Prepared by: K. S.

Patel

BUILDING MATERIAL
Bricks:

Nominal and actual dimensions of modular and traditional bricks.

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Composition of a good brick earth:

Following are the constituents of a good brick earth:
o Alumina (Al2O3):
It is the chief constituent of a good brick earth. A content of about 20% to 30% is
necessary to form the brick earth of a good quality. It imparts plasticity to the earth so it
helps in the moulding of the brick earth.
If alumina is present in excess with inadequate quantity of sand then the raw bricks
shrink and warp during drying, on burning they become too hard. So, it is important to
have an optimum content of alumina.
o Silica (SiO2):
It exists in the brick earth either free or combined. As free sand it is mechanically mixed
with clay and in combined form it exists in chemical composition with alumina. A good
brick earth should contain about 50% to 60% of silica.
The presence of this constituent prevents the shrinkage, cracking and warping of raw
bricks. It thus imparts uniform shape to the bricks. The durability of bricks depends upon
proper composition of silica in brick earth. The excess of silica destroys the cohesion b/w
particles and brick become brittle.
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o Lime(CaCO3):
A small quantity of lime not more than 5% is desirable in good brick earth. It should be
present in very fine state, because even small particles of size of a pin-head can result in
the flaking of the brick.
The lime prevents shrinkage of the raw bricks, sand alone is infusible, but it slightly fuses
at kiln temperature in presence of lime. Fused sand acts as a hard-cementing material for
brick particles.
The excess of lime causes brick to melt and therefore its shape is lost. The lumps of lime
turn into quick lime (CaO) after burning and this free lime can later react with water to
form slaked lime. This process is called slaking it may result in splitting of the brick into
pieces.
o Oxide of Iron (Fe2O3):
Iron oxide performs two functions, first it helps in fusing of the sand like lime and second
it provides the red color to the bricks. It is kept below 5 to 6% because excess of it may
result in the dark blue or black color of brick.
o Magnesia:
It is used to provide a yellow tint to the bricks. Its content is only about 1% or less.
Moulding
Manufacturing process of bricks
There are four different operations are involved in the process of manufacturing of bricks:
o Preparation of clay
o Molding
o Drying
o Burning
Molding of clay for brick manufacturing
In the molding process, prepared clay is mold into brick shape (generally rectangular). This
process can be done in two ways according to scale of project.
Hand molding (for small scale)
Machine molding (for large scale)
o Hand molding of bricks
If manufacturing of bricks is on a small scale and manpower is also cheap then we can go
for hand molding. The molds are in rectangular shape made of wood or steel which are
opened at the top and bottom. The longer sides of molds are projected out of the box to
serve it as handles. If we take durability in consideration steel molds are better than
wooden molds.
In hand molding again there are two types and they are
Ground molded bricks
o In this process of ground molding, first level the ground and sand or ash is
sprinkled over it.
o Now place the wet mold in the ground and filled it with tempered clay and
press hard to fill all corners of the mold. Extra clay is removed with metal
strike or wood strike or with wire.
o The mold is then lifted up and we have raw brick in the ground. And again
wet the mold by dipping it in water and repeat the same process. The
process of dipping mold every time to make bricks is called slop molding.
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o Sometimes, the inside surface of mold is sprinkled with sand or ash

instead of dipping in water this is called sand molding
o Frog mark of bricks are made by using a pair of pallet boards. Frog mark
means the mark of depth which is placed on raw brick while molding. The
depth may be 10mm to 20mm.
o Frog mark stats the trademark of manufacturing company and also it is
useful to store mortar in it when the bricks is placed over it.
Table molded bricks
o This process is similar to ground molding process, but here the bricks on
molded on the table of size 2m x 1m.
o Ground molding is economical when compared to table molding.

Machine molding of bricks:The bricks required are in large quantity, then

machine molding is economical and also saves more time. Here also we are
having two types of machines,
o Plastic clay machines
This machines contain an opening in rectangular shape and when
we place the tempered clay in to this machine it will come out
through this opening. Now, the rectangular strips coming out the
opening are cut by wires to get required thickness of brick. So,
these are also called wire cut bricks. Now these raw bricks are
ready for the drying process.
o Dry clay machines
Dry clay machines are more time saving machines. We can put the
blended clay into these machines directly without tempering.
Means tempering is also done in this machine by adding some
water. When the required stiffness is obtained, the clay is placed in
mold and pressed hard and well-shaped bricks are delivered. These
are called pressed bricks and these do not require drying they may
directly sent to burning process.
Characteristics of good bricks
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Color: Color should be uniform and bright.

