Livestock Production Science 80 (2003) 4153

www.elsevier.com / locate / livprodsci

Animal health and welfare in organic livestock production in

Europe: current state and future challenges
a,
b
c
M. Hovi *, A. Sundrum , S.M. Thamsborg
a

Veterinary Epidemiology and Economics Research Unit, The University of Reading, PO Box 237, Reading RG6 6 AR, UK
b
Department of Animal Nutrition and Animal Health, Faculty of Ecological Agricultural Science, University of Kassel,
Nordbahnhofstrae 1 a, 37213 Witzenhausen, Germany
c

2, 1870 Frederiksberg C, Denmark

The Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Gronnegaardsvej

Abstract
Existing data on animal health and welfare in organic livestock production systems in the European Community countries
are reviewed in the light of the demands and challenges of the recently implemented EU regulation on organic livestock
production. The main conclusions and recommendations of a 3-year networking project on organic livestock production are
summarised and the future challenges to organic livestock production in terms of welfare and health management are
discussed. The authors conclude that, whilst the available data are limited and the implementation of the EC regulation is
relatively recent, there is little evidence to suggest that organic livestock management causes major threats to animal health
and welfare in comparison with conventional systems. There are, however, some well-identified areas, like parasite control
and balanced ration formulation, where efforts are needed to find solutions that meet with organic standard requirements and
guarantee high levels of health and welfare. It is suggested that, whilst organic standards offer a good framework for animal
health and welfare management, there is a need to solve apparent conflicts between the organic farming objectives in regard
to environment, public health, farmer income and animal health and welfare. The key challenges for the future of organic
livestock production in Europe are related to the feasibility of implementing improved husbandry inputs and the development
of evidence-based decision support systems for health and feeding management.
2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Animal health; Animal welfare; Organic livestock production; Organic standards; Review

1. Introduction
Organic agriculture can look back upon a long

*Corresponding author. Tel.: 1 44-118-931-6634; fax: 1 44118-926-4132.

E-mail address: m.hovi@reading.ac.uk (M. Hovi).

history. Already in 1924, guidelines were developed

by a private association to formalise an alternative
production system to the developments in conventional production (Schaumann, 1995). Today, the
basic standards of the International Federation of
Organic Farming Movements (IFOAM) are applied
worldwide. The current basic IFOAM objectives
consist of 17 standards (IFOAM, 2000). Only three

0301-6226 / 02 / $ see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016 / S0301-6226(02)00320-2

42

M. Hovi et al. / Livestock Production Science 80 (2003) 4153

of these standards refer to organic livestock production. First one of them sets the maintenance of
biodiversity as one of the main goals of organic
farming. Secondly, organic livestock husbandry is
expected to offer freedom and access to natural
behaviour to livestock. Thirdly, organic farming
systems should promote a balanced mix of crop and
livestock production, leading to closed and sustainable nutrient cycles. Whilst these principles contain
no explicit objectives to maintain or promote high
animal health or welfare standards, the European
Commission Regulation 1804 / 99 (CEC, 1999), governing organic livestock production in the Community area, contains implicit standards that put a strong
emphasis on livestock production in order to enhance
both health and welfare of organically managed
stock.
According to the framework of the EC Regulation
1804 / 99, animal health and welfare of livestock
should be promoted primarily by preventive measures using appropriate breeds, feeds and feeding
practices and husbandry techniques for the species in
question and by implementing stable social conditions for breeding animals. Furthermore,
prophylactic use of drugs is prohibited and restrictions are placed on conventional medicine use. Loose
housing systems, free range conditions and landbased production, including a high proportion of
home-grown feed production, are other key features
of livestock production systems. The combination of
the above standards requires major changes in both
practices and attitudes among converting livestock
producers and calls for a systems-based approach to
health and welfare management on the farm. Whilst
the EC Regulation on organic livestock production
came into force fairly recently in August 2000 and
has hardly had a chance to have an impact on
existing organic production systems, there is a
growing body of epidemiological evidence on the
impact of organic management on the health and
welfare of livestock. One of the aims of this paper is
to summarise that evidence and to discuss the future
prospects and challenges to animal health and welfare in organic livestock production in the light of
the conclusions and recommendations made by a
recently concluded (January 2002) networking project of European researchers in this field.

2. Animal health in organic livestock production

systems

2.1. Ruminant systems

2.1.1. Dairy production
The European organic production standards restrict prophylactic use of antibiotics and discourage
even occasional antibiotic use by requiring prolonged
withhold periods for products following such
therapy. Consequently, conditions that are routinely
treated with antibiotics appear to be of concern for
organic dairy producers. Mastitis has often been
perceived as the main animal health problem in
organic dairy herds (Roderick et al., 1996). Whilst
most surveys suggest that mastitis prevalence and
incidence in organic herds are similar to those found
in conventionally managed herds (Augustburger et
al., 1988; Offerhaus et al., 1993; Krutzinna et al.,
1996; Weller and Cooper, 1996; Spranger, 1998,
1999; Roiha and Nieminen, 1999; Smolders, 2001), a
UK survey reported high incidence of dry period
mastitis and subclinical mastitis in comparison with
matched conventionally managed herds (Hovi and
Roderick, 1999). On the other hand, earlier surveys
from Norway (Ebbesvik and Loes, 1994) and Denmark (Vaarst and Enevoldsen, 1994) suggest a lower
incidence of clinical mastitis in organic compared to
conventional dairy herds, whilst a more recent
Danish survey shows similar incidence levels in the
two management systems (0.64 and 0.57 cases per
cow year in organic and conventional systems,
respectively) (Anon, 1998), and a slightly but significantly higher bulk tank milk cell counts
(Enemark and Kjeldsen, 1999).
With regard to dairy cow feeding, the European
organic standards require forage based (60% of daily
dry matter intake) and primarily home-grown diets
and restrict the use of feed supplements and synthetic
vitamins. Available data suggest that organic dairy
cows have lower milk yields than cows in comparable conventional systems (Krutzinna et al., 1996;
Enemark and Kjeldsen, 1999; Bystrom et al., 2002;
Hamilton et al., 2002, Hovi et al., 2002a, 2002b). In
spite of relatively low production levels, it has been
suggested that organic dairy cows with high genetic
potential for milk production may be at risk from

