorough knowledge of
the subject that he/she teaches definitely cant teach properly;
b) lack of planning and preparation; A teacher who doesnt have good plans for what he/she
does for a year, semesters a week, and a daily lesson with appropriate preparation will face
problems;
c) ineffective style of presentation; If a teacher fails to apply the appropriate method of
teaching and styles (voice, gesture manner of classroom walking, signals, etc) he/she will
definitely get into problems;
d) failure to use appropriate teaching aids (suitable audio-visuals)
Learning becomes lively and clear of a teacher uses suitable teaching aids of visual and
verbal nature. If he/she doesnt use teaching aids, at least some of the students may not
form the right image about what they are attending. Thus, they usually involve in
misbehaviors. It is a sign of poor teaching.
e) failure to involve students in the instructional activities and failure to apply the major
principles of teaching;
Students active involvement in the instruction is a sign of a teachers strength. He/she is
expected to consider the major principles of teaching that regulate the teachers planning,
organizing, directing and controlling activities. Thus, the teachers failures to involve
students and apply the principles of teaching result in problems.
f) failure to structure ones lessons and present them in steps;
A good teacher arranges his/her lessons by considering the logical structures of the
subject and the level of students maturity.

If a teacher fails to follow the logical

arrangements of contents and learning activities, he/she fail to be successful. If that is so,
students tend to misbehave for they may not understand what is under treatment.
1.2.

failure to set the right task;

Students involve activity when the tasks are interesting, relevant meaningful, challenging,
rewarding etc. However, if the teacher fails to put them in the above mentioned way, and
if the tasks are too difficult or too easy, the students will be discouraged / frustrated or
they will be bored respectively.

Ambiguity of instructions, absence of relationship

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between the tasks given and the lessons taught, etc make students to be indifferent and
misbehave. These are found to be the most potent causes of disorders.
1.3.

failure to enforce the rules set

Teachers manage classes by setting rules appropriate to the tasks at hand. Usually rules
are to be set at the beginning of the year when the teacher and students meet first.
However, the teachers failure or inconsistency to enforce / implement the rules set at any
time lead to students misbehavior. For instance, if the rule set was to answer a question
when they are allowed to answer. However, if the teacher starts to accept answers when
students respond in groups without raising their hands and getting permission, students
tend to misbehave for the teacher has failed to enforce the rule set.
2. Student related causes
As the students are the other elements acting in the instructional process, they can be one
of the causes for classroom misbehaviors. There can be a lot of factors make students to
misbehave the common ones include:
2.1.

antipathy to school or disinterest in learning in general;

A student who might have come to classes being forced by others without his or her
interest will not be attentive in a class. He/she rather involves in some destructive
activities.
2.2.

lack of interest in a particular subject

Students usually develop lack of interest in particular subjects when the teachers are not
good in teaching that/those subjects at their lower grades or when they are biased on the
subject, etc.
2.3.

dislike to a teacher or hostility towards a teacher;

Sometimes, students dislike a subject because of the negative attitudes they have
developed to their teachers. Even they can develop hostility towards a teacher and they
totally dislike a subject that is taught by that particular teacher.
Do you have any such experience? Write them here.
2.4.

attention seeking;

Students who are denied of attention actually will be encouraged to misbehave further to
attract more attention.
2.5.

ignorance of the classroom rules;

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Sometimes students involve in misbehavior when they dont know the dos and the
donts. They may realize them after they are involved in such inappropriate activities or
behaviors.
3. Home Environment Related Causes
These are related to factors such as:
3.1.

unsettled or disruptive home environment

Students who came from families where there is no peaceful relation among family members
may think about it while he/she is attending any class. These are factors that are most
reflected on students of broken families, where the father or the mother has problems, etc.
3.2.

unpleasant peer relations;

Students who have problems with their friends or students who had problems with gangsters
on the way to school might be involved in thinking how to solve or escape the problem
after the class. Such students are usually absent minded in a class.
3.3.

emotional upset

Students who are disturbed and upset cannot be attentive in a class.

3.4.

bad physical condition

Sometimes, students might have got some physical barriers problems from their home. Thus,
because of the inconveniences he/she has encountered, the student may involve in some
kinds of classroom misbehaviors.
4. School Environment Related Causes
It is common that the school environments in our schools are some of the factors for
classroom misbehaviors.
4.1.

The absence of sufficient materials for the classes, laboratories the workshops

and fields: these make students to strive to get them or become withdrawn which
ultimately lead to misbehavior.

The larger the group the higher is the chance to

misbehave.
4.2.

Conflicting rules of the school and the home;

This is related to the kinds of rules that may be set in schools and the accustomed traditions
or value systems of the learners home. For instance, a student might be brought up in a
family whose culture encourages kicking others and becoming ready to pay whatever

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they are asked for the kicked / the victim will be involved in kicking others for minor
disagreements;
4.3.

the class size;

Students who have the tendency to misbehave will be engaged in misbehavior when the
students per section increase in number. This is usually done to get fame or to be
identified by the group easily.
Can you suggest any school-environment-related causes of misbehaviors?
1.3. Classification of Classroom Misbehaviors
Are all classroom misbehaviors the same?
No, they are not the same. They differ in their nature and level of complexity. Some are
minor while others are serious. The classroom misbehaviors can be classified into three
forms by considering their nature. They are listed as follows
1. Minor misbehaviors of a passing kind
These are problems limited to mostly a single student and are likely to pass soon. For
instance, inattentiveness, distractions, unfriendly feelings, etc belong to this category.
2. Repeated minor misbehavior
These are problems, which dont spread to and dont distract other students in the class. Day
dreaming, attention seeking, not meeting work requirements, failure to show interests,
becoming uncommunicative and withdrawn, persistent inattentiveness and restlessness
belong to this category of misbehaviors.
3. Persistent and serious problems
These are major offences and are likely to harm the teaching and learning activities as well as
the social relationships existing in the class.

Breaking the classroom rules;

involving in anti social behaviors (stealing, theft, murder and lies);

insensitivity to others, disrespect, disobedience, cheating, and insulting;

leaving seat without permission;

excessive movement about the room;

calling out without raising ones hand;

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running in a class;
flicking some one with a ruler or a pencil;
using bad languages, whispering and over-noisy talk;
giggling, physical aggression to other students, etc belong to this category.