Shape: Bricks should have plane faces. They should have sharp and true right angled corners.
Size: Bricks should be of standard sizes as prescribed by codes.
Texture: They should possess fine, dense and uniform texture. They should not possess fissures,
cavities, loose grit and unburnt lime.
o Soundness: When struck with hammer or with another brick, it should produce metallic sound.
o Hardness: Finger scratching should not produce any impression on the brick.
o Strength: Crushing strength of brick should not be less than 3.5 N/mm2. A field test for strength
is that when dropped from a height of 0.9 m to 1.0 mm on a hard ground, the brick should not
break into pieces.
o Water Absorption: After immersing the brick in water for 24 hours, water absorption should not
be more than 20 per cent by weight. For class-I works this limit is 15 per cent.
o Efflorescence: Bricks should not show white patches when soaked in water for 24 hours and
then allowed to dry in shade. White patches are due to the presence of sulphate of calcium,
magnesium and potassium. They keep the masonry permanently in damp and wet conditions.
o Thermal Conductivity: Bricks should have low thermal conductivity, so that buildings built
with them are cool in summer and warm in winter.
o Sound Insulation: Heavier bricks are poor insulators of sound while light weight and hollow
bricks provide good sound insulation.
o Fire Resistance: Fire resistance of bricks is usually good. In fact, bricks are used to encase steel
columns to protect them from fire.
Compression test and absorption test,
Classification of bricks.
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Cement:
Raw materials
o The raw materials used for the manufacture of cement consist mainly of lime, silica, alumina and
iron oxide.
o These oxides interact with one another in the kiln at high temperature to form more complex
compounds. The relative proportions of these oxide compositions are responsible for influencing
the various properties of cement; in addition to rate of cooling and fineness of grinding.

Wet process for manufacture of Portland cement:

o The raw materials required for manufacture of Portland cement are calcareous materials, such as
limestone or chalk, and argillaceous material such as shale or clay.
o Cement factories are established where these raw materials are available in plenty.
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o The process of manufacture of cement consists of grinding the raw materials, mixing them
intimately in certain proportions depending upon their purity and composition and burning them
in a kiln at a temperature of about 1300 to 1500C, at which temperature, the material sinters and
partially fuses to form nodular shaped clinker.
o The clinker is cooled and ground to fine powder with addition of about 3 to 5% of gypsum. The
product formed by using this procedure is Portland cement.
o There are two processes known as wet and dry processes depending upon whether the
mixing and grinding of raw materials is done in wet or dry conditions.
o In the wet process, the limestone brought from the quarries is first crushed to smaller fragments.
Then it is taken to a ball or tube mill where it is mixed with clay or shale as the case may be and
ground to a fine consistency of slurry with the addition of water.
o The slurry is a liquid of creamy consistency with water content of about 35 to 50 per cent,
wherein particles, crushed to the fineness of Indian Standard Sieve number 9, are held in
suspension.
o The slurry is pumped to slurry tanks or basins where it is kept in an agitated condition by means
of rotating arms with chains or blowing compressed air from the bottom to prevent settling of
limestone and clay particles.
o The composition of the slurry is tested to give the required chemical composition and corrected
periodically in the tube mill and also in the slurry tank by blending slurry from different storage
tanks.
o Finally, the corrected slurry is stored in the final storage tanks and kept in a homogeneous
condition by the agitation of slurry. The corrected slurry is sprayed on to the upper end of a
rotary kiln against hot heavy hanging chains.
o The rotary kiln is an important component of a cement factory. It is a thick steel cylinder of
diameter anything from 3 metres to 8 metres, lined with refractory materials, mounted on roller
bearings and capable of rotating about its own axis at a specified speed.
o The length of the rotary kiln may vary anything from 30 metres to 200 metres. The slurry on
being sprayed against a hot surface of flexible chain loses moisture and becomes flakes. These
flakes peel off and fall on the floor.