M. Hovi et al. / Livestock Production Science 80 (2003) 4153

energy deficiency in early lactation and may, consequently, suffer from metabolic disorders and poor
fertility (Kristensen and Pedersen, 2001; Knaus et
al., 2001). The existing data on the incidence of
metabolic and digestive disorders in organic dairy
cows, however, present an unclear picture. Some
surveys suggest a decrease in the incidence of
metabolic diseases on organic compared to conventional farms (Vaarst and Enevoldsen, 1994; Ebbesvik
and Loes, 1994; Krutzinna et al., 1996), whilst others
report similar levels of these conditions in the two
systems (Weller and Cooper, 1996; Bystrom et al.,
2002; Hamilton et al., 2002). A Norwegian survey
suggested that milk fever incidence in organic dairy
herds was lower than the reported overall incidence
in the country (Strm and Olesen, 1997), whereas, in
Finland, milk fever incidence in organic herds has
been reported to be above the national average
(Roiha and Nieminen, 1999). Whilst most of these
surveys report lower production levels in the organically managed survey herds and support a yieldbased explanation to any differences in metabolic or
digestive disorder levels, an experimental study by
Gruber et al. (2000) reported no significant differences in health parameters between organically and
conventionally managed cows with similar milk
yield levels (5868 and 5877 kg per lactation, respectively).
Similarly, data reflecting reproductive performance and fertility disorders in organic dairy herds are
contradictory. Surveys from Switzerland, Norway,
Sweden, Germany and the UK suggest that organic
dairy herds do not have more fertility related problems than conventional herds (Augustburger et al.,
1988; Krutzinna et al., 1996; Hovi et al., 2001;
Bystrom et al., 2002). A Danish comparison of 283
organic dairy farms with 9000 conventional farms
showed no difference in calving interval in neither
first parity cows nor older cows, irrespective of breed
(Enemark and Kjeldsen, 1999). In contrast, Reksen
et al. (1999) found that fertility performance in
Norwegian organic cows was impaired in first lactation and in cows that were bred in winter rather than
in summer, when energy corrected milk yield performance was taken into consideration. In terms of
treatments for fertility disorders, a Swedish survey
found a significantly lower level of treatments for

43

retained placenta in organic compared to conventional dairy herds (Hamilton et al., 2002). In The
Netherlands, Smolders (2001) reports a low incidence of fertility treatments in 11 organically managed herds (126% of cows).
Organic standards require loose housing systems
and adequate bedding and, tend to limit stocking
densities both on pasture and in housing for dairy
cows, potentially promoting good foot and hoof
health. Other important organic standard requirements, that might benefit foot health, are restrictions
on the area of slatted floors and a minimum forage
proportion required in ruminant diets. Weller and
Cooper (1996) in the UK and Offerhaus et al. (1993)
in The Netherlands reported lower lameness incidence and prevalence in organic than in conventional
herds, whereas Vaarst (1995) in Denmark found no
major difference between the two systems. A more
recent Danish survey showed more recorded claw
and leg disorders in recently converted organic farms
(Anon, 1998).
As the control of external and internal parasites in
conventional systems relies on routine application of
antiparasitic agents, restrictions on the use of these
agents require major changes in husbandry in most
livestock systems converting to organic production.
Alternative control strategies are required to guarantee a sustainable balance between the most common
parasites and the stock under organic management.
Consequently, both external and internal parasite
control has been reported as a major concern for
organic livestock producers in the UK (Halliday et
al., 1991; Roderick and Hovi, 1999). In a Swedish
questionnaire survey, Svensson et al. (2000) found
that organic farmers more frequently than conventional farmers with similar management systems
reported lower weight gains in grazing calves in the
first grazing season compared to their weight gain in
the previous winter (17 vs. 5%). A Danish survey
reported that, in three of 11 farms, 732% of first
grazing season heifers showed clinical signs of
parasitic gastroenteritis during the grazing season
(Vaarst and Thamsborg, 1994). Loss-producing, subclinical infections were detected in 1015% of the
heifers, and lungworm disease resulted in anthelmintic treatments on several farms. In Sweden, heifers
on 15 farms examined for two seasons had moderate

44

M. Hovi et al. / Livestock Production Science 80 (2003) 4153

to low levels of gastrointestinal parasites without any

use of anthelmintics (Hoglund

et al., 2001). Control
was based on a combination of management procedures, including late turnout, low stocking densities and early and late season feed supplementation.
The recurrent problems of lungworm infection reported on organic farms are also well-known in
conventional herds (Andrews, 1998; Viring et al.,
2001).

2.1.2. Beef production

The importance and characteristics of organic beef
production vary widely between the different European countries. In Spain, 50% of organic livestock
production is beef cattle and only 1% dairy cattle
(Trujillo and Mata, 2000). In Austria, less than half
of organic cattle production is beef production (Graf
and Willer, 2000). In the UK, organic dairy production is overtaking organic beef production in
numbers of farms, but up until recently organic
suckler beef production has been one of the main
lines of organic livestock production (The Soil
Association, 2001). Low levels of disease concern in
extensive, conventional beef production systems are
likely to be reflected in organic systems. Restrictions
on feed supplements and prophylactic parasite control have been identified as potential risks for mineral
deficiencies and heavy parasite burdens unless
adequate husbandry and monitoring systems are put
in place (Roderick and Hovi, 1999; MacNaeidhe,
2001).
In a questionnaire survey of UK organic suckler
beef producers, animal health issues amongst adult
and young stock were not given high problem
rankings (Roderick et al., 1996). Infertility and
calving difficulties were considered by the producers
to be the most important health problems among
suckler cows. External parasites, diarrhoea and mineral deficiencies, although receiving low rankings,
were considered the most important conditions in
young stock. A systems study of upland organic
suckler beef unit in the UK reported high fertility
performance in the cows and no differences in
growth performance and parasite burdens in conventionally and organically managed herds (Keatinge
and Elliott, 1998). The potential for mineral and
trace element deficiency was highlighted with the
detection of selenium deficiency that responded well

to supplementation. In a Danish questionnaire study,

Nielsen and Thamsborg (2002) also reported low
level of concern among organic beef producers,
finishing steers from organic dairy production. Internal parasites, including lungworm, and concerns
about the animal welfare impact of castration were
the main issues raised by the farmers.

2.1.3. Sheep production

Whilst organic dairy sheep production is rapidly
growing in the Mediterranean countries, the bulk of
organic sheep production in Europe is lamb production in France and in the UK. A UK interview
survey of 75 organic sheep producers, indicated
similar ranges of lamb mortality, lambing percentage
and ewe replacement rates as in corresponding
conventional UK systems (Roderick and Hovi,
1999). The same survey reported very low health
concern scores among the producers, with only
footrot, mastitis, fly strike and internal parasites
receiving an average score of more than 2 (out of
15) in ewes. In lambs, internal parasites and fly
strike were the only health problems receiving a
score above two. Haemonchosis, diarrhoea, high
lamb mortality and lean ewes are listed as the most
commonly registered health problems in Swedish
organic sheep flocks, although the problems were not
more extensive or different from conventional flocks
(Lindqvist, 2001).
As in beef systems, restrictions on internal and
external parasite control with conventional
prophylactic antiparasiticides have been recognised
as a major constraint to sheep health management
(Mage et al., 1998). A UK systems study of parallel
upland organic and conventional lamb production
reported good helminth control in breeding flocks
based on strategic drenching of ewes at lambing only
and provision of clean grazing thereafter (Keatinge
and Elliott, 1998). The same study did, however, find
relatively high worm burdens in older lambs after
weaning in late autumn and winter. In order to
improve parasite control in organic sheep and beef
systems, several on-going, research projects in
Europe in recent years have concentrated in developing alternative strategies to anthelmintic use on
organic farms (Thamsborg et al., 1999; Bouilhol and
Mage, 2001; Thamsborg, 2002; Keatinge et al.,
2002). As most of these options still need major