3: Approaches and Techniques to Maintain Classroom Discipline

There are different approaches and techniques classroom management being a set of
activities by which a teacher establishes and maintains those classroom conditions to
facilitate effective and efficient instruction. These can be accomplished through different
approaches and techniques. Although some of the approaches are highly criticized by
international and national laws and agreements, the common approaches include.
1. The Authoritarian Classroom Management Approach
This is approach in which students behaviors are totally controlled by the teacher. The
approach places greater roles on the teacher in establishing and maintaining order in the
classroom through the use of controlling strategies. The major goal of the teacher is just
to control students behavior by any mechanism. Thus, the classroom teacher has the
right to establish clear expectations, limits, and consequences.
He/she insists on an acceptable behavior from the students. The approach offers five
strategies that the teacher might wish to include in his/her repertoire of managerial
strategies; that is:
a) establishing and enforcing rules;
b) issuing commands, directives and orders;
c) utilizing mild desists;
d) utilizing proximity control; and
e) utilizing isolation and exclusion

a) Establishing and enforcing rules

The process of establishing rules in one in which the teacher sets limits by telling the
student what is expected of him or her and why. Thus, it is a process that clearly and
specifically defines the teachers expectations concerning classroom behaviors. As you
know it rules are statements which are usually written and describing certain behaviors
the appropriate and inappropriate students behaviors. They are formalized guidelines
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that describe acceptable and unacceptable students behaviors. Their purpose is to guide
and limit student conduct.
The advocates of the authoritarian approach insist on that the teacher should establish and
enforce rules that are realistic, reasonable, well defined, limited in number and clearly
understood. He/she should do it at the beginning or the first day of the school year.
There are various positions concerning students involvement in rule making and why it
should be at the beginning of the year. The reasons include that:
b) Students should participate for they are more likely to follow the rules they have
had a hand in developing;
c) The teacher should make the rules because the teacher has the responsibility to
determine students behavior.
d) The teacher should first specify a limited non-negotiable rules and let students add
other rules;
e) First impressions have longer effects on later lives

Issuing commands, directives and orders; A command is a statement that the teacher
uses tell the student that he/she is supposed to do something the teacher wants
him/her to do. E.g. asking students to open their books to page x is issuing a
command.

Utilizing mild desists

It is a form of punishment where the teacher reproves the student for behaving in an
unacceptable way for violating rules. They are verbal and non-verbal teacher behaviors
intended to inform but not to indict.

Utilizing proximity control

This is moving closer to a student whom the teacher sees misbehaving or whom the teacher
believes is on the verge of misbehaving.

It makes the student to refrain from

misbehaving.

Utilizing isolation and exclusion

Isolation, exclusion, in school suspension, in school detention, suspension and other forms of
exile are strategies that teachers are encouraged to consider as a response to serious
students misbehavior.

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2 The Intimidation Classroom Management Approach

Like the authoritarian approach, it is a process of controlling student behavior. Unlike the
authoritarian approach (which stresses the use of humane teacher behavior) the
intimidation approach emphasizes the use of intimidating teacher behaviors harsh forms
of punishment such as sarcasm, ridicule, coercion, threats, force and disapproval. The
teacher forces the students to behave according to the teachers dictates.
Do you accept it as an approach to solve problems in Ethiopian Schools?
3. The Permissive Classroom Management Approach
This approach maximizes students freedom. The major theme of it is that the teacher
should allow students to do what they want whenever and whatever they want. The role
of the teacher is to promote the freedom of students and thereby foster their natural
development.

It helps students develop self directness, self-discipline and self

responsibility if students are made free physically and psychologically.

Is it feasible to accomplishment in our schools reality?
4. The Cookbook Classroom Management Approach
It provides descriptions of lists of things a teacher should or should not do when he/she is
confronted with various classroom management problems. Sample of lists of dos and
donts are given as follows:

always reprimand and a pupil in private;

never raise your voice when admonishing students

always be firm and fair when dealing with students;

Never play favorites when rewarding students etc.

5. The Instructional Classroom Management Approach

This is an approach, which is to be done based on the contention that carefully designed and
implemented instruction will prevent problems. The approach argues that effective
management is the result of high quality instructional planning. Thus, the teacher needs
to plan his/her lesson by considering the needs, interests, etc of students. It plays both
preventing and solving managerial problems. However, well designed and

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implemented instructional activities contribute more to prevention than to solving

problems that have already occurred in a classroom.
Advocates to this approach suggest that the teacher should consider the following
instructional managerial strategies:
a) providing interesting, relevant and appropriate curriculum and instruction;
b) employing effective movement management;
c) establishing classroom routines;
d) giving clear directions;
e) utilizing interesting boosting;
f) providing hurdle help;
g) providing for environmental changes;
h) planning and modifying the classroom environment; and
i) restructuring the situation
6. Creating a Positive Social Emotional Climate in the Classroom
It is an approach, which assumes that learning is maximized in a positive classroom
climate, which, in turn, stems from positive interpersonal relationships.

Thus, both

teacher student and student student relationships can be easily achieved if the teacher
creates a favorable and friendly classroom atmosphere. Obviously, this is an approach
that conceives the classroom as a social system in which group processes are of major
importance. It strongly assumes that instruction takes place within a group context.
Therefore, the nature and behavior of the classroom group are viewed as having
significant effects on learning, even though learning is seen as an individual process. At
this point the role of the teacher is to foster the development and operation of an effective
classroom group.

7 The principle of Behavior Modification Approach

This views classroom management as the process of modifying students behavior. The
approach is built on two major assumptions:
1) there are four basic processes that account for learning; and
2) learning is influenced largely, if not entirely, by events in the environment.

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The four factors are related to positive reinforcement, punishment, extinction and negative
reinforcements. Thus, the teacher is required to master and apply the factors identified
above.
These different approaches can further be classified into specific classroom management
techniques.
Classification of Classroom Management Techniques
The specific classroom management techniques that teachers employ to maintain classroom
misbehaviors can be classified as:
1) Preventive techniques
2) Curative / remedial techniques

Constant monitoring is a technique that is both preventive and curative. It is an activity

that makes all and every student under a constant observation of the teacher. The teacher
establishes and maintains an eye contact with each and every student in a class. It
enables the teacher to know what is going on in the class.
The preventive effect of constant monitoring is that the students dont dare to create a
problem at all, because they feel that the teacher is constantly looking at them. The eye
contact intensifies communication between the teacher and the students.

The curative / remedial effect is that the teacher can easily spot out any sort of deviation
and quickly take the appropriate measure.
1. The Preventive Techniques
These are measures to be taken before students misbehave. They are precautions not to
give way for misbehaviors. They are usually used to avoid or reduce the causes of
misbehaviors in a classroom and to save time by removing the conditions of in
disciplinary acts. They all are applied on the basis of the principle, prevention is better
than cure.
The different preventive techniques include:

Disciplining:

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It is a degree of order or behavior, which one expects from a group or a class. It is a Latin
word to mean, "to learn". Thus, discipline can be taken as a development from within
individuals as a necessary personal control. It can be external or internal.

a) External discipline is the influence that comes upon some one from others
(teachers, friends, directors, unit leaders, etc) to be punctual, quiet, obedient,
clean, do, etc.
b) Internal discipline is the self control that one exercises over him/her self. It
comes out from the aims and desires within the individual. The ultimate aim of
external discipline is the development of self-control. Thus, the teachers role is
to inform first and make students observes it as their personal control.