o The rotation of the rotary kiln causes the flakes to move from the upper end towards the lower
end of the kiln subjecting itself to higher and higher temperature.
o The kiln is fired from the lower end. The fuel is either powered coal, oil or natural gass. By the
time the material rolls down to the lower end of the rotary kiln, the dry material undergoes a
series of chemical reactions until finally, in the hottest part of the kiln, where the temperature is
in the order of 1500C, about 20 to 30 per cent of the materials get fused.
o Lime, silica and alumina get recombined. The fused mass turns into nodular form of size 3 mm
to 20 mm known as clinker. The clinker drops into a rotary cooler where it is cooled under
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controlled conditions The clinker is stored in silos or bins. The clinker weighs about 1100 to
1300 gms per litre.
o The litre weight of clinker indicates the quality of clinker. The cooled clinker is then ground in a
ball mill with the addition of 3 to 5 per cent of gypsum in order to prevent flash-setting of the
cement.
o A ball mill consists of several compartments charged with progressively smaller hardened steel
balls. The particles crushed to the required fineness are separated by currents of air and taken to
storage silos from where the cement is bagged or filled into barrels for bulk supply to dams or
other large work sites.
o In the modern process of grinding, the particle size distribution of cement particles are
maintained in such a way as to give desirable grading pattern. Just as the good grading of
aggregates is essential for making good concrete, it is now recognized that good grading pattern

of the cement particles is also important

Initial and final setting times
Use of Vicat needle apparatus,
Distinctions between ordinary Portland cement, Pozzolana cement and slag cement,
Grades of cement,
Uses of white cement.

Stone:
Stone is a naturally available building material which has been used from the early age of civilization. It is
available in the form of rocks, which is cut to required size and shape and used as building block. It has
been used to construct small residential buildings to large palaces and temples all over the world. Red Fort,
Taj Mahal, Vidhan Sabha at Bangalore and several palaces of medieval age all over India are the famous
stone buildings.
Geological classification of stone
Based on their origin of formation stones are classified into three main groupsIgneous, sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks.
o Igneous Rocks:
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These rocks are formed by cooling and solidifying of the rock masses from their molten
magmatic condition of the material of the earth.
Generally igneous rocks are strong and durable.
Granite, trap and basalt are the rocks belonging to this category, Granites are formed
by slow cooling of the lava under thick cover on the top. Hence, they have crystalline
surface. The cooling of lava at the top surface of earth results into non-crystalline and
glassy texture. Trap and basalt belong to this category.
o Sedimentary Rocks:
Due to weathering action of water, wind and frost existing rocks disintegrates. The
disintegrated material is carried by wind and water; the water being most powerful
medium. Flowing water deposits its suspended materials at some points of obstacles to its
flow. These deposited layers of materials get consolidated under pressure and by heat.
Chemical agents also contribute to the cementing of the deposits. The rocks thus formed
are more uniform, fine grained and compact in their nature. They represent a bedded or
stratified structure in general. Sand stones, lime stones, mud stones etc. belong to this
class of rock.
o Metamorphic Rocks:
Previously formed igneous and sedimentary rocks undergo changes due to metamorphic
action of pressure and internal heat. For example, due to metamorphic action granite
becomes greisses, trap and basalt change to schist and laterite, lime stone changes to
marble, sand stone becomes quartzite and mud stone becomes slate.
Physical Classification Based on the structure, the rocks may be classified as:
o Stratified Rocks: These rocks are having layered structure. They possess planes of stratification
or cleavage. They can be easily split along these planes. Sand stones, lime stones, slate etc. are
the examples of this class of stones.
o Unstratified Rocks: These rocks are not stratified. They possess crystalline and compact grains.
They cannot be split in to thin slab. Granite, trap, marble etc. are the examples of this type of
rocks.
o Foliated Rocks: These rocks have a tendency to split along a definite direction only. The
direction need not be parallel to each other as in case of stratified rocks. This type of structure is
very common in case of metamorphic rocks.
Chemical Classification On the basis of their chemical composition engineers prefer to classify rocks
as:
o Silicious rocks: The main content of these rocks is silica. They are hard and durable. Examples
of such rocks are granite, trap, sand stones etc.
o Argillaceous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is argil i.e., clay. These stones are hard
and durable but they are brittle. They cannot withstand shock. Slates and laterites are examples
of this type of rocks.
o Calcareous rocks: The main constituent of these rocks is calcium carbonate. Limestone is a
calcareous rock of sedimentary origin while marble is a calcareous rock of metamorphic origin.

