CTD

What is this sensor?

CTD is an acronym for Conductivity, Temperature and Depth, however this is somewhat
misleading as this device actually measures pressure to calculate the depth. Furthermore,
oceanographers use the conductivity measurement, in conjunction with temperature and
pressure to calculate the salinity of the ocean. Both Temperature and Salinity are used by
oceanographers as is the optimal variables for understanding ocean processes. On the Ocean
Networks Canada Networks, all measurements are displayed allowing a larger group of
researchers to use and access the information. This device is one of the most common
instruments used by oceanographers, as differences in salinity, temperature and depth are the
primary parameters distinguishing different water masses. CTDs can be used to profile a body
of water in several different ways. For example, a CTD can be sent through a water column
(surface to bottom or bottom to surface) to create a vertical profile of the water column. As the
CTD descends (or ascends) it records how the water changes, allowing researchers to see
layers in the water column. CTDs can also be fixed at a particular location and depth, allowing
researchers to monitor water properties over time. For example, a CTD fixed at 100 meters
might record a change in salinity; this would indicate that the water around the CTD has
changed, perhaps due to tides, upwelling, or other means. Finally, a CTD may be pulled
through the water to identify horizontal variations.

How does a CTD work?

Each component of the CTD takes different measurements, and these measurements are often
processed through computer software to create specific parameters. For example, the CTD will
take a measure of conductivity, temperature and pressure, and process these into a measure of
salinity. All variables are available to researchers, should they want to work with raw data or
use the measurements for other purposes. CTDs can be cast from the side of a ship to create a
vertical profile (variable vs. depth) or fixed at a specific depth to create a horizontal profile
(variable vs. time), depending on which measurements the researcher wants to collect.

Each component functions differently, and is listed below:

Conductivity:
Conductivity is a measure of the waters ability to conduct electrical current. Pure, distilled
water is a very poor conductor and thus, will have a low conductivity. When natural minerals,


such as salts are dissolve in water, some of the ions conduct electricity. Conductivity is used to
determine how much inorganic material is dissolved in the water and is measured through the
use of electrodes. The water sample being measured passes between two plates and a current
is passed between these plates. Dissolved inorganic ions, such as salts and other minerals will
conduct the electrical current from one side of the probe to the other. Depending on the
resistance of the water being sampled, researchers can determine how much dissolved salts are
present in the water. Through calculations, salinity measurements can be derived from
conductivity, temperature and pressure.
Temperature:
Temperature is measured with a special temperature-sensing device called a thermistor or
resistance temperature detector. Unlike a standard classroom thermometer that gives a reading
through the thermal compression or expansion of a liquid, thermistors measure temperature by
detecting changes to the electrical resistance of a metal. Different metals will resist an electric
current differently at different temperatures, so the change in voltage measured will reflect the
temperature. A current is passed through a metal wire, and the resistance is measured. Using
conversion coefficients, this change can be used to determine the temperature of the water
with an extremely high degree of accuracy.
Pressure:
Pressure is measured by a pressure gauge. Pressure gauges operate on the principle that a
small coil of wire or tube of fluid will compress or change shape depending on the external
pressure exerted on that gauge. In the ocean, pressure and depth are directly related, so the
amount of pressure being exerted on the gauge can be used to determine the depth of the
reading. The pressure sensors in stationary CTDs are so sensitive that they can accurately
measure the tidal cycles the alternating high and low tides every 24 hours, or even waves
alternating crests and troughs on the time scale of seconds.
Density:
Density, like salinity, is not a direct measurement but is calculated based on other parameters
derived by the CTD measurements. The density anomaly (denoted Sigma T) of sea water is
calculated based on the salinity (calculated from conductivity) and temperature of the water, as
these are the driving factors of density. As temperature decreases and salinity increases, the
density of sea water will increase. Density is an important variable in oceanography as the
density of the water can be an important factor in waters ability to uptake or hold other
nutrients, such as oxygen. So that we concentrate on the most significant digits, we often
subtract 1000 from the density in kilograms per cubic meter, and denote this as Sigma ( =
density - 1000).
A simple relationship to help you remember is: As Salinity and Temperature = in Density

How will the data appear? Which units will it use?

