REPORT #1

ALTERNATING-CURRENT PROJECT: STEAM-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT

In Partial Fulfilment
for the Requirement in the subject
EE S52
Power Plant Engineering Lec.

By:
ALDRIAN KIAN B. TECSON

To:
Engr. Wilfredo Gomez

Introduction: Steam/Thermal Power station

A steam/thermal power station uses heat energy generated from burning coal to produce
electrical energy. This type of power station is widely used around the world.
This power station uses the Rankine cycle. This is the cycle of the steam produced in the
boiler, then it is taken to the Steam turbine (prime mover). From the turbine the steam is cooled
back to water in the Condenser, the resulting water is fed back into the boiler to repeat the
cycle.
Because of the abundance of fuel (coal), this kind of power station can be used to produce
large amounts of electrical energy. In most countries these power stations are used as base
load power stations. This is because steam power stations are slow to start and cannot be used
to cater for peak loads that generally occur for a short duration.
These power stations (together with nuclear power stations) are kept running very close
to full efficiency for 24 hours a day (unless they are being maintained). They have typical life of
30 to 40 years (although most governments have reduced this number to 35 years).

Pros & Cons: what this power station presents

Advantages

Disadvantages

Cheap coal is used

Air pollution from smoke fumes

Can be installed anywhere near fuel & water

supply

Costs more to run compared with other

types of power stations

Requires less construction space

Large amounts of water are required.

Cost for Generation is less

Takes long time to be erected and put into

action.

Transmission costs are reduced as they can be set

Maintenance and operating costs are high.
up near the industry
The portion of steam generated can be used as
process steam in different industries.

With increase in pressure and temperature,

the cost of plant increases.

Steam engines and turbines can work under 25%

of overload capacity.

Troubles from smoke and heat from the

plant, disposal of ash.

Able to respond changing base loads without

difficulty.

Future generations will have to learn to depend less and less on this type of electricity
generating power station, due to a fast increasing depletion of fuels (coal and oil). As other
types of power stations become more efficient it should be possible to completely abandon the
use of this type of power station.

ESSENTIALS OF STEAM POWER PLANT EQUIPMENT

A steam power plant must have following major equipments:

1. A furnace to burn the fuel.
2. Steam generator or boiler containing water. Heat generated in the furnace is utilized to
convert water into steam.
3. Main power unit such as an engine or turbine to use the heat energy of steam and perform
work.
4. Piping system to convey steam and water.
In addition to the above equipment the plant requires various auxiliaries and accessories
depending upon the availability of water, fuel and the service for which the plant is intended.
The flow sheet of a thermal power plant consists of the following four main circuits:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Feed water and steam flow circuit

Coal and ash circuit
Air and gas circuit
Cooling water circuit.

A steam power plant using steam as working substance works basically on Rankine cycle.
Steam is generated in a boiler, expanded in the prime mover and condensed in the condenser
and fed into the boiler again.

The different types of systems and components used in steam power plant are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

High pressure boiler

Prime mover
Condensers and cooling towers
Coal handling system
Ash and dust handling system
Draught system
Feed water purification plant
Pumping system
Air preheater, economizer, super heater, feed heaters.

Fig. 1 shows a schematic arrangement of equipment of a steam power station. Coal

received in coal storage yard of power station is transferred in the furnace by coal handling unit.
Heat produced due to burning of coal is utilized in converting water contained in boiler drum into
steam at suitable pressure and temperature. The steam generated is passed through the
superheater. Superheated steam then flows through the turbine. After doing work in the turbine
die pressure of steam is reduced. Steam leaving the turbine passes through the condenser which
maintained the low pressure of steam at the exhaust of turbine. Steam pressure in the
condenser depends upon flow rate and temperature of cooling water and on effectiveness of air
removal equipment. Water circulating through the condenser may be taken from the various
sources such as river, lake or sea.
If sufficient quantity of water is not available the hot water coming out of the condenser
may be cooled in cooling towers and circulated again through the condenser. Bled steam taken
from the turbine at suitable extraction points is sent to low pressure and high pressure water
heaters. Air taken from the atmosphere is first passed through the air pre-heater, where it is
heated by flue gases. The hot air then passes through the furnace. The flue gases after passing
over boiler and superheater tubes, flow through the dust collector and then through economiser,
air pre-heater and finally they are exhausted to the atmosphere through the chimney.
Steam condensing system consists of the following:
1. Condenser
2. Cooling water
3. Cooling tower
4. Hot well
5. Condenser cooling water pump
6. Condensate air extraction pump
7. Air extraction pump
8. Boiler feed pump
9. Make up water pump.

Steam Power station Schematic arrangement

Stage 1: Coal & Ash handling

Figure 2.