Therefore, disciplining is a gradual process and it becomes a means to minimize

classroom misbehaviors.

Students come to school to learn, but not to misbehave

intentionally.

The Provision of Freedom;

Freedom is the absence of obstacle(s) to the satisfaction of a desire or the performance
of a task or absence of restriction or fear and repression, which prevents normal
mental development.

It can be seen as physical freedom (seating arrangement) and spiritual freedom (making
students feel free from frustration, and express their ideas). What is expected of every
teacher is to create an environment where students sit or stand comfortably and allowing
them feel free to ask and answer easily and freely.

Sharing Responsibilities

It is a means to create a deep-seated feeling to control. When the class has a large
number of responsible persons, it is guaranteed to be a good class. Thus, assigning and
giving responsibilities to individuals such as monitoring the whole class acting as a study
mentor a cleaning officer, a flag ceremony leader, sports, etc makes a class to be
disciplined.

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Similarly, if one gives activities that make students to engage in while they are in a cross
or field, they will be in activities. Thus, it becomes a means to contra students.

The Provision of Incentives

Incentive is an encouragement to successful actions or behaviors. These can be done by

making students to be successful through their own efforts, making them know their
results, setting the right tasks, creating competitive situation etc.

Establishing and maintaining good Interpersonal Relationships

This refers to the relationship that exists between the teacher and students and among
students themselves.

Good relationships can be established and maintained in the

classroom if the teacher commits himself / herself to:

a) keep on mentioning the need for concern and respect to one another, the need
for thought of others, etc;
b) treat students with respect and kindness and provide opportunities for success
in classroom;
c) show positive feelings which will create a pleasant, supportive and cooperative atmosphere in the classroom;
d) introduce the tasks at every period; etc.

Making Effective / Good Teaching

The teachers ability and skills to handle the class / the lesson systematically is one of the
preventive techniques. It has a powerful effect on students. Thus, making students active
participant in the instructional process and arrangement of tasks, sometimes in
collaboration with the students are effective mechanisms.

Therefore, teachers must

provide students with an engaging, exciting, supportive and useful learning experiences
and environment.

Co-operative Rule making

It is true that rules specify acceptable forms of classroom conduct. Rules must be clear,
consistent and should be communicated to students. Allowing students to participate in
amendments or suggesting new rules of their own makes students anxious to enforce their
own rules rather than violating them.

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In co-operative rule making the rules should be:

a) kept to a minimum (few);
b) relevant to the learning task at hand;
c) derived from the nature of the task; and
d) positively stated and offer a goal to work towards rather than to avoid.
For instance, a rule that is stated as work quietly is better than Dont talk, Let us
raise our hands to talk instead of Dont talk before you get permission.
Have you ever got chances to set rules in co-operation with your teacher while you were
in schools?

Explaining Procedures

One of the causes for classroom misbehaviors is ambiguity of instructions. Thus, to

minimize the problem every teacher should make directions clear. Creating worth while
activities and engaging students with the right tasks minimize disciplinary problems.
2. Curative / Remedial Techniques
These are measures, which are taken during or after the occurrence of each misbehaviors.
They focus on handling behavior problems as quickly as possible. The intent is to
minimize the disruptive effects of inappropriate behavior and save time.
It aims at putting an end to the trouble being made by a deviant student. These controlling
techniques help teachers deal with basically well behaved students who momentarily go
out of way to cause trouble in the class.
Types of Curative Techniques
Obviously, before the teacher takes any one of the curative measures he/she has to find out
the real cause(s) of students misbehavior(s) and determine the degree of the
misbehavior(s).
Similarly, matching the measures with the cause(s) and level of a given misconduct is
important. The controlling mechanisms include:

Ignoring - is turning a blind eye (overlooking) to an unwanted behavior except when

it is serious. It is possible, if it is a passing type without spreading to other students.

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It avoids unnecessary interruption of normal process of teaching and learning. It can

be used if a student is with problems of inattentiveness or restlessness etc.

Eye Contact: - is giving a knowing glance and a cold store (long and fixed look) to
a student who is repeatedly misbehaving in the class. It sends a message for him/her
to stop misbehaving.

Closing in or Proximity physical closeness: - is a technique involves moving in

the direction of the offender. It means be quiet or focus on your task. The
teacher should move slowly without stopping his/her teaching.

Touch and signal

If the misbehaving student is near by the teacher, touching his/her head or shoulder
slightly or signals and gestures could be shown in the following forms:
a) shaking the head negatively;
b) raising the eye brows;
c) frowning; a finger on the lips;
d) wagging a finger; waving the hand, etc.
But never use heavy signals such as hand clopping, book slamming, knocking a table with
a feast, or knocking a chalkboard with a duster, etc.

Humor commenting on misbehavior of a child or a pair of children humorously.

It jokingly and indirectly addresses the message to their misconduct creatively and
quickly. For instance a teacher may say, I didnt know that the foot ball team was
having a meeting over there.
This makes students to know that they are involved in activities, which are not allowed. .
Definitely, students who are engaged in misbehaviors knowingly or unknowingly stop
misbehaving as they are commented.

Separating Misbehaving Children

Allowing misbehaving students to sit together with others gives them more opportunities
to make tricks and cause more trouble to the class. It is better to separate them. Give a
seat to a well behaving student or bring the noisy child to one of the front seats just to
have him/her under your eyes.

Out of sight Technique

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When a student shows disruptive behavior that is really out of his/her control, the teacher
may allow the student to leave the room for a while until he/she cools off or regains self
control. It can be used when a student becomes so tickled that he/she bursts out in
uncontrolled laughter, look dizzy and sleepy in the class and restless (urine). These are
quite natural and demand tolerance on the part of the teacher.
N.B. In making the learner to stay out, be sure that you made a painless removal.

Restructuring

When the whole class seems tired or restless and unable to get settled to work, the teacher
might change the whole situation / the lesson or the activity at hand. Then, students may
begin learning once again by stopping restlessness or inattentiveness. The teacher must
attempt one or more of the following:
a) changing the teaching method; (give individual work)
b) giving them the energizer or activator allow them to sing their favorite song, physical
exercise, tell them jokes or short stories
c) giving the class five minutes rest, etc.

