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Specific gravity, or Relative density, and is defined as the ratio of the density of a substance
to the density of some standard substance at a specified temperature (usually water at 4C, for
which density of H2O =1000 kg/m3).
APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM: Set of properties that completely describe the condition, or the
state, of the system.
The word equilibrium implies a state of balance. In an equilibrium state there are no
unbalanced potentials (or driving forces) within the system.
PROCESSES AND CYCLES: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state
to another is called a process, and the series of states through which a system passes during a
process is called the path of the process.
APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
PASCALS LAW : Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the shape or cross section of the
container. It changes with the vertical distance, but remains constant in other directions.
Pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same
amount. This is called Pascals law (i.e. the force applied by a fluid is proportional to the
surface area).
THE MANOMETER: It is based on the principle that, elevation change of in a fluid at rest
corresponds to pressure change, which suggests that a fluid column can be used to measure
pressure differences.
APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
ENERGY TRANSFER
Energy can cross the boundary of a closed system in two distinct forms:
heat and work
Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred between two systems (or a
system and its surroundings) by virtue of a temperature difference.
Work: Energy interaction that is not caused by a temperature difference between a
system and its surroundings is work. More specifically, work is the energy transfer
associated with a force acting through a distance.
A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an adiabatic process.
APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
PURE SUBSTANCE
A substance that has a fixed chemical composition throughout is called a pure substance.
Water, nitrogen, helium, and carbon dioxide, for example, are all pure substances.
Saturation Temperature and Saturation Pressure:
At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase is called
the saturation temperature Tsat. At a pressure of 101.325 kPa, Tsat is 99.97C.
Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance changes
phase is called the saturation pressure Psat. Conversely, at a temperature of 99.97C, Psat is
101.325 kPa.
point at which
and saturated
identical. The
critical-point
properties of
water
are
Pcr
=22.06 MPa,
Tcr=373.95C,
and
Vcr
this
point,
Three phases of
pure
substance
coexist
=0.003106 m3/kg.
Triple
Point:
At
equilibrium.
For
water,
the
triple-point
in
APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
Passing from the solid phase directly into the vapor phase is called sublimation.
APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
SINK:
One that absorbs energy in the form of heat is called a sink.
HEAT ENGINE:
Work can be converted to heat directly and completely, but converting heat to work
requires the use of some special devices. These devices are called heat engines.
APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
REFRIGERATOR
HEAT PUMP
HEAT PUMPS:
Another device that transfers heat from a low-temperature medium to a high-temperature
PERPETUAL-MOTION MACHINE:
A device that violates the first law of thermodynamics (by creating energy) is called a
perpetual-motion machine of the first kind (PMM1), and a device that violates the second law of
thermodynamics is called a perpetual-motion machine of the second kind (PMM2).
REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE PROCESSES
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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
A reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving any
trace on the surroundings. That is, both the system and the surroundings are returned to their
initial states at the end of the reverse process.
Processes that are not reversible are called irreversible processes.
THE CARNOT CYCLE:
1.
2.
3.
4.
APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
ENTROPY
Clausius Inequality:
On the basis of the KelvinPlanck statement of the second law, the cyclic integral of
dQ/T is always less than or equal to zero, we reason that WC cannot be a work output, and
thus it cannot be a positive quantity.
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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
WHAT IS ENTROPY?
Entropy can be viewed as a measure of molecular disorder, or molecular
randomness. As a system becomes more disordered, the positions of the molecules become
less predictable and the entropy increases.
ISENTROPIC PROCESSES
A process during which the entropy remains constant is called an isentropic process.
APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
IDEAL CYCLE
IGNITION ENGINES)
1-2 Isentropic
compression
2-3 Constant-
pressure heat
addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection
where, cutoff ratio rc is the ratio of the cylinder volumes after and before the combustion
process
STIRLING AND ERICSSON CYCLES
1-2 T = constant expansion (heat addition from the external source)
2-3 v =constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the working fluid to the
regenerator)
3-4 T = constant compression (heat rejection to the external sink)
4-1 v = constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the regenerator back to the
working fluid)
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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
THE IDEAL REGENERATIVE RANKINE CYCLE
A practical regeneration process in steam power plants is accomplished by extracting, or
bleeding, steam from the turbine at various points. This steam is used to heat the feedwater
& the device where the feedwater is heated by regeneration is called a regenerator, or a
feedwater heater (FWH).
Open Feedwater Heaters
An open (or direct-contact) feedwater heater is basically a mixing chamber, where
the steam extracted from the turbine mixes with the feedwater exiting the pump. Ideally, the
mixture leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure.
Closed Feedwater Heaters
Another type of feedwater heater frequently used in steam power plants is the closed
feedwater heater, in which heat is transferred from the extracted steam to the feedwater
without any mixing taking place.
The condensed steam is then either pumped to the feedwater line or routed to another
heater or to the condenser through a device called a trap. A trap allows the liquid to be throttled
to a lower pressure region but traps the vapor.
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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
GAS MIXTURES
The ratio of the mass of a component to the mass of the mixture is called the mass
fraction mf,
The ratio of the mole number of a component to the mole number of the mixture is called
the mole fraction y,
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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
GAS VAPOUR MIXTURES
ATMOSPHERIC AIR:
Air in the atmosphere normally contains some water vapor (or moisture) and is referred
to as atmospheric air.
DRY AIR: Air that contains no water vapor is called dry air.
VAPOUR PRESSURE:
Vapor pressure is usually considered to be the partial pressure of water vapor in
atmospheric air.
SPECIFIC HUMIDITY OF AIR:
The mass of water vapor present in a unit mass of dry air. This is called absolute or
specific humidity (also called humidity ratio).
APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
EVAPORATION:
Evaporation is the phase change from liquid to vapor and occurs at the liquidvapor
interface when the vapor pressure is less than the saturation pressure of the liquid at a given
temperature.
HUMIDIFYING:
Humidifying is the process of adding moisture to atmospheric air.
PSYCHROMETRIC CHART:
Psychrometric chart presents the properties of atmospheric air at a specified pressure
and two independent intensive properties.
The psychrometric chart is a plot of absolute humidity versus dry-bulb temperature and
shows lines of constant relative humidity, wet-bulb temperature, specific volume, and enthalpy
for the atmospheric air.
Fluid flow regimes are often described in terms of the flow Mach number. The flow is
called sonic when Ma = 1, subsonic when Ma<1, supersonic when Ma>1, hypersonic when
Ma>>1, and transonic when Ma~1.
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APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
BY
K.KARTHICK
M.RAVI SHANKAR
P.SIVA RAMA PANDIYAN
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