This stage is seen as the entrance and exit of fuel (coal) used. The initial handling treatment and
storage of coal and the final handling and disposal of Ash.
Coal & Ash Handling (key from figure 2)
*Coal conveyor (14)

*Coal hopper (15)

*Pulverizer Mill (16)

*Ash hopper (18)

Stage 2: Steam Generating Plant

This stage is seen as the energy loss stage. The steam creation by heat accounts for the greater
percentage of power station in-efficiency.
Steam Generating (key from figure 2)
*Boiler drum (17)
*Preheater(24)

*Superheater (19)
*Forced draught-fan(20)

*Reheater (21)
*Induced draught-fan(26)

*Economizer (23)
*Chimney(27)

Stage 3 & 4: Steam turbine & Alternator/Generator

This stage is seen as the energy conversion stage. The steam turbine converts steam energy to
rotational mechanical energy, while the Alternator/Generator converts rotational mechanical energy
into electrical energy.

Energy conversion (key from figure 2)

*Pressure turbines (6; 9 & 11)
*Generator (5)

*Steam governor (10)

*Transformer (4)

*Boiler feed pump (7)

*Pylon (3)

Stage 5: Feed water & Cooling

This stage is seen as the recycling stage. Steam used in boiler chamber is condensed back to water
for re-use.
Feed water & Cooling (key from figure 2)
*Cooling tower (1) *Water pump (2) *Condenser (8) *Precipitator (25)

MAIN PARTS OF A STEAM POWER PLANT

1. COOLING TOWER

Functions
Cooling Towers have one function:

Remove heat from the water discharged from the condenser so that the water can be discharged
to the river or recirculated and reused.

What is a Cooling Tower?

A cooling tower extracts heat from water by evaporation. In an evaporative cooling tower,
a small portion of the water being cooled is allowed to evaporate into a moving air stream to
provide significant cooling to the rest of that water stream.
Cooling Towers are commonly used to provide lower than ambient water temperatures
and are more cost effective and energy efficient than most other alternatives.
The smallest cooling towers are structured for only a few litres of water per minute while
the largest cooling towers may handle upwards of thousands of litres per minute. The pipes are
obviously much larger to accommodate this much water in the larger towers and can range up to
12 inches in diameter.
How Cooling Towers Work
When water is reused in the process, it is pumped to the top of the cooling tower and will
then flow down through plastic or wood shells, much like a honeycomb found in a bees nest.
The water will emit heat as it is downward flowing which mixes with the above air flow, which in
turn cools the water. Part of this water will also evaporate, causing it to lose even more heat.

2. COOLING WATER PUMP

A circulating/cooling water pump that provides cooling water through the condenser to
condense the exhaust steam from the turbine. Condenser circulating pumps are used to pump
cooing water through the condenser. The source of the cooling water can be the sea, lake, river
or a cooling tower. Low speed horizontal-double suction-volute centrifugal pumps are used for
this application. This pump has a simple but rugged design that allows ready access to interior
for examination and rapid dismantling if repairs are required.

3. PYLON (Termination Tower)

A special kind of a dead-end tower is a termination pylon. Also called a terminal tower. It is
used when the overhead power line terminates, and is connected to substation equipment, or
transitions to underground cable.

4. Unit Transformer(s)

In a Steam/ Thermal plants, different types of power transformers are employed:

Types of Transformers:
a. Generator Transformer:
This is the main power transformer employed in the power plant. It steps the voltage from
21kV to 230 or 400kV and delivers the power. Stepping up the voltage reduces the transmission
losses which occur during the power transmission to long distances. The rating of this
transformer (MVA rating) will be almost equal to the alternator or generator rating.
b. Unit Auxiliary Transformers:
These transformers are connected to the Generator Transformer bus. These transformers
steps down the voltage from 230kV or 400kV to 6.6kV (230/6.6kV or 400kV/6.6kV) and supply
the power to the electrical auxiliaries present in the plant (motors, drives, lighting and other
plant loads).

5. Electric Generator
An electric generator works by electromagnetic induction in that it uses magnetism to make
electricity. The power source is the steam turbine or a gas turbine. It spins a coil, which is
contained in the rotor of the generator, between the poles of a magnet or an electromagnet
produced by the stator of the generator. As the coil of the rotor passes through the lines of force,
an electric current flows through the coil to the main transformer and eventually to the
transmission lines. The electric generator is a major piece of equipment in a power plant because
it converts mechanical energy from the turbine to which it is connected into electric energy.
Figure 3.1 shows an assembled generator as it is being installed in a power plant and eventually
connected to the turbine. This hydrogen-cooled generator produces approximately 200 MW. Each
generator incorporates the following major components:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)

Frame
Stator core and winding
Rotor and winding
Bearings
Cooling system

Figure 3.1 Installation of 200-MW hydrogen-cooled electric generator. (Siemens

Westinghouse Power Corp.)