M. Hovi et al. / Livestock Production Science 80 (2003) 4153

development efforts before being ready to be implemented at farm level, organic sheep farmers have
to rely on grazing management procedures, like
repeated moves to clean pastures. Strategic use of
anthelmintics is still part of the control programme in
situations where Nematodirus battus and Haemonchus contortus are a problem in lambs (Lindqvist et
al., 2001). A survey, involving 152 organic sheep
farms in Sweden, also showed that a management
factor like new grazing area at turnout could be
linked with low nematode faecal egg counts in lambs
in early season. Liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica)
infection was observed more frequently in organic
than in conventionally managed sheep flocks (Hansson et al., 2000).
Similarly to routine endo- and ectoparasite control
with conventional drugs, routine vaccination of
sheep flocks against a range of endemic diseases has
been an important cornerstone of health management
in extensive sheep systems with low husbandry
inputs and relatively high stocking densities. Whilst
vaccine use is not restricted under organic standards,
there has been a tendency to reduce routine vaccination in the UK organic flocks, in order to reduce the
stress caused by gathering and vaccination and to
reduce conventional veterinary medicinal inputs.
According to a survey, only 44% of organic flocks in
the UK were vaccinated against clostridial diseases
(Roderick and Hovi, 1999) and anecdotal evidence
suggests that unvaccinated flocks are suffering from
disease outbreaks. It has been suggested that an
evidence-based approach to risk management and
immunisation decisions, particularly in organic sheep
production, is needed (Gray and Hovi, 2001).

2.2. Organic pig production

Depending on the prevalent conventional pig
production systems, the organic systems vary between different European countries. In Spain, the
traditional Dehesa systems have lend themselves to
organic conversion fairly easily (Trujillo and Mata,
2000). Similarly in the UK, the prevalent outdoor
breeding units have been relatively easy to convert to
organic production, where farm size and crop rotations have allowed adequate space. In Western
Europe and in Scandinavia, more intensive systems
have been converted to organic production by run-

45

ning the breeding stock outside during lactation and

allowing pigs after weaning access to outdoor pens
(Vermeer et al., 2000; Baumgartner et al., 2001). In
Germany, organic pig production is primarily limited
to small units where pigs are kept indoors with
access to an open yard (Rubelowski and Sundrum,
1999), whereas outdoor rearing of organic slaughter
pigs in Sweden is a standard production method.
Organic pig production standards require access to
outdoor area for breeding herds and for a minimum
of four-fifths of the lives of fattening pigs. Tethering,
decks and entirely slatted floors are forbidden.
Minimum weaning age for piglets is 40 days and
roughage must be offered at all stages of the
production on a daily basis. Inclusion of synthetic
amino acids in pig rations is not allowed. This
production framework poses some challenges, but is
also likely to have beneficial impacts, on the health
and welfare of organically managed pigs. For instance, moving and mixing of animals derived from
different farms is limited under organic management,
which could be expected to reduce pressure from
infectious diseases. The later weaning age in organic
pig production is likely to reduce nutritional challenges in this period, as creep feeding can be
introduced well before weaning that takes place
when the piglets digestive tract is more mature than
in early weaning systems (Sundrum, 2001a). This is
reflected in low incidence of weaning diarrhoea in
organic breeding units in Denmark (unpublished
data).
It has been recognised that the prohibition on the
use of synthetic amino acids places high demands on
feeding management of organic pigs in order to
prevent disease, especially diarrhoea. Sundrum
(2001a) points out that, while soybean meal is the
most favoured protein source in conventional production, the intrinsic amino acid source in organic
pig production is provided by grain legumes like
faba beans, peas and lupines. In comparison to
soybean the limiting amino acid content, especially
that of methionine, is low in home-grown grain
legumes. Due to this restricted availability of amino
acids, potato protein, milk powder, maize gluten or
rape cake are often used as a supplementary source
for amino acids in organic pig production. The use of
organic soybean meal or non-chemically extracted
soybean meal form conventional production may

46

M. Hovi et al. / Livestock Production Science 80 (2003) 4153

also be an acceptable source for amino acids in pig

diets in the future.
Apart from the feeding issues, data from surveys
in the UK, Denmark, Austria and The Netherlands
suggest that, whilst the difference in production
systems and national disease situation significantly
affect the health and welfare problems experienced
in organic pig production, endo- and ectoparasites
appear to be the most common concern for organic
pig producers. A questionnaire survey of producers
in the UK reported low levels of health and welfare
concerns among 24 organic pig producers, identifying external parasites as the main health concern
(Roderick and Hovi, 1999). Vaarst et al. (2000)
found lameness, injuries and sunburn the most
common ailments in a Danish outdoor breeding unit,
and Olsson et al. (1996) found joint disease to be
more common but diarrhoea and respiratory diseases
to be less common in Danish organic than conventional fattening units. In Austria, Leeb and Baumgartner (2000) report high prevalence of contagious
diseases (leptospirosis, parvovirus and porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome) in 84 organic
pig herds. On the other hand, the prevalence of
respiratory diseases in fattening pigs was markedly
reduced in organic compared to conventional herds.
Absence of slatted floors and decks and outdoor
breeding units, combined with restrictions on
prophylactic use of antiparasitic drugs, are likely to
increase the risk of parasitic infections, particularly
endoparasitic infections, in organic pigs. This has
been confirmed in Denmark, where Roepstorff et al.
(1992) found higher prevalence of helminth infections, like Oesophagostomum, Trichuris and Ascaris,
in most age groups in organic herds when compared
with conventional units with straw bedding and
intensive, specific pathogen-free herds. A more
recent survey of nine Danish organic pig herds
(Carstensen et al., 2002, in press) has confirmed high
levels of these infections, although the levels of
Ascaris and Oesophagostomum were remarkably
lower (about 50% reduced) than figures reported in
earlier studies. This was attributed to the fact that
permanent pasture usage had decreased in favour of
systems where pigs were included in the crop
rotations on the farms. In contrast, the highly pathogenic coccidian, Isopsora suis, that causes severe
diarrhoea in pigs within the first week of life in many

intensive in-door herds, is less prevalent in organic

herds and clinical problems are not observed (Roepstorff, 1994). Other studies have confirmed some of
these observations. In a clinical field survey in
Austria, Leeb and Baumgartner (2000) found endoand ectoparasites to be the main problem on 30
farms that kept pigs mostly indoors, with access to
outside pens. In The Netherlands, endoparasites were
identified as the main health concerns in organic pig
herds (Vermeer et al., 2000).