Appeal

When misbehavior gets more serious, the teacher should directly intervene and command an
end to it. The intervention should be short, direct and to the point. The teacher should name
the child, identify his/her misbehavior and finally indicate what he/she should do instead or
remind the student of the predetermined class rules.
Example: Please, be quiet!
N.B. Use it occasionally not to make students take it as usual.

Teachers Analysis:

When students come being disturbed or excited by an incident that just happened to them,
for instance with certain result of football match (excited, furious), surprise test, etc every
school teacher has to persuade the class to come to their sense. To this effect, the teacher
has to share their feelings, express concern for their welfare or sympathy to them. He/she
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may talk to the students saying, I know what is bothering you and I know that you all are
excited; but there is nothing you can do now and here, so please lets not waste our
time any more.
The teacher here appeals to the students power of reasoning and persuades them to settle
down and follow the lesson at hand.

Open discussion

It can be used it when one or more students present lasting behavior problems for you /
the teacher. It is a process of organizing a discussion situation between the teacher and
the trouble maker(s) or the whole class.
a) frankness to freely describe the incident and explain why it happened;
b) exclude anyone not involved in the problem or never allow students to implicate
students who have noting to do with the incidents;
c) act as a counselor; and
d) take further appropriate action
If it is necessary, the teacher may involve peer group members and parents in some of
these sessions.
The open discussion technique can be applied for incidents such as frequent absenteeism
or late coming, sleeping in a class while the teacher is teaching, coming to class drinking
alcoholic drinks, becoming indifferent in a class while others are doing, etc.

What other conditions can be suggested that make open discussion important?

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Additional materials regarding Assessment

Methods of Assessment
Source: Center for Teaching and Learning,
http://ctl.utexas.edu/teaching/assessment/planning, Retrieved on December 18, 2014
Many of us hear the word assessment and think test. However, good assessment
involves a variety of techniques.
Formative assessment techniques monitor student learning during the learning process.
The feedback gathered is used to identify areas where students are struggling so that
instructors can adjust their teaching and students can adjust their studying. These are lowstakes assessments (i.e., they have low point values) that happen early and often in the
semester.
Summative assessment techniques evaluate student learning. These are high-stakes
assessments (i.e., they have high point values) that occur at the end of an instructional
unit or course and measure the extent to which students have achieved the desired
learning outcomes.
Formative (Low-Stakes) Assessments
Informal Techniques

Written reflections. Sometimes referred to as "Minute Papers" or "Muddiest

Points," these popular assessment techniques have students reflect immediately
following a learning opportunity (e.g., at the end of a class or after completing an
out-of-class activity) to answer one or two basic questions like:
o What was the most important thing you learned today?
o What was the most confusing topic today?
o What important question remains unanswered?
Polls/Surveys. Data on student opinions, attitudes, behaviors or confidence in
understanding can be gathered either during class (e.g., with a classroom response
system) or outside of class. This can illustrate student engagement with the
material as well as prior knowledge, misconceptions, and comprehension.
Checks for Understanding. Pausing every few minutes to see whether students
are following along with the lesson not only identifies gaps in comprehension, but
helps break up lectures (e.g., with Clicker questions) or online lessons (e.g., with
embedded quiz questions) into more digestible bites.
Wrappers. "Wrapping" activities, using a set of reflective questions, can help
students develop skills to monitor their own learning and adapt as necessary.

131

Exam Wrappers include questions about preparation strategies, surprises,

remaining questions, study goals for the next unit, and so on. This helps
students reflect on their study strategies to identify the best ways to
prepare for future exams.
Homework Wrappers include questions about students' confidence in
applying their knowledge and skills both before and after completing an
assignment. This gives students immediate feedback concerning the
accuracy of their perceptions.
Lecture Wrappers include questions at the beginning of class about what
students anticipate getting out of a lesson and/or questions at the end of
class about the key points of the lesson. Having students compare their
key points to the instructor's can help students develop skills in active
listening and identifying important information.

Formal Techniques

In-class activities. Having students work in pairs or small groups to solve

problems creates space for powerful peer-to-peer learning and rich class
discussion. Instructors and TAs can roam the classroom as students work, helping
those who get stuck and guiding those who are headed in the wrong direction.
Quizzes. Gauge students prior knowledge, assess progress midway through a
unit, create friendly in-class competition, review before the test -- quizzes can be
great tools that don't have to count heavily toward students' grades. Using quizzes
to begin units is also a fun way to assess what your students already know, clear
up misconceptions, and drive home the point of how much they will learn.
Online assessment. Many online learning modules have built-in assessments
where students solve problems or answer questions along the way. This can
provide you with analytics on student responses and class performance so you can
tailor your instruction to their particular learning needs.
Class Deliverables. In-class activities are designed so students, usually in groups,
are required to submit a product of their work for a grade. Among the variety of
techniques that can be used, the most effective will balance individual and group
accountability and require students to think about authentic complex issues.
Team-Based Learning uses four criteria in the design of collaborative application
exercises.

Summative (High-Stakes) Assessments:

Exams. This includes mid-term exams, final exams, and tests at the end of course
units. The best tests include several types of questions short answer, multiplechoice, true-false, and short essay to allow students to fully demonstrate what
they know. Visit the Quick-Start Guide: Creating Tests.
Papers, projects, and presentations. These give students the chance to go
deeper with the material to put the knowledge theyve acquired to use or create

132

something new from it. This level of application is an extremely important and
often overlooked part of the learning process. These types of projects also give
students who do not test well a chance to shine. Visit the Quick-Start Guide:
Designing Assignments.
Portfolios. Submitting a portfolio at the end of a course can be a powerful way
for students to see the progress theyve made. More than just a collection of
students' work from the semester, good portfolios also include reflections on their
learning. Asking students to spell out the concepts or techniques used with each
piece, the themes addressed, and hurdles faced also brings a sense of completion
to the learning process.