A cross section of a modern hydrogen-cooled generator is shown in Fig.3.2. The major

parts of the generator are identified. Of these major parts, the stator and rotor are particularly
important components. Hydrogen gas is used to cool the windings in electric generators.
More efficient operation results in the generator as compared with other methods because
hydrogen provides high thermal conductivity. However, losses of hydrogen do occur through the
generators rotor seals, and this requires makeup hydrogen. Most plants have hydrogen storage
tanks that are replenished by truck deliveries, and some larger facilities have on-site production
of hydrogen for increased convenience. The stator has a slotted and laminated silicon-steel-iron
core. The winding of the stator is placed in the slots and consists of a copper strand
configuration. Most frequently the stator is hydrogen cooled; however, small units may be air
cooled and very large units can even be water cooled. Figure 3.3 shows an air-cooled generator
stator during final assembly, and this unit can produce approximately 120 MW. The rotor is solid
steel and has slots milled along the axis, as shown in Fig. 3.4. A copper rotor winding is placed
in the slots and is also cooled by hydrogen for this particular design. Cooling of the rotor is
improved by sub-slots and axial cooling passages. The rotor winding is restrained by wedges
that are inserted into the slots.

Figure 3.2 Inner-cooled electric generator. (Siemens Westinghouse Power Corp.)

Figure 3.3 Stator for 120-MW air-cooled electric generator. (Siemens Westinghouse
Power Corp.)

Figure 3.4 Rotor for electric generator. (Siemens Westinghouse Power Corp.)

The rotor winding is supplied by dc current, either directly by a brushless excitation

system or through collector rings. Bearings are located on each end of the rotor to provide the
necessary support. The hydrogen is cooled by a water-cooled heat exchanger that is mounted on
the generator or installed in a closed-loop cooling system.
The dc current of the rotor generates a rotating magnetic field that induces an AC voltage in
the stator winding. This voltage drives current through the load and supplies the electric energy.

6. Low-Pressure Turbine

Low Pressure turbine is designed to be a dual flow turbine. Steam enters the center of the
turbine from the crossover pipe and flows across the reaction blading in two opposite directions.
This configuration reduces axial thrust on the turbine and allows for a smaller turbine
installation. On ships where space is not a concern, a single flow turbine is used.
Low Pressure Turbine blade
Titanium alloys offer high strength to intermediate temperatures at a density almost half that
of steel and nickel-based superalloys. As a result, they have been adopted widely in the fan and
compressor stages of the gas turbine for both disc and blade applications.
LP blade is larger than HP & IP blades.

7. Boiler Feed Pump

A boiler feed pump that transfers feedwater from the feedwater heaters to the economizer
or the boiler steam drum. This pump closes the boiler, steam and condensate loop by returning
the condensate back into the system for reuse.

8. Condenser
Functions of Condensers
The main purposes of the condenser are to condense the exhaust steam from the turbine
for reuse in the cycle and to maximize turbine efficiency by maintaining proper vacuum. As the
operating pressure of the condenser is lowered (vacuum is increased), the enthalpy drop of the
expanding steam in the turbine will also increase. This will increase the amount of available work
from the turbine (electrical output). By lowering the condenser operating pressure, the following
will occur:
(a) Increased turbine output
(b) Increased plant efficiency

(c) Reduced steam flow (for a given plant output)

It is therefore very advantageous to operate the condenser at the lowest possible pressure
(highest vacuum).
Condenser Types
There are two primary types of condensers that can be used in a power plant:
(a) Direct Contact
(b) Surface
Direct contact condensers condense the turbine exhaust steam by mixing it directly with
cooling water. The older type Barometric and Jet-Type condensers operate on similar principles.
Steam surface condensers are the most commonly used condensers in modern power
plants. The exhaust steam from the turbine flows on the shell side (under vacuum) of the
condenser, while the plants circulating water flows in the tube side. The source of the circulating
water can be either a closed-loop (i.e. cooling tower, spray pond, etc.) or once through (i.e. from
a lake, ocean, or river). The condensed steam from the turbine, called condensate, is collected in
the bottom of the condenser, which is called a hotwell. The condensate is then pumped back to
the steam generator to repeat the cycle.

Figure 4.0 Typical steam surface condenser with feedwater heaters in the neck of the condenser.
[Thermal Engineering International (USA) Inc., a Babcock Power Inc. company.]

9. Intermediate Pressure Turbine

Intermediate pressure turbine having more pressure than low pressure turbine (L.P) and less
than the high pressure turbine (H.P). Its blade is larger than high pressure turbine.
Blade of intermediate pressure turbine
The size of blades of I.P steam turbine is larger than H.P steam turbine , but smaller than
L.P steam turbine.

10.

(Steam) Governor

Figure 5.0: The Governor

The speed of the machine is controlled by the automatic opening and closing of the
admission valves under the control of a governor, of the spring-weighted type (Figure 5.0)

attached directly to the top end of the turbine shaft. The action of the governor depends on the
balance of force exerted by the spring, and the centrifugal effort of the rectangular-shaped
weights at the lower end; the moving weights acting through the knife-edge suspension tend to
pull down the lever against the resistance of the heavy helical spring. The governor is provided
with an auxiliary spring on the outside of the governor dome for varying the speed while
synchronizing. The tension of the auxiliary spring is regulated by a small motor wired to the
switchboard. This spring should be used only to correct slight changes in speed. Any marked
change should be corrected by the use of the large hexagonal nut in the upper plate of the
governor frame. This nut is screwed down to increase the speed, and upward to decrease it.