2.3. Organic poultry production

Similarly to organic pig production standards,
organic poultry production standards require freerange systems with access to outdoors in both layer
and broiler units. Maximum stocking densities both
outdoors and indoors and minimum requirements for
paddock rotations and paddock resting periods are
specified. Synthetic amino acids are excluded from
rations similarly to pig feeding standards. Routine
mutilations, like beak trimming, are not acceptable.
Restrictions on in-feed medication, particularly antibiotics, set further demands on management and
husbandry in organic units.
In those countries, where free-range layer flocks
have been common, establishment of organic egg
production has been relatively rapid, whereas organic
broiler production has been slower to develop,
possibly due to the difficulty of finding suitable
broiler breeds that would meet the organic requirements for slow growth and ability to range. There is
a scarcity of data on the health status of organic layer
flocks. In a key informant survey, Lampkin (1997)
identified coccidiosis, feather pecking, cannibalism
and external parasites as potential problems in
organic poultry production. A survey of small-scale
organic egg producers in the UK found that producers did not perceive any major health problems in
their flocks (Roderick and Hovi, 1999). A Danish
survey of large organic layer flocks reported high
mortality rates (1520%) of two to three times
higher than in layers in battery cages (Kristensen,
1998). The survey did not identify causes for the
mortalities, but it is suggested that feather pecking,
cannibalism and secondary infections were the main
factors. A Dutch study in organic layer flocks
reported severe feather pecking in 50% of the flocks

M. Hovi et al. / Livestock Production Science 80 (2003) 4153

and identified several potential risk factors for increased feather pecking: large flock sizes, late introduction of pullets to outdoor access, inexperienced
stockperson and feeding management, including
scattering of grain in outdoor areas (Bestman, 2000).
Koene (2001) has summarised both published and
unpublished research into feather pecking and cannibalism in organic layer flocks and concludes that a
combination of improved stockmanship, better nest
design and identification of genetically suitable
strains for extensive rearing without beak trimming
are likely to produce a sustainable solution to feather
pecking and cannibalism in organic egg production.
There are clear indications that the incidence of
helminth infections (Ascaridia galli, Heterakis gallinarum and Capillaria spp.) in laying hens is
considerably higher in organic production systems
compared to conventional (Permin et al., 1999). This
finding is probably related to an environment that is
more conducive of the free living stages of parasites
and closer contact of the host with faeces. However,
in organic broiler production, there is little evidence
to suggest that coccidiosis is a major problem,
despite the ban on prophylactic use of anticoccidials
(Fisker, 1998).

3. Animal welfare in organic livestock systems

Whilst health is an integral part of welfare, it is
suggested that animal welfare is reviewed separately
from health issues in order to emphasise the potentially different nature of animal welfare concept in
organic compared to conventional livestock production. This is particularly important as perceived
animal welfare benefits have been quoted as an
important aspect of consumer motivation in buying
organic produce (Arvola, 1998; Badertscher-Fawaz
et al., 1998; Harper and Henson, 1998).
The International Federation for Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) Basic Standards state as
one of the basic principles of organic agriculture
that: The aim of organic agriculture is to give all
livestock conditions of life with due consideration
for the basic aspects of their innate behaviour
(IFOAM, 1998). On one hand, organic standards
have been criticised for poor ethical definition (Lund,
2000) and, on the other hand, for poor provision of

47

detailed animal welfare guidelines. Farm Animal

Welfare Council interim report on welfare implications of farm assurance schemes suggests that organic standards are implicit rather than explicit on
animal welfare issues when compared, for example,
with the UK Royal Society for Prevention of Cruelty
to Animals Freedom Foods standards (FAWC,
2001). In contrast to this view, Sundrum (2001b)
assessed the livestock management requirements of
the EU Regulation 1804 / 99 in the light of existing
evidence on their impact on animal welfare and
concluded that the minimal organic standards and
their implementation via certification procedure were
likely to provide several preconditions for good
living conditions for farm animals. Also, preliminary
results of a questionnaire survey of UK farm animal
veterinarians, farm advisors and organic certification
body inspectors on the potential impact of 44 organic
livestock management standards derived from the
EU Regulation 1804 / 99 found that the respondents
considered the majority of standards to have a
positive impact on animal welfare (Hovi et al.,
2002a). The same survey, however, identified five
standards that were considered by more than 35% of
respondents to have a potential, deteriorating effect
on animal welfare due to restrictions on the use of
dietary supplements (vitamins and synthetic amino
acids) and conventional veterinary medicinal inputs.
Data on actual animal welfare standards on organic farms is scarce and of limited value due to the
inherent limitations of on-farm welfare assessment.
In Austria, insurance of high welfare standards on
organic farms is supported by a legal requirement to
meet a critical welfare index score, based mainly on
assessing the housing and production environment
(Bartussek, 2000). Apart from the Austrian statutory
system, there are very little data on achieved or

assessed welfare levels from organic farms. Horning

(1998) summarises a total of 15 of these studies
carried out in Germany and Austria. He concluded
that organic systems achieve higher animal welfare
standards than conventional systems, and that this
was mainly due to the absence of tethering and / or
caging of animals and to the generous use of
bedding. In an investigation including 268 organic
dairy farms in Germany, Krutzinna et al. (1996)
found the proportion of loose housing stables to be
higher in organic compared to the average in conven-

48

M. Hovi et al. / Livestock Production Science 80 (2003) 4153

tional livestock production. Mathes et al. (1998)

reported high animal welfare scores for 510 organic
dairy farms in 1996 and 1997. These earlier surveys
reflected the welfare and housing conditions on
farms well before the introduction of the EU Regulation 1804 / 99. In recent year, the implicit guidelines
contained in the Regulation have set further demands
on organic management. Winckler et al. (2001)
described housing and management systems on 35
organic pig farms in Germany. They reported that
85% of the organic farms had slatted floors in the
activity areas for pregnant sows, and 42% used
farrowing crates. Carpal injury prevalence was lowest on a farm with an outdoor system, and highest on
a farm that used little bedding in its indoor housing
system. The authors concluded that major changes in
housing would be required for these farms to comply
with the EU regulation 1804 / 99, which must be fully
implemented in this area by 2010.