Planning Assessments
Course learning outcomes describe what students should learn from a course. Varied
assessments that are tightly aligned with instruction and course learning outcomes can
most effectively support student learning.
For information about creating course learning outcomes that can be used to align your
assessments with instruction, visit our Course Design section designing student
learning outcomes.
What should you consider in planning assessments for your course?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Matching assessments with learning outcomes

Assessment methods
Course assessment planning
Prior learning
Ethical considerations
Rubrics
Writing multiple choice items - best practices
Writing open response items - best practices

Methods of Assessment
Many of us hear the word assessment and think test. However, good assessment
involves a variety of techniques.
Formative assessment techniques monitor student learning during the learning process.
The feedback gathered is used to identify areas where students are struggling so that
instructors can adjust their teaching and students can adjust their studying. These are lowstakes assessments (i.e., they have low point values) that happen early and often in the
semester.
Summative assessment techniques evaluate student learning. These are high-stakes
assessments (i.e., they have high point values) that occur at the end of an instructional

133

unit or course and measure the extent to which students have acheived the desired
learning outcomes.
Formative (Low-Stakes) Assessments
Informal Techniques

Written reflections. Sometimes refered to as "Minute Papers" or "Muddiest

Points," these popular assessment techniques have students reflect immediately
following a learning opportunitiy (e.g., at the end of a class or after completing an
out-of-class activity) to answer one or two basic questions like:
o What was the most important thing you learned today?
o What was the most confusing topic today?
o What important question remains unanswered?
Polls/Surveys. Data on student opinions, attitudes, behaviors or confidence in
understanding can be gathered either during class (e.g., with a classroom response
system) or outside of class. This can illustrate student engagement with the
material as well as prior knowledge, misconceptions, and comprehension.
Checks for Understanding. Pausing every few minutes to see whether students
are following along with the lesson not only identifies gaps in comprehension, but
helps break up lectures (e.g, with Clicker questions) or online lessons (e.g., with
embedded quiz questions) into more digestable bites.
Wrappers. "Wrapping" activities, using a set of reflective questions, can help
students develop skills to monitor their own learning and adapt as necessary.
o Exam Wrappers include questions about preparation strategies, surprises,
remaining questions, study goals for the next unit, and so on. This helps
students reflect on their study strategies to identify the best ways to
prepare for future exams.
o Homework Wrappers include questions about students' confidence in
applying their knowledge and skills both before and after completing an
assignment. This gives students immediate feedback concerning the
accuracy of their perceptions.
o Lecture Wrappers include questions at the beginning of class about what
students anticipate getting out of a lesson and/or questions at the end of
class about the key points of the lesson. Having students compare their
key points to the instructor's can help students develop skills in active
listening and identifying important information.

Formal Techniques

In-class activities. Having students work in pairs or small groups to solve

problems creates space for powerful peer-to-peer learning and rich class
discussion. Instructors and TAs can roam the classroom as students work, helping
those who get stuck and guiding those who are headed in the wrong direction.
Quizzes. Gauge students prior knowledge, assess progress midway through a
unit, create friendly in-class competition, review before the test -- quizzes can be

134

great tools that don't have to count heavily toward students' grades. Using quizzes
to begin units is also a fun way to assess what your students already know, clear
up misconceptions, and drive home the point of how much they will learn.
Online assessment. Many online learning modules have built-in assessments
where students solve problems or answer questions along the way. This can
provide you with analytics on student responses and class performance so you can
tailor your instruction to their particular learning needs.
Class Deliverables. In-class activities are designed so students, usually in groups,
are required to submit a product of their work for a grade. Among the variety of
techniques that can be used, the most effective will balance individual and group
accountability and require students to think about authentic complex issues.
Team-Based Learning uses four criteria in the design of collaborative application
exercises.

Summative (High-Stakes) Assessments:

Exams. This includes mid-term exams, final exams, and tests at the end of
course units. The best tests include several types of questions short answer,
multiple-choice, true-false, and short essay to allow students to fully
demonstrate what they know. Visit the Quick-Start Guide: Creating Tests.
Papers, projects, and presentations. These give students the chance to go
deeper with the material to put the knowledge theyve acquired to use or create
something new from it. This level of application is an extremely important and
often overlooked part of the learning process. These types of projects also give
students who do not test well a chance to shine. Visit the Quick-Start Guide:
Designing Assignments.
Portfolios. Submitting a portfolio at the end of a course can be a powerful way
for students to see the progress theyve made. More than just a collection of
students' work from the semester, good portfolios also include reflections on their
learning. Asking students to spell out the concepts or techniques used with each
piece, the themes addressed, and hurdles faced also brings a sense of completion
to the learning process.

Matching Assessments with Course Design

Designing a course requires significant thought about how assessment will be embedded to

monitor student learning and the effectiveness of instruction during the learning
process, which is considered formative assessment; and
evaluate student learning against a specific standard at the end of the learning
process, which is considered summative assessment.

These assessments should provide evidence based on the course learning outcomes and can be

direct measures which enable students to demonstrate their learning through

work products such as projects, papers, quizzes, and tests; and

135

indirect measures which enable students to provide their perceptions and

opinions about their learning through focus groups and surveys.

Using a variety of assessments throughout a course is considered a best practice so that students
have many different ways to best demonstrate their learning.
Important Considerations When Planning Assessments for a Course
1. Learning context contributes to the design of assessments in the following ways:

Certain subject areas and types of thinking skills lend themselves to specific
types of test items (questions). For example, multiple choice items are more
efficient for assessing large numbers of facts quickly.
Environmental constraints such as class size and classroom structure may limit
the space available to formally assess group activities or individual projects.
Student characteristics such background, age, and prior learning experiences
need to be considered when selecting the type and complexity of questions.

2. Stakeholders needs that should be considered in the design of assessments include:

Instructor goals which should be explained in learning outcomes that drive

course design. These goals should also act as the primary drivers of assessment.
Additional information about creating learning outcomes can be found at
Learning Outcomes (link to http://ctl.utexas.edu/node/270) page of the website.
Department or institutional objectives should be considered in designing
assessments that provide a view of student learning accomplishments to provide
instructors in follow-up courses information about the knowledge and skills
acquired by their students. Also, it is important to maintain some alignment with
departmental and university-level goals and objectives that guide programmatic
planning.
Student needs such as what skills and knowledge students should have to be
adequately prepared to continue their education in a particular field.

3. Nature of the learning outcomes, such as complexity, the level of thinking (factual recall
versus critical thinking for example), and types of skills, is important to consider in assessment
planning because:

Different types of activities and tests lend themselves more efficiently to certain
types of learning outcomes. For example, assessments requiring students to
choose from a menu of options requires different types of thinking than requiring
students to create a product.
Different assessment formats are more efficient for certain learning outcome
requirements than other formats. For example,
o
multiple choice formats are excellent for surveying a vast amount of
factual knowledge to determine whether a student knows the background
needed for more c

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Prior Learning
Why is it helpful to know about students background knowledge?
Misconceptions and gaps in student knowledge can greatly impact student learning.
Understanding these can help you guide students to greater success in your class by enabling you
to:

Gauge overall preparedness of the students

Target specific knowledge weaknesses
Address misconceptions so students can try to move beyond them
Construct a picture of the diverse student backgrounds in your class
Bridge the gap between prior knowledge and new material

What to consider when planning to find out about students background knowledge
Many methods exist to find out about student background knowledge, but considering the
following can help you select the one that is best for your situation.