11.

High Pressure Turbine

High pressure and temperature fluid at the inlet of the turbine exit as lower pressure and
temperature fluid. The difference is energy converted by the turbine to mechanical rotational
energy, less any aerodynamic and mechanical in efficiencies incurred in the process. Since the
fluid is at a lower pressure at the exit of the turbine than at the inlet, it is common to say the
fluid has been expanded across the turbine.
High Pressure Turbine Blades
A turbine blade is the individual component which makes up the turbine section of a gas
turbine. The blades are responsible for extracting energy from the high temperature, high
pressure gas produced by the combustor.

Advantages Of High Pressure Turbine Blades

12.

Ability to utilize high pressure and high temperature steam.

High efficiency.
High rotational speed.
High capacity/weight ratio.
Smooth, nearly vibration-free operation.
No internal lubrication.
Oil free exhausts steam.

De-aerator

A de-aerator is a device that is widely used for the removal of oxygen and other
dissolved gases from the feed water to steam-generating boilers. In particular,
dissolved oxygen in boiler feed waters will cause serious corrosion damage in steam systems by
attaching to the walls of metal piping and other metallic equipment and forming oxides (rust).
Dissolved carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid that causes further
corrosion. Most de-aerators are designed to remove oxygen down to levels of 7 ppb by weight
(0.005 cm/L) or less as well as essentially eliminating carbon dioxide.
There are two basic types of de-aerators, the tray-type and the spray-type:
a. The tray-type (also called the cascade-type) includes a vertical domed de-aeration section
mounted on top of a horizontal cylindrical vessel which serves as the de-aerated boiler
feed water storage tank.
b. The spray-type consists only of a horizontal (or vertical) cylindrical vessel which serves as
both the de-aeration section and the boiler feedwater storage tank.

13.

Feedwater Heater

Low pressure feed water heaters are used in the condensate system between the
condensate pump discharge and boiler feed pumps, and utilize low pressure turbine extraction or
auxiliary turbine exhaust steam for heating the condensate.
High pressure feed water heaters are used in the feed water system between the boiler
feed pump discharge and the boiler, and utilize high pressure turbine extraction steam for
heating the feed water. The condensate or feed water temperature increase for each feed water
heater will be in the range of 28 to 56 degrees C with the actual value determined by turbine
manufacturers stage location of steam extraction nozzles. Depending on turbine size, some
turbines offer alternate number of extraction nozzles with usually a choice of using the highest
pressure extraction nozzle. The selection, in this case, of the total number of feed water heaters
to use should be based on economic evaluation.
Low Pressure Heater(s)
Use one or more low pressure feed water heaters to raise the temperature of condensate
from condensate pump discharge temperature to the de-aerator inlet temperature. The heater
drains are cascaded from the higher pressure heater to the next lower pressure heater with the
lowest pressure heater draining to the condenser.
High Pressure Heater(s)
Use one or more high pressure feed water heaters to raise the temperature of feed water
from de-aerator outlet temperature to the required boiler economizer inlet temperature. The
heater drains are cascaded from heater to heater, back to the de-aerator in a fashion similar to
the heater drain system for the low pressure heaters.
Advantages of Feedwater Heaters
(a) Fuel economy.
(b) Longer life of the boiler.
(c) Increase in steaming capacity.
A feedwater heater is a power plant component used to pre-heat water delivered to a
steam generating boiler. Preheating the feedwater reduces the irreversibilities involved in steam

generation and therefore improves the thermodynamic efficiency of the system. This reduces
plant operating costs and also helps to avoid thermal shock to the boiler metal when the
feedwater is introduced back into the steam cycle.
In a steam power plant (usually modelled as a modified Rankine cycle), feedwater heaters
allow the feedwater to be brought up to the saturation temperature very gradually. This
minimizes the inevitable irreversibilities associated with heat transfer to the working fluid
(water).

14.

Coal Conveyor

A coal conveyor is a piece of industrial equipment typically used to move loads of raw or
processed coal through a facility. Facilities can vary in layout and configuration and it is usually
necessary to install a custom conveyor system to meet specific needs of a location. Companies
that specialize in coal conveyor belts often work with other industrial equipment and
components, like bucket delivery systems. They can also install safety systems to protect
workers and equipment from common hazards they may encounter along the conveyor line.
Conveyors consist of a set of pulleys that control a belt made from rubber, chain, and other
materials. In a coal mine, workers can dump loads onto a conveyor for movement out of the
facility and delivery to trucks or a processing area. The coal conveyor belt carries raw coal and
other components continuously, and may be quicker and more efficient than trucking the coal
out in carts.
Facilities that burn coal, such as power plants, also use coal conveyor belt technology. In
this case, workers load finished and processed coal that is ready for use onto a belt. The belt
draws it into the boiler, operating at a steady rate to keep the supply of fresh feedstock
consistent. Boilers can require high volumes of coal to maintain satisfactory energy production

levels. The coal conveyor belt meets this need and reduces the risk of worker injury by keeping
workers out of high traffic and potentially dangerous areas.