4. Conclusions and recommendations of the

Network for Animal Health and Welfare in
Organic Agriculture: future challenges to
organic livestock production in Europe
A 3-year (19992001) project, Network for Animal Health and Welfare in Organic Agriculture
(NAHWOA), had, as one of its objectives, to
produce conclusions and recommendations for the
support of organic livestock production and standard
development with the European Community. The
conclusions and recommendations produced from the
project emanated from four thematic workshops that
were open to participation from the wider sector and
research community. The themes of the workshops
were:
(1) diversity of livestock systems and animal welfare;
(2) stockman ship and housing;
(3) breeding and feeding for health and welfare; and
(4) positive health: preventive measures and alternative strategies.
Each workshop consisted of presentation of
thematic papers and working group modalities, with
explicit aim to produce conclusions and recom-

mendations in topics considered. Complete data on

all NAHWOA conclusions and recommendations can
be found in the proceedings from each workshop and
on the project web-site (www.veeru.reading.ac.uk /
organic). In the following, the core conclusions and
recommendations are presented.
(1) It is important to formulate a philosophical
definition and basis for animal welfare in organic
farming and to seek to solve potential conflicts
between animal welfare and other organic farming
aims.
Whilst it is evident that one of the reasons for
consumer interest in organic livestock produce is the
perceived animal welfare benefits associated with
such produce, it is not clear what consumers expect
from organic animal welfare. It has been suggested
that the concept natural is associated with animal
welfare by consumers (Harper and Henson, 1998)
implying that consumers accept the organic principle
to provide freedom to perform natural behaviour as a
key component of animal welfare. It is, however,
important from both legislative and standard development point of view to clarify how the other
aspects of animal welfare (freedom from hunger and
thirst, freedom from discomfort, pain, disease and
injury and freedom from fear and distress) relate to
the key aspect of freedom to express natural behaviour. This would also help to solve the potential
conflicts between animal welfare objectives and the
other objectives of organic farming.
(2) Whilst the development of organic standards
should be driven and informed by research that
reflects the practice and experience of organic
farmers, there is also a need to guarantee that policy
makers seek advice from ethologists /other animal
welfare experts and from public health and veterinary experts when developing the standards.
It is expected that a clearer definition of a
philosophical basis for animal welfare in organic
farming will lead to further development of organic
standards in Europe. It is also recognised that, in the
past, the organic farming community has been at the
forefront of developing organic standards out of a
necessity, as the expert community has tended to
follow and monitor the development rather than lead
it. The NAHWOA partnership recognises, however,
that it would be important to use the existing
expertise among ethologists and animal welfare
scientists when developing organic standards, par-

M. Hovi et al. / Livestock Production Science 80 (2003) 4153

ticularly in areas where compromises are needed to

match the different objectives of organic farming.
(3) Animal health is considered a vital part of
animal welfare. It is therefore, of concern, that a
growing body of evidence suggests that animal
health situation on organic farms is no better than
that reported in conventional livestock production
systems.
It has been commonly suggested that the restrictions on prophylactic and routine use of conventional
medicine could lead to increased disease risk in
organically managed livestock. However, with a few
exceptions like the high mortalities reported in
organic poultry units in Denmark, there are little data
to suggest that particular diseases or conditions are
more prevalent in organic than in conventional
systems. Indeed, some conditions, like calf and piglet
diseases and lameness and metabolic disorders in
dairy cows appear to be less prevalent in organic
than in conventionally managed systems, suggesting
that the organic requirements on preventive husbandry and management measures can replace approaches that are more reliant on routine medicine
use. On the other hand, studies that indicate higher
incidence of disease in organic than in conventional
systems, like mastitis in dairy cows, suggest that
organic management approaches may not be alone
able to solve some conditions, where long-term
efforts to change both production system and breeds
and strains of animals are required. In spite of the
apparent success of organic livestock production in
avoiding major animal health problems in systems
that are less reliant on conventional medicinal inputs,
it is felt that the real aim of a sustainable livestock
production systems is to reduce disease levels rather
than to reduce reliance on conventional medicine.
(4) Animal health management on organic farms
should be evidence-based and involve on-going
planning that is able to demonstrate a gradual
improvement of health and welfare status and decreasing reliance on medicinal therapy and prophylaxis.
In reference to conclusion (3) (above) and the
organic farming objectives that attempt to reduce
reliance on medicinal therapy and prophylaxis, it is
important to develop decision support systems at
farm level. In terms of health management, the aim
of these systems should be to allow for evidencebased decision making by the farmer when imple-

49

menting organic standards within the system. This

would allow for a gradual change from a conventional system, reliant on medicinal prevention towards
management and systems based disease prevention,
without jeopardising animal health and welfare. In
one European country, the UK (UKROFS, 2000), the
national organic livestock production standards already include a statutory requirement for written
animal health plans on organic livestock farms. The
NAHWOA partnership considered that the development of standards should encourage implementation
of such plans in order to guarantee that the decrease
in the reliance on medicinal therapy and prophylaxis
is a reflection of decreased disease levels rather than
decreased therapy levels.
(5) The central feature of EU Regulation 1804 /
1999, requiring selection of appropriate breeds and
strains for particular farm or conditions, should be
given more weight in the development of organic
livestock systems.
There is a need to carry out research that clarifies
the suitability of different breeds and breeding aims
in organic systems. The NAHWOA partnership felt
that this research should be carried out in a participatory fashion with organic farmers. Breeding
strategies should be selected for each farm in recognition of the fact that each farm is a specific system
with specific needs. There is also a need to develop
both standards and breeding practices in order to
avoid the inherent animal welfare problems that are
prevalent in many conventional systems, specifically
in poultry production. It is recognised that these
breeding strategies need to take into consideration
the requirements of organic feeding standards and
their implications on the type of livestock that are
suitable for organic systems. The standard development should also take into consideration the lessons
that have been learned in developing organic seed
production for crop production in order to avoid
continuous derogations and use of unsuitable breeds
and strains of livestock.

5. Discussion and conclusions

Comparative disease and welfare data from conventionally managed and organic farms in Europe
are still based on a limited number of farms. Due to
their limited nature, results are often contradictory.

50

M. Hovi et al. / Livestock Production Science 80 (2003) 4153

In this context, it is relevant to recognise that the EU

Regulation 1804 / 99, governing organic livestock
production, with its implicit animal health and
welfare guidance, has only been implemented recently, and that most of the epidemiological evidence of
disease levels on organic farms predates the Regulation. There is also a rapid development within
organic livestock production sector, including increasing herd size and change to loose housing as
well as changing attitudes to therapy and medicine
use among organic producers, complicating comparisons between conventional and organic systems
and making it difficult to reflect on a present state of
the art. It is obviously important to carry on monitoring organic livestock systems and their performance in terms of animal health and welfare in order
to assess the impact of the EC Regulation and to
provide data for further standard development.
There appears to be grounds to conclude that
many of the concerns predicting serious health
problems in organic livestock production appear to
have been overstated. On the other hand, the fact that
animal health situation does not appear to be consistently better on organic than on conventional
farms raises further questions on the extent of
management and systems changes that are actually
implemented on livestock farms during conversion to
organic production. Whilst the current data do not
allow any conclusion to be drawn in regard to these
changes, Sundrum (2001b) argues that, as organic
livestock enterprises are more likely to be found on
mixed (i.e., crop and livestock farms) than specialised farms, the ability of a farmer to implement high
levels of stockmanship may be limited by the
requirements of running a complex, mixed system
where livestock husbandry may not always be the
highest priority. One of the major challenges of
organic livestock production in the near future is
likely to be the introduction of significantly improved animal husbandry methods that improve the
health status of organic livestock. Whilst planning,
monitoring and decision support systems are likely to
play a key role, there is also a need to secure high
enough price premiums for organic livestock produce
to compensate for these additional management
inputs.
The preference for home-grown feedstuffs and
limitations in the choice of bought-in feedstuffs are