Conductivity: Siemens per meter (S/m)
Salinity: Practical Salinity Unit (PSU)
Temperature: Celsius (C)
Pressure: Decibars (decibars)
Depth: meters
Density: Kilograms per meter squared (kg/m3)
Conductivity:
Conductivity is measured in Siemens per meter (S/m), which is the conductance of a substance.
Conductance is an objects ability to pass or conduct an electrical current. As an electrical
current is passed through a water sample, its conductance is measured in S/m. In general,
higher the conductance the more dissolved salts there are in the given sample and therefore,
the higher the salinity.
Salinity:
Salinity is the amount of dissolved salts in water. Salinity is usually determined as a ratio of the
measured conductivity to the conductivity of a specific known concentration of dissolved ions.
Salinity was formally expressed as ppt (parts per thousand, i.e. grams of dissolved salts per
kilogram of seawater), but PSU (Practical Salinity Units) is considered more accurate as it
considers more variables. PSU and ppt are nearly the same, and can be considered a
reasonable approximation for one another.
Temperature:
Temperature is measured in degrees Celsius (C), and can now be determined accurately to 3
decimal places. Temperature readings will be heavily dependent on where the CTD measures in
the Ocean. As depth increases, temperatures become colder. At higher latitudes, seawater is
colder, and at lower latitudes seawater is warmer. Fixed CTDs detect changes in temperature
that indicate changes in water masses.
Pressure:
Pressure is measured in decibars, which are very nearly equivalent to meters of depth. For
example, 550 decibars can be reasonably approximated as 550 meters of depth.
Density:
Density is expressed as kilograms per meter squared (kg/m3). Density typically increases as
temperature decreases and salinity increases. Warm, fresh water will have a lower density than


cold salty water. When a CTD is in a fixed position, fluctuations in density usually reflect a
change in the water mass. For example, an influx of low density water may indicate that a large
volume of fresh water has been added to the water (i.e. runoff from a large river) near a
shallow CTD.

What is the normal range for this data and which variables influence it?
Quick Reference
Conductivity
Salinity
Temperature
Pressure
Density

5 s/m
~3237 PSU
Location and depth dependent
Depth dependent & fluctuates with the tidal
cycle
10201035 kg/m3

Detailed explanation

Variables and trends affecting CTD data and their general significance are discussed below.
Each variable on its own may have a limited effect on the ocean, but shown in tandem with
other data they can help researchers get a big picture of oceanic conditions.
Conductivity:
Conductivity can change depending on the amount of dissolved solids in a sample of water, but
there is also a very small temperature and pressure dependence. Generally, conductivity of one
water mass will be consistent. Changes in conductivity could indicate in a change in water
mass or an influx of salts or other minerals, possibly caused by seasonal changes, pollution or
other activity.

Variables affecting conductivity: Temperature (conductivity is always corrected to

25C), pressure (increased pressure increases very slightly the conductivity), and
dissolved inorganic compounds (salts).

In the data, you may notice seasonal changes in salinity as freshwater is added or removed
from the surrounding seawater. In shallow locations, you may notice changes in salinity that
can be linked to atmospheric changes such as solar radiation, rain or evaporation. This
conclusion can be supported with data from the meteorological station.


Salinity:
Salinity is a measure of the total salts dissolved in water. Animals and plants are adapted for a
certain range of salinity, and the increase or decrease of salinity can negatively affect them.
Different environments will have normal levels of salinity, and seasonal changes are not
uncommon. For example, areas near streams and rivers may experience a change in salinity as
spring run-off increases the amount of freshwater entering the water. In polar latitudes,
freezing ice pushes the salt out of the ice, increasing the salinity of the surrounding water; of
course the reverse is true as icebergs melt, a large volume of freshwater is then added and
salinity decreases.

Variables affecting salinity: Temperature, pressure, evaporation, freezing,

freshwater influx.

In the data, you may notice seasonal changes in salinity as freshwater is added or removed
from the surrounding seawater. In shallow locations, you may notice changes in salinity that
can be linked to atmospheric changes such as solar radiation, rain or evaporation. This
conclusion can be supported with data from the meteorological station.

Extended explanation
Conductivity and Salinity
Different plants and animals have adapted different tolerances to different salinity levels, and
can be negatively affected by salinity changes. Salinity can change depending on the rain fall,
mixing, or evaporation of water in the area. For example, as water evaporates due to sun or
wind, this can cause salinity levels to increase. Equally, in polar latitudes, where low
temperatures turn freshwater to ice, this can cause salinity levels to increase in the surrounding
waters. Influxes of fresh water, such as rain, ice melt or streams and rivers can cause salinity
levels to decrease.
Temperature:
Temperature is very dependent on depth and location (i.e. latitude). In shallow locations, water
temperature will be affected by atmospheric conditions. In some deep locations, the
temperature may be affected by local geological processes such as volcanoes, but it will
generally be very cold and near freezing. Latitude will also affect temperature as tropical
latitudes will have considerably warmer temperatures than polar ones.