15.

Coal Hopper

Coal Hoppers
Application: Coal is transported by conveyor and tripper cars to coal hoppers. These hoppers
feed ball mills which in turn feed the pulverized coal to the boilers. There will be at least one
hopper for each boiler.
Challenges: Coal hoppers and silos storing the pre-pulverized coal are large and have very dusty
environmental conditions. The silos hold several hours supply of coal and can continue to supply
coal to the boiler in the event that there is a problem downstream in the coal handling system.
As coal is critical for the continuous process in coal-fired plants, the end user seeks to monitor
and control the actual volume of coal in the hopper or silo in order to prevent process stoppages.

16.

Coal Pulveriser

Coal is pulverized (powdered) to increase its surface exposure thus permitting rapid combustion.
Efficient use of coal depends greatly on the combustion process employed. For large scale
generation of energy the efficient method of burning coal is confined still to pulverized coal
combustion. The pulverized coal is obtained by grinding the raw coal in pulverising mills. The
various pulverising mills used are as follows:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Ball mill
Hammer mill
Ball and race mill
Bowl mill.

The essential functions of pulverising mills are as follows:

a. Drying of the coal

b. Grinding
c. Separation of particles of the desired size.
Proper drying of raw coal which may contain moisture is necessary for effective grinding. The
coal pulverising mills reduce coal to powder form by three actions as follows:
a. Impact
b. Attrition (abrasion)
c. Crushing.
Most of the mills use all the above mentioned all the three actions in varying degrees. In impact
type mills hammers break the coal into smaller pieces whereas in attrition type the coal pieces
which rub against each other or metal surfaces to disintegrate. In crushing type mills coal caught
between metal rolling surfaces gets broken into pieces. The crushing mills use steel balls in a
container. These balls act as crushing elements.

17.

Boiler Steam Drum

A steam drum is a standard feature of a water-tube boiler. It is a reservoir of water/steam

at the top end of the water tubes. The drum stores the steam generated in the water tubes and
acts as a phase-separator for the steam/water mixture. The difference in densities between hot
and cold water helps in the accumulation of the "hotter"-water/and saturated-steam into the
steam-drum.
18.

Ash Hopper

Bottom ash is a slag or deposit that builds up primarily on the surfaces of the furnace and
also on the superheater when located within the furnace. It eventually falls by its own weight, by
load changes, or by soot blowing into the furnace bottom ash hopper.

19.

Superheater

One of the most important accessories of a boiler is a superheater. It effects improvement and
economy in the following ways:
a. The super heater increases the capacity of the plant.
b. Eliminates corrosion of the steam turbine.
c. Reduces steam consumption of the steam turbine.
Types of Super Heater
a.
b.
c.
d.

Plate Super heaters.

Pendant Super heaters.
Radiant Super heaters.
Final Super heaters.

Steam Temperature Control

The nominal control of reheat steam temperature is by tilting the burners. The superheater
steam temperature is controlled by spraying water.
Other control methods that are according to the need and design are:
(a) Excess Air Control
(b) Flue Gas Recirculation
(c) Gas by-pass Control
(d) Control of Combination Superheaters
(e) Adjustable Burner Control

20.

Forced Draught/ Draft Fan

Forced draught fans (FD) supply the air necessary for fuel combustion by pushing the air
through the combustion air supply system and into the furnace. These fans are typically the
most efficient fans in the power plant because they have the cleanest operating environment.
Typically, these fans are centrifugal fans utilizing radial air-foil blading or variable pitch axial
fans.

21.

Reheater

The reheater functions similar to the superheater in that it serves to elevate the steam
temperature. Primary steam is supplied to the high pressure turbine. After passing through the
high pressure turbine, the steam is returned to the steam generator for reheating (in a reheater)
after which it is sent to the low pressure turbine. A second reheat cycle may also be provided.

In reheat cycle, the combustion gases are not expanded in one turbine only but in two
turbines. The exhaust of the high-pressure turbine is reheated in a reheater and then expanded
in a low-pressure turbine. By reheating, the power output of the turbine is increased but the cost
of additional fuel may be heavy unless a heat exchanger is also used.

22.

Combustion Air Intake and Exhaust System

Air Intake System

Air Intake System provides clean air into the compressor. During continuous operation the
impurities and dust in the air deposits on the compressor blades. This reduces the efficiency and
output of the plant. The Air Filter in the Air Intake system prevents this.
A blade cleaning system comprising of a high pressure pump provides on line cleaning facility for
the compressor blades.
The flow of the large amount of air into the compressor creates high noise levels. A Silencer in
the intake duct reduces the noise to acceptable levels.