What do you think students should already know and how can you best find out
whether they do?
What are some common misconceptions related to your subject?
How do you intend to respond to the answers that you find out about student
background knowledge?

TIPS FOR SUCCESSFUL BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE ASSESSMENTS

Do not give students a grade for the assessment.

Make sure the students know that it will not be graded.
Consider allowing students to take the assessment anonymously.
Use technology, such as Canvas, that will enable you to quantify the data and
produce graphs that can be shown to students.
Share the information from the assessments with the students as appropriate.

What are some effective ways to find out about students background knowledge?
QUICK INVENTORY
This method can be as simple as listing a series of about 10 to 15 statements and having students
identify whether the statements are true or false.
Advantages and Disadvantages

Quick and easy to create

Students have a 50% chance of guessing the correct response, but this can be okay
for a quick, ungraded overview of student prior knowledge

137

Response data are easy to analyze and graph, providing a picture that is useful for
both students and instructors
Most useful for recall and comprehension
Less useful for higher level thinking and skills

A variation of the true-false inventory is a survey with questions in the following format:
How familiar are you with x?

a.
b.
c.
d.

I have never heard of x.

I have heard of x, but my understanding is unclear.
I have a clear idea of x, but have not used it.
I can clearly explain x and have used it.

BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE PROBE

This method, as described in Angelo and Cross (1993) requires students to complete short answer
or multiple choice questions to probe their prior knowledge more deeply than a quick inventory.
It can be given on the first class meeting or at the beginning of a unit.
Advantages and Disadvantages

Provides data about what the students know and if a short answer format is used,
can provide data about how well the students can communicate what they know
Helpful to include questions that most students can answer correctly along with
more difficult questions so that the easier questions can provide a starting point
for instruction
Can stimulate students to recall information that will be relevant to the new
instruction
Results can be frustrating for underprepared students
Can create first impressions that are difficult to change, even though it is a single
snapshot of student knowledge

FOCUSED LISTING
This method, also described in Angelo and Cross (1993), requires students to focus on an
important term, name, or concept and list several ideas that are most closely related to this focus
point. Instructors can then identify the richness of student understanding.
Advantages and Disadvantages

Quick and easy technique that can be done with large classes
Helps draw student attention to major ideas
If limited time is given for student responses, it can provide an idea of what the
students believe are the most important ideas. However, this limited time will also
drive student responses to the recall level rather than higher level cognitive skills

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The technique focuses on one idea at a time, but can be repeated throughout the
course
Work through your own focused list before giving the assignment to students so
that you know the topic is neither too narrow nor broad, and is clearly stated.

References
Angelo, T.A. and Cross, K.P. (1993). Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for
College Teachers. Jossey-Bass. San Francisco. ISBN-1-55542-500-3.

Ethical Considerations
What are the ethical considerations for assessment?
Two major ethical considerations arise when designing assessments.
1. Are our assessments fair?
As we construct assessments it is important to make sure that they are based on relevant
material that students have had the opportunity to learn during the course. Assignments
also should be free of any bias that would give some students a more difficult time than
others in successfully completing the assignment.
2. Are our grading systems fair and consistently applied to all students?
An instructor has an ethical responsibility to ensure that the grades assigned are the best
estimate of the students performance. The grading system developed or selected will
generally reflect your philosophy of teaching, learning, and assessing. Apply your system
consistently to support equity.
Two types of grading systems are most often used:
Norm-Referenced Systems
Students are evaluated based on certain norms established in your discipline or course.
This type of grading is based on the normal distribution and is called norm-referenced
testing, Norm-referenced tests (or NRTs) compare an examinees performance to that of
other examinees.
Criterion-Referenced Systems
Criterion-referenced tests (or CRTs) differ in that each examinees performance is
compared to a pre-defined set of criteria or a standard. The goal with these tests is to
determine whether or not the student has the demonstrated mastery of a certain concepts
or skills/set of skills.
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What are the Ethics of Records Confidentiality and Data Security?

These two areas reflect how the instructor secures student educational records. It is
important to keep student assessment data secure after collecting it and confidential when
reporting it.
Confidentiality
According to the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974 (FERPA), all
student educational records must be kept confidential for each student. Be sure to practice
data security when gathering, and confidentiality when reporting, assessment data.
Data Security
Once collected, protect and secure data containing student information in a locked file or
room. Secure electronic data by keeping it password protected and limiting access.
Transmit data using a protected system like Webspace. Continue maintaining data
security even after the course is over. Check with the UT Austin Records Retention
Schedule (UTRRS) to determine the length of time you should retain student information
before destruction or archival preservation. UT Austin student data must be disposed of
according to university policy.
For Further Reading
Brookhart, S.M. (2004). Assessment theory for college classrooms. In New Directions
in Teaching and Learning, eds. M.V. Achacoso & M.D. Svinicki, New York: Wiley, 514.
Frey, B.B. &Vicki L. Schmitt, V.L. (2012). Defining authentic classroom assessment.
Practical assessment, research and evaluation, 17 (2).
Goldstein, G.S. (2007). Using classroom assessment techniques in an introductory
statistics class. College Teaching, 55 (2), 77-82.
Writing Multiple Choice Questions
Multiple choice questions are often called fixed choice, selected response or multiple
choice items because they are not always questions, and they require students to select
from among various options that are presented to them. The options are fixed.
These items remain important because they can be scored rapidly, providing quick
feedback to students. Also, they are efficient when assessing large numbers of students
over broad content.
One drawback is that constructing multiple choice items well requires plenty of time for
writing, review, and revision. A time-saving tip is to write a few items each day while

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preparing for class or after class, so that the material is fresh in your mind. The items will
then most likely reflect what you emphasized in class, which is fairer for the students. If
you construct the items so that they can be easily shuffled, like on index cards or software
with easy cut and paste, you can simply shuffle items around to build quizzes and tests
later.
An important consideration in constructing multiple choice items is to make them
measure learning rather than test-taking skills of test wise students. The suggestions
here are designed to help you with this, but first some vocabulary needs to be introduced.
ITEM VOCABULARY
The following vocabulary will be used in the rest of this discussion.
The prompt or first part is the stem. For example:
Frequent use of sprays, oils, and antiseptics in the nose during a bad cold may result
in:
Students select from among the options, which include the correct response and the
incorrect responses or distracters. In our example, a is the correct response and b,c, and
d are the distracters.
A. the spreading of the infection to the sinuses.
B. damage to the olfactory nerve.
C. destruction of white blood cells.
D. congestion of the mucous membrane in the nose.
ADVANTAGES OF MULTIPLE CHOICE ITEMS
Additional benefits of multiple choice items include:

High diagnostic power if distracters are constructed to address common mistakes

or misconceptions.
Student responses can be scored objectively and analyzed statistically for
impartial, reliable and valid diagnostic information about student learning.
Reliability refers to the consistency with which a learning outcome is measured.
This concept is mostly applied to sets of items or entire tests when considering
multiple choice items. Validity is the degree to which an item effectively
accomplishes the task for which it was designed. A test cannot have validity
unless each of its items is valid. The discussion here only addresses validity of
single multiple choice items. Regarding a newly constructed item, answers to the
following questions should be yes for the item to be considered valid:

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o
o
o
o

Is it reasonable to expect that the students have prior knowledge needed to

respond to the item?
Does the item address an important concept that students should have
learned from instruction?
Is the item stated clearly, using the appropriate vocabulary for the
students?
Is the level of thinking addressed by the item appropriate for the
content addressed?
level of the student on the novice to expert continuum?
learning objectives of the course?