likely to lead to marked variation in the composition

of organic livestock diets. This, combined with a
greater variation in breeds and housing conditions on
organic farms, make it difficult to predict nutrient
requirements on organic farms as reliably as in more
standardised conventionally managed systems. As
any discrepancies between nutrient requirements and
supply are one of the main causes of many diseases,
another major challenge for organic livestock farming is the creation of knowledge, know-how and
decision support in animal feeding in these diverse
systems. This is particularly true in organic pig and
poultry production where major efforts are needed to
meet both consumer expectations and organic standard and animal health and welfare requirements.
Whilst public health safety issues in connection
with organic livestock production have been raised
occasionally, it was felt that the issue was outside the
scope of this paper, mainly due to the lack of
published data. It is, however, important to recognise
that outdoor access and free range systems for
monogastric species, particularly poultry, may lead
to increased risk of infection with zoonotic agents.
Whilst the emergence of large scale, conventional
free range poultry and pig production systems, for
instance in the UK and Denmark, in recent years
does not appear to have caused major increase in
zoonotic diseases associated with such systems, it is
important that organic livestock are monitored with
regard to their status as carriers of zoonotic pathogens.
The future research needs in the field of organic
livestock production in Europe are reflected in the
challenges outlined above. Future development of
the EU legislation on organic livestock production
standards requires reliable epidemiological feed-back
from the field. Furthermore, it is necessary to assess
the long-term effects of organic livestock management, both on herd / flock parameters and on changes
that occur in management and husbandry practices.
Similarly, the potential food safety risks, that may
arise from more extensive, free range production
conditions, particularly in relation to monogastric
animals, need to be monitored. In addition to the
surveillance needs, there is an obvious need to
develop innovative husbandry, breeding and feeding
practices that support high-health conditions in organic livestock and comply with the standard re-

M. Hovi et al. / Livestock Production Science 80 (2003) 4153

quirements. This is particularly true for monogastric

production systems, where the limitation on the use
of synthetic amino acids requires both feed- and
systems-based changes to conventional practices.
There is also a need to examine the real costs and
costbenefits of animal welfare and health interventions required in organic systems in order to guarantee developments that are sustainable from the point
of view of the economic viability of an individual
farm.

Acknowledgements
The contribution of all NAHWOA partners and
workshop delegates to the conclusions and recommendations of the project is acknowledged. The
work within the NAHWOA-project was funded by
the EU Commission.

References
Andrews, T., 1998. Parasite control in the second grazing season.
Vet. Times 28 (6), 28.
Anon, 1998. LK-meddelelse nr. 178, Landskontoret for kvg, 28.
September 1998. p 32. (Internal report no. 178 from Danish
Cattle Advisory Board).
Arvola, A., 1998. Beliefs and purchase intentions concerning
organic pork in United Kingdom, Denmark and Finland. In:
AIR-CAT 4th Plenary Meeting: Health, Ecological and Safety
Aspects in Food Choice.
Augustburger, F., Zemp, J., Heusser, H., 1988. Vergleich der

Fruchtbarkeit, Gesundheit und Leistung von Milchkuhen

in
biologisch und konventionell bewirtschafteten Betrieben. Landwirtschaft Schweiz 1, 427431.

Badertscher-Fawaz, R., Jorin,

R., Rieder, P., 1998. Einstellungen
zu Tierschutzfragen: Wirkungen auf den Fleischkonsum. Agrarwirtschaft 47, 107113.
Bartussek, H., 2000. How to measure animal welfare. In: Proceed
ings of the 2nd NAHWOA Workshop. Cordoba,
Spain, 811
January 2000, pp. 135142.
Baumgartner, J., Leeb, T., Guber, T., Tiefenbacher, R., 2001. Pig
health and health planning in organic herds in Austria. In:
Proceedings of the 5th NAHWOA Workshop. Rodding, Denmark, November 2001, pp. 126131.
Bestman, M.W.P., 2000. The role of management and housing in
the prevention of feather pecking in laying hens. In: Proceedings of the 3rd NAHWOA Workshop. Clermont-Ferrand, 21
24 October, 2000, pp. 7988.
Bouilhol, M., Mage, C., 2001. Parasitism in organic sheep

51

farming. In: Proceedings of the 5th NAHWOA Workshop,

Rodding, Denmark, November 2001, pp. 7991.
Bystrom, S., Jonsson, S., Martinsson, K., 2002. Organic versus
conventional dairy farmingstudies from the Ojebyn project.
In: Proceedings of the UK Organic Research 2002 Conference.
2628th March 2002, Aberystwyth, UK, pp. 179184.
Carstensen, L., Vaarst, M., Roepstorff, A., 2002. Helminth infections in Danish organic swine herds. Vet. Parasitol. 106,
253264.
CEC, 1999. Council Regulation on Organic Livestock Production,
1804 / 1999. Committee of the European Communities, Brussels.
Ebbesvik, M., Loes, A.K., 1994. Organic dairy production in
Norwayfeeding, health, fodder production nutrient balance
and economyresults from the 30-farm-project, 19891992.
In: Granstedt, A., Koistinen, R. (Eds.). Converting to Organic
Agriculture. Scand. Assoc. Agric. Sci. Rapp. 93: 35-42.
Enemark, P.S., Kjeldsen, A., 1999. LK-meddelelse no. 353,
Landskontoret for Kvg (Internal report no. 353 from Danish
Cattle Advisory Board).
FAWC (Farm Animal Welfare Council), 2001. Interim Report on
the Animal Welfare Implications of Farm Assurance Schemes.
(August, 2001). 1A Page Street, London SW1P 4PQ, UK.
Fisker, C., 1998. kologisk slagtekyllingeproduktion. M.Sc.
thesis, Dept. of Animal Science and Animal Health, Royal Vet.
Agric. University, Copenhagen.
Graf, S., Willer, H., 2000. The internet site http: / / www.organiceurope.netorganic agriculture in 25 European countries. In:
IFOAM 2000: the world grows organic. Proceedings 13th
International IFOAM Scientific Conference, Basel, Switzerland, 2831 August, 2000. Hochschulverlag AG an der ETH
Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland: 2000, p. 726.
Gray, D., Hovi, M., 2001. Animal health plans for organic farms:
the UK experience. In: Proceedings of the 5th NAHWOA
Workshop. Rodding, Denmark, November 2001, pp. 132143.
Gruber, L.R., Steinwender, R., Guggenberger, T., Hausler, J.,
Schauer, A., 2000. Vergleich zwischen biologischer und kon
ventioneller Wirtschaftsweise im Grunlandbetrieb.
2. Mitteilung: Futteraufnahme, Milchleistung, Gesundheit und Fruchtbarkeit. Bodenkultur 52, 5570.
Halliday, G., Ramsay, S., Scanlan, S., Younie, D., 1991. In: A
Survey of Organic Livestock Health and Treatment. The
Kintail Land Research Foundation, p. 29.
Hamilton, C., Hansson, I., Ekman, T., Emanuelson, K., Forslund,
K., 2002. Health of cows, calves and young stock on 26
organic dairy herds in Sweden. Vet. Rec. 150, 503508.
Hansson, I., Hamilton, C., Forslund, K., Ekman, T., 2000. En