Exhaust System
Exhaust system discharges the hot gases to a level which is safe for the people and the
environment. The exhaust gas that leaves the turbine is around 550 C. This includes an outlet
stack high enough for the safe discharge of the gases.
Silencer in the outlet stack reduces the noise to acceptable levels.
In Combined Cycle power plants the exhaust system has a diverter damper to change the flow
of gases to the Heat Recovery Boilers instead of the outlet stack.

23.

Economizer

An economizer serves a similar purpose to a feedwater heater, but is technically different.

Instead of using actual cycle steam for heating, it uses the lowest-temperature flue gas from the
furnace to heat the water before it enters the boiler proper. This allows for the heat transfer
between the furnace and the feedwater occurring across a smaller average temperature
gradient. System efficiency is therefore further increased when viewed with respect to actual
energy content of the fuel.
In boilers, economizers are heat exchange devices that heat fluids, usually water, up to but
not normally beyond the boiling point of that fluid. Economizers are so named because they can
make use of the enthalpy in fluid streams that are hot, but not hot enough to be used in a boiler,
thereby recovering more useful enthalpy and improving the boiler's efficiency. They are a device
fitted to a boiler which saves energy by using the exhaust gases from the boiler to preheat the
cold water used to fill it.

24.

Air Preheater

An air preheater or air heater is a general term to describe any device designed to heat air
before another process (for example, combustion in a boiler) with the primary objective of
increasing the thermal efficiency of the process. They may be used alone or to replace a
recuperative heat system or to replace a steam coil.
In particular, this article describes the combustion air preheaters used in large boilers found
in thermal power stations producing electric power from e.g. fossil fuels, biomasses or waste
The purpose of the air preheater is to recover the heat from the boiler flue gas which increases
the thermal efficiency of the boiler by reducing the useful heat lost in the flue gas. As a
consequence, the flue gases are also sent to the flue gas stack (or chimney) at a lower
temperature, allowing simplified design of the ducting and the flue gas stack. It also allows
control over the temperature of gases leaving the stack (to meet emissions regulations, for
example).

25.

Electro-Static Precipitator

Electrostatic precipitators, used for the collection of fly ash from steam generators, are
mostly of the dry, horizontal-flow, plate type. The flue gas flows through parallel passages
formed by parallel rows of collecting surfaces. Each passage contains centrally located discharge
electrodes, which are energized with negative-polarity, high-voltage, direct-current electricity.
Particles suspended in the gas are charged electrically and then forced to the collecting
electrodes by an electrical field.
During operation, the fly ash deposited on the collecting surfaces of the precipitator is
periodically shaken loose (by rapping the electrodes) and dropped into the collection hoppers.
The level of ash in each hopper will rise until that hopper is emptied. If, for any reason,
emptying the hopper is delayed until the ash level approaches the bottom of the discharge
electrodes, those electrodes will be electrically short-circuited to ground through the mass of
collected ash. If the ash and flue gas entering the precipitator are well distributed, all
precipitator hoppers in any row perpendicular to the gas flow will collect the same quantity of
ash per unit time. More fly ash will be collected in the rows of hoppers closer to the precipitator
inlet than in the rows toward the rear of the precipitator. The inlet row of hoppers can collect
from 40 to 100 times as much fly ash as does the rearmost row.

26.

Induced Draught/ Draft Fan

Induced draft fans (ID) are place at the outlet of the boiler system and exhaust all gaseous
combustion products, or flue gas, from the boiler by creating a negative pressure or suction
within the furnace. These fans handle hot flue gas, they are generally more susceptible to
erosion and corrosion even with particulate removal equipment. If greater wear resistance is
necessary, a modified radial, forward-curved, or backward-inclined blading can be used at the
expense of efficiency loss.
Induced draft fan requirements.
Induced draft fans will be designed with sufficient capacity to produce the required flow
while overcoming the static pressure losses associated with the ductwork, economizer, air
preheater, and air pollution control equipment under all operating (clean and dirty) conditions.

27.

Chimney Stack

A chimney is a structure which provides ventilation for hot flue gases or smoke from
a boiler, stove, furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere. Chimneys are typically vertical, or
as near as possible to vertical, to ensure that the gases flow smoothly, drawing air into
the combustion in what is known as the stack, or chimney, effect. The space inside a chimney is
called a flue.
A flue-gas stack is a type of chimney, a vertical pipe, channel or similar structure through
which combustion product gases called flue gases are exhausted to the outside air. Flue gases
are produced when coal, oil, natural gas, wood or any other fuel is combusted in an industrial
furnace, a power plant's steam-generating boiler, or other large combustion device. Flue gas is
usually composed of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapor as well as nitrogen and
excess oxygen remaining from the intake combustion air. It also contains a small percentage of
pollutants such as particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides. The
flue gas stacks are often quite tall, up to 400 metres (1300 feet) or more, so as to disperse the
exhaust pollutants over a greater area and thereby reduce the concentration of the pollutants to
the levels required by governmental environmental policy and environmental regulation.