DISADVANTAGES OF MULTIPLE CHOICE ITEMS

Disadvantages include:

Difficult and time-consuming to write good items that address thinking skills
above the factual level
The items are difficult to phrase so that all students interpret them in the same
way
When students study for multiple choice tests, they focus on recognition, not
recall. Recent learning theories indicate that students need to process information
to really learn it, so time spent studying for recognition is not as effective as time
spent working with information.
By guessing, students who dont know the answer have a 25% chance of correctly
selecting the correct response in a multiple choice item with 4 options. This
decreases to 20% for items with 5 options, etc.

WRITING EFFECTIVE MULTIPLE CHOICE ITEMS

The following tips can help you create multiple choice items to most effectively measure
student learning.

Write the stem first, then the correct answer, then the distracters to match the
correct answer in terms of length, complexity, phrasing, and style
Base each item on a learning outcome for the course
Ask a peer to review items if possible
Allow time for editing and revising
Minimize the amount of reading required for each item
Be sensitive to cultural and gender issues
Keep vocabulary consistent with student level of understanding
Avoid convoluted stems and options
Avoid language in the options and stems that clues the correct answer

Writing effective multiple choice item stems:

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Format stems as clearly, concisely phrased questions, problems, or tasks if

possible
If phrasing the stem as a question requires extra words, make the stem into an
incomplete statement
Include most information in the stem so that the options can be short
When making the stem an incomplete statement, make sure the options follow the
stem in a grammatically correct manner
Avoid using negatives in stems when possible

Writing effective miltiple choice item options:

Make sure there is only one best or correct answer

Keep options parallel in format (if all options cannot be constructed in a parallel
way, make 2 options parallel to each other and the rest of the options parallel to
each otherthe key is to construct options that do not stand apart from each other
purely because of style)
Make options mutually exclusive (ex. Avoid 1-4, 2-5, 3-6 etc. as options because
they overlap)
Avoid all of the above or none of the above
Avoid repeating the same words in all of the options by moving the words to the
stem
Arrange options in logical order if possible
Avoid using specific language like all, never, or always
Keep options plausible for students who do not know the correct option
Options selected by very view students should be altered if the item is reused

Sample items that exemplify the information above:

Which of the following philosophical schools was most identified with the Greek
Philosopher Aristotle?

A. Stoicism
B. Agnosticism
C. Platonism
D. Empiricism (correct)
A blood pressure reading is 120/82. What information does this reading provide?

A. Force needed to open a heart valve

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B. Force of atrial contractions

C. Pressure of the blood against artery walls (correct)
D. Pressure of the blood as it flows in veins
Multiple Choice Items Addressing Complex Thinking Skills
To write, multiple choice items addressing complex thinking skills are more difficult than
those intended to survey factual knowledge. However, the effort can be highly rewarded
because of the valuable information they can yield quickly about your students
competencies, especially when distractors are skillfully designed to target key
weaknesses in novice thinking.
Stems of these items often present a problem, scenario, or reading upon which students
reflect to answer the question. Ideas for writing these items include:

present a problem that requires application of course principles,

require analysis of a problem,
require evaluation of alternatives
design problems that students to combine several concepts or ideas
designing options that require a high level of discrimination can also contribute to
multiple choice items that test higher-order thinking

Examples
The following multiple choice questions are examples with formats that you can adapt to
fit most disciplines.
EXAMPLE 1: This item addresses higher level thinking skills because students must
evaluate multiple pieces of evidence, then apply that evidence to solve a problem.
Evidence is presented, then the student must select the best action to take with the
evidence.
Tims second grade teacher is concerned because of the following observations about
Tims behavior in class:

Withdraws from peers on the playground and during groupwork

Often confuses syllables in words (ex: says mazagine instead of magazine)
Often confuses b and d, p and q, etc. when writing or recognizing letters
Loses his place when reading

The teacher has arranged a meeting with Tims mother to discuss these concerns.
Which of the following statements is best for the teacher to say to Tims mother?

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A. Tim needs extra practice reading and writing problematic letters and words at home at
least 30 minutes per day.
B. Please discuss the importance of schoolwork to Tim so that he will increase his efforts
in classwork.
C. These are possible symptoms of dyslexia so I would like to refer him to a specialist for
diagnosis.
D. Please adjust Tims diet because he is most likely showing symptoms of ADHD due to
food allergies.
Explanation: C is the best answer because the behaviors could be symptoms of dyslexia.
The other options are plausible, but not the best. Tim is already showing signs of social
anxiety, so extra practice, or increasing effort could worsen the anxiety. The collection of
symptoms does not indicate ADHD as much as a learning disability.

EXAMPLE 2: This item was released from an AP biology test and was written to
address an understanding of a hypothesis about the natural origin of life on Earth with
supporting scientific evidence as well as evaluate scientific questions and hypotheses.
By discharging electric sparks into a laboratory chamber atmosphere that consisted
of water vapor, hydrogen gas, methane, and ammonia, Stanley Miller obtained data
that showed that a number of organic molecules, including many amino acids, could
be synthesized. Miller was attempting to model early Earth conditions as
understood in the 1950s. The results of Millers experiments best support which of
the following hypotheses?

A. The molecules essential to life today did not exist at the time Earth was first formed.
B. The molecules essential to life today could not have been carried to the primordial
Earth by a comet or meteorite.
C. The molecules essential to life today could have formed under early Earth conditions.
D. The molecules essential to life today were initially self-replicating proteins that were
synthesized approximately four billion years ago.
Explanation: Notice that C is the correct options because the other options require the
students to infer information that has not been provided.