Variables affecting temperature: Location, depth and atmospheric interactions (i.e.

solar radiation)

In the data, you may notice an inverse relationship between air and water temperature. You
may also notice variability in temperature that can be linked to solar radiation or air
temperature


Extended explanation
Temperature can be largely affected by atmospheric conditions, location and depth. For
example, solar radiation and air temperature can directly affect the temperature of the water in
shallow conditions and can be related to seasonal atmospheric conditions. Since cold water is
denser than warm water, the colder it is the deeper it sinks. So the deeper one goes in the
ocean, typically the colder it gets. The coldest seawater is formed at the surface of the ocean in
the highest Latitudes of the Arctic and Antarctic oceans. Seawater is very slightly compressible,
and at the greatest depths of the ocean (i.e. >3000m), there is a small increase in the effective
temperature due to compression. This is only a very small correction, but must be taken into
account when comparing deep water masses.
Water has a higher heat capacity than air and as such, takes much longer to heat up or cool
down. In coastal environments, the same atmospheric heating will cause the land to warm
many degrees, while the ocean only warms a few. Similarly, in the winter, the land will cool off
quickly, while the ocean takes a long time to cool. For example, it is not unusual for open water
temperatures to be cooler than air temperatures in the summer and warmer than air
temperatures in the winter. This phenomenon explains why coastal areas tend to have milder
winters and cooler summers (maritime climate), whereas inland locations (such as the Canadian
Prairies) have a much larger variability between summer (hot) and winter (cold and dry). Sea
water tends to absorb energy slowly over the summer and release this energy over the winter.
This in turn can affect the weather conditions in this area.
Pressure
Pressure changes with the amount and density (total weight) of water over the sensor. Daily
changes in pressure are dominated by sea-level changes due to the tides.

In the data you may notice the daily tide changes as a steady increase and decrease in
pressure. On the West Coast, we have a semi-diurnal tide resulting in 2 high tides of different
height and 2 low tides of different height each day. The pressure data will reflect a high-high
tide, a low-low tide, a low-high tide and high-low tide.
Density:
Density is dependent on temperature, salinity, and pressure. Colder, saltier water will have a
higher density than warm or fresh water. Seawater is also very slightly compressible, so water
becomes slightly higher in density as it sinks very deep in the ocean (>3000m).

Variables affecting density: Temperature, salinity, and pressure.

In the coastal ocean data, you may notice changes in density caused by increases in fresh
water. These data may be collaborated with data from the meteorological station or ice profiler.


Extended explanation
Changes in coastal (shallow) seawater density will be reflected in changes in temperature and
salinity. In shallow locations, you may notice that the density is much more variable than in
deep locations. This is due to the large variations in the salinity and temperature of the upper
ocean.
Depth will also play a role in density, providing the CTD is not at a fixed location. When the CTD
is fixed in place, the density is a result of the relationship between temperature and salinity.

Ideas for classroom explorations

This section is intended to inspire you and your students to explore different ways of accessing,
recording and interpreting data. These suggestions can be used as is, or can be freely
modified to suit your needs. They can also be used to generate discussion and ideas, or as
potential staring points for projects.
Record the temperature and salinity on a daily basis. Watch for seasonal trends to
appear. Inquire, are atmospheric changes reflected in the water data at the same time,
or is there a delay?
Compare CTD readings after specific atmospheric events. For example, do the data
change during or after a heavy rain?
Compare local CTD readings to those in other locations. Will one predict or precede the
trend of another?

Ideas for projects

This section contains suggestions for long-term projects you and your students may be
interested in investigating using the data. These projects may require support from multiple
data sources, experts in the field or additional experimentation.
Compare the data and inquire about relationship among other seasonal trends. For
example, during fish migrations is there a trend in the data? In successful years, are
there differences observed from unsuccessful years?
Compare data from several years. Can a seasonal or annual trend be determined? Can
this trend be attributed to something using additional data, anecdotal evidence or both?
Compare multiple stations using the same variables.

Common misconceptions or difficult concept elements

This section is intended to help you anticipate where students may struggle with difficult
concept elements or ideas. Weve noted content that may require additional support for
students to fully understand, or content that may lead to misconceptions.

Multiple factors can be at play. For example, salinity may be affected by atmospheric
evaporations and freshwater influxes at the same time.
Although conductivity is used to determine salinity and pressure is used to determine
depth, they are not exclusive to those measurements. For example, a researcher may
want to know conductivity and salinity to compare them and reach different conclusions.

The relationships among these variables may be impacted by other factors as well; they
are not exclusive to each other.
CTD equipment often contains other sensors as well, so that these data can be
collaborated and compared with CTD data. For example, Fluorometers and dissolved
oxygen sensors are often included on the CTD apparatus.
CTD data will be different depending on HOW it is collected. For example, stationary
CTDs will sample water over time, while CTDs that move up and down in the water
column will sample water in a vertical fashion as they travel.