A chimney stack at GRES-2 Power Station in Ekibastuz, Kazakhstan, the tallest of its kind in the world (420 meters)

MAJOR ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT IN POWER PLANTS

Power plant consists of Variety of electrical equipment the major electrical equipment are:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)

Alternator/Generator
Exciters
Synchronizing Equipment
Circuit Breakers
Current and Potential transformers
Relays and protection equipment
Isolator
Lighting arresters
Earthing/Grounding equipment
Power transformer
DC System

Alternators/Generators

In electricity generation, an electric generator is a device that converts mechanical

energy to electrical energy. A generator forces electric current to flow through an
external circuit.

Generators vary in types according to the type power plant.

Generators decide the size of power plants.

Turbo generator for thermal power station

Exciters

Excitation system is required to provide the necessary field current to the rotor winding of
a synchronous machine. Availability of excitation at all times important. Larger the load
currents, lower the speed and lagging power factor which require more excitation.
Types of Exciters
a. DC Excitation System
b. AC Excitation System
c. Static Excitation System

Power Transformer

Power transformers are used for stepping-up the voltage for transmission at generating
stations and for stepping-down voltage for distribution purpose.

Normally naturally cooled, oil immersed, two winding, three phase transformers are used
up to the rating of 10 MVA.

For regulating the voltage, transformers are provided with on load tap changers.

They are put in operation during large load hours and disconnected during light load
hours.

230KV Power Transformer in a Gas Plant

Synchronizing Equipment

Modern power plants typically utilize automatic synchronizers. Automatic synchronizers

send pulses to the generator exciter and governor to change the voltage and frequency of the
unit. The synchronizer will automatically close the breaker when it is within an allowable window.
Substations on the transmission system have traditionally had synchroscopes installed.
However, few substations are now manned due to the availability of powerful SCADA systems.
Because of this development, newer substations may or may not have a synch panel, depending
on the transmission company procedures. Since most circuit breaker operations are done
remotely, transmission companies often rely on synch-check relays to supervise closing of
breakers.

Voltage Regulators
Every alternator is provided with an automatic voltage regulator which will perform following
function:
a) Control of voltage within prescribed limits.
b) Proper division of reactive power b/w alternator operating in parallel.
c) Prevention of dangerous over-voltage in system.
Types of Voltage Regulators
a) Constant Voltage Transformer is used as a VR.
b) Induction Voltage Regulator
c) Electronic voltage Regulators are used for greater sensitivity and accuracy.

Bus- Bars

Bus bar is a main bar or conductor carrying an electric current to which many connections
are to be made.
Usually two buses are provided in a system one is called the Main bus and other
Auxiliary or transfer bus
There are many shapes of bus bar available like round tubes, round solid bars or square
tube
Material used for bus bar is aluminum because it has high corrosion resistance than
copper and lower cost.
Bus bar is of 5 to 10 meters in length.

Reactors

Reactor is a coil having large inductive reactance in comparison to its resistance.

It is used in the circuit to limit the short circuit currents to a safer value in order to protect
an electrical installation.
The inductive reactance is chosen to be low enough for an acceptable voltage drop during
normal operation, but high enough to restrict a short circuit to the rating of the
switchgear. The amount of protection that a current limiting reactor offers depends upon
the percentage increase in impedance that it provides for the system.

Types of reactor:
1. Open type
2. Oil Immersed type

Isolators
Isolator is a manually operated mechanical switch which separates a unit/part from an electrical
power system. Isolators are used to open a circuit under no load. Its main purpose is to isolate
one portion of the circuit from the other and is not intended to be opened while current is
flowing in the line. Isolators are generally used on both ends of the breaker in order that repair
or replacement of circuit breaker can be done without any danger.

Switchgears
In an electric power system, switchgear is the combination of electrical disconnect
switches, fuses or circuit breakers used to control, protect and isolate electrical equipment.
Switchgear is used both to de-energize equipment to allow work to be done and to
clear faults downstream. This type of equipment is directly linked to the reliability of
the electricity supply.
Types of Switchgears:
a) Outdoor type
b) Indoor type

230KV Switchgear

Instrument Transformers
Potential transformers and current transformers are two special-purpose transformers used for
taking measurements.
Potential transformer is used to sample the voltage of a power system. It has high voltage on
the primary side and low voltage on the secondary. Its power rating is low. These transformers
are manufactured with different accuracy classes.
Current transformer is used to sample the current in a line. Its secondary winding is wrapped
around a ferromagnetic ring while the single primary line goes through the center of the ring. A
typical rating of a current transformer includes 600:5 and 1000:5. Extremely high voltages will
appear across the secondary terminals of a current transformer if the terminals are open. The
current transformer should always be kept short-circuited to prevent dangerous high voltages
from appearing at the secondary terminals.