jamforelse
av slaktresultat mellem KRAV-uppfodda
och kon
ventionellt uppfodda
djur. Svenska Vet. Suppl. 29, 1724.
Harper, G.C., Henson, S.J., 1998. Consumer Concern about
Animal Welfare and the Impact on Food Choice: comparative
literature review. EU FAIR CT98-3678.
Hovi, M., Roderick, S., 1999. An investigation for the incidence,
treatment strategies and financial implications of mastitis in
organic and conventionally managed UK dairy herds. An
attachment to a Scientific Report to the Ministry of Agriculture,
Fisheries and Food, UK.

52

M. Hovi et al. / Livestock Production Science 80 (2003) 4153

Hovi, M., Roderick, S., Taylor, N., Hanks, J., 2001. Fertility and
fertility management in organic dairy herds in the UK. In:
Hanafi and Kenny, (Eds.), Organic Agriculture in the Mediterranean Basin. pp. 253264.
Hovi, M., Kossaibati, M., Bennett, R., Edwards, S., Robertson, J.,
Roderick, S., 2002a. The impact of organic livestock standards
on animal welfarea questionnaire survey of advisors, inspectors and veterinarians. In: Proceedings of the UK Organic
Research 2002 Conference. 2628th March 2002,
Aberystwyth, UK, pp. 351354.
Hovi, M., Roderick, S., Taylor, N., Hanks, J., 2002b. The
production characteristics of organic dairy herds in the UK.
Organic meat and milk from ruminants. EAAP publication No.
106, 127133.

Hoglund,
J., Svensson, C., Hessle, A., 2001. A field survey on the
status of internal parasites in calves on organic dairy farms in
southwestern Sweden. Vet. Parasitol. 99, 113128.

Horning,
B., 1998. Tiergerechtheit und Tiergesundheit in

okologisch
wirtschaftenden Betrieben. Dtsche Tierartzl.
Wochenschr. 105, 313321.
IFOAM (International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movement), 2000. In: Basic Standards for Organic Agriculture and
Food Processing. IFOAM Publications, Germany.
Keatinge, R., Elliott, J., 1998. Organic sheep and beef production
in the hills and uplands. MAFF project on organic production.
ADAS, pp. 160.
Keatinge, R., Jackson, F., Kyriazakis, I., Cork, S.A., 2002.
Developing parasite control strategies in organic systems. In:
Proceedings of the UK Organic Research Conference. 2628th
March 2002, Aberystwyth, UK, pp. 341345.
Knaus, W.F., Steinwidder, A., Zollitsch, W., 2001. Energy and
protein balance in organic dairy cow nutritionmodel calculations based on EU regulations. In: Proceedings of the 4th
NAHWOA Workshop. Wageningen, 2427 March 2001, pp.
141154.
Koene, P., 2001. Animal welfare and genetics in organic farming
of layers: the example of cannibalism. In: Proceedings of the
4th NAHWOA Workshop. Wageningen, 2427 March 2001,
pp. 6285.
Kristensen, I.S., 1998. kologisk g-, kd- og planteproduktion
1996 / 97. In: Studier i kologiske jordbrugssystemer. DJFreport 1, pp. 95166.
Kristensen, T., Pedersen, S., 2001. Organic dairy cow feeding with
emphasis on Danish conditions. In: Proceedings of the 4th
NAHWOA Workshop. Wageningen, 2427 March 2001, pp.
134140.
Krutzinna, C., Boehncke, E., Hermann, H.-J., 1996. Die Milch
viehhaltung im Okologischen
Landbau. Ber. Ldw. 74, 461
480.
Lampkin, N., 1997. In: Organic Poultry Production. University of
Wales, p. 77.
Leeb, T., Baumgartner, J., 2000. Husbandry and health of sows
and piglets on organic farms in Austria. Animal health and
welfare aspects of organic pig production. In: Proceedings:
13th International IFOAM Scientific Conference, Basel 2831
August 2000, p. 361.
Lindqvist, A., 2001. Animal Health and Welfare in Organic Sheep