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Source: AP Central

EXAMPLE 3: This item was released from an AP history test and was written to address
an understanding of the development and interaction of cultures during state-building,
expansion, and conflict. It also addresses the skills of argumentation, contextualization,
interpretation, and synthesis. It requires students to compare two passages, one from a
modern historian and one from a person living during the historical time frame.
Passage 1
Whenever I visited Jerusalem, I always entered the al-Aqsa Mosque, beside which stood
a small mosque which the Franks had converted into a church.... [T]he Templars, ... who
were my friends, would evacuate the little adjoining mosque so that I could pray in it.
Usamah ibn Munqidh, Muslim historian, Jerusalem, circa 1138
Passage 2
The Crusader states were able to cling to survival only through frequent delivery of
supplies and manpower from Europe.
[They] were defended primarily by three semi-monastic military orders: the Templars,
the Hospitallers, and the Teutonic Knights. Combining monasticism and militarism, these
orders served to protect pilgrims and to wage perpetual war against the Muslims.
Palmira Brummett, world historian, 2007
The second passage does not support the first passage because the second passage

A. shows that an influx of manpower from Europe was not critical for the survival of the
Crusader states
B. shows that Muslims vastly outnumbered Europeans in the Crusader states
C. minimizes the importance of Hospitallers and Teutonic Knights in the administration
of the Crusader states
D. presents an incident in which a military order supported a Muslim traveler
Explanation: D is the best response.
Source: AP Central

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ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
More examples of multiple choice items that address higher order thinking skills can be
found at AP Central Biology Fall 2012 or AP Central World History Fall 2011
Writing Good Multiple-Choice Exams by Dawn M. Zimmaro, Ph.D is an excellent
resource about item writing along with test construction. It contains many examples that
will help you understand the features of a good multiple-choice item.
References
Brookhart, S.M. How to Assess Higher-Order Thinking Skills in Your Classroom.
ASCD. ISBN-13: 978-1-4166-1048-9
Haldyna, T. M. and Rodriguez, M.C. (2013). Developing and Validating Test Items.
Routledge, New York. ISBN-10: 0415876052.
Haldyna, T. M. (1996). Writing Test Items to Evaluate Higher Order Thinking.
Routledge, New York. ISBN-13: 978-0205178759
Writing multiple-choice questions that demand critical thinking. University of Oregon
Teaching Effectiveness Program
Writing good multiple-choice test questions. Vanderbilt University. Center for Teaching.

Writing Open Response Items - Best Practices

Open-response items vary from short-answer or completion questions to problem solving
and written essays. Written essays enable students to demonstrate the depth of their
thinking and are therefore useful for assessing complex problem solving and critical
thinking. Problem solving with work shown can enable instructors to view the students
thinking processes and provide feedback. Completion questions require students to
retrieve information from memory.
Some instructors believe that completion and multiple choice questions on the same
content assess the same thing, however others disagree because retrieving information
from memory is a different competency from recognizing the information when selecting
a response. In general however, there is a positive correlation between student
performance on multiple choice items and open-response items covering the same
content.

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You should select item types based on your specific context, however, in general, when
assessing recall and comprehension, multiple choice items can more efficiently cover a
large amount of material quickly, and can be scored objectively and quickly. Constructed
response items should be reserved for the more complex competencies that are difficult to
assess with multiple choice items. Consider the information below in your selection of
open response items:
ADVANTAGES OF OPEN RESPONSE ITEMS
Advantages include:

rapid item development,

ability to assess constructs other than achievement (i.e., student attitudes,
creativity, values, opinion, explanations, and interpretations)
potential to assess writing competency and skills
capacity to accommodate argument and logic skills
minimization of guessing effects
influence on students to study information more deeply than multiple choice items

DISADVANTAGES OF OPEN RESPONSE ITEMS

Disadvantages include:

time consuming to score

scoring conditions can be subjective (lower reliability of scoring)
time consuming for students to construct responses
writing skills can sometimes make a weak response sound better and vice versa

Tips for Writing Open Response Items

1. Construct the items to elicit skills and knowledge aligned with the educational
outcomes developed for the course.
2. Reserve open response items to assess educational outcomes that are difficult to
measure using other formats, since they are more time-consuming to take and score.
3. Specify the task in clear, concise language that all students will be able to understand.
4. Specify the length of the answer desired for each item.
5. Show the scoring criteria along with the item so students will know how the points can
be earned.
6. Test the item yourself by writing an ideal answer to it. Develop your scoring criteria
from this answer.

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7. Use either analytic scoring rubrics (point systems) or holistic scoring rubrics (overall
score based on certain criteria) to ensure consistent scoring. See the RUBRICS document
for more information about rubrics.
Scoring Open Response Items
Scores derived from open response items sometimes fail to provide a clear picture of
student achievement because of many factors such as variations in

student interpretation of the prompt,

student writing style and ability,
scorer interpretation of the rubric, and
scorer consistency.

These tips can help you minimize scoring errors.

Provide the same set of questions to all of the students. When you allow students
to select from among choices of essay questions (ex. answer 2 of the 5 questions),
the items are most likely not equivalent and students are not being evaluated on
the same scale. One students score does not mean the same thing as another
students score. While allowing students a choice gives them the perception that
they have the opportunity to do their best work, choice introduces difficulty in
drawing consistent and valid conclusions about student answers and performance.

Consider using several narrowly focused items rather than one broad one so that
students can narrow-in on the response and scoring will be more consistent.
You can isolate various aspects of students skills and knowledge more
consistently.
Analytic scoring rubrics yield more consistent scores than holistic scoring rubrics
because features of the response for which test takers should receive points can be
evaluated separately.

Examples of Prompt Formats Designed to Elicit Higher Order Thinking Skills

Skill

Stem

Comparing

Describe the similarities and differences between...

Relating Cause and

Effect

What are the major causes of...

Justifying

Which of the following alternatives do you favor and why?

Summarizing

State teh main points included in...

Generalizing

Formulate several valid generalizations for the follsing data...

Inferring

In the light of the information presetned, what is most likely to happen when...

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Classifying

Group the following items according to...

Creating

List as many ways as you can think of for...

Applying

Using the principles of... as a guide, describe how you would solve the following
problem.

Analyzing

Describe the reasoning errors in the following paragraph.

Synthesizing

Describe a plan for providing that...

Evaluating

Describe the strengths and weaknesses of...

Source: Piontek,2008, table 2, adapted from Figure 7.11 of McMillan, 2001, p.186.

References
Bridgeman,B., Trapani, C, Bivens- Tatum, J. 2011. Comparability of essay question
variants. Assessing Writing 16 (2011) 237255.
McMillan, J. H. (2001). Classroom assessment: Principles and practice for effective
instruction. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Piontek, M.E. 2008. Best Practices for Designing and Scoring Exams. CRLT Occasional
Papers, No. 24, University of Michigan, http://www.crlt.umich.edu/P8_0. Using the
given criteria, write an evaluation of

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