Fuses
A fuse is an overcurrent protective device with a circuit-opening fusible part that is heated
and severed by the passage of current through it. Fuses can meet most of the protection
requirements for a good system operation.
The fuse is a thermal device. Heat will melt the fuse element regardless of its source.
The fundamental features of fuses are as follows:
1. The fuse combines the sensing and interrupting elements in one unit.
2. It is a single-phase device. Only the fuse in the affected phase will melt to isolate the
fault. Three-phase motors will continue to run on single-phase power for extended
periods. This may result in overheating and damage to the motors.
3. The fuse response is a function of I2T, where I is the current and T is the time the current
exists. It has an inverse-time characteristicthe higher the current, the faster the fuse
blows.
4. Most fuses require considerably more current than their amperage rating to operate. For
example, NEMA standards require that E-rated fuses of 100E and below melt in 300 s at
200 to 240 percent of their rating. Fuses above 100E must melt in 600 s at 220 to 264
percent of their rating. These durations are considered extremely long for short-circuit
protection.
5. Fuses should be coordinated with downstream devices to ensure faults are cleared within
reasonable times (1 to 5 s or faster). A fault magnitude of 5 or more times the current
rating of the fuse is required to clear the fault within this range of operating times. The
application of fuses is a little difficult in some situations due to this current magnitude
requirement. Another protective scheme must be used in some critical applications,
usually at higher cost.

Fuses are preferred over circuit breakers for the following reasons:
1. Fuses do not have moving parts. They are maintenance-free and do not require
periodic checking. They can be relied upon to protect a circuit for an indefinite
time.
2. In general, fuses are considered more accurate and reliable than circuit breakers.
3. A blown fuse usually provides greater incentive to correct the cause of a failure
than a tripped circuit breaker.

CIRCUIT BREAKERS
A circuit breaker is a device that switches on and switches off electric circuits during
normal as well as abnormal operating conditions. During the making or breaking of the switching
contacts, there is a transition stage of arcing between the contacts. The study of this
phenomenon is of great importance for understanding the design and operational characteristics
of circuit breakers.
CONVENTIONAL CIRCUIT BREAKERS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Knife Switch
Air-Break Circuit Breakers
Plain Break type
Magnetic Blowout type
Arc Splitter type
Oil Circuit Breakers

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN CIRCUIT BREAKERS

1.
2.

Vacuum Circuit Breakers

Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) Circuit Breakers

Protective Relays
A protective relay is automatic device which senses an abnormal condition of electrical circuit
and closes its contacts. These contacts in turns close and complete the circuit breaker trip coil
circuit hence make the circuit breaker tripped for disconnecting the faulty portion of the
electrical circuit from rest of the healthy circuit.
Based on Characteristic the protection relay can be categorized as:
1. Definite time relays
2. Inverse time relays with definite minimum time(IDMT)
3. Instantaneous relays.
4. IDMT with instantaneous.
5. Stepped characteristic.
6. Programmed switches.
7. Voltage restraint over current relay.
Based on of logic the protection relay can be categorized as1. Differential.
2. Unbalance.
3. Neutral displacement.
4. Directional.
5. Restricted earth fault.
6. Over fluxing.
7. Distance schemes.
8. Bus bar protection.
9. Reverse power relays.
10.
Loss of excitation.
11.
Negative phase sequence relays etc.

DC SYSTEMS
The dc supply systems are considered the most reliable power source in a power plant.
They are normally supplied from a reliable ac power source through a rectifier. They are also
battery-backed to supply essential loads when the normal ac power supply fails.
DC System Functions
The dc systems have the following functions:
To supply equipment requiring dc power during normal operation and which is also required to
operate following loss of normal ac supplies, e.g., essential instruments, control equipment,
switchgear closing and tripping, telecommunications, protections, interlocks, and alarms.
To supply standby equipment required to operate following loss of normal ac power supplies,
e.g., emergency lighting, emergency turbine lubricating oil pumps, and emergency generator
seal oil pump.
To supply the equipment required to start the standby power generators, which consist of gas
turbines or diesel generators.
The dc systems provide reliable power to the following equipment:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Emergency lighting
Emergency auxiliary drives, e.g., turbine emergency lubrication oil pump and generator
Emergency seal oil pump
Emergency valve operation
Fire sirens
Switchgear and control gear tripping mechanism
Interlocks and protection
Control equipment
Sequence equipment
Alarm and indication
Remote control equipment

Mission Time of DC Systems

The dc systems are designed to operate from batteries for a least 30 min following a
complete loss of ac power supplies. This period is known as the mission time for these systems.
The standby batteries must have sufficient capacity to meet the mission time. A period of 30 to
45 min is considered acceptable for the mission time because the ac supplies are expected to be
restored during this period. The nominal voltage for these systems is 48, 110, 220, or 250 V dc.
Figure 24.8 illustrates the dc scheme for the Heysham 2 power station which has two
660-MW generating units. A battery and a charger are provided for each unit. A standby
battery and charger can also be made available to either unit when necessary. The charger
is rated to supply the entire dc load for one unit plus 25 percent capacity to cover unknown
and future loads.