and Goat Farming. Experiences and reflections from a Swedish

outlook.Veterinary challenges in Organic Farming. In: Proc.
14th Nordic Committee for Veterinary Scientific Cooperation
Symposium, Acta Veterinariae Scandinavica, Supplementum
95, pp. 2731.
Ljungstrm, B.L., Nilsson, O., Waller, P.J., 2001.
Lindqvist, A.,
The dynamics, prevalence and impact of nematode parasite
infections in organically raised sheep in Sweden. Acta Vet.
Scand. 42, 377389.
Lund, V., 2000. Is there a such a thing as organic animal welfare.
In: Proceedings of the 2nd NAHWOA Workshop. Cordoba,
811 January 2000, pp. 151160.
MacNaeidhe, F.S., 2001. Pasture management and composition as
a means of minimizing mineral disorders in organic livestock.
In: Proceedings of the 5th NAHWOA Workshop, Rodding,
Denmark, November 2001, pp. 102112.
Mage, C., Bouilhol, M., Archimbaud, E., Jardin, Y., 1998.
Parasitisme en production dagneau dherbe en Agriculture
biologique. Institut de lElevage, compte rendu no. 9983220
Juillet 1998, 149 Rue de Bercy, Paris. p. 33.
Mathes, H.D., Freitag, J., Goesmann, M., 1998. Entwicklung und
die FreilandhalAnwendung eines Tiergerechtheitindexes fur
tung von Rindern. Arch. Tierzucht 41, 573582.
Nielsen, B., Thamsborg, S.M., 2002. Dairy bull calves as a
resource for organic beef production: a farm survey in Denmark. Livest. Prod. Sci. 75 (3), 245255.
Offerhaus, E.J., Baars, T., Grommers, F.J., 1993. In: Gezonheid en
Vruchtbaarheid op Biologische Bedrijven Farms. Louis Bolk
Institute, Driebergen, The Netherlands.
Olsson, A.C., Svendsen, J., Sundelof, J.A., 1996. Ekologisk
svinproduktion. Specialmeddelandem, Institutionen for
Jordbrukets Biosystem och Teknologi, Sveriges Lantbruksuniversitet. No. 224, 72 pp.
Permin, A., Bisgaard, M., Frandsen, F., Pearman, M., Kold, J.,
Nansen, P., 1999. Prevalence of gastrointestinal helminths in
different poultry production systems. Br. Poultry Sci. 40 (4),
439443.
Reksen, O., Tverdal, A., Ropstad, E., 1999. A comparative study
of reproductive performance in organic and conventional dairy
husbandry. J. Dairy Sci. 82, 26052610.
Roderick, S., Hovi, M., 1999. Animal health and welfare in
organic livestock systems: identification of constraints and
priorities. A report to MAFF. 65 pp.
Roderick, S., Short, N., Hovi, M., 1996. In: Organic Livestock
ProductionAnimal Health and Welfare Research Priorities.
Technical ReportVEERU. University of Reading, Reading,
p. 29.
Roepstorff, A., Jorgensen, R.J., Nansen, P., Hendriksen, S.A.,
Pedersen, J.S., Andreasen, M., 1992. Parasitter hos okologiske
svin. Landsudvalget for Svin, Kobenhaven.
Roepstorff, A., 1994. Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites in
swine in relation to management and anthelmintic treatment.
Biologija 1, 7779.
Roiha, U., Nieminen, T., 1999. Luomunautojen terveys ja hyvinvointi. Helsingin yliopisto. 144 pp.
Rubelowski, I, Sundrum, A., 1999. Zur Bedeutung der

Schweinehaltung im Okologischen
Landbau. In: Hoffmann, H.,

M. Hovi et al. / Livestock Production Science 80 (2003) 4153

Muller,
S. (eds.), Beitrage
zur 5. Wissenschaftstagung zum

Okologischen
Landbau, 2325.02.1999, Humboldt-Universitat
Berlin, S. pp. 218221.
Schaumann, W., 1995. Der wissenschaftliche und praktische

Entwicklungsweg des Okologischen

Landbaus und seine

Zukunftsaspekte. In: Dewes, T., Schmitt, L. (Eds.), Beitrage

zur 3. Wissenschaftstagung zum Okologischen

Landbau. Wissenschaftlicher Fachverlag, Gieen, pp. 112.
Smolders, G.A., 2001. Preventive measures for animal health and
practical means for management support on organic dairy
farms in the Netherlands. In: Proceedings of the 5th NAHWOA
Workshop. Rodding, Denmark, November 2001, pp. 113125.
Pravention

Spranger, J., 1998. Richtliniengemae

und Therapie in

der Tierhaltung des Okolandbaus

am Beispiel der Mastitis der

Kuh. Dtsche Tierarztl.

Wochenschr. 105, 321323.
Strm, T., Olesen, I., 1997. Mjlkekvalitet, helse og holdbarhet pa
korne vid omleggning til kologisk mlkeprodukjon. Nosrk
senter for kologisk lantbruk, Tingvoll, 77.
Sundrum, A., 2001a. Managing amino acids in organic pig diets.
In: Proceedings of the 4th NAHWOA-Workshop, 24
27.03.2001, Wageningen, NL, pp. 181191.
Sundrum, A., 2001b. Organic livestock farmingA critical
review. Livest. Prod. Sci. 67, 207215.

Svensson, C., Hessle, A., Hoglund,

J., 2000. Parasite control
methods in organic and conventional dairy herds in Sweden.
Livest. Prod. Sci. 66, 5769.
Thamsborg, S.M., 2002. Parasite control on organic sheep
farmsoptions and limitations. In: Proceedings of the 5th
NAHWOA Workshop. Rodding, Denmark, November 2001,
pp. 92101.
Thamsborg, S.M., Roepstorff, A., Larsen, M., 1999. Integrated
and biological control of parasites in conventional and organic
farming systems. Vet. Parasitol. 84, 169186.
The Soil Association, 2001. In: Organic Farming Report 2001.
The Soil Association, Bristol, UK, p. 123.
Trujillo, G.R., Mata, C., 2000. The Dehesa: an extensive livestock
system in the Iberian Peninsula. In: Proceedings of the 2nd
NAHWOA Workshop. Cordoba, 811 January, 2000, pp. 50
61.

53

Vaarst M., 1995. Sundhed og sygdomshandtering

i danske
kologiske malkekvgbestninger. Ph.D. thesis. Copenhagen
(Denmark).: Kongelige Veterinr og Landbohjskole, Klinisk
Institut.
Vaarst, M., Enevoldsen, C., 1994. Disease control and health in
Danish organic dairy herds. In: Hiusman, E.A. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 4th Zodiac Symp., EAAP Publ., 67, Biological
Basis of Sustainable Animal Production, pp. 211217.
Vaarst, M., Thamsborg, S.M., 1994. Nematode infections in
organic dairy cattle herds in Denmark. Proc. Baltic-Scandinavian Symposium on Parasitic Zoonoses and Ecology of Parasites, Vilnius, Lithuania, 78 September, 1994. In: Bull. Scand.
Soc. Parasitol. 5, 5455.
Vaarst, M., Roepsdorff, A., Feenstra, A., Hogedal, P., Larsen, A.,
Lauridsen, H.B., Hermansen, J., 2000. Animal health and
welfare aspects of organic pig production. In: Proceedings of
the 13th International IFOAM Scientific Conference, Basel
2831 August 2000, p. 373.
Vermeer, H.M., Altena, H., Bestman, M., Ellinger, L., Cranen, I.,
Spoolder, H.A.M., Baars, T., 2000. Monitoring organic pig
farms in The Netherlands. In: Proceedings of the 51st annual
meeting of the European Association of Animal Production,
The Hague, The Netherlands, 2124 August, 2000, pp. 156
161.
Viring, S., Bengtsson, B., Christensson, D., 2001. Forekomst av
mag-tarmparasiter och lungmask hos dikalvar. Svensk Vet. 53
(8 / 9), 441445.
Weller, R.F., Cooper, A., 1996. Health status of dairy herds
converting from conventional to organic farming. Vet. Rec.
139, 141142.

Winckler, C., Buhnemann,

A., Seidel, K., Kuffmann,
K., Fenneker, A., 2001. Label pig production and organic pig farminga pilot study on housing and welfare related parameters in
sows. In: Animal Welfare Considerations in Livestock Housing
Systems. Proceedings of International Symposium of CIGR
2nd Technical Section, Szklarska Poreba, Czech Republic,
October 2325, pp. 479490.