Important stones
o The following are the some of commonly used stones:
Basalt and Trap: The structure is medium to fine grained and compact. Their color varies
from dark gray to black. Fractures and joints are common. Their weight varies from 18
kN/m3 to 29 kN/m3. The compressive strength varies from 200 to 350 N/mm 2. These are
igneous rocks. They are used as road metals, aggregates for concrete. They are also used
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for rubble masonry works for bridge piers, river walls and dams. They are used as
pavement.
o Granite:
Granites are also igneous rocks. The color varies from light gray to pink. The structure is
crystalline, fine to coarse grained. They take polish well. They are hard durable. Specific
gravity is from 2.6 to 2.7 and compressive strength is 100 to 250 N/mm 2. They are used
primarily for bridge piers, river walls, and for dams. They are used as kerbs and
pedestals. The use of granite for monumental and institutional buildings is common.
Polished granites are used as table tops, cladding for columns and wall. They are used as
coarse aggregates in concrete.
o Sand stone:
These are sedimentary rocks, and hence stratified. They consist of quartz and feldspar.
They are found in various colors like white, grey, red, buff, brown, yellow and even dark
gray. The specific gravity varies from 1.85 to 2.7 and compressive strength varies from
20 to 170 N/mm2. Its porosity varies from 5 to 25 per cent. Weathering of rocks renders it
unsuitable as building stone. It is desirable to use sand stones with silica cement for
heavy structures, if necessary. They are used for masonry work, for dams, bridge piers
and river walls.
o Slate:
These are metamorphic rocks. They are composed of quartz, mica and clay minerals. The
structure is fine grained. They split along the planes of original bedding easily. The color
varies from dark gray, greenish gray, purple gray to black. The specific gravity is 2.6 to
2.7. Compressive strength varies from 100 to 200 N/mm 2. They are used as roofing tiles,
slabs, pavements etc.
o Laterite:
It is a metamorphic rock. It is having porous and sponges structure. It contains high
percentage of iron oxide. Its color may be brownish, red, yellow, brown and grey. Its
specific gravity is 1.85 and compressive strength varies from 1.9 to 2.3 N/mm 2. It can be
easily quarried in blocks. With seasoning, it gains strength. When used as building stone,
its outer surface should be plastered.
o Marble:
This is a metamorphic rock. It can take good polish. It is available in different pleasing
colors like white and pink. Its specific gravity is 2.65 and compressive strength is 7075
N/mm2. It is used for facing and ornamental works. It is used for columns, flooring, steps
etc.
o Gneiss:
It is a metamorphic rock. It is having fine to coarse grains. Alternative dark and white
bands are common. Light grey, pink, purple, greenish gray and dark grey colored
varieties are available. These stones are not preferred because of deleterious constituents
present in it. They may be used in minor constructions. However hard varieties may be
used for buildings. The specific gravity varies from 2.5 to 3.0 and crushing strength
varies from 50 to 200 N/mm2.
o Quartzite:
Quartzite are metamorphic rocks. The structure is fine to coarse grained and often
granular and branded. They are available in different colors like white, gray, yellowish.
Quartz is the chief constituent with feldspar and mica in small quantities. The specific
gravity varies from 2.55 to 2.65. Crushing strength varies from 50 to 300 N/mm 2. They
are used as building blocks and slabs. They are also used as aggregates for concrete.
Uses of stone.
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Stone masonry is used for the construction of foundations, walls, columns and arches.
Stones are used for flooring.
Stone slabs are used as damp proof courses, lintels and even as roofing materials.
Stones with good appearance are used for the face works of buildings. Polished marbles and
granite are commonly used for face works.
Stones are used for paving of roads, footpaths and open spaces round the buildings.
Stones are also used in the constructions of piers and abutments of bridges, dams and retaining
walls.
Crushed stones with graved are used to provide base course for roads. When mixed with tar they
form finishing coat.
Crushed stones are used in the following works also:
As a basic inert material in concrete
For making artificial stones and building blocks
As railway ballast.

Steel:

Different between Cast-iron, wrought iron and steel, mild steel and Tor-